Globally Important Agriculture Heritage System (GIAHS) Application
Integrated Agricultural System of Tri Hita Karana – Tri Mandala in Bali, Indonesia
Coordinating Ministry of Human Development and Culture Republic of Indonesia 2015
Collaborated by: Local Government of Karangasem District, Bali – Bogor Agricultural University – Udayana University GIAHS proposal Globally Important Agriculture Heritage System (GIAHS) Initiative SUMMARY INFORMATION Name/Title of the Agricultural Heritage System: Integrated Agricultural System of Tri Hita Karana – Tri Mandala in Bali, Indonesia Requesting Agency/Organization: Local Government of Karangasem District Country/location/Site:
Karangasem District
Indonesia
Bali Island Karangasem District, one of the nine districts in Bali Province, is located in the eastern part of Bali Island (Annex 1). Accessibility of the site to capital city or major cities: From Soekarno-Hatta (Jakarta) Airport, Karangasem District could be reached by taking a domestic flight to Ngurah Rai (Denpasar) Airport, which takes about 2 hours and driving from Ngurah Rai (Denpasar) Airport to Amlapura, capital city of Karangasem District, which takes about 2.5 hours. Approximate Surface Area: 839,54 km2 Agro-Ecological Zone/s: tropical climate; rice, peanut, soybean, vegetables in the wet land; corn, snake fruit, coconut, cashew nut, banana and jack fruit in the dry land. Topographic features: Karangasem District is laid in the mount foot of Gunung Agung, with various topographic features ranging from mountainous, hilly to flat in the low land area. Climate Type: Tropical Monsoonal Type Approximate population: 568,737 (Source: Dinas Kependudukan dan Catatan Sipil, Karangasem District, 2014) Number of working force in agriculture, plantation, forestry and fishery:116,100 (47.24% of total labors, 2014) Main Source of Livelihoods: Agriculture, Fishery, Animal Husbandry, and Tourism Ethnicity/Indigenous population: Balinese Summary Information of the Agricultural Heritage System Agriculture system in Karangasem District is a sustainable land use system based on Tri Hita- Karana (THK) and Tri Mandala (TM) philosophies of Bali. This agriculture system is globally important, due to: (1) limited land and water resources which are features of island regions, are overcome and enabled agriculture to prosper by using the local wisdoms based on its unique philosophy; and (2) has since sustained food production and livelihoods of a large population about 570 thousand in 2014 over a long period more than ten centuries. Tri Hita Karana (THK) is a philosophy for everything and attaining happiness (welfare) while maintaining the harmony between man and God (e.g. religion), man and man (e.g. organization), man and nature (e.g. agriculture field). Tri Mandala (TK) is also a philosophy that keeps harmony according to the space utilization; utilization of land is divided into three stages according to the differences in the degree of sanctity, (i) the upper for protected area, (ii) the middle for human living, and (iii) the bottom for agriculture production. Based on these two philosophies, area of land is used sustainably by some management systems. One example of such agricultural systems under THK and TM is Subak for rice field water management, and another system is called Abian for dry land management to grow both annual and perennial crops. Under Subak and Abian management, agriculture has provided enough food and become the means of major income for their livelihoods in the region. Agro-biodiversity is conserved, such as beras bali (Balinese rice), upland crops, fruit trees, flowers, vegetables and livestock, as well as precious genetic resources from specific crops and livestock such as salak bali (snake fruit), jagung seraya (Balinese corn), kelapa dalam variety of coconut, cashew nut, and Sapi Bali (Balinese cattle) through agricultural production. In addition, by using local wisdom and traditional techniques, water is efficiently used and shared fairly, the stone terraces are built to prevent erosion in the steep slopes of the fields. Tri Hita Karana (THK) and Tri Mandala (TM) philosophies are deeply established in the way of life in Bali, including the rituals related to agriculture. Also, it has conserved rich food culture and unique calendar. Through THK and TM implementation, the agricultural land cover can be seen throughout the year both in rainy and dry seasons, whether rice plant or upland cash crops, e.g. peanut, soybean, corn, vegetables crops, and flowers. The agriculture zone strictly adheres the Palemahan aspect of THK philosophies, which is practiced in Nista Mandala of TM. Palemahan expresses the relationship between farmer and environtment. In addition, this sustainable land utilization has created beautiful scenery as remarkable landscape of the mountains and sea. However, agriculture in this region is also exposed to threats such as young people moving away from agriculture and development of large-scale resort area. For these reasons, with the opportunity of the GIAHS designation we should inherit this good land use system and pass on to the next generation by committing our efforts to conserve high-quality agricultural land, developing value added agriculture, agro-tourism and so on.
Description of the Agriculture Heritage System
I. Characteristic of the Proposed GIAHS
Global (National) Importance
(a) Geographical features and landscape
Karangasem District has an area of 83,594 ha, with 91.26% dry land, various topographic landscapes, ranging from green mountains and hills to flat low land with dry beaches. Such varied landscapes depict various uses of land and enclosed land use for agriculture. Thus, it is really important to have sound water management to support sustainable agriculture activities (Fig.1).
Fig. 1. Subak and Abian system practices for terraces paddy field (top and bottom left) and upland management (bottom right)
(b) Tri Hita Karana and Tri Mandala Philosophies
Tri Hita Karana (THK) as a Hinduism philosophy in Bali implemented agricultural systems such as Subak and Abian. It consists of three concepts. The first, “Parahyangan” is the relation between human and God(s), which is implemented as Pura Sawah (temple in the paddy field). The second is “Pawongan”, implemented as man and man relationships, farmers‟ organizations (pekaseh/leader and pawongan/member). The last one is “Palemahan”, relationships between human and nature, such as paddy field/dried field and its boundaries.
Tri Mandala (TM) is a regional division based on Hinduism concept implemented in Bali. This concept has been adopted in most parts of traditional villages. TM consists of 3 zones, namely Utama Mandala (the Main Zone, the upstream areas which can either be mountains or hills), Madya Mandala (the Middle Zone, the median areas such as the slope of the hills and the
low land), and Nista Mandala (the downstream areas, such as beaches or seashores). This TM concept can be implemented in stages, from bio-regional scale to village scale. In a village scale, Subak and Abian are implemented by allocating the zones for specific purposes, such as temples as religious places are built in Utama Mandala zone, while residential buildings are located in Madya Mandala zone, and agriculture cultivation is conducted in Nista Mandala zone. Such TM concepts are in line with universal concepts adopting THK (Fig 2).
Fig. 2. Diagram of THK (top) and TM (bottom) philoshophies
(c) Subak and Abian
Balinese people have known Subak since the 11th Century. This can be traced back from the finding of the Writings of Purana Klungkung King (994 Saka/the year of 1072). Subak is an irrigation system which has developed due to strong Hinduism influence. To Balinese people, irrigation Fig. 3. Pura Subak as Parahyangan is not merely to provide water for plants, but water aspect of THK can also be used to build a man-made eco-system flow. Temples located near water springs (THK implementation on Parahyangan concept) is the main focus of cooperative management system in distributing water to irrigation channels (Fig. 3). Subak has been recognized as a leading and advanced irrigation system. This agricultural system, being implemented for centuries, has been sustained by the rural people in Bali. Subak is an independent system performed by the community in order to manage the division of water irrigation for paddy fields. This system is managed hierarchically by groups and each member of the groups is assigned to have a specific role (this is an implementation of THK on Pawongan concept). Finally, Subak is also known as a local wisdom which enables farmers to be in harmony with the nature and to gain optimum harvest (this is an implementation of THK on Palemahan concept).
