This dissertation has been 63—78 microfilmed exactly as received

QUERA, Leon Neal, 1926- PERSISTENT PRINCIPLES IN JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1962 Fine Arts

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan Copyright by Leon Neal Quera 1962 PERSISTENT PRINCIPLES IN JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State U n iv e rs ity

By LEON NEAL QUERA, B .F .A ., M.A.

The Ohio State University 1962

Approved by

. Luc / A d v iserf f o r I Department of Fine and Applied Arts ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Seldom is a research project solely the work of one individual. Therefore, the author wishes to thank a number of persons in Japan and the United States who assisted him in this particular investigation. Dr. Sidney M. Kaplan should be mentioned first, for he helped define the scope of the project and gave valuable guidance throughout the entire work. Among persons in Japan who gave generously of their time in offering suggestions and helping the author get the project under way are: Thomas DeGraw, Waseda Graduate School; Jiro Harada, Director Etaeritus, TokyS National Museum; Otei Kaneko, Zuiosha: Dr. Bunji Kobayashi, T5ky5 University; Professors Senshu Ogasawara and Ariyoshi Sa- n ada, R 3rukoku University; Professor K. Okada, Head, Depart­ ment of Architecture, T5ky5 University; Dr. S. Onodera, KySto University; Antonin Raymond, architect, T5kyo; Shige- nari Shirai and Aiko Sugiyama, Editorial Department, Gei- iutsu Shinchg: Yukio Yashiro, art historian, Kanagawa Pre­ fecture; Junzo Yoshimura, architect, T5ky5, and the author’s T5kyo (Kamiuma) neighbors. Throughout the period between the formulation of the topic and the writing of the following pages the members

i i of an advisory committee also supplied invaluable guid­ ance. The members of this committee are: Dr. Manuel Barkan, Ohio State University; Dr. James W. Grimes, Chairman, Art Department, Denison University, and two Ohio State University professors who have firsthand knowledge of Japan, Paul Bogatay and Gordon H ullfish. Finally, the author is extremely grateful for the ex­ cellent advice offered by Noverre Musson, architect, Columbus, Ohio, who has personally examined many of the monuments treated in this dissertation and gave freely of his time in offering suggestions in the writing of the manuscript. CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION...... 1

P a rt One Moraoyama A rchitectural Style C h a p te r I . THE GREAT SHGIN AND HIUNKAKU AT NISHIHOH- GANJI...... 6

I I . THE NIJQ CASTLE...... 262

I I I . THE KATSURA DETACHED PALACE ...... 45

P a rt Two Early Japanese Architecture IV. THE SHRINES AT I S E ...... 74

V. HORYUJI...... 97

V I. THE HOODS AT BYSD iDIN ...... 122

V II. KINKAKUJI AND GINKAKUJI...... 141

Part Three Late Japanese Architecture

V I I I . TOSHOGU...... 170 IX. MEIJI-JINGU ...... 196 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 220 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... ’...... 233

iv ILLUSTRATIONS

P la te Page I. Nishihonganji: Birdseye View ...... 15 II. Nishihonganji: Great Shoin Floor P lan ...... 17 III. Nishihonganji: Hiunkaku Front Elevation ...... I d IV. Nishihonganji: Great Shoin Audience Hall ...... 20 V«, Nishihonganji: Great Shoin Apartments ...... 21 VI. Nij5-j5: Ground P lan ...... 33 VII. Nijh-jO: Karamon ...... 35

V I I I . N ij5 - j 5 : Ni-no-maru Front Elevation ...... 36 IX. Nij5-j5: Ni-no-maru Entrance Corridor ...... 37 X. Nij5-j5: Ni-no-maru Side Elevation ...... 3# XI. Nij5-j5: Hon-maru Side Elevation ...... 39 XII. Nij0-j5: Hon-maru Front Elevation ...... 40 XIII. Katsura Rikyil: Ground P lan ...... 52 XIV. Katsura Rikyu: Detail of Goten Exterior ...... 53 XV. Katsura Rikyu: Detail of Goten Interior ...... 54 XVI. Katsura RikyE: GepparC Front Elevation ...... 56 XVII. Katsura Rikyu: Detail of Geppard Interior ...... 57 XVIII. Katsura Rikyu: ShCkintei Exterior ...... 59 XIX. Katsura Rikyu: ShSkintei Plan ...... 61 XX. Katsura Rikyu: Shdkintei Front Elevation ...... 63 XXI. Katsura Rikyu: ShSkatei E xterior ...... 65

XXII. Katsura Rikyu: Shokatei Detail ...... 66 v ILLUSTRATIONS (c o n td .)

P la te PaSe XXIII, Katsura Rikyu: ShSiken Exterior ...... 67 XXIV. Katsura Rikyu: Detail of Shoiken In te rio r ...... 63

XXV, Ise Naiku: Ground Plan ...... 31 XXVI, Ise Naiku: Entrance To rii and Ujibashi ...... 32

XXVII, I s e N aiku: T o r ii O u tsid e Honden Compound ...... 63 XXVIII, Ise Naiku: Birdseye View of Honden Compound ..... 35 XXIX. I s e Naiku: Honden Com pound ...... 36 XXX. Haniwa House M odel ...... 37

XXXI, H o ry u ji: Ground P lan 1^4 XXXII. H o ry u ji: Chumon ...... 1^7 XXXIII. H o ry u ji: D e ta il o f Ghtunon ...... 103 XXXIV. Horyuji: Pagoda ...... 109 XXXV. Horyuji: Kond5 ...... HO XXXVI. Horyuji: Detail of Kondo Interior ...... I l l XXXVII. H S ry u ji: Kodo ...... H 2 XXXVIII. HSryuji: Shor5 ...... 113 XXXIX. Horyuji: SaiendC ...... 117 XL. HSryuji: Kyoro ...... 113 XLI. Byddoin: Ground P lan ...... 123 XLII. BySdoin: Perspective View of H255db ...... 130 XLIII. Byodoin: H55d5 Front Elevation ...... 132

XLIV. ByCdSin: Side View of HoodS T ail Corridor ...... 137 XLV. ByJUdoin: Amida S ta tu e and C a n o p y ...... 139

v i ILLUSTRATIONS ( c o n td .)

P la te p®Se ILVI. Kinkakuji: Birdseye View of Golden Pavilion ..... 147

XLVII. Kinkakuji: Sjfmon ...... 148 XLVIII. Ginkakuji: Ground P lan ...... 149

XL1X. Ginkakuji: Soraon ...... 150 L. Ginkakuji: Silver Pavilion Floor Plans 152 LI. Ginkakuji: Silver Pavilion Exterior ...... 153 LII. Ginkakuji: Silver Pavilion Elevations ...... 154 LIII. Kinkakuji: Golden Pavilion Front Elevation 155 LIV. Kinkakuji: Golden Pavilion Detail ...... ;... 156 LV. Ginkakuji: Entrance Passageway ...... 158 LVI. Ginkakuji: Gate to the Inner Garden ...... 160 LVIII Ginkakuji: Ginshanada and Kogetsudai ...... 161 LVIII. Ginkakuji: View of the Court ...... 163 LII. TSshBgu: Ground P lan ...... 17#

LI. TCshbgEL: Bronze Torii and Guards 1 S t a t i o n ...... ISO LII. TSsKSgS: YSmeimon Flanking Walls ...... 182

L III. TBshftgu: Gomado ...... 183 LIIII. Toshogu: Honden ...... 184 'U LIIV. Toshbg&: Second Level Towards YSmeimon 185

LIV. T5 shSgu: Haiden In terio r ...... 186

LIVI. T5shbgu: Suibansha ...... 188 LIVII. Toshogfl: D etail of ISmeimon...... 191 LXVIII. Meiji-jingu: Ground Plan ...... 203

LIII. M eiji-jingu: Plan of the Sanctuary Compound ..... 204 vii ILLUSTRATIONS ( c o n td .)

P la te Page LXX. Mei ji-jingu: Birdseye V iew ...... 205 LXXI. M e iji-jin g E i: O u te r H a id e n ...... 207 LXXII. M eiji-jingii: Honden ...... 20# LXXIII. Meiji-jingQ: Treasure House ...... 209 LXXIV. M e iji- jin g u : O u te r G ate and Court ...... 211 LXXV. M eiji-jingu: Inner Haiden ...... 212 LXXVI. M e iji- jin g u : T h ird T o r ii and Ou te r G a t e 214

v iii INTRODUCTION

Numerous books and magazine articles have been w ritten about Japanese buildings in recent years, but these have been predominantly descriptive or historical in content. Relatively little research has been concerned with qual­ ities of Japanese architecture and standards for apprais­ ing it. It is therefore the purpose of this investigation to develop a sound set of principles which would be of value to architectural students in scrutinizing Japanese monuments. In pursuing this goal an attempt w ill be made to determine the various characteristics of Japanese architecture and to ascertain whether these are true principles which have persisted throughout the centuries. For this task eleven monuments, all of which are clas­ sified by the Japanese government as National Treasures, have been selected for observation. The eleven structures represent the entirety of Japanese architectural history— from its beginning in the third century right up until the middle of the twentieth century. The starting point of this study, however, w ill be two monuments that were built just before the turn of the sixteenth century. They were so se­ lected because they are representative of the so-called Golden Age of Japanese architecture, the Momoyama Period.

