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Local Government Responsiveness in Indonesia After Decentralization: Examining Elite Initiatives and Citizen Participation

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Local Government Responsiveness in Indonesia After Decentralization: Examining Elite Initiatives and Citizen Participation Local Government Responsiveness in Indonesia after Decentralization: Examining Elite Initiatives and Citizen Participation A Dissertation Submitted to the University of Tsukuba In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements forthe Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Political Economy Takuya HASEGAWA 2013 Local Government Responsiveness in Indonesia after Decentralization: Examining Elite Initiatives and Citizen Participation ABSTRACT In the evaluations of the quality of democracy in Post-Authoritarian Indonesia, many studies have emphasized the unchanged composition of political power elites and those elites’ persistent practice of exploiting the state resources. They argue democratic institutional changes have been superficial and only beneficial to the elites. Challenging these arguments, this thesis offers more nuanced picture of Indonesian democracy by indicating that Indonesian elites are increasingly accommodating the demands of non-elites. It studies the emergence of performance-oriented local leaders at the provincial level, examining two cases of such local leaders in West Sumatra and South Sumatra Province. While examining these elite initiatives, this thesis also studies the efforts of actors in civil society in bringing changes of local governance in order to develop an understanding of a whole picture of Indonesian democracy. It seeks to find the increasing influence of civil society groups by examining two reputed cases. One is a successful local anti-corruption movement. Another is reputed participatory budget planning at one district. This research uses the framework which has been developed in clientelism studies of comparative politics. With narrow definition of patronage network, this dissertation argues, gubernatorial candidates have been becoming less dependent on patronage networks as far as vote mobilization is concerned. Competition among local elites has been intensified by the introduction of direct local government head election. In such situation, some local leaders adapt a new strategy to ally with non-elites for winning out. They have implemented the policies clearly targeted to non-elites such as providing free education and free healthcare program for all residents, and improving transparency and effectiveness of government administration. However such signs of a shift have limitations. With many constraints on the citizens’ options of collective actions beyond voting, the influence of actors in civil society has yet been weak. Informational asymmetries between local elites and citizens have been increasingly salient and constraint severely the public’s ability to put pressure on local governments. Collusive relationships between elites and local media are being consolidated. In addition, local governments and parliaments have prevented any details of key discussions from leaking to the public, while ostensibly following the procedures of information disclosure. The main conclusions drawn from this research are that while elites nurtured during the Suharto era remain in power, and civil society groups have not yet increased their influence, a departure from the entrenched political patterns still occurs in some regions. Such changes are not caused with the replacement of vested interests with new ones but by ambitious elites’ new strategies to join hands with non-elites by promising and implementing the policies which accommodated the latter’s interests. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS At long last, I have reached the stage of writing the acknowledgements of this dissertation. On the way, I have encountered inspiring teachers, generous colleagues and good friends. It is a pleasure to acknowledge my sincere appreciation. First, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Motoko Shuto, chair of my dissertation committee, and academic adviser throughout my graduate study life at Tsukuba University, starting from the Master Program of Area Studies. I have learned a lot from her. At the beginning of the graduate program, I only have an idea of researching on local politics in Indonesia without having in mind any specific regions or research frameworks. From such precarious starting point, she has given valuable advice to me to develop the idea of this dissertation. She has been diligent and patient in reading and commenting on the drafts of this thesis. Whenever I asked, she always spared time for me. If my chief academic adviser were not her, I would have given up finishing this thesis earlier. I also wish to express my gratitude to the other members of my dissertation committee. To Prof. Quimpo, I am grateful for giving a wide range of advice including very basic things such as how to construct an argument. A number of relevant literatures he suggested to me were very helpful. To Prof. Yasushi Kondo, I am thankful for stimulating me to think more deeply the relevance of the comparative politics. To Prof. Carole Faucher, though I could not finish this thesis before she moved to Kazakhstan, I am thankful for her valuable advice at the early stage of this thesis, especially on how to conduct a field research in Indonesia. To Prof. Masaaki Okamoto at the University of Kyoto, I am grateful for becoming a member of the committee at the final stage. As to the fellowship for this research, I wish to express my appreciation for the support by the INPEX Scholarship Foundation. By grace of this foundation, I could do field ii research in Indonesia for two years without facing any financial problems. A special thanks to Mr. Nakamura and Mr. Oguma who were in charge of supporting me. For the persons in Indonesia, at first, I wish to thank the Economic Research Center (P2E) of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), which had become a host institute to arrange my research visa during my stay in Indonesia. A leading expert of local politics in Indonesia, Syarif Hidayat was unfailingly helpful to spare time for me every time I visited to Jakarta. He always offered a sound advice on the field. Friends made in Indonesia during my research, especially in Jakarta, Padang and Palembang, made my field research much more delightful. If I listed them all, the dissertation would double in size. My sincere apologies to the many people who helped me but do not find their names here. You would never be forgotten. I will express my thanks personally to you when vising to Indonesia next time in the near future. Of course, my friends at the University of Tsukuba also helped me more than they know to survive the dissertation process. Thanks to you all. If I have retained any normality at all, it is only because of you. Finally, I would like to thank my family. This dissertation would not have been possible without the profound support of my parents, Mitsunori and Masako, who recklessly and consistently believed in me. I also would like to thank my younger sister. To those three people, I express the deepest gratitude I have ever offered. Thank you for giving me the courage to persevere to finish this dissertation. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Aims and Objectives ............................................................................... 1 1.2 Increasing Government Responsiveness ................................................. 3 1.2.1 Definition of Responsiveness ................................................... 3 1.2.2 Participation and Responsiveness ............................................. 4 1.3 Decentralization and Participation .......................................................... 8 1.3.1 Voting in Local Elections ....................................................... 11 1.3.2 Raising Voices at the Local Level .......................................... 14 1.3.3 Engaging in Budget Planning at the Local Level ................... 15 1.4 Clarification of the Key Terms ................................................................ 18 1.5 Selection of Localities ............................................................................. 19 1.6 Overview of the Dissertation ................................................................. 20 Chapter 2 Literature Review and Analytical Framework ..................................................... 23 2.1 Literature Review of the Studies of Indonesian Democracy ................. 23 2.1.1 Literatures Stressing Elite Dominance ................................... 23 2.1.2 Main Three Points of Elite Dominance Argument ................. 31 2.1.3 Critiques to the Elite Dominance Interpretations ................... 32 2.2 Analytical Concepts .............................................................................. 36 2.2.1 Clientelism .............................................................................. 37 2.2.2 Performance-Oriented Local Leaders as a New Type ............ 42 2.2.3 Information Asymmetries ......................................................... 45 2.3 Nuanced Picture of Indonesian Democracy .......................................... 45 Chapter 3 Changing Political Milieu in Local Indonesia ...................................................... 49 3.1 Changing Central-Local Relationship in Indonesia .............................. 50 3.1.1 Embarking on Decentralization ................................................ 50 3.1.2 Introduction of Direct Local Government-Heads Elections ..... 54 3.2 Career Incentives for Local Leaders ..................................................... 57 iv 3.3 Profiles
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