Abian is a farmers‟ organization which performs agricultural activities on dry land. In Balinese language, “Abian” means garden, or yard, or rice field. Albian is considered the same as Subak, which reflects the function of Pawongan, with humans act as actors performing activities, in which the organization traditionally has a leader, members, and mechanisms to achieve its goals. The main tasks include physical work (Palemahan aspects), which is in line with the concept of Tri Hita Karana Similarly, in the concept of Tri Mandala, agricultural land which is managed by using Abian lies in Mandala nista, the land devoted to agriculture. The activities include not only cultivating annual and perennial crops, but also raising cattle. In managing the area, although it is in Mandala nista zone, the agricultural activities must also attempt to sustain their environment. Thus, Abian also practices a combination of agricultural activities, such as agro-forestry or agro-silvo-pastural, to maintain agricultural diversity.
The realtionships between humans are expressed by Subak organization or Abian organization, which consists of “Krama Subak” or ”Krama Carik”, with Subak members as an element of society (Pawongan). The Bali people believe that humans are also a part of nature. Therefore, humans should live in harmony among themselves, with other living creatures and their nature (Palemahan) . Every farmer should maintain the environment well, whether in Subak system or in Abian system. It‟s not only on how to manage land and water management, but also on how to conserve agriculture diversity, conserve genetic resources, manage low carbon emissions, as well as landscape beautification preservation. Their Fig. 4. Pura Abian as Parahyangan practices can be seen through how Subak aspect of THK distributes water in rainy and dry seasons by shifting the systems. At the same time agricultural diversity such as rice and upland cash crops “palawija”, vegetables and flowers could be maintained well in the same landscape unit. The same thing is also practiced in Abian system, especially for the combination of perennials trees, annuals crops, and live stocks. That is why this agriculture system is globally important.
Moreover, humans have a social responsibility to obey customary laws and regulations, particularly those pertaining to public domains such as land and water use, legal transactions of land transfer, and collectiveness in religious ceremonies. Humans may benefit from nature, but they should not over-exploit it. It is their responsibility to maintain the environment sustainably and conserve nature for future generation. In this case, GIAHS is not about the past but about the future. The THK-TM philosophy has been practiced by the Bali people for a long time; it creates and maintains the spectacular landscape and agriculture activity with the Subak and Abian system.
1. Food and livelihood security
Agriculture is still the leading factor supporting the economy of Karangasem district. The biggest contribution comes from the agriculture sector, which also contributes the most in the Regional Gross Domestic Product (RGDP). In 2014, the contributions of agriculture, forestry, and fishery to RGDP were IDR 2,888,760.60 (in million IDR) or 26.711% of the total RGDP of Karangasem, which was IDR 10,785,065.91 (in million IDR). Such agriculture activities involved 116,100 farmers (47.24% of total labors, 2014) working in this sector, with the paddy field area as much as 7,140 ha (8.50 %), and dry land/yard/garden as much as 28,327 ha (33.74%) of the greenery open spaces (BPS-Statistics of Karangasem District based on 2012 National Labor Force Survey). Such strong role in agriculture is due to the intensive attempt of Karangasem District to maintain the land use devoted to agriculture. Besides rice, farmers also cultivated corn of local variety ”Seraya” in West Seraya Village, Seraya Village, and East Seraya Village, with the planting area as much as 952 ha and the production of 1,161.40 tons, and an average productivity of 1.22 ton/ha. Other crop plants contributing to RDGP include cassava and sweet potato (Ipomea batatas). Ground peanuts (Ipogea arachis) with the local variety of ”Culik” from Abang and Kubu Sub-Districts were also cultivated in the area of 1,425 ha, with the total production of 1,549.28 ton, and an average productivity of 1.067 ton/ha. The government program in extending the area for rice-corn-soy bean (PAJALE) in 2015 resulted in a growing area of paddy field to 7,149 ha in 2015. Such a program managed to make soy bean (Glycine max) reach its highest production increase of 457.25 percent.
The use of dry land generates a lot of food crops through the production of fruits. Karangasem produces banana (26,261 ton) and jackfruit (9,703 ton). Some parts of beaches having dry climate produce local varieties of coconut, and cashew nuts, which grow well in those areas. Coconut and cashew nuts are the leading products of estate commodities. In 2012, the production was 13,692.06 and 2,701.49 tons Fig. 5. Rice fields in Subak System respectively. Mango of Arumanis variety is (foreground) and Coconut plantation in cultivated in a planting area of 4,060 ha, and a Abian System (background) harvesting area of 1,765 ha, reaching an average
productivity of 11.66 ku/ha, with the production of 2,057.99 ton, spreading in various locations of Karangasem District.
The local variety of snake fruit (Salacca zalacca), popularly known as “salak bali”, especially “salak gula pasir”, is still the leading commodity of Bebandem, Selat and Rendang Sub-District. The total planting area is 4,209 ha, with the harvest area of 3,149 ha, and an average productivity of 95.2 ku/ha. In 2012 the production reached 33,756 ton, which showed an increase of 21.97 percent from the previous year.
The agricultural sector also includes the fishery sub-sector (marine and fresh water) and cattle raising. Karangasem District consists of four Sub-Districts, namely Abang, Karangasem, Kubu and Manggis, which borders with beaches (Fig. 6). These four regencies have farmers‟ groups consisting of fishermen and fresh water cultivators with Fig. 6. Fisherman village in Manggis Sub- 138, 112, 87, and 48 groups respectively. District These figures keep increasing year by year (Table 1). The last update in 2014, there was a total of 323 groups of fishermen in Karangasem District. The total production of fish reached 22,120.56 ton with the value as much as IDR 299,551,155,000.00, or contributing by about 2.77% of RGDP. The fish mostly produced in Karangasem district was tuna, with the total production reaching 13,4849.9 ton (2013).
Tabel 1. Fisher Group/Fish Farmer/Processing of Fisher Product, Production (ton), and Value (IDR) in Fisheris Sub-sector at Karangasem District, 2009-2014
Year Fisher Group/Fish Farmer/ Production Value Processing of Fisher Product (ton) (IDR x 1,000) 2014 415 22,120.56 299,551,155 2013 414 21,394.86 253,618,574 2012 373 19,103.89 203,761,524 2011 373 18,814.83 173,830,680 2010 329 17,121.83 145,310,504 2009 323 14,766.38 109,174,889 Source: Fishery Statistic Data, Karangasem District, 2014
Most of Karangasem District is a dry land, which is good to be used for cattle raising, especially that of Abian. The cattle are mainly raised in the wild by using the unit system of agro-silvo-pastural. In 2014 the population of cattle was as follows: Bali cows of local variety (122,369 heads), Horses (31 heads), Buffalos (37 head), Bali pigs of local variety Bali (73,677), Saddle Back pigs (28,555), Landrace pigs (142,977), goat (19,280), chicken (838,901) and Bali ducks (55,462). The products from agriculture, fishery, and cattle raising are used to sustainably fulfill the need of the community members.
2. Biodiversity and ecosystem function
Practical agriculture activities are in line with the concept of “Palemahan” in THK philosophy, and in “Nista Mandala” zone in TM. In THK philosophy, farmers are expected to live in harmony with the nature, and in TM spatial management, farmers must also sustain the nature so that they can sustain the production. Such attempts can be done by converting diversed agriculture activities, and diversed genetic resources.
Agicultural diversity
Agriculture in Karangasem District spreads from hilly highland with terraced paddy fields to low lands near beaches. Agriculture is even performed in hilly dry land which borders beaches. The diversed landscape has diversities of land resource conditions, either in land fertility or water availability. These result in highly diversed agricultural activities and products.