1 The first objective w ill be to determine the architec­ tural characteristics of these sixteenth-century struc­ tures. The next step w ill be to see whether these same traits are found in Japanese structures built a few years later. If so, they will be termed tentative principles. Monuments built prior to the Momoyama Period then w ill be observed. These w ill cover the period from the third to the sixteenth centuries. The objective w ill be to determine whether the so-designated tentative principles, as found in the Momoyama Period monuments, also appertain to earlier Japanese structures. The final step w ill be to look for the same traits in buildings constructed from the sixteenth century to the present, or after the Golden Age. If they persist in these, they w ill be called persistent principles. Monuments that w ill be considered in Chapter I are those of Hiunkaku, which was constructed in 15&6, and the Great Shoin, which was built eight years later. Both structures are located within the Nishihonganji compound in Kyoto. Two other KyOto monuments, NijO-jO (1603) and Katsura Rikyu (be­ gun 1620), w ill be observed in Chapters II and III, respec­ tively. These three chapters comprise Part One, and the four monuments treated are all products of the Momoyama Period. Five monuments make up the agenda for study in Part Two, and these reflect thirteen centuries of Japanese architec­ tural history: the third-century Ise Naiku, which is ap­ praised in Chapter IV; the seventh-century HOryttji in Chapter Vj the eleventh-century H5od5 at BySdoin in Chap­ ter VI, and the fourteenth-century Kinkakuji and the fif­ teenth-century Ginkakuji in Chapter VII. This second sec­ tion is termed Early Japanese Architecture because the monuments precede those of the Golden Age covered in Part One. Two monuments have been chosen for analysis in the final section, Part Three: the seventeenth-century ToshSgu, which is discussed in Chapter VIII, and the twentieth-century Mei­ ji-jingu in Chapter IX. As these monuments antedate those of the Momoyama Period, they are categorized as Late Japanese Architecture. In the Summary and Conclusions section the various principles w ill be evaluated, and at the end the traits w ill be listed in chart form so that the reader may compare the relative weakness, strength, and degree of persistency of the principles. Most of the noteworthy descriptive and historical ma­ terial concerning Japanese architecture has been utilized in the preparation of this treatise. Two books have been especially helpful—the Art and Architecture of Japan. particularly the section by Alexander Soper, and Hideto Kishida's Japanese Architecture. The greatest source of information, however, has been the photographs and field notes taken by the author on two trips to the Orient during the last decade, in 1952 and 195&-59. During the latter trip he was able to observe scores of Japanese monuments and to study at close range all but one of the architectural treasures viewed in the following pages. PART ONE

MOMOYAMA ARCHITECTURAL STYLE

5 CHAPTER I

THE GREAT SHOIN AND HIUNKAKU AT NISHIHONGANJI

In Nishihonganji, a Buddhist temple compound which lies in the heart of the cultural city of Kyoto, stand two struc­ tures that are a little more than three and a half centuries old and are remnants of the so-called Golden Age in Japanese architecture—the Momoyama Period (1573-1614)• During th is time there was tremendous building activity and a zenith reached in aesthetic quality. The two structures are the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku, which were built just before the turn of the sixteenth century. The Great Shoin and Hiunkaku were parts of one-time fabulous castles of Hideyoshi, the Momoyama warlord, at two different locations in KySto. The two buildings were disassembled and moved to their present locations after they were saved from destruction and presented to the Bud­ dhist clergy by the new dictator, Tokugawa-no-Ieyasu, follow­ ing the collapse of the Momoyama regime. The remainder of the castle-palaces of which they were a part were destroyed except for some gates and decorations that were moved to s till other monuments. The Nishihonganji ministry received not only the two buildings but their gardens as well. Hiun­ kaku was moved with its garden, called Tekisuien, from the castle known as Jurakutei, and the ministry received the Great Shoin and its ornamental grounds from a palace called F u sh im i. Nishihonganji stands behind surrounding walls in Ky5to, and the Great Shoin, the relic from Fushimi, stands behind walls of its own near the center of the temple grounds. Hi­ unkaku is located about 200 yards away, behind a row of buildings in the southeastern corner of the temple compound. Both buildings are elevated on wooden stilts. The Great Shoin, which was built in 1594, is a large highly decorated audience chamber with adjoining apartments. It was a place of splendor where Hideyoshi received his vassals and made his public appearances. The interior is abundant with deco­ rative art, which is one of the signposts of the creative Momoyama Period. Hiunkaku does not have the same degree of ornateness because it served a different purpose. It was built eight years earlier and served as a private villa. It was here where Hideyoshi lived and entertained more intimate gatherings. It combines in its architectural arrangement the factors of leisurely living and protection from attack. Nishihonganji is the seat of the western, or so-called "original," branch of the Honganji sect of Buddhism and is situated just west of Higashihonganji, the temple that serves as seat of the eastern branch of the sect."*” Both 1 The temples are so sim ilar in appearance from without their walls that the visitor must be certain of his directions or he w ill end up at the temple he is not inclined to visit. temples are about five minutes* walk from the train station in downtown KySto. The visitor going to Nishihonganji w ill go past Higashihonganji. He then w ill cross a short, wide wooden bridge over a moat and pass through a tremendous roofed gate that forms a part of the high earthenwork walls which encircle Nishihonganji. Inside the gate is a large gravel court with an octagonally shaped fountain in the center. Beyond the fountain are two large Buddhist halls of worship and some buildings connected with smaller earthen- work walls that screen the Great Shoin and its garden from view. By walking a short distance to the left, however, the visitor is able to see the tremendous roof of this archi­ tectural treasure. To gain entry to the Great Shoin garden, elaborate audi­ ence hall and ornate adjoining apartments, the visitor must stop at the Nishihonganji administrative offices to be as­ signed a guide. These offices are housed in the buildings that block the precious monuments from view. From here the guide w ill lead the curious visitor to the Great Shoin en­ closure through some chambers where groups of Japanese tourists may be seen eating lunches. Once the visitor is within the enclosure he is so im­ pressed with the beauty of the garden and the large struc­ ture beside it that he is no longer aware of other parts of the temple. The garden is an artistic composition of trees, bushes, and stones. Its design is attributed to Shi- m anosuke , 2 and it shows a boldness in the massive stones that make up the exit of a waterfall and the large granite b r id g e s .^ Beside these ornamental grounds the Great Shoin stands elegantly, elevated upon wooden posts so that the visitor must step up to go inside and view the fabulous interior. Before he can do this, however, a nudge and a downward glance from the guide w ill indicate to him that he must remove his shoes at the edge of a wooden veranda that runs along the side of the building which overlooks the garden. After removing his shoes, the visitor steps up on the veranda, which marks the entire floor level of the huge building. Shoii. or exterior sliding panels of paper, then must be shoved aside in order to enter into an ornate audi- ence hall which is one of the most elaborate chambers of the Momoyama Period. The floors are of polished wood and finely woven straw mats, tatam i. The visitor now w ill see such Mo­ moyama decoration as that contained by carved ramma. or open­ work friezes, of reeds, clouds, and storks (from which the Great Shoin gets its alternate name of Ko-no-ma, or Chamber of Storks), and painted fusuma. or interior sliding panels of paper, of bold compositions upon their surfaces. These 2 M. Tatsui, Japanese Gardens (TSkyo: Japan Travel Bureau, 1959)* p. 59. 3 These are called "characteristics of the Period.” IU& 10 Incorporate in two-dimensional translation some of the forms to be seen in the garden outside the building.

The shg.1t can be left open, as they usually are during daylight hours, to expose the interior of the hall to the garden and vice versa. Likewise, the fusuma. which separate the hall from adjoining apartments, can be shoved aside so that the area of the audience hall can be made even larger. The apartments, which with the audience hall are part part of an uncomplicated rectangular plan, are no less elaborate than the main chamber itself. They likewise have c arv ed rammar which show amazing artistic dexterity in their designs of foliage and flowers, and fusumaf whose panels are painted with a boldness that is a characteristic of the Momoyama P e rio d . After the visitor has completed his tour of the Great Shoin, the guide w ill escort him to the southeastern corner of the Nishihonganji compound to see the one-time private residence of Hideyoshi. Running in front of the villa is a diagonal row of buildings, at the end of which is an in­ conspicuous wooden gate. This is the main entrance to the Hiunkaku area. The guide takes the visitor through the gate and again the beauty of a garden w ill cause the visitor to be unaware of the temple at large. Nothing can be seen ex­ cept some trees and bushes and a path leading through the garden. The path branches off to the right, about a hundred yards from the gate, and at the end of it the visitor w ill see 11

Hiunkaku standing at the edge of a large pond which has a bridge leading across it. The building is an oddly shaped, three-storied structure with huge thatch roofs of different sizes and designs. It stands on wooden posts, and the two upper stories are suc­ cessively smaller than the one below. The lower story has the movable shS.ii. which enabled Hideyoshi and his guests at the villa to look out over the garden in front of the building and catch a view of the pond, the large granite bridge spanning it, huge boulders, and many luxuriant p la n ts In addition to the magnificent view and leisurely living provided, Hiunkaku incorporated in its design various ele­ ments for protection from attack. A possible assassin, for instance, could not be immediately overhead when Hideyoshi chose to stand in certain areas of the lower floors, because of an odd disposition of the three stories of the structure. Also, a section of the building, named Funairi-no-ma,^ ex­ tends over the pond, and this afforded Hideyoshi a means of hasty exit by rowboat in the event of the presence of hos­ tile invaders. With only friends on the premises he could climb into a boat and row around the pond and enjoy the scenery of the garden.