In Subak system and practices, where water is relatively abundant, paddy field is the leading type. Apart from the new varieties of rice, Karangasem also has the local variety called “padi Bali” (Fig. 7), which generally takes shorter time to harvest, i.e. 210 days, and the structure of the plants is taller, and the rice tastes better is more preferred by local people. Another local variant is “ketan hitam” (black sticky rice).
Fig. 7. Local rice variety “padi Bali”(left); various Bali local rice, such as “beras merah (brown rice)” and “ketan hitam (black sticky rice)” (right).
In dry season, the amount of water decreases; thus, Subak system will apply water allocation shifts. Those who are not allocated to get water will tap water by means of “ngegadon”, and the land will be cultivated with vegetables and palawija. Annual plants include corn, ground peanut, soy bean, sweet potato, cassava, green bean, and various types of vegetables and flowers (Annex 2).
The Abian system focuses on planting Karangasem local varieties, including “Mangga Wani”, “Manggis Bali”, with its big size, “Duren Bali” (Fig. 8) with its small size but very sweet taste, and the most popular “Salak Bali” (Bali snake fruit).
Fig. 8. “Mangga Wani” (left), “Manggis Bali” (mid), and “Duren Bali” (right)
Wani is fruit belonging to mango family (Anacardiaceae). In Indonesia, one of the cultivating places of wani is in Bali. The population of this fruit in Bali has now been decreasing due to the abundance of imported fruits. On the other hand the mangosteen commodity is still abundant in Karangasem District (462 ha). This commodity has so far been cultivated by farmers in Bali but can only fulfill an export need of 675 ton (only about 6% of the total demand). Production of Durian Bali of Karangasem is small in size but compared to other durians, this variety tastes sweeter and so is a popular variety with the consumer.
In the eastern part along the seashore, there is a local variety of corn, called “Jagung Seraya” (Fig. 9), which only grows in Karangasem and serves as staple food for the community in Seraya. There is also a local variety of “Kelapa Dalam Forma Bali” variety) (Fig. 10), which originates from Pulukan village, Bali. There is potential increase the production of the local varieties of crop. There has been a source of certified prime seed of local Bali coconut.
Fig. 9. Local corn variety of “Jagung Seraya”
Fig. 10. Local coconut variety of “Kelapa Dalam Forma Bali”
Genetic Diversity Salacca zalacca (salak)
The local wisdom through the philosophy of THK and TM conserves genetic diversity as the main focus so that agriculture practices can be sustained. Karangasem has genetic diversity having globally important value, i.e. “salak Bali” (Bali snake fruit) belonging to the family of palmae. Snake fruits in Bali originate from South East Asia, and are generally cultivated commercially. Consumers favor Salak Sibetan, Karangasem, more than other varieties of snake fruits in Asia. The government of Karangasem District has declared that Salak (snake fruit) is “the original fruit of Karangasem District”. There are 12 varieties of snake fruits in Karangasem (Fig. 10), namely: 1. Salak Gula Pasir, 2. Salak Nangka, 3. Salak Nenas, 4. Salak Cengkeh, 5. Salak Gondoh, 6. Salak Muani, 7. Salah Merah/Salak Getih, 8. Salak Boni, 9. Salak Penyalin, 10. Salak kelapa, 11. Salak Bingin, and 12. Salak Embadan (Fig. 11). Karangasem is the central district for snake fruit production in Bali. Salak Bali and Salak Gula Pasir are cultivated intensively in Bebandem, Sidemen, Selat, and Rendang Sub-District.
Fig. 11. Salak Bali (left), Salak Merah (mid) and Salak Gula Pasir (right) (Source: Rai et al, 2015)
The leading type of Bali snake fruits is Salak Gula Pasir, which has light colored flesh, and sweet taste. These characteristics are ideal to fulfill the demand of snake fruit market commodity, both for domestic market and export. Salak i has been released as the prime national variety as stated in the Decision Letter of the Minister of Agriculture No. 584/Kpts/TP.240/7/94, dated 23 July, 1994.
Germ Plasm Development of Local Cattle
Germ plasm development is one aspect related to the philosophy of THK and TM, especially the concept of Palemahan and Mandala nista, in which agriculture must sustain the harmony with local bio-resources.
Kambing gembrong
Kambing gembrong is one type of endemic goat originating from Bali with the native habitat of Karangasem. The specific features include a short body size, and the male has long hair (gembrong) on the face, neck, and front and hind legs (Fig. 12). The data of 2014 recorded that Kambing gembrong could only be found in two regencies, namely Abang (17 heads) and Kubu Sub-Districts (18 heads). This type of goat is special, living in critical region, at the seashore of Abang and Kubu Sub-District. Fishermen have local wisdom; they often cut the long nails of the goat and the cut parts of the nails are attached to fishing hook to catch fish.
Fig 12. Local Bali goat “Kambing Gembrong”
Sapi Bali
“Sapi Bali” is a descendant of wild cow called „banteng‟ but has undergone a domestication process for hundreds of years. As a result of a long process of domestication, the body of Bali cow has got much smaller than banteng.
Local Bali cows (Fig. 13) are raised inside Pekarangan (home garden) and kebun campuran (mixed garden), called “Teba” by utilizing feed from agricultural wastes. “Teba” is a back yard, a part of Palemahan in THK concept or classified into Mandala nista in TM. “Dung”, cows manure, is used for biofuels. Sapi Bali has the characteristics of white color butts and the bottom part of their legs are white. The advantages of Sapi Bali are: 1) high adaptability to changing environment condition; 2) high reproduction rate (fertility and conception rate is around 83 - 86 %); 3) high tolerance to heat; 4) high percentage of carcass (up to 57.7%); and 5) high quality of meats and low fat contents.
Fig.13. Local germ plasm of Sapi Bali in Abian system
3. Knowledge systems and adapted technologies
a. Subak – Water management organization
Knowledge systems and technology adaptation are applied in all Subak water management system. It is related to Hinduism philosophy called Tri Hita Karana In its application, the farmers who have a source of water form associations with the same water temple (Pura Sawah) and then jointly plan water distribution system. This is the role of organization to make harmonization on equal position amongs the Subak members. In every own plot fields there is Pura Palemahan, which expresses how farmers managed the field for good production with sustainable nature (Fig.14). In its implementation, THK-TM concepts are applied in the Subak. The application of this concept aims to maintain the balance of life in
accordance with the teachings of Hinduism. Examples of THK-TM elements that can be found in the Subak system (Purwita, 1993 in Pitana (ed), 1993) are:
1. Parahyangan: Each Subak has its own temple called Pura Subak/Ulun Carik, Pura Bedugul/Ulun Empelan or other designation, as an element of God (Fig 15).
2. Pawongan: Each Subak has a members called "Krama Subak" or in some places it is called "Krama Carik" as an element of society
3. Palemahan: Subak has an area/agriculture area with natural boundaries such as river, roads, large ambankment, village, etc.
Fig. 14. Primary and secondary irrigation system of Subak in Bugbug Traditional Village
Fig. 15. Ulun Suwi Temple (left) and Bedugul Temple (right) in Subak
(b) Stone Terraces of Dry Land
A number of regions in Karangasem District, especially Seraya village, have a hilly landscapes near the beaches. Dry climate with a minimum source of water has made this area the driest place. In TM, the area devoted to agriculture is Nista Mandala, while Madya Mandala is allocated for residential area, and Utama Mandala is for praying places and protection.
In Seraya village, the only food crops that can be grown are “jagung Seraya”, which is a local variety of corn and pineapple. While the tree crops found here include lontar, which is endemic to Bali. There are also other plants that can strive in dry areas and water stress, i.e. kayu intaran, kayu santen, kayu bekul, bunutan, mango, lontar, coconut, waru, pule, petai cina, and glirecidia.
The knowledge and technology development that have been applied since hundreds of years ago are terracing on steep slope against stone walls. This is done to get flat planting areas, although it is only a few meters in width. Secondly, it is also useful to prevent erosions and landslide during the rainy season. Furthermore, it can be beneficial to overcome the draught; each house has a hole to tap water from the roof when the rain falls. The hole is built not only near the house but also in corn fields. Thus, these technologies help to overcome the climate and landscape adversities and enabled agriculture to be practiced (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16. Terraces on stone walls (left), terraced dry land hill (mid) and water pond (right)
4. Cultures, value systems and social organizations (Agri-Culture)
Religious ceremonies are practiced by adopting value systems of Subak or Abian philosophies. In THK philosophy, this belongs to Parahyangan aspect. The activity is conducted in sacret areas, which are located in Utama Mandala in the TM philosophy. The ceremonies are performed to honor water as the source of life, “krama" (members) of Subak/ Abian build water pond to accumulate water in the form of well or pond/a small dam in the area that has been considered sacred by all members of the group.
Rituals in Subak Irrigation System Subak is not merely an irrigation system. Subak system has very heavy and intensive ritual activities, which distinguish them from regular irrigation systems. Subak ritual ceremonies are parts of the important implementation of THK, namely Parhyangan aspect which highly
values the harmony between farmers and God, Pawongan which is the harmony among farmers as members of Subak, and Palemahan which emphasizes on the harmony between farmers and their surroundings areas of paddy fields. Ritual activities in Subak system consist of 16 types of ritual activities performed individually by farmers as members of Subak in their respective paddy fields, starting from taking water for irrigation to post-harvest activities. Pura Sawah ceremony in TM context is conducted in a sacred zone, i.e. Mandala Utama. In addition, there is also a communal ceremony conducted by all farmers in Subak level (at Ulun Suwi temple, Bedugul and other Subak temples). There are also other communal ritual ceremonies conducted by members of other Subak groups (at temples near the ponds/water dams, lakes, and other water sources). The purpose of performing ritual activities is mainly to ask God for the success of their farming activities. As it has been stated earlier, there are 16 types of ritual activities performed by farmers (members of Subak) individually, in their own paddy fields (Annex 3). The ceremony starts with “Mapag Toya/Mendak Toya”, which is welcoming water or fetching from its sources, until the activity of keeping the harvest in the storage called “Mantenin”.
Tumpek Wariga in agriculture context
Tumpek Wariga, a celebration day which comes once in 210 days, and falls on Saturday Kliwon Wuku Wariga, is a prossession ritual conducted to express thanksgiving and gratefulness to Ida Sang Hyang Widhi, who manifests itself as Dewa Sangkara, by blessing His people with plants as sources of their food. Tumpek Wariga reminds people to nurture the nature, which is connected to Palemahan aspect in THK philosophy. Once in six months Hindu people are reminded of how important it is to conserve nature (plants) through the ceremony of Tumpek Wariga or Tumpek Uduh or Tumpek Pengatag, which is also frequently call Tumpek Wariga (Fig. 17).
Fig. 17. Tumpek Uduh in rice field (left) and Tumpek Wariga in mix garden (right)
Tumpek Bubuh.
In its philosophy, this Tumpek Bubuh ritual is an expression of gratefulness for all the blessings provided by Hyang Widhi Wasa in the forms of various foods from plants. This ritual is also accompanied by hopes and expectations for the plants to yield good harvest, or Galungan. Fruits coming from plants will be used by Bali people to fulfill the need for the ceremony to celebrate Galungan. This ritual is essentially a reminder that all humans must take care of their nature and that humans cannot live well without being supported by healthy environment. Good environment is a source of life for human beings. Talking about plants is certainly closely related to agriculture. Nowadays, when younger generation shows low interest in agriculture, it seems important to revitalize the knowledge system of the past. Balinese people have been known to have sound knowledge on agriculture. Through the ceremony of Uduh, Bali community need to have intellectual reflection to reactivate agriculture sector. By reactivating the agriculture sector, the nature of Bali is expected to be sustained; Tumpek Uduh or Tumpek Wariga is a strategic moment to have intellectual reflection on the future of agriculture in Bali. The ancestors of Balinese people have already possessed a high level of knowledge on agriculture, which peaks the culture of Bali and Indonesia.
5. Remarkable landscapes, land and water resources management features
Land and water resources management features in Karangasem District could be represented by its paddy field terraces. The most common form of rice field will be on flat areas. However, it is still possible to have paddy terraces even when the natural countours are hilly. Karangasem offers both types of paddy fields. The rice terraces have been in Karanagasem for at least 2,000 years, and they were originally carved into the hills using hand tools.
This method for irrigating the land was inspired by an ancient Hindu philosophy, and it has been used since as early as the 11th century. In order for this management of irrigation to work successfully, members of each community are required to cooperate with each other and work in partnership. Each member of the community takes the responsibility for maintaining the systems integrity, and this is why the terraces tend to look so well maintained. The Subak members work as a unit to create appropriate canals and dams. Another important element of the Subak system is the religious festivals that mark the cycle of the year.
In Karangasem is possible to find Subak rice fields and upland crops, and also Abian and Sayan throughout the regencies, but the most beautiful ones can be found at:
Fig. 18. Subak Tirta Gangga’s paddy field terraces, which tourists usually visit when they go to Candidasa beach resort. Terraced paddy fields are located at the north of Candidasa. There is also Water Palace, called “Tirta Gangga”.
Fig. 19. Subak Lumpadang Bugbug landscape mosaic of uplands “palawija”, i.e. peanuts, corn, soybeans, vegetables, flowers, sweet potato, and casava has interesting scenery when “ngegadon” is ongoing. This is a shifting process to get water during the dry season.
Fig. 20. “Sayan” Samu Hill in Bugbug Traditional Village is hilly terraces belonging to a traditional village which practices agro-silvo-pastural areas for coconut and cows, as well as palawija in dry land hilly terraces
Fig. 21. Abian Seraya stoned uplands in Seraya Village has a hilly landscape with dry
season all the year round and is only planted with “Seraya corn”. It has a beautiful scenery
due to its blue sea background of Lombok Strait.
II. Other social and cultural characteristics pertinent to the management of the agricultural system
The philosophy of THK-TM governs the daily life of Bali people including their administration system. According to this philosophy as their belief, the prosperity and goodness can only be obtained and achieved through a harmonious relationship between humans and the gods (Parahyangan), their fellow man (Pawongan), and nature itself (Palemahan) (Fig. 22). Humans should maintain and manage the harmonization of nature and the divine through mindful worship and prayer. Hence, ceremonies and religious activity become an important part of the agriculture production. In agricultural field, various temples are found to be associated with Subak and Abian systems, from a simple shrine in paddy field area to a large temple of water/lake (Parahyangan).
Fig. 22. Pura Palemahan is located at garden plot expresses the relationship between human and environtment (left) and Subak organitation is pawongan aspect in THK philoshophy (right). III. Historic relevance
Subak is a traditional organization emphasizing on wet land agriculture, while Abian puts more emphasis on dry land agriculture. Both are known as religious agricultural organizations to have existed in Bali since the 9th century. The existence of both Subak and Abian has been maintained until today and has served as a national cultural heritage. The term “Subak” has been known worldwide.
From the historical viewpoint, Abian has been known to exist at the same time as the existence of Traditional Village. The values in Abian philosophy have been taught since the governance of Sri Udayana Wamadewa in the 11th century. This is supported by the finding of writing “Prasasti Sukawana” in the year of 882, which states the term “perlak”, which means “tegalan” or dry land.