4 S. Yamada, Honganji (Kv5to: Ryuba Honganji, 1957), T h a "1 1 -fc otv9 1 "TTansTflt.inn 4s "bo at-ent errhaiwt ering-room. rxr.mnni » 12 The usual way of entering or leaving Hiunkaku is by crossing the granite bridge which spans the pond. To enter the building the visitor w ill mount a few stone steps after crossing the bridge, then remove his shoes and place them on a veranda that runs along the front of the structure. Like that of the Great Shoin, the floor is made up of tatami with some sections of polished wood. The interior of Hiunkaku, however, is not quite as ornate as that of the Great Shoin. Ceilings are not coffered nor decorated with brilliant colors, but the T»amma and fusuma designs here display another facet of the Momoyama taste—that for quiet decorative scenes with trees, flowers, birds, and animals during different seasons of the year. The fusuma paintings, for example, include the so-called Eight Views of Lake Tung-ting in China by Kano Tanyu and Tokuriki Zensetsu, and Willow Trees Under Snow by Kano Eitoku.5 On the second floor are paintings of the Thirty- six Famous Poets by another Kano artist, Sanraku, and on the third another painting by s till another Kano decorator, Mo- tonobu.^ In addition, there is a painting by Hideyoshi him­ self, a picture of a pine grove.?

5 SlSL gg£iS.iflXQ m i M , Edited by the Tourist Industry Bureau and the M inistry of Transportation (T 5ky©: Japan Travel Bureau, 1955 ), p. 697. 6 The latter painting is drawn in such a way that "one has to kneel before it to get a proper view." Ibid. 7 The painting is supposedly an "impromptu work." Ibid. 13 A rear section of the villa is unusual; it contains Hide- yoshi*s bathroom, which has a trick compartment at its en­ trance where Hideyoshi*s guards hid themselves to surprise possible assassins, a steam cabinet with carved, wooden decoration and a roof with sculptured curves, and wall paintings by Kano Eitoku. The tour of Hiunkaku reveals a structure quite different from the Great Shoin. The huge audience chamber of the Great Shoin with its adjoining apartments, for example, has an un- ■ complicated rectangular plan, as indicated, while Hiunkaku has a rambling plan made up of more than one rectangular shape because of such diversified sections as the Funairi- no-ma and bathroom; The Great Shoin is unpretentious on its exterior, but its interior ornateness is "extremely striking,"** and hardly matched in other Japanese structures. Hiunkaku, be­ cause it was a private dwelling and not intended to be as much a showplace as the Great Shoin, is the opposite in this regard—its exterior is more impressive than the interior. Alexander Soper, for example, writes of Hiunkaku that the building and its setting reveals "the mature Japanese feel- o ing for picturesque arrangements . " 7 The two buildings—the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku at Nishi­ honganji—and th eir garden arrangements suggest eight

t . M. Ishizawa and Staff Members of the TSkyC National Museum, Pageant of Japanese Art. Vol. VI, "Architecture and Gardens fT5ky5: Charles E. Tuttle Company,1957)," p* 130. 9 Robert T. Paine and Alexander Soper, The Art and Archi­ tecture of Japan (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1955), p. 2 6 3 . 14 possible characteristics of Japanese architecture of the Golden Age of the Momoyama Period. Each of the following traits w ill be observed in the succeeding paragraphs:

1 . Isolation of the building

2 * The rectangle as a basic shape in buildings

3 . The elevated position of the structure 4. Open quality of the building 5. The roof as a vehicle of artistic expression

6 . B old ness

7 . Decorative quality £. Interpenetration of nature and the structure

Nishihonganji, as mentioned, is located in the center of Kyoto, with walls separating it from the town. The Great Shoin, in turn, is located within its own enclosure near the center of the temple grounds, and Hiunkaku stands behind a diagonal row of buildings in the southeastern corner of the compound (Plate I). Thus the isolation of Nishihonganji in the heart of a city and the setting apart of the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku within the temple grounds tend to in­ dicate the characteristic of isolating the building in Japanese architecture. Originally, KySto was so laid out that it had a rectangular

plan.^-0 Within it were major divisions called bg., and these 10 The eighth-century KyCto plan measured three and a half miles north-south to three east-west. Soper, op. c it. r p. 1 9 6. -S . Yamada

P la te I Nishihonganji: Birdseye View 16 were subdivided into ch5 T which are comparable to the size of a city block. Nishihonganji occupies the space of several and the outer walls of the temple form the edges of the rectangular shape of the compound. Within the compound, the plan of the Great Shoin has a rectangular shape (Plate II), while the elevation of Hiunkaku also shows utilization of the rectangular shape as a design device (Plate III). Thus, the plans of KySto, Nishihonganji, and the Great Shoin, as well as the elevation of Hiunkaku, suggest that another characteristic of Japanese architecture may be the use of the rectangle as a basic shape. As mentioned, the visitor to the Great Shoin must step up to go inside because the entire building is elevated on Wooden posts. There are no steps even though the floor level of the structure is about eighteen inches off the ground. At Hiunkaku, however, steps are provided to enter the building because its floor level of the first story is about twice as far off the ground as that of the Great Shoin. Thus, since both structures are raised off the ground, there is some indication of a characteristic of elevating the building in Japanese architectural design. Within the Great Shoin there is the ornate audience hall referred to earlier. It is divided into four basic sections: a platform, or 15dan. for the lord, and three areas for his vassals. The lord’s dais is spacious, stretching the entire A U O /e N c e HAU-

P la te I I Nishihonganji: Great Shoin Floor Plan -S . Yamada

P la te I I I Nishihonganji: Hiunkaku Front Elevation 19 width of the room.H In front of the iodan the broadness of the hall is broken by two rows of pillars which mark off the three areas for the vassals. There is little obstruction in the chamber other than these columns (Plate IV). The northern and western sides of the Great Shoin can be opened to adjacent apartments by means of fusuma. or sliding panels, which are used to form cubicles inside Japanese build­ ings. The area of the large audience hall thus can be expanded. When fuauma are opened (Plate V), there is what Soper calls the sense of a continuous flow of interior space, revealed by the visible extension of matting on the floor.-1-2 The interior of the audience hall also can be thrown open to the adjoining garden. Along the eastern side of the hall there is a closed corridor with sides made of shC.ii: these are the movable panels which Japanese use as outer walls for most of their buildings. Shg.ii again are used on the southern side of the hall. As a result, the audience chamber can be opened directly to the garden or a courtyard, where there is a stage originally used for medieval plays, the so-called No dram as. In the front of Hiunkaku (Plate III) shgii again are used and thus, as in the case of the Great Shoin, the interior of the building can be opened to an adjoining garden. These

11 There is on the eastern side, however, a small area of five tat ami, or straw mats. These mats, approximately 3 by 6 feet,provided a comfortable space which was reserved for the Einperor of the time whenever he visited the Great Shoin. 12 S oper, 0 £. cit., p. 263. 20

P la te IV Nishihonganji: Great Shoin Audience Hall -S. Yamada

P la te V Nishihonganji: Great Shoin Apartments 22 examples point to the possible characteristic of an open quality in Japanese architecture. The roofs of buildings in Japan have been considered closely by architectural scholars as an important part of overall design. Hideto Kishida writes: "The roof is one of the most important elements in Japanese architecture, both in function and expression. "13 The necessity for the func­ tional aspect is due to the two annual rainy seasons in Japan. At Hiunkaku, particularly, this roof element was an expression of fundamental architectural importance. The various roofs of Hiunkaku show three qualities in their appearance: they dominate the substructure or floor underneath, they are different in size and shape, and there is variation because of manipulation of the roof lines. The Great Shoin roof shows the same qualities, though in lesser degree, so the two monuments indicate roof design may be a vehicle of artistic expression in Japanese architecture. The Hiunkaku design, as intimated earlier, was motivated partially by defensive considerations; each floor was made

progressively smaller so it would be difficult for a possible assassin to enter the building secretly and lurk on an upper floor. The result is an odd-shaped exterior (Plate III). The overall Hiunkaku design produces an effect of bold­ ness, and a similar quality is achieved in the interior of