Based on the Regional Regulation of Bali Province No. 02/PD/DPRD/1972 Article 4 regarding irrigation, it is stated that Subak is a traditional legal community in Bali with socio- agrarian-religious values and they have been known to exist historically since a very long time ago and have continued to develop as an organization of land owners in water management and others for paddy fields from water sources in a region. Meanwhile, from the historical mechamism, Abian can be defined as “a group of traditional legal community who have areas and wealth and have the rights to manage their own households (autonomy), with socio- religious, agrarian and economic characteristics in dry land agriculture and rain-fed agriculture.”
Subak is also responsible to manage their own household either in making water available or in managing water well and effectively for paddy fields of the Subak members within the region. Subak conserves and maintains irrigation facilities as well as possible by ensuring the irrigation in the region. Both Subak and Abian follow the existing rules called “Awig-awig” and “Sima-Subak”. Subak and Abian solve their rising disputes well and when there are actions against the rules or criminal actions, the guilty will be sentenced according to the existing law. As traditional institutions having deep spiritual roots and having existed for hundreds of years, Subak and Abian perform their activities based on the philosophies of TM (in landuse) and THK.
IV. Contemporary Relevance
Agriculture practices in Subak and Abian systems can provide ecosystem services which can respond to global warming issues and global climate changes. Such ecosystem service can be in the form of water resource management, agriculture diversity conservation, low carbon society, zero waste agriculture system and renewable energy practices.
a. Water resources management
Water management in Subak system is very significant to support one of the environment services, namely sustainable water resource management. Water is utilized and managed efficiently and effectively especially in terraced paddy fields. The efficiency of water usage is very significant in the dry season, when there are shifts in distributing water, called “ngegadon”. This Subak system is well been known worldwide and has become globally
important because the local wisdom in Subak system has become an example of the best irrigation systems in the world.
b. Agricultural diversity conservation
The practice of agriculture using Subak and Abian systems puts the priority in maintaining the agriculture diversity. The mosaic landscape of wet land and dry land has determined different land uses. This means that there are different choices of agriculture commodities. Subak, which manages the agriculture system for paddy fields, contributes in conserving various types of rice, including conserving the local varieties of rice, namely Bali rice. Subak has also maintained the agriculture produces, ranging from palawija (secondary crops), vegetables, and various flowers which are produced for the need of performing religious ceremonies/rituals for Hindu people. Meanwhile, Abian manages dry land and conserves the agriculture diversity of hard crops, such as coconut, coffee, cacao, clove, cashew nut, and also fruits such as Wani mango, snake fruit, jack fruit, and various types of bananas. The Abian system also conserves cattle diversity, such as Bali cow, Bali pig, and local chicken, which are generally raised in a unit of agro-silvo-pastural. This is considered to be globally important since it can overcome the problem of food and energy crisis.
c. Low Carbon society
Agro-forestry practices using Abian or “Sayan” system using plant stratifications, such as home gardens, mixed gardens and forest gardens ( Fig. 23) on slope areas, are considered to be very effective in absorbing Carbon (Carbon sequestration). This system enables harvesting seasonal crops such as palawija, peanuts, vegetables, and tubers as cash crops, while Carbon can still be in stock on perennials. The practices of low carbon and renewable energy are applied in the system of agrosilvo-pastural in Abian under the program of SIMANTRI (Integrated farming system). The plant waste is used for cow feed, while the cow dung is returned to nature as manure or used as bio-fuel. Another low carbon practice is also performed in snake fruit estate by introducing modern management in which all snake fruit products can be processed economically so that the practice is significantly claimed as “zero waste agriculture system”. Apart from serving as fresh fruit, snake fruit can alse be processed by converting its flesh into crackers, sweet snack, syrup, juice, and wine. The other fruit cover can also be utilized as handicrafts, the leaves can be used for weaving of offering box called “banten”, and the seed is still being researched for the possibility to be converted into coffee. This activity becomes globally important since it can reduce the amount of emission so it contributes in reducing global warming impacts.
Fig. 23. Multi-storey in “salak” mix garden is very effective in absorbing Carbon (Carbon sequestration).
V. Threats and challenges
Threats
In the last few decades, agriculture has been threatened Karangasem District. The main threats are:
1. The speedy development on tourism in Bali has affected Karangasem District and threatened the landuse shifts (Fig. 24). The development of tourism resorts in a big scale is generally initiated by the development of infra structures for accessibility. After the road access is available, the shifting of land use on both sides of the road can quickly happen. 2. The weakening spirit among the young generation coming from farmers‟ family and having no intention to be farmers as their profession. Young people prefer to work in government sector, private companies, trading, industry, and tourism. Thus, the sustainability of agriculture activities is under the threat.
The problems above are mainly related to transactions of landuse shifts, and do not involve the committee members of Subak or Abian, because the administration regulation still
refers to those outlined by the Central Government. As a result, there is frequently a conflict of interest among the management board of Subak/Abian, Head of Village, and Investor. On the other hand, the members (“krama”) of Subak and Abian are getting more heterogeneous; thus, there are often disagreements leading to heated arguments.
Fig. 24. Landuse and landcover changes for infrastructure (left) due to the speedy development on tourism (right).
In short, the pressure of conflicting interests in non-agriculture frequently threatens the existence of agriculture land, either paddy fields or home gardens. The shifts of land use will threathen the existence of Subak and Abian. If there is no action to prevent this, there will be some disturbance on social, economic, and ecological stabilities (Fig. 25). The acknowledgement of GIAHS on agriculture heritage of Karangasem District is expected to enable the rising pride and merit among farmer community, especially among the youth in sustaining the existence of integrated agriculture system in Subak and Abian for Karangasem District.
Conflict of Interest between Agriculture and Non-Agriculture
Paddy Field in Subak System
Land Use and Land Cover Changes Reducing Subak Existence
Social Security of Economic Security of Ecological Security of “Pura Subak” Existence Individual Farmer and Biotic and Abiotic
Subak Institution Balance Fig. 25. Land use impact to social, economical and ecological security in Karangasem
Challenges
A number of challenges are faced to protect the existence of agriculture by using the systems of Subak and Abian by keeping Pura Subak or Pura Abian as a form of social stability.
1. Pura Subak/or Pura Abian as the form of Social Stability of Subak/Abian, since they are parts of the concept of Tri Hita Karana, which is believed to be sustainable; with its spiritual reflection consolidates individuals, families, associations/groups. 2. Any internal or external attempt on sustainability will: a) alleviate the burden of the members in ritual ceremonies, b) appreciate tax exemption in green areas, c). monitor implementation of Green Zone Regulation, irrigation network and investor‟s behaviour, d). provide funding through Provincial and Regional Budget and Expenditure Plan outlined in Regional Regulation, e). Intensify various forms of training activities for Subak/Abian, such as extension activities, competitions of Subak, and so on.
VI. Practical considerations
a) Ongoing efforts to promote GIAHS
A number of programs initiated by the government and stakeholders must be connected to the introduction/support/endorsement of related factors above when Karangasem District has been designated as GIAHS, and can be elaborated as follows:
- Capacity building empowerment
The institutionalization of Farmers‟ Groups, Subak farmers and Fishermen through capacity building by increasing the number of trainings on management as well as comparative studies to various other districts or other provinces. An increase of Farmers Resources can be done through extension activities, dissemination of new programs and Focus Group Discussion. Through such activities, Subak farmers, and fishermen groups can be more understanding and more responsible for their region that has been acknowledged as GIAHS.
The government of Karangasem District provides agriculture funding through grants or credit based on proposals from the bottom so there will be some accuracies in planning, which is suited to the need. The government must also help in processing the post-harvest and marketing through cooperatives and customs, and expand the network to market the processed products of agriculture, such as snake fruits and cashew nuts, so that the agriculture leading products of Karangasem can be certified.
- Promotion of agriculture programs
The Government of Bali Province provides bigger support on the development of SIMANTRI system (Integrated Agriculture System). Farmers of Abian can practice zero waste agriculture system and get organic certification. This will help in introducing GIAHS to the community of Bali, National and even International. The Central Government has initiated a special program on three main commodities (Rice-Corn-Soybean) since 2015 and this special program is known as UPSUS PAJALE. This attempt is expected to stimulate the reactivation of Subak agriculture for rice-corn-soybean, and Abian agriculture for corn and soybean.
- Promotion of Karangasem agriculture main products
Salak (snake fruit) is a fruit of identity and a leading product of Karangasem District (Fig. 26). To respond to the Global Warming issue, salak is sold not only in the form of fresh fruit but also in processed forms with the principle of zero waste, which has been initiated since the 2000s. The flesh of the salak is processed into chips, candied fruit, sweet-tofee, and wine (Fig. 27). The outer covering is used as handicraft. The seed is now being researched to see its possibility to be turned into coffee. The permit from BPOM and Custom designation has been obtained since 2010. By endorsing zero waste product, the farmers of salak can have a pride to recognize themselves as the farmers of GIAHS. In addition, this can also improve the added value of the salak farmers‟ economy. Fig. 26. Salak statue as Karangasem identity in Amlapura City.
Fig. 27. Subsidiary products of salak processed into wine (top), chips “keripik”, candied fruit “manisan”, and sweet-tofee “dodol” (bottom) which can improve the income of salak farmers
The Productive Green Program for jambu mete (cashew nut) is very suitable for dry land areas. The cashew nut plant is very adaptable to minimum water supply, but it can still produce a very good harvest. This can be seen by the increasing number of community members becoming dry land Abian farmers, especially in Kubu District. “Subak Abian Bhuana Amerta” with the brand name of Cap Gunung Agung, with the registration No. 230/51.07/1997, Depkes RI. Sp. No: 0011/22.08/97 is an example of successful Abian Farmers‟ Group. Cashew nut is a typical icon of Kubu Sub-District, which has received a designation of Geographical Indication of Kubu Cashew Nut, Bali and has been registered as a Geographical Indication (IG) with the registration number of IDG000000028, dated November 26, 2014 (Fig. 28). In free trade era, IG is very important as a legal protection for the product in marketing strategy so that the product can have an increased added value, can have a better reputation, and can be promoted overseas while avoiding unhealthy competition. Increased productivity, better post-harvest processing, better packaging (Fig. 29), potential marketing and cashew nut business are in line with the principles of environment sustainability for the green program of dry land areas. This rises a pride for the community living in the region recognized as GIAHS.
Fig. 28. Cashew nut tree as a productive green plant in Kubu (left); Designation of Geographical Indication for Kubu Cashew Nut, Bali, registered as a Geographical Indication with the number of IDG000000028, dated November 26, 2014
Fig. 29. The process of cashew nut pulping by using a simple pulping tool (left), dry cashew nut ready for processing (mid), and cashew nut product ready to be marketed and consumed (right)
(b) Potential and opportunities for sustainability and management of GIAHS
The support from the government for the existence of Subak/Abian organization through such programs as extension activities, credit provision, lower tax for land and building having positive impacts on farmers and agriculture in Karangasem. This has made farmers enthusiastic and have pride and merit as farmers. By receiving the GIAHS designation, farmers are more motivated to sustain their profession as farmers who protect their agriculture land well. This ensures the sustainability of Subak and Abian management to be acknowledged by GIAHS.
Tourism in Karangasem has the potential to open opportunities for marketing organic agriculture products. Currently the tourist ships can harbor at Tanah Ampo Karangasem Port. Most tourists love organic agriculture products. This really supports the development of SIMANTRI program implementation. On receiving the GIAHS designation, farmers will be more enthusiactic in maintaining the sustainable agricultural activities.
(c) Expected impact of GIAHS on society and ecology
Receiving GIAHS designation can create pride for Subak and Abian farmers community in Karangasem. The positive impact is the existence of Hindu philosophy of THK and TM, which underline the management of land use and water management in paddy fields as well as in
house gardens so that they can be sustainably maintained. Farmers of Subak and Abian will be proud to introduce GIAHS, and that the agriculture products will improve either in their productivity, post-harvest processing, marketing, as well as the added value. It is expected that farmers of Subak and Abian will maintain the sustainability of their agriculture systems so that there will be improved appreciation between gods and humans (Parahyangan aspect), improved harmony among “krama” or members of Subak/Abian (Pawongan aspect), and increased balance between humans and their environment (Palemahan aspect). Eventually this will have a positive impact on better and more sustainable agriculture ecosystem management.
(d) Motivation of the local community, the local/national authorities and others
The GIAHS designation can motivate Subak/Abian farmers to maintain their agriculture profession and their land. They want to be more advanced with better quality of life and can maintain the existence of THK and TM. For that reason, the community expect to have the following:
i. The community members receive technology transfer to improve their agriculture products through extension programs they are involved in, through trainings they participate in, or through working internship that they do in other districts, other provinces or even other countries. ii. Reduction or lower taxes as the incentives from the agriculture activities they have been performing in line with the target that the government has set. iii. The increase of tourists‟ visit to the location is expected to generate income for farmers who also manage community-based tourism business. iv. Dry land keeps getting smaller but more productive so that it can generate products and can sustainably provide a living for the community welfare. v. The community members become more proud of the agriculturalheritage that they have and will inspire young generation to keep preserving the agriculture.
What the local government of Karangasem will do after the designation as GIAHS by FAO are as follows:
i. Attempting to reduce taxes through the provision of incentives to farmers who maintain their agriculture activities and sustain the practices of Subak or Abian systems. This is done by encouraging the establishment of agropolitant centers in Karangasem District. After the acknowledgement of GIAHS, it is expected that there will be Rice Agropolitan (production center of rice), Snake Fruit Agropolitan Salak
(production center of snake fruits), Cashew Nut Agropolitan (production center of cashew nut), and Corn Agropolitan (production center of corn). ii. Planning agriculture tourism centers with the concept of community-based agro- tourism village. The community members with good hospitality skills can prepare agriculture activities that can be tourism objects, and prepare accommodation facilities such as homestay, lodging, hostels, and eatery places with local culinary.
VII. Dynamic conservation plan for GIAHS selected site
There are five action plans to conserve for GIAHS selected site. Those action plans are related to stakeholders‟ commitment to execute and realize them and provide guarantee statement.
1. Agricultural land protection
Karangansem District Local Government in 2016 will start: 1). controlling the shifts of land use by issuing Local Government Regulation regarding the Regulations for Land Blocking Functions; 2). controlling the shifts of land use by issuing Local Government Regulation regarding the Establishment of Land as Permanent Paddy Fields (“Lahan Sawah Abadi”) or Sustainable Crop Land.
2. Research and Development Center for Agribusines and Agrotourism
Faculty of Agriculture – Bogor Agricultural University (IPB) and Faculty of Agriculture – University of Udayana (UNUD) will arrange collaboration with Agriculture/Forestry/Fishery Agencies, local government of Karangasem for research and community services related to agriculture, agribusiness, agrotourism and extension services. That collaboration will be endeavored as Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) or Memorandum of Agreement (MoA). In addition, some proposals will be provided to increase the THK-TM concept for GIAHS activity in the perspective of academics.