13 H. Kishida, Japanese Architecture (Tokyo: Japan Travel Bureau, 1954), P* 16. the Great Shoin (Plate IV) where ramma and fusuma designs refleet Momoyama vigor. Two other architectural features likewise show the assertive tendencies of the era. Two rows of columns, for example, divide the lower area of the Great Shoin into three sections for vassals. In these rows the pillars nearest the igdan are closer to each other than those to the rear of the hall. Thus, the perspective from the back of the hall toward the lord’s platform is lengthened arti­ ficially, making the audience chamber, as Drexler notes, ap­ pear longer than it actually is.**1’ In addition, the platform is emphasized at the division between the vassals’ areas and the flSdan to give it a dramatic effect; Soper w rites;^ At the point where all eyes focus, the lord’s dais, which in a Chinese hall would be dignified by height, the Momoyama architect has taken the opposite course; his top horizontal frame is pulled down by sculptured ramma and curtains halfway to the floor. The unusual exterior appearance of Hiunkaku and the arti­ ficial lengthening of the hall plys the "pulling down" of a part of the ceiling in the interior of the Great Shoin in­ dicate another characteristic of Japanese architecture may be a boldness in design. Decoration within Hiunkaku is sparse but rich. Most of the enrichment is by a few paintings on tokonoma, or niche, walls and on the lower parts of koshidaka-shSii. or tail- skirted screens. The interior of the Great Shoin, however, 14 A. Drexler, The Architecture of Japan (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1955), p. 119. Soper, an. cit., p. 262. 24 is considered a high point of Momoyama decorative art and has been desscribed in the following manner: Vails and sliding screens are covered with paintings in the heroically colorful manner developed by Kano Eitoku: the ceilings are richly coffered. The dividing line between re­ tainers and lord is stressed by. ..ramma; there the instinct to create a rich, pictorial sculp­ ture in wood, ...has reached a climx of imag­ inative boldness. The g litter of gold and the sheen of black lacquer are everywhere. The adornment within the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku provides some evidence of a possible characteristic of a decorative quality within Japanese buildings. Tokugawa-no-Ieyasu, as mentioned, presented to the Nishi- honganji clergy the Great Shoin from Fushimi and Hiunkaku from Jurakutei.^ The gardens of the two buildings were transferred right along with them ,^ and this gives some indication of the great importance the Japanese attach to locating buildings in close proximity with nature, and vice versa. The Great Shoin garden can be viewed from within the audience hall, and the bold outlines of the bushes, trees, rocks, and bridges outside are pictured inside in the paint­ ings of Kano Eitoku. Likewise, the Hiunkaku garden is visible from within the interior of the villa, and the forms of trees, rocks, and bushes in this garden are repeated in the designs 16 Soper, ££• c it., p. 262. 17 However, the actual dismantling and transferring of the buildings to the Nishihonganji site, according to Drex­ ler, was not made until 1632. Drexler, aE,. c it. , p. 117. IS M. Tatsui, ££• cit. , p. 59. 25 of paintings within the b u i l d i n g . In addition, a section of the building extends over the pond, as stated. Thus, there is evidence in these Japanese buildings and their surroundings to indicate a possible characteristic of an interpenetration of nature and the architectural structure. The foregoing discussion shows that the eight character­ istics suggested on page 14 do indeed apply to the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku buildings and gardens at Nishihonganji. An attempt now w ill be made to determine whether the same characteristics also are evident in structures built only a few years later: the early seventeenth-century Nij5 Gastle and the Katsura Detached Palace. If the same eight character­ istics are evident in these two monuments, it would seem

reasonable to assume that these qualities also would be perceptible in other structures of the Momoyama Period.

19 Some of these paintings are sim ilarly attributed to Kano Eitoku. S. Yamada, c it., p. 37. CHAPTER I I

THE NIJ$ CASTLE

The Nijg Castle, or Nij5-j5, was built in 1603, just nine years after the Great Shoin, and like that monument is located in Kyoto—about two miles north of Nishihon- ganji and nearly seven miles north of the site of Fushimi, of which the Great Shoin was a part before being moved to Nishihonganji. Nij6-j5, however, still stands at its original location in Kyoto and appears now almost as it did at the time it was constructed. Nijo-j5 means Second Palace and was so-named because it was built by Ieyasu, the first Tokugawa shogun, to serve as his residence whenever he visited Kyoto. Thus, like the Great Shoin, Nijo-jo served as a temporary headquarters for Japanese warlords. Nij5-jo covers an area of about 70 acres and has two main buildings: Ni-no-maru, which is a lavishly decorated audience hall that served the same function as the Great Shoin, and Hon-maru, which, like Hiunkaku, served as a private villa. Ni-no-maru is unique in Japanese architectural annals because it is neither a pure Momoyama nor Tokugawa type structure; instead it represents a transition between the two periods. Buildings of the Momoyama Period often were placed close together in groups, while in the Tokugawa 26 Period they were joined together to form a single irreg­ ularly fhaped unit. Ni-no-maru consists of several units, some of which adjoin each other, while others are linked by corridors. Hon-maru is more purely a Tokugawa building.* Consequently, it would seem that a close look at the fea­ tures of NijS-j5, especially Ni-no-maru, would be partic­ ularly helpful in further establishing basic principles of Japanese architecture and add authenticity to this study. The grounds of NijS-jS, as at Nishihonganji, are isolated from the city of KySto by a huge surrounding wall. Two moats provide an added element of isolation at Nij5-j5. One moat runs around the outside encircling wall, and a wooden bridge leads across it to the entrance to the compound. Just inside the entrance is a second wall, which encloses the outer palace of Ni-no-maru. Beyond Ni-no-maru is the second moat and s till another wall, and these surround the inner palace of Hon-maru. To get to Nij5-j5 the visitor takes a local train from the business section located in the southern part of Kydto and gets off two short stops later at the NijS station. He then walks a few hundred yards eastward to the moat and western wall of the castle. He must then walk around the moat to the Eastern Gate, where visitors must pay an entrance fee to enter the grounds. From here he crosses a wooden

1 Built after 1603 Hon-maru originally was the residence of Prince Katsura and located at the Kybto Imperial Palace, nearby Nij5-j5. It was removed to Nij5~.15 to replace an Inner Palace destroyed by fire during the eighteenth century. Japan; Tl& Official Quid?, sj&., p. 664. bridge over the moat and goes through the entrance gate, which has an upper story where one-time castle guards kept a lookout for possible invaders. Once inside the gate the visitor w ill see a high earth- enwork wall about 50 yards in front of him. Arrows on signs indicate he should go to the left and follow the wall around to the south side of the compound where he enters through a roofed gate, called Karamon,2 into a spacious court of white gravel. Across the court he sees the entrance hall to Ni-no- maru and in the background tremendous roofs with gables adorned by beautiful wooden carvings and exquisite metal work. The rest of the building is blocked from view by a segment of wall that juts out from the entrance hall. Also hidden from view at this vantage point is the beau­ tifu l Ni-no-maru garden which lies just behind this section of wall. It consists of a large pond with three islands, many rocks of different colors, sizes and shapes that har­ monize with Ni-no-maru, and a carefully- landscaped back­ ground of lawn, trees and bushes. From the garden,3 which was "designed chiefly to appeal to the eye,”^ the visitor can see the magnificent Ni-no-maru perched upon a platform of wooden posts. The building has a somewhat broken appearance 2 This gate "once formed part of Hideyoshi*s Fushimi Castle." Japan: Ttj£ O fficial Guide, qe. a it., p. 664. 3 Attributed to Kobori Enshu, a noted tea master and garden architect of the early Tokugawa Period, this garden is said to have "magnificence combined with strength, both in keeping with substantial castle architecture.” Tatsui, 2X>. S it., p. 69. Zbi&. 3$ with five units (rectangular), two linked by corridors and three joined directly together*

Back in the court the visitor resumes his tour and steps into the Ni-no-maru entrance hall, called Mi-Kuruma-Yose, or Honorable Carriage Approach. It was in here that daimv5r feudal lords, deposited their outer garments, footgear,and weapons when summoned to meet with the warlord. Some steps lead up to a corridor that for protective purposes has floors which were designed to squeak to warn of the presence of possible intruders.'* The corridor is lined by the sliding paper panels of shoii. which open on one side to the garden and on the other side to a large reception hall. Extending out beyond the reception hall are the other four units of Ni-no-maru. These are a chamber once used by Minister’s of the Shggun, then a large audience hall in the palace center, a waiting chamber for Ieyasu’s guards, and a section used by the Shogun as a private apartment. Ni-no-maru, as pointed out, served as a reception hall for the warlord of the period so its interior, like that of the Great Shoin, was designed and laid out with a lavishness to impress castle visitors. The interiors are profusely decorated with coved, coffered ,and double coffered ceilings

of brilliant red, blue, green colors and gold leaf; ramma of beautifully-carved plants, birds, or delicate geometric