3. Community Development
The action plan for community development will be managed by Coordinating Ministry of People Development and Culture together with Indonesian Heritage Agency (NGO) to conduct National Program for Community Development (Program Nasional Pembangunan Masyarakat - PNPM Mandiri), extension and training activity. Those programs are proposed to increase community capacity for understanding GIAHS activity. The guarantee statement can be presented as government decree (Surat Keputusan – SK) and also some bottom-up proposals
at village level. The government decree can be established as soon as possible, to assign Bugbug Village as one of PNPM Mandiri program. The bottom-up proposals should be arranged by village people (Desa Adat or Pekon) for fulfillment of their aspiration related to GIAHS ideas.
4. Conservation and Promotion of Ecosystem Services
The Ministry of Environ- ment and Forestry (MEF) is responsible to conduct Conservat- ion and Promotion of Ecosystem Services. The MEF will work together with local and village government to arrange water management for Subak System. In addition to promote agrotourism activity and green area for conservation towards ecosystem services for the community (Fig. 30).
Fig. 30. Agroforestry salak in Abian system can be promoted as agrotourism object in Karangasem.
5. Agricultural diversity conservation and food security
This action plan will be conducted by Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and Ministry of Fishery (MoF) to proceed with the such existing programs as Integrated Farming System (Sistem Pertanian Terintegrasi - SIMANTRI), Food Diversity Program (Program Percepatan Keanekaragaman Pangan - P2KP), and Food Security Community (Kawasan Rumah Pangan Lestari – KRPL). The bottom-up proposals should be arranged by village people (Desa Adat or Pekon) for fulfillment of their aspiration related to GIAHS ideas.
References
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Annex 1: Location Map of the Site
Annex 2 Agriculture Diversity in Karangasem District
Local name/ Description Traditional utilization Native location scientific name picture
F l o r a
LONTAR/ Fruit, handycraft, Bali (Endemic), SIWALAN Balinesse tradisional Indonesia palm-leaf manuscript The Lontar/ Palmyra
Borassus flabellifer
PANDAN Food stock, spice, Bangka, Indonesia WANGI “canang”, aromatic therapy Pandan leaves
(Pandanus amaryllfolium)
PISANG Food stock, table fruit, South East Asia cooking, “banten”, Banana banana leaf for some praying kits (Musa spp.)
JAGUNG Food stock, steaple as Bali (local), Indonesia carbohydrate source Seraya Corn
(local variety)
(Zea mays)
KELAPA Food stock “copra”, Bali (local), Indonesia DALAM spice, coconut milk,
Forma Bali Medicine, coconut juice, Coconut nata de coco, coconut leaves for praying kits, (Cocos nucifera) “penjor”
KELAPA Medicine, coconut Asia GADING leaves and fruits for ceremony kits, Yellow Coconut
(Cocos nucifera)
JERUK BALI Food stock, fruit, Indo-China, Thailand, “sukade” snack, Malaya Bali Grapefruit nutrition source (Maximus citrus)
PADI BALI Carbohydrate stock Bali
Balinese local rice
(Oryza sativa)
BERAS HITAM Carbohydrate stock Bali (local), Indonesia (KETAN HITAM)
Black sticky rise
(Oryza sativa)
KWENI Vitamin and medicine, Indonesia table fruit, offering use Wani mango
(Mangifera odorata)
KENIKIR Offering use Mexico
Marigold
(Tagetes erecta)
PACAR AIR Offering use South Asia (India & Burma) Rose Balsam
(Impatiens balsamina)
POHON TURI Microclimate ameliorate, South America Nitrogen fixation, Hummingbird vegetables, nutrition Tree source, feeds (Sesbania grandiflora)
KANGKUNG Food Stock, vegetable, East Indian nutrition source Water spinach
(Ipomoea aquatica)
SAWI Food stock, vegetables, China nutrition source Chinese green cabbage
(Brassica campestris)
KACANG Food Stock, vegetables, South America PANJANG nutrition source Long beans
(Vigna sinensis)
MENTIMUM Food Stock India
Cucumber Nutrition
(Cucumis Medicine sativus)
SEMANGKA Food stock, table fruit, Africa
Watermelon Nutrition source
(Citrullus latunus)
CABE RAWIT Food stock, spice, South America vegetable, medicine Chilli
(Capsicum annum)
PURING Offering use, India, Srilanka, ornamental plant Indonesia, Malayasia Variegated Corton
(Codiaeum variegatum)
BUNGA SOKA Offering use, Tropical Asia ornamental plant West Indian Jasmine
(Ixora coccinea)
KAMBOJA Sacred Plant Central to South America Frangipani
(Plumeria sp)
AIR MATA Offering use, Central Mexico to PENGANTIN ornamental plant South America
Rose of Montana
(Antigonon leptopus)
DURIAN Food stock, fruit Indonesia
Durian
(Durio zibenthino)
SAWO SAPOTA Food Stock, table fruit, Indonesia
(Manilkara nutrition source kauki)
JOHAR CASSIA Offering use, legume, Asia Nitrogen fixation Cassia
(Cassia fistula)
BELIMBING Food stock, fruit,
Star Fruit Nutrition source
(Averhoa blimbii)
KATUK Vegetables, medicine,
Gooseberry nutrition source
(Sauropus androgynus)
KELOR Medicine, feeds
Moringa
(Moringa oleifera)
SUKUN (TEEP) Carbohydrate stock, medicine, “obat Breadfruit pengusir nyamuk” mosquito repellant (Artocarpus altilis)
KOL BANDA Medicine, ornamental plant Pisonia
(Pisonia alba)
DELIMA HITAM Fruit, offering use, medicine Pomegranate
(Punica granatum)
MAJA Ornamental plant, INDIA shading tree, medicine Bael
(Aegle marmelos)
PANDAN BALI Bali
Pandan Laut
(Pandanus sp,)
PEPAYA Food stock, table fruit South America
Papaya
(Carica papaya)
JAMBU METE Food stock, snack, Brazil cashew nut shell liquid Chasew nut
(Anacardium occidentale)
JAMBU AIR Food stock, fruit, South America nutrition source Water apple
(Syzigium aquaeum)
POHON Sacred plant, shading Asia BERINGIN tree, wildlife habitat
Banyan
(Ficus benjamina)
F a u n a
SAPI BALI Protein and fat source Bali, Indonesia
Balinese cattle
(Bibos sondaicus)
LEBAH BALI Vitamin and nutrition source Balinese Honey Bee
BABI BALI Meat and fat source
Celeng
Balinese pig
AYAM BALI Protein source, fighting cocks Balinese local chicken
KAMBING BALI Meat protein and fat source Balinese goat
BURUNG Endemic species KOKOKAN
Kokokan Birds
KERA EKOR Sacred animal in Bali: PANJANG Pura/ temples and forest in Bugbug Village Monkey
(Macaca fascicularis)
KUPU-KUPU Wildlife
Buterfly
CAPUNG Air pollution indicator, wildlife Dragon fly
(Anisoptera sp.)
ULAR SAWAH/ Wet land of rice field. Java, Bali, Sumatra, ULAR TIKUS Rat predator Kalimantan, Vietnam, India, Thailand, Ricefield snake Taiwan, China (Ptyas korros)
KADAL Wet-Dry land/yard
Lizard
(Lacerta agilis)
Local name/ Description Traditional utilization Native location scientific name picture
F l o r a
LONTAR/ Fruit, handycraft, Bali (Endemic), SIWALAN Balinesse tradisional Indonesia palm-leaf manuscript The Lontar/ Palmyra
Borassus flabellifer
PANDAN Food stock, spice, Bangka, Indonesia WANGI “canang”, aromatic therapy Pandan leaves
(Pandanus amaryllfolium)
PISANG Food stock, table fruit, South East Asia cooking, “banten”, Banana banana leaf for some praying kits (Musa spp.)
JAGUNG Food stock, steaple as Bali (local), Indonesia carbohydrate source Seraya Corn
(local variety)
(Zea mays)
KELAPA Food stock “copra”, Bali (local), Indonesia DALAM spice, coconut milk,
Forma Bali Medicine, coconut juice, Coconut nata de coco, coconut leaves for praying kits, (Cocos nucifera) “penjor”
KELAPA Medicine, coconut Asia GADING leaves and fruits for ceremony kits, Yellow Coconut
(Cocos nucifera)
JERUK BALI Food stock, fruit, Indo-China, Thailand, “sukade” snack, Malaya Bali Grapefruit nutrition source (Maximus citrus)
PADI BALI Carbohydrate stock Bali
Balinese local rice
(Oryza sativa)
BERAS HITAM Carbohydrate stock Bali (local), Indonesia (KETAN HITAM)
Black sticky rise
(Oryza sativa)
KWENI Vitamin and medicine, Indonesia table fruit, offering use Wani mango
(Mangifera odorata)
KENIKIR Offering use Mexico
Marigold
(Tagetes erecta)
PACAR AIR Offering use South Asia (India & Burma) Rose Balsam
(Impatiens balsamina)
POHON TURI Microclimate ameliorate, South America Nitrogen fixation, Hummingbird vegetables, nutrition Tree source, feeds (Sesbania grandiflora)
KANGKUNG Food Stock, vegetable, East Indian nutrition source Water spinach
(Ipomoea aquatica)
SAWI Food stock, vegetables, China nutrition source Chinese green cabbage
(Brassica campestris)
KACANG Food Stock, vegetables, South America PANJANG nutrition source Long beans
(Vigna sinensis)
MENTIMUM Food Stock India
Cucumber Nutrition
(Cucumis Medicine sativus)
SEMANGKA Food stock, table fruit, Africa
Watermelon Nutrition source
(Citrullus latunus)
CABE RAWIT Food stock, spice, South America vegetable, medicine Chilli
(Capsicum annum)
PURING Offering use, India, Srilanka, ornamental plant Indonesia, Malayasia Variegated Corton
(Codiaeum variegatum)
BUNGA SOKA Offering use, Tropical Asia ornamental plant West Indian Jasmine
(Ixora coccinea)
KAMBOJA Sacred Plant Central to South America Frangipani
(Plumeria sp)
AIR MATA Offering use, Central Mexico to PENGANTIN ornamental plant South America
Rose of Montana
(Antigonon leptopus)
DURIAN Food stock, fruit Indonesia
Durian
(Durio zibenthino)
SAWO SAPOTA Food Stock, table fruit, Indonesia
(Manilkara nutrition source kauki)
JOHAR CASSIA Offering use, legume, Asia Nitrogen fixation Cassia
(Cassia fistula)
BELIMBING Food stock, fruit,
Star Fruit Nutrition source
(Averhoa blimbii)
KATUK Vegetables, medicine,
Gooseberry nutrition source
(Sauropus androgynus)
KELOR Medicine, feeds
Moringa
(Moringa oleifera)
SUKUN (TEEP) Carbohydrate stock, medicine, “obat Breadfruit pengusir nyamuk” mosquito repellant (Artocarpus altilis)
KOL BANDA Medicine, ornamental plant Pisonia
(Pisonia alba)
DELIMA HITAM Fruit, offering use, medicine Pomegranate
(Punica granatum)
MAJA Ornamental plant, INDIA shading tree, medicine Bael
(Aegle marmelos)
PANDAN BALI Bali
Pandan Laut
(Pandanus sp,)
PEPAYA Food stock, table fruit South America
Papaya
(Carica papaya)
JAMBU METE Food stock, snack, Brazil cashew nut shell liquid Chasew nut
(Anacardium occidentale)
JAMBU AIR Food stock, fruit, South America nutrition source Water apple
(Syzigium aquaeum)
POHON Sacred plant, shading Asia BERINGIN tree, wildlife habitat
Banyan
(Ficus benjamina)
F a u n a
SAPI BALI Protein and fat source Bali, Indonesia
Balinese cattle
(Bibos sondaicus)
LEBAH BALI Vitamin and nutrition source Balinese Honey Bee
BABI BALI Meat and fat source
Celeng
Balinese pig
AYAM BALI Protein source, fighting cocks Balinese local chicken
KAMBING BALI Meat protein and fat source Balinese goat
BURUNG Endemic species KOKOKAN
Kokokan Birds
KERA EKOR Sacred animal in Bali: PANJANG Pura/ temples and forest in Bugbug Village Monkey
(Macaca fascicularis)
KUPU-KUPU Wildlife
Buterfly
CAPUNG Air pollution indicator, wildlife Dragon fly
(Anisoptera sp.)
ULAR SAWAH/ Wet land of rice field. Java, Bali, Sumatra, ULAR TIKUS Rat predator Kalimantan, Vietnam, India, Thailand, Ricefield snake Taiwan, China (Ptyas korros)
KADAL Wet-Dry land/yard
Lizard
(Lacerta agilis)
Annex 3 Types of Ritual Activities, Implementation Time, and Purpose
No. Name of Rituals Implementation Time Purpose 1 Mapag Toya / At the starting time to Asking God for adequate irrigation Mendak Toya fetch water from its water to fulfill the water need of the Ceremony sources paddy fields 2 Ngendagin / Before performing Asking permission from gods and mamungkah / agriculture activities at goddess living at paddy fields, as the nuasen tedun paddy fields manifestation of God, before farmers Ceremony start planting as a part of agriculture activities at paddy fields 3 Pangwiwit / ngurit Soon after the seeds are Praying to God so that the planted Ceremony planted seeds will grow well. 4 Nuasen Nandur Just before plantin seeds Praying to God so that the process of Ceremony at the paddy fields planting seeds can go well and smoothly 5 Ngulapin Ceremony Soon after planting rice at Praying to God so that the planted the rice fields seeds can grow well and cause no damage 6 Ngerestiti / Nangluk After planting rice at Praying to God so that insects/pests Merana Ceremony paddy fields do not attack the rice plants 7 Ngerorasin After rice has been Praying to God so that the planted Ceremony planted for 12 days rice can grow well 8 Mubuhin Ceremony After rice has been Praying to God so that the planted planted for 15 days. rice can grow well 9 Neduh / Ngebulanin After rice has been Praying to God so that the planted Ceremony planted for 35 days (1 rice can grow well month). 10 Nyungsung / ngiseh After rice has been Praying to God so that the planted / ngelanus / dedinan planted for 42 days rice can grow well Ceremony 11 Biukukung / miseh After rice has been Praying to God so that the planted Ceremony planted for 70 days (2 rice can grow well months) 12 Nyiwa Sraya After the paddy flowers Praying to God so that the paddy Ceremony thoroughly in the rice plants can keep growing well and fields can produce good harvest 13 Ngusaba / Ngusaba When the rice seeds start Praying to God so that the harvest Nini / Mantenin yellowing before being will be a success Dewi Sri Ceremony harvested 14 Mebanten Manyi At the harvest time Praying to God so that the harvest Ceremony can run smoothly 15 Ngerasakin After the paddy has been Expressing gratefulness and Ceremony harvested thanksgiving to God for the success of harvesting the rice and for getting ready for the coming planting time in the next season 16 Mantenin Ceremony After paddy is kept at the Expressing thankfulness to God storage area since the rice has been kept well