5 D re x le r, op. c i t .T pp. 126-30, who calls the corri­ dor na veranda enclosed by shoji," and notes ’’slippered assassins announce themselves with a harmonious chirping from the floor.” 30 patterns, and fusuma paintings of large and bold designs. These brightly colored fusuma paintings are by the Kano School and reflect some of the scenes of the garden ad­ joining the building. On the opposite side of the building from the garden is a court, and either the garden or court can be viewed from most parts of Ni-no-maru; this was the purpose in the design of the building.6 The result is a feeling of expansiveness when the sh<5.1i that form the outer walls of the building are opened because of the relation­ ship produced between the inside and the outside of the palace. Less pretentious in decoration is Hon-maru, the inner palace, which is located beyond Ni-no-maru in the farthest reaches of the Nijo-jo compound. To reach Hon-maru the visitor can retrace his steps to the Karamon in front of the Ni-no-maru entrance. From there he can look toward the west and see an open area beyond which is the inner moat and wall that encircles Hon-maru. To get to the Inner Palace from Ni-no-maru, however, it is easier to go from the rear of the latter building, since the moat encircling Hon-maru is only a few steps away. The visitor crosses a wooden bridge over the moat and goes through a watchtower entrance gate, then climbs up a steep incline to the level of a large rolling garden. Here at the highest level of the castle grounds stands the Hon- 6 Soper, cit., pp. 265-66. 3 1 maru overlooking the garden from a raised position on wooden posts. Hon-maru is an oddly- dhaped two-story structure which, as indicated, is of the Tokugawa type—that is, it consists of several sections joined together into a single unit. The building has large roofs of tile and what appear to be walls of wood. Actually, the pseudo-walls are made up of amado. or sliding wooden panels, which were closed at night to keep out any intruders. Behind these are sh5.ii. which in olden days would be shoved aside to view the adjoining garden. Hon-maru, as mentioned, was a private villa, and it was designed to afford maximum privacy and safety. The resulting effect is one of calmness and exclusiveness. The building, of course, is located in the innermost part of the compound and on the highest level of the castle grounds. It also is protected by its own moat and surrounding wall. This helps give the entirety of Nij5-j(5 the appearance of an unpene­ trable fortress because of the protective network of moats, bridges, guarded entrances, and inner and outer walls. The Nijo Castle is considered by architectural historians to be one of the most perfectly preserved examples of castle architecture in Japan.? Of further significance is that one of the Nij5-jo structures comprises the sole existing ex- g ample of its kind in the later Momoyama Period. Details

7 Pageant of Japanese ArtT Vol. VI, 2£. c it., p. 132. 8 IfeM . 32 of the castle buildings and grounds now w ill be examined to determine whether the characteristics indicated at the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku at Nishihonganji also are evident in these monuments. The grounds of Nij5-j5, as indicated, are isolated from the city of Ky5to by an outer meat and wall. Ni-no-maru and its garden are surrounded by more walls, and Hon-maru and its garden are encircled by a second moat and s till another wall (Plate VI). The result is an extraordinary isolation of the NijS-jo compound and the parts within it. Thus, these ex­ amples would indicate additional support of the characteristic of isolating the building in Japanese architecture. Nijo-jo, as does Nishihonganji, spreads over several ch<5f the original city blocks of Ky5to, and its grounds have a rectangular shape. The buildings within the compound differ slightly from those at Nishihonganji because of their stag­ gered plans, but the basic unit of composition is still the rectangle. Ni-no-maru, for instance, joins the rectangular plans of its five units together into one oddly shaped con­ figuration. In addition, Hon-maru, like Hiunkaku, shows the use of the rectangular shape in elevation. Thus, the plans of Nij5-j5 and Ni-no-maru,plus the Hon-maru elevation, demonstrate further the characteristic of the rectangle as a basic shape in Japanese buildings. When daimvS. or feudal lords, were summoned to Ni-no-maru for an audience with Ieyasu, they passed through the Karamon MIMOMMU BMP

a t

P la te VI Nij5-jo: Ground Plan 34 first (Plate VII) and then walked across the court to the

Mi-Kuruma-Yose (Plate VIII) where they deposited their outer garments, footgear, and weapons; they then mounted the few steps to the corridor of squeaky floors (Plate IX). This corridor is about three feet above ground, which is about the floor level of the entire Ni-no-maru (Plate X). Hon-maru, as indicated, also is raised above ground, but, because it is smaller than Ni-no-maru (Plates XI and XII), it stands on shorter wooden posts—they are about two feet in height. Thus, Ni-no-maru and Hon-maru provide additional examples of the characteristic of elevating the building in Japanese architecture. The corridor off Mi-Kuruma-Yose has a spacious quality which can be expanded even more by means of the sho.ii on the right and left sides of it (Plate IX). The only obstruc­ tions in the areas off from this corridor are the slender pillars which serve as delimiting borders of the shCli. All the shB1i can be opened, including the ones at the end of the corridor, so there is the flexibility of an uninterrupted flow of space throughout the building. The exterior of Hon-maru, as pointed out, indicates that the building has wooden walls. Of course, these are the amadot it is the usual practice to store them in closets during the day and open the shg.ii which they cover. The result is to link the interior space of the building to that of the outside. 35

K. Yamamoto

P la te V II Nij3-j5: Karamon Iwanami 5hc5t en

Plate VIII Nij5-j5: Ni-no-maru Front Elevation 37

-Iwanami Shoten

P la te IX Nij5-jo: Ni-no-mara Entrance Corridor -Iwanami Shoten

P la te X Nijo-jo: Ni-no-maru Side Elevation -Iwanami ShSten

P la te XI WijS-j5: Hon-maru Side Elevation -Iwanami Shoten

P la te X II NijS-jS: Hon-maru Front Elevation 41 The aKB-Tl of Ni-no-maru and Hon-maru thus provide a vehicle to achieve an openness in the Nij5-j5 buildings, and this provision in design would indicate support of the characteristic of an open quality in Japanese buildings. The roof of the Karamon is of thatch composition in contrast to the roofs of tile on the walls adjoining the gate (Plate VII). Also, the mass of this roof dominates the supporting pillars, and there is an extraordinary manipula­ tion of lines, due to trimming the thatch with the aid of a curved wooden template. Likewise, the roofs of Ni-no-maru and Hon-maru incorporate qualities previously evident in the roofs of Hiunkaku at NishihonganjI. The roofs of the two Ni j5-j<5 buildings, for example, also dominate the substructure, have different sizes and shapes, and reveal variety as a result of manipula­ tion of their lines. It especially is to be noted that large roofs account for more than half of the total height of Ni- no-maru, and there is curvature of the roof lines along the eaves and gable ends (Plates VIII and X). Hon-maru shows the same qualities (Plates XI and XII). Thus, the Karamon roof and the roofs of Ni-no-maru and Hon-maru provide additional examples which point to the characteristic of the roof as a vehicle of artistic ex­ pression in Japanese architecture. The Hi-no-maru design is a departure from an earlier type of Japanese architectural planning; it follows a scheme of 42 varied rectangular shapes within its plan, for example, when compared with the single rectangular shape of the Great Shoin plan. The Ni-no-maru plan was probably the outgrowth of ex­ periments in groupings in two previous periods of Japanese architectural history, the Kamakura (11&5-1333) and the Muro- maehi (1336-1573)The purpose of the groupings was to pro­ vide an extensive floor area throughout which almost every room of a building court front on a garden or court. The front of Ni-no-maru is partially hidden by the Mi- Kuruma-Tose (Plate V III). Nevertheless, it is impressive as it swings up into the huge gable fields that feature decorative brass fittings and an elaborate beam-end cover, or geevB. of carved wood. Thus, the innovation of the plan and the impressive front of Ni-no-maru are examples of what would appear to be a characteristic of boldness in Japanese architectural designs. The interior of Ni-no-maru, according to Alexander Soper, isnrichly decorated in the Momoyama manner, with carved wood, black lacquer, gold, and highly colored screen paintings. "H The Pageant of Japanese Art. considering Ni-no-maru to be a 12 group of buildings, contains the following description: Except for the permanent living room in the Shiro Shoin, the interiors of all these buildings

9 Soper, &R. c it. , pp. 265-66. 10 I b i d . 11 I b i d . 12 Pageant of Japanese Art. Vol. VI, cit. f p. 132. 43 for official purposes are luxuriously decorated: the walls and sliding-doors are ornamented with brightly coloured paintings on gilded ground; the transom windows have panels with beautiful sculp­ tured designs of flowers-and-birds and other mo­ tives; and gilded metalwork pieces decorate here and there on the wooden parts. The paintings and sculptures are diversified in accordance with the differing sizes and purposes of the rooms, reveal­ ing a skilful schematic design. Thus, Ni-no-maru affords what would seem to be glowing ex­ amples of the characteristic of a decorative quality in Japanese architecture. The gardens of Ni-no-maru and Hon-maru contribute to the overall beauty of the buildings, and they form an integral part of the architectural scheme of each structure. As in­ dicated earlier, for example, the aim of the Ni-no-maru plan was to front almost every room on a garden or court. This provision would seem practically impossible to achieve. Nonetheless, it was accomplished to a remarkable extent be­ cause most of the building does indeed face a garden, or a court behind the palace (Plate VI). Also, the interior of the building can be thrown open to the garden or court by means of sholi. When the shg.1l are open (as is usually the case during daylight hours), it is possible, for instance, to be in certain parts of the building and see the garden on one side and the court on the other without moving a step in either direction. Thus, there is a continuous flow of space

through the building between these two outside areas. Inside Ni-no-maru are paintings of mural size, mostly on 44 fnsiima but some on tokonoma w alls. The tree shapes within these paintings, as in those of the Great Shoin fusuma. are stylized renditions of trees within the garden adjoining the 13 building. Drexler describes the paintings in this manner: ** Restricted in thane to landscapes and animals but lavishly executed with an apparently inexhaust­ ible invention, these paintings have perhaps been incorrectly described as decorative; at their best they are the view without which this open cage-like architecture would be incomplete. The flow of the space between the interior and exterior of Ni-no-maru and the repetition of natural forms outside within the paintings inside provide further evidence of the character­ istic of the interpenetration of nature and the structure in

Japanese architecture. From the above discussion it can be seen that the eight characteristics observed in buildings of the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku at Nishihonganji also are apparent in NijS-j5 structures.

Drexler, ££• c it., p. 136. CHAPTER I I I

THE KATSURA DETACHED PALACE

About 1590 Hideyoshi, the Momoyama warlord, gave an estate on the western outskirt of Kyffto to his adopted son, Prince Tomohito, a grandson of the Emperor Ogimachi.l This marked the beginning of the Katsura Detached Palace, or Katsura Rikyu (Katsura Imperial V illa). When the Tokugawa regime replaced that of the Momoyama, Ieyasu, the first Tokugawa shSgun, in a magnanimous gesture allowed the adopted son of the defeated warlord to keep the estate; this occurred during the Genna Era (1615-23).2 Katsura Rikyu was at first no more than a small house in a rustic cottage style,3 but later it was enlarged considerably and converted into a mansion that came to be used more and more by royalty as a country retreat. As a result, the palace as it appears today was built in several stages over a period of years. The first major expansion at Katsura Rikyu took place beginning in 1620, about thirty years after Hideyoshi built Hiunkaku and the Great Shoin and seventeen years after the completion of NijC-jo. Unlike these latte r monuments, which

” 1 Jgpap- Sis. o ffic ia l £&££&, c, i tp . 6&6. 2 Pageant Japanese Aj&, Vol. VI, , p. 140. 3 are located right in KySto, Katsura Rikyu lies just outside the city in a luxuriant forest of cinnamon trees, katsura (from which the palace gets its name), on the western bank of the swift-flowing Katsura River, Various buildings of the palace are situated around a beautiful garden and an ir­ regularly shaped pond, which are located several hundred yards from the edge of the river in a clearing hollowed out

of the forest. Four years after the start of major construction at Katsura Rikyu there was only the main dwelling, or Goten, two teahouses, and the garden and pond. The Goten at that time had three major parts: the Old Shoin, the Middle Shoin, and the Gakki-no-ma, or Room of Musical Instruments, The Goten fronted on the pond and had a teahouse called GepparC, or Moon-Waves-Pavilion, located closeby. Another teahouse, Shbkintei, or Pine-Lute-Pavilion, stood across the pond from the Goten. The Goten was expanded later to include a fourth section known as the New Shoin. At the same time a large lawn for the holding of archery contests was leveled next to the new section, the Katsura garden was enlarged, and two more teahouses built: ShSkatei, or Prize-Flower-Pavilion, and Shbiken, the House of Happy Feelings. A few other additions and refineries were made still later, and it was probably

at this time that Katsura Rikyu qualified as a palace for 47 "Imperial sojourn.T he palace is still considered the private property of the Japanese Royal Family. To get to Katsura Rikytt from downtown KyOto the v isitor can take either a trolley or bus. If he goes by trolley, he w ill get off at the western edge of Kyffto and cross a stone bridge spanning the Katsura River; if he goes by bus, it w ill carry him across the bridge. After disembarking, he w ill walk several hundred yards along a tree-lined path beside the river and arrive at a depressed oval clearing. He w ill be at the entrance to the palace. At the western edge of the oval is a gate through which the visitor can enter the grounds after showing a pass he has received with some difficulty from the present Snperor^s representative in downtown Kyoto. Guards stand at the entrance. After entering the gate, the visitor can see the Goten a few hundred feet away, but he must be assigned to a group with escort to tour it, and the group must stay together through­ out the tour. The tourists enter the eenkanr or entrance hall, and remove their shoes before stepping up into the Goten, which is elevated on wooden posts. The visitor now is in the oldest section of the Goten, the Old Shoin, and he w ill walk successively through the Middle Shoin, past a fcaukimi-dai (Moon-Viewing-Platform) and through the Gakki-no-ma to the New Shoin. While doing so, he w ill see simply designed ramma. sparsely-decorated fusuma and the ever-present shoii. ' 4 Pageant of Japanese Art. Vol. VI, q &, ££& ., p . 1 4 2 . A short distance from the Goten is Gepparo, which stands on wooden posts at the edge of a large irregularly shaped palace pond. From here the visitor w ill make a circumambula- tion of the scenic pond and view the various parts of the beautiful garden. A bridge crosses over a part of the pond to a structure called Omachiai, or Waiting-Place, where guests waited until they were summoned to one of the tea­ houses for ritualistic tea ceremonies. Another bridge leads to a peninsula where the main teahouse, Shokintei, is located. It also is perched on wooden posts and is topped by a mag­ nificent thatch roof. To the rear of the building is a small opening through which guests entered for the tea ceremonies. After seeing Shokintei, the visitor will cross still another bridge and go up an incline bn an island to the picturesque Shokatei, From this vantage point he can catch perhaps the best overall view of the compound. A fourth bridge leads to Shoiken, which is the last of the teahouses and stands in the farthest reaches of the palace grounds. Opposite Shoiken is the large lawn outside the New Shoin of the Goten and when the party reaches this spot the tour of Katsura Rikyu is complete. The visitor, however, is left with a lasting impression of the natural and architectural beauty of this one-time country retreat. Carved as it is out of the luxuriant Katsura forest, the palace is so arranged to make maximum use of the forms of nature for the various palace structures are tied in closely with the scenic surroundings. The large ir­ regularly shaped pond is the focal point of Katsura Ri- kytt, and all the buildings are located either around the edge of it or on the islands or peninsulas that jut out into it. Ferns, hedges, shrubs and numerous trees, in­ cluding pine, maple, dedar and cinnamon, abound in the landscape of the garden and pond and in some places partly obscure the view of buildings from as close as the next one to it. The bridges that cross over parts of the pond to the several islands and peninsulas are mostly of stone, and more rock and stone is found throughout the grounds—in the form of imposing boulders, lanterns and wash basins in the garden, or as stepping stones and walkways. The buildings of Katsura Rikyu have rectangular plans except for the Goten which is made up of rectangular units. The geometric planes of the Goten, and the teahouses, too, are broken or framed by crooked tree trunks or the masses of foliage of the different plants growing nearby to produce picturesque scenes often mirrored on the surface of the pond. Decoration of the exterior of the buildings is achieved by the use of a variety of textures such as thatch, mud plaster, bamboo, reed and wood. The interior decoration at Katsura is not as pronounced as in the Great Shoin and Ni-no-maru,and it is different. It is more subtle. In the Goten there are numerous paintings on fusuma and doors of small cupboards by the same Kano 50 artists who decorated the Great Shoin and Ni-no-maru,but the rendering is mostly with washes of black ink and very delicate. In addition, there are gold-plated ornaments as well as hikikanagu (metal pull-attachments) in the shapes of the Japanese ideograph of the moon, pine needles or flowers from the Four Seasons. In Shbkintei is an unusual Japanese decoration—a series of large turquoise-blue squares alternated with a series of large white squares on fusuma— and more drawings upon cupboard doors. ShCiken has the decora­ tion of a series of small black-laequered squares divided by a diagonal panel of gold leaf on a sill beneath a large window. The design of Katsura Rikyu buildings represents studied sim plicity, and in this respect, they are classified as masterpieces of Japanese architecture. Valter Gropius, the world-renowned architect of the Vest, for example, has termed Katsura Rikyu the climax of Japanese architecture.^ The buildings are of single-story construction and have floors set above the ground, paper walls of shS.ii and large thatch roofs. Munsterberg notes that in the Goten nthe functional use of building material and the beauty of the geometric design is carried to its ultimate perfection. Other writers also have singled out Katsura as a grand ac­ complishment. Drexler, for example, writes the following:*^ Of an unassuming but deceptive quality, the many buildings which comprise this country estate 5 Munsterberg, Th& Aptff 2£. JflRan* M Illustrated History (T5ky5: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957), p. 161 Ib iS l. 7 Drexler, £E> c i t . , p . 146. 51 remain today one of the major achievements of Japanese architecture, ... An attempt now w ill be made to show that characteristics evident iin the buildings of the Great Shoin, Hiunkaku, and Nij5-j5 also w ill be apparent at Katsura RikyB. The Katsura River, as mentioned, forms a boundary between the Katsura Detached Palace and the city of Ky5to, and the various palace buildings stand in a clearing hollowed out of the forest. The structures are separated from each other by their placement around the irregularly shaped pond and by such topographical features as rises within the garden, islands within the pond, and a peninsula jutting out into the pond (Plate XIII). Thus, the grounds and the buildings of Katsura Rikyu tend to underscore the characteristic of isolating the building in Japanese architecture. The Goten plan provides an extensive floor area through­ out which almost every room fronts on a garden or court. This is done by the use of rectangular units, and as Ni-no- maru, the various units are assembled into one massive com­ position. Details of the elevation and interior of the Go- ten also show the extensive use of rectangular shapes (Plates XIV and XV). At Sh<5kintei, which is perhaps the second most important building at Katsura Rikyu, the plan and elevations again show the utilization of rectangular shapes. Thus, the two main structures of Katsura ttikyu offer further documenta­ tion for the characteristic of the rectangle as a basic shape in the design of Jgpane«eebuildings. Plate XIII

Katsura Rikyu: Ground Plan (A) Guards* station, (B) Goten, (C) Tsu- kim i-dai, (D) GepparS, (E) Omachi- ai. (F) ShSkintei, (G) ShCkatei, (H) Shoiken, and (I) Lawn 53

P la te XIV Katsura Rikyu: Detail of Goten Exterior -Z S k eish a

P la te XV Katsura Rikyu: Detail of Goten Interior 55 The Pageant of Japanese Art in its passages about the units of the Goten states: ’’Their floors are made high..., to provide for hot, humid summer climate and for the oc- casional flooding of the River Katsura." Drexler writes

that part of the Goten is held approximately six feet off the ground by slender stilts and that the white plaster wall which is set well back under the floor is to close off the 9 underneath area to stray animals. These w ritten observations only verify the visual proof that the entire structure of the Goten is raised off the ground (Plate XIV). The teahouses of Geppar$, ShSkintei, and Shftiken likewise are elevated off the ground. Consequently, Katsura Rikyu provides a number of examples which demonstrate the character­ istic of the elevation of the building in Japanese architecture. The Goten has a free flow of space in the interior, en­ cumbered only by the thin wooden ribs of delicate yaimna. or by fusuma. At the far end of one area are two shgli and twp amado (Plate XV). The amado. like those in Hon-maru, give the Goten the appearance of having solid wooden walls but, as mentioned earlier, these are usually kept ppen except at night, and when open, there is an uninterrupted flow of space between the Goten interior and the garden and pond outside. The open quality of Japanese buildings is demonstrated further in Gepparo (Plates XVI and XVII). The space of inner & Pageant of Japanese Art. Vol. VI, &£.. c i t . , p . 144. 9 D r e x le r, SL\Eb c i t . , p. 146. P la te XVI Katsura Rikyu: Gepparo Front Elevation 57

P la te XVII Katsura Rikyu: Detail of GepparB Interior 53 areas and exterior areas is almost one and the same in this building. Thus, the structures at Katsura Rikyu show quite demonstrably the characteristic of an open quality in

Japanese architecture. The roofs of Katsura Rikyu buildings differ from those of structures at Nishihonganji and Nijo-jo in one major re­ spect—they display a more rustic quality. This trait is part of a deliberately sought effect in what is called the sukiva style; Soper defines this as "something like A rtless build­ ing. ,n^ He writes further: "A construction in sukiya taste must seem simple, though its sim plicity and apparent artless­ ness may well conceal an intense creative effort."^ The roofs of Katsura Rikyu epitomize this quality, and it is particularly noticeable at Shokintei (Plate XVIII). The Shokintei roof is of the irimova type, which has a hipped-and-gabled construction. The material of this roof is of thatch, and its rough texture provides a contrast with the relatively smooth surfaces of the thatch roofs of Hiun- kaku at Nishihonganji and the velvet-like surface of the thatch roof which covers Mi-Kuruma-Yose, the Ni-no-maru en­ trance hall. Like the roofs of these earlier structures, how­ ever, the Shokintei roof dominates its substructure, shows variety in the total roof composition, and displays a slight manipulation of the roof lines. The Sh5kintei roof thus pro­ vides further evidence of the characteristic of the roof as 10 Soper, Q£> c i t . . p . 263. -Iwanami Shoten

Plate XVIII Katsura Rikyu: Sh<5kintei Exterior 60 a vehicle of artistic expression in Japanese architectural d e s ig n . The Goten differs from Ni-no-maru in that few of its in- 1 2 nner areas were assigned specific functions. * The western part of the shoin.^ fo r example, was used not only as a study or library but also as a formal reception room.^ Certainly, the Goten interiors, which are so stark in their sim plicity, are not indicative of having served any special functions (Plate XV). Thus, it would seem they are a bold innovation when compared with the interiors of earlier build­ ings such as the Great Shoin and Ni-no-maru, which had al­ located areas for audience halls and apartments. Geppar® displays a different kind of boldness. There is the crooked line of a singular tree at the entrance, for instance, and this irregularity stands in contrast to the geometric lines of the teahouse itself (Plate XVI). Then, under the lean-to roof of ShSkintei, near the rear of the building, there is the small opening, iri-guchi. through which guests entered the building for tea ceremonies (Plates

XVIII and XIX). The daring design of this tiny entrance made certain that all guests, no matter how high their social rank, humbled themselves by being forced to crawl as they entered the building. 12 ^Drexler, cit., p. 147. The shoin is so-called because it contains an area with built-in desk, shelves, and a tokonoma. 14 Drexler, ap, c i t . . p. 147. 61

Owo*a0&Jn

*' n % \\*L O Qj 64

ifit-Q U C H i

\c ^■?9U"0 tiS Oo

P la te XIX Katsura Rikyu: Shokintei Plan 62 Bold design is seen once more outside ShBiken, where wooden posts supporting the roof stand on small stone foot­ ings while large boulders beside them make the transition in height between the ground level and the floor level of the veranda. Thus, various aspects of design in the Katsura Rikyu buildings tend to verify the characteristic of bold­ ness in Japanese architecture. The decoration of buildings at Katsura Rikyu, as mentioned, is not as pronounced as in the Great Shoin and Ni-no-maru. The T»amma in the Goten, for example, are less detailed and complicated than those of the Great Shoin but still of ex­ quisite design. Moreover, the fact that decoration was not an insignificant factor when the architect planned the Katsura Rikyu buildings is apparent in the gold-plated ornaments, hlkikanagu. and the fnsnma and cupboard-door paintings by the Kano artists. In addition, the Shbkintei interior features the unusual Japanese decoration of the series of turquoise-blue squares alternating with the series of white squares on fusuma (Plate XX). Moreover, delicate line drawings adorn the panels of small closets over a ShS- kintei tokonoma. and at ShTJiken the decoration beneath the sill of a large window includes the series of black-lacquered squares divided by the diagonal panel of gold leaf. The embellishment of the buildings at Katsura Rikyu is sparse, yet in sufficient amount that it would appear to be -Z tfkeisha

P la te XX Katsura Rikyu: Shokintei front Elevation 64 supporting evidence of the characteristic of a decorative quality in Japanese building. The Goten, like Ni-no-maru, was designed so most of its interior areas would front on a garden or court. Part of the building, in fact, juts forward into the garden. In the middle Shoin of the Goten, for example, the tsukimi-dai protrudes from the building towards the pond. The tsukimi-dai has no covering, and it is probable that members of the familydof the adopted son of Hideyoshi, the HachijC, sat here and en­ joyed a view of the moon while partaking of sake (rice wine) and various food delicacies.15 Thus those present were in the midst of nature as they sat on the tsukimi-dai. • A sim ilar condition prevails in Gepparo, ShSkintei, Sh5- katei, and Shoiken, where the Japanese architects intent seemed more than making nature a setting for the structure. The design of these buildings, for instance, quite openly suggests the integration of nature with the person (Plates XXI, XXII, XXIII, and XIV) for within the buildings the Katsura guests could sit comfortably and sip tea, but at the same time see amazingly large areas of the garden and pond; in some cases the guests might actually be more in­ volved with nature than the structures in which they were

seated. Thus, the design of Katsura Rikyu buildings tends .to offer some outstanding examples of the characteristic

15 Even today it is not unusual in Japan to have a "moon-viewing" party. P la te XXI Katsura Rikyu: Sh<5katei Exterior -Z o k eish a

Plate XXII Katsura Rikyu: Shokatei Detail 67

-KySto Tourist League % Plate XXIII Katsura Rikyu: Shoiken Exterior 6ft

P la te XXIV

Katsura Rikyus Detail of Shoiken Interior 69 of the interpenetration of nature and the structure in Japanese architecture.^

SUMMARY:

It was the purpose of the first chapter to point out a number of characteristics observable at Nishihonganji in two Japanese monuments, Hiunkaku (1566) and the Great Shoin (1594), built during the Golden Age of Japanese architecture, the Momoyama Period (1573-1614). It was the aim in Chapter II to demonstrate that the same traits were evident in structures at Nij5-j5 (1603). Two of its buildings, Ni-no-maru and Hon-maru, are sim ilar to the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku in that they too were originally built as a reception hall and villa. It was not surprising, therefore, to find the same characteristics as in buildings observed in Chapter I. The traits were tested for further validity at Katsura Rikyu in Chapter III. This monument was built thirty years after those nowloeated at Nishihonganji. The buildings at Katsura differed from the structures observed in the first two chapters in that they were designed for a royal family but nevertheless were less pretentious in their appearance than those designed for the warloids. Notwithstanding the 16 This trait also is defined as ”an interpenetration of the outer space of nature with the .'inner space of the building (at Katsura).” Munsterberg, cit., p. 1 6 1 . 70 dissim ilarity of the buildings of the two different social classes, the eight characteristics apparent in the warlords* buildings of the Great Shoin, Hiunkaku, and Nij5-jo, built just before and after the turn of the sixteenth century, proved to be evident also in buildings constructed for royalty in the first quarter of the seventeenth century at Katsura Rikyu. In reviewing the architectural features of the monuments discussed in the first three chapters, three additional characteristics are suggested. These are- 1. Asymmetrical balance 2. Contrasts of textures 3. Variety within a structure The large mass of the audience hall of the Great Shoin, for example, is asymmetrically balanced by the two smaller masses of the adjoining apartments on the northern and western sides of the building (Plate II). Asymmetry also is evident in the front elevation of the three-storied Hiunkaku (Plate III) and in the plans of Ni-no-maru and the Katsura Rikyu Goten (Plates VI and XIII). Contrasts of textures appear in the Great Shoin, where different surfaces of tatam iT black-lacquered sills, ramma and the coffered ceilings compare with one another (Plate IV). Likewise, there is a contrast of textures in the ma­ terials of thatch, tile , metal, whitewashed mud plaster, and wood in the building designs of Nijo-jo and Katsura Rikyu (Plates VIII, XIV, XVIII, and XXIII). Variety is apparent in the Hiunkaku roof composition, where the three roofs are different in size and shape and also have different lines to their eaves (Plate III). Variety also can be seen in the Great Shoin in the contrast between horizontal and vertical lines with the circular opening of the small wall of the iSdan (Plate IV). further evidence of variety within a Japanese structure appears in the different Ni-no-maru roofs (Plate VIII) and the dis­ sim ilarity of the various Katsura Rikytx teahouses (Plates XVII, XX, and XXIV). Thus, since these three additional characteristics appear evident in all the Japanese monu­ ments examined to this point of the study, it does not seem unreasonable to add them to the eight listed on page 14 of Chapter I. In vifcw of the fact, moreover*- that the eleven traits pertain to structures which were built during the period from the late sixteenth to early seventeenth cen­ tury—or during the time of the Momoyama Period—it would not seem presumptuous to term them principles of the Momo­ yama Architectural Style. The scope of this study w ill be broadened now to deter­ mine whether the characteristics which were evident in structures built within a period of about thirty-five years are observable in earlier and later buildings spanning much longer periods of Japan*s architectural history. In doing this the eleven traits of the Momoyama Architectural Style w ill be labeled "tentative” principles, and all the monuments to be examined in subsequent chapters w ill be considered on the basis of these principles: 1. Isolation of the building 2. The rectangle as a basic shape in buildings 3. The elevated position of the structure 4. Open quality of the building 5. The roof as a vehicle of artistic expression 6. Boldness 7. ^ecorative quality &. Interpenetration of nature and the structure 9. Asymmetrical balance 10. Contrasts of texture 11. Variety within a structure PART TWO

EARLY JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE

73 CHAPTER IV

THE SHRINES AT I3E

Ise, which is located near Uji-Xamada, a small town about #5 miles southeast of Kyoto and almost 300 miles west of T5kyb, is the most holy center of Shint<5ism, the native religion of Japan.'1' It is made up of two large shrine complexes, Ise Geku and Ise Naiku, or the Outer and Inner Shrines, respectively. The oldest shrine, Ise Naiku, was founded late in the third century A.D. and is dedicated to the Sun Goddess Amaterasu-Omikami,2 the chief deity of the Shinto religion. Ise Geku was built in 473 A.D. and dedicated •i to the Grain Goddess, Toyouke-Omikami. The two shrines are so similar that only the earlier one, Ise Naiku, w ill be observed in detail in the current chapter. As the Ise shrines are examples of the oldest existing type of Japanese archi­ tecture, the objective in viewing Ise NaikS w ill be to see whether the eleven ascribed principles were incorporated even in Japan’s most ancient buildings. The two shrines are located about four miles from each other, with Ise Naiku standing in a large forest that is

D re x le r, SLR* c i t . . p. 2 3 . 2 Ibid. Attribution of the date varies: Kishida says ’’during reign of Emperor Suinin (29 B.C.-7Q A.D.);” Soper, "during Suinin, in the late thira century A.D." 3 Japan: The O fficial Guide . op. cit., p. 756.

74 75 bordered by the Isuzu River, or Isuzugawa. To get to Ise Naiku from Kyoto the pilgrim w ill go by train to Uji-Yamada.

The trip will take about three hours. He then w ill take a bus from the Uji-Yamada train station and ride through the country to the edge of Isuzugawa. On the way he w ill pass I s e Geku. At the Isuzugawa the visitor w ill see a large to riiT a ceremonial gateway. He will pass through this entrance to rii and immediately cross a bridge, called Ujibashi, over the river. At the end of the bridge is a second torii. and it marks the entrance to the Naiktl precincts. Just beyond the entrance to the right is a large and beautiful garden, which lies at the edge of the forest. The garden has an off-center focal point of an oval area with paths leading out to divide the garden into unequal parts. Each of these sections contains luxuriant plantings in beautiful informal arrangements. From the oval in the garden the pilgrim w ill take aopath that leads into the forest, and he soon w ill come to a stone platform with a few steps leading down to the Isuzugawa. Here, like worshipers visiting the shrine, he w ill step down to wash his hands and rinse his mouth with crystal clear water. After performing these ablution rites, the pilgrim w ill continue along the same path which then leads deeper within the forest of tall stately cedars. Soon he w ill come to some stone steps that rise at an angle. At the top is another to rii in a wooden fence and beyond that a few yards another fence with an open roofed gate in it. A large offer­ ing chest spans the opening, and privileged worshipers w ill be escorted by shrine priests to the other side of the gate,^ where there is an open area with s till another to rii in the center. Beyond it is another gate (closed) in another wooden fence, then one more gate and one more fence. The last fence runs around the edge of a rectangular courtt of gleaming white gravel which has an angular path across it. Inside the court stand three buildings on wooden posts; the Honden (also called Shoden), the main or inner shrine, which is in the center of the court, and two other structures, called the Treasure Houses, in the rear corners of the court. A roofed approach leads to steps in front of the Honden, and these in turn lead to a veranda with railings adorned by ex­ quisite brass plates and railing posts topped by flame-shaped ornaments lacquered in colors of red, yellow, green and black. The veranda runs around the entire building, which has un­ painted wooden walls with no openings except for doors at the front entrance. The building is the residence of Anaterasu- Omikami. There are no covered approaches nor verandas to the Treasure Houses which front on large open areas of the court. All three buildings have huge sculpture-like thatch roofs with ridge adornment of chiei. crossed scissors shapes, and 4 Examples of such worshipers are members of the Japanese royal family, high government officials or suc­ cessful businessmen. katBuogi. or short cylindrical forms. The katsuoei are spaced equally along the ridge and are capped with brass tips. Near each end of the ridge is a chigi. and its two prongs are decorated with brass plates of embossed designs. The ridge itself extends beyond each gable and over a group of thin wooden strips which have more brass tips. The brass and thatch of the roofs, the unpainted wooden walls and white stones of the court provide a variety of textures, and the glimmering stones make the large rec­ tangular court appear even more expansive because of the broad open areas in front of the Treasure Houses. In ad­ dition, the rays from a tremendous expanse of sky reflect from the white court stones and smooth wooden walls of the buildings to create the feeling of an overwhelming atmosphere of air and lightness. Full aesthetic effect also is felt of the giant cedars of the forest that surrounds the court. All this combines to make a monument of exquisite appear­ ance, and Ise Naiku, because of this setting in nature, and the results of human hands in the buildings themselves, evokes a feeling of calm dignity and a sense of communion with antiquity. Kishida, for example, writes that it is at Ise that a sublime and solemn atmosphere attains its high­ est expression.5

A sense of ceremony pervades the entire Naiku grounds. 5 Kishida, £I>. c it., p. 40 First of all, there are the two large entrance torii at Ujibashi, and as Tange observes: "Even today.. .most visitors feel the urge to straighten the collars of their kimonos and look more proper."^ Then there is provided for ablution rites the stone platform where worshipers rinse their mouths with the pure Isuzugawa water. Finally, as Drexler notes If it is winter and they (worshippers) happen to be wearing western clothing they remove their overcoats. (It is rude to indicate discomfort by wearing an overcoat indoors, and in a sense the entire precinct, not the Shoden alone, is the home of Amaterasu O-mi-Kamij) There are a number of to rii at Ise NaikS, and these re­ present a dividing line between human and divine worlds and symbolically, as well as physically, isolate Shint75 shrines. g Drexler summarizes their importance as follows: The to rii symbolizes Japanese architecture much the way a Doric capital summons up a Greek temple; but unlike a Doric capital a to rii is an independent decorative structure whose meaning is clear and complete: it signifies a holy place. The Ise shrines, as stated earlier, are examples of the earliest type of Japanese architecture, and in this regard it would seem noteworthy to mention that there are numerous to rii. for as Drexler remarks, 7Japan has more than 140,000 ShintS shrines, and each of them has at least one to rii."9 6 W. Gropius, Y. Ishimoto and K. Tange, Katsura: Tra- djJbififl p i Creation in Japanese Architecture (TCkyBand New Haven: Published jointly by Zokeisha Publications Limited and Yale University Press, I 9 6 0) , p. 2 1 4 . D re x le r, 2 i>. c it., p. 2 7 . 8 9 IMsL. The Honden, of course, represents the oldest existing type of Japanese religious structure and may represent even an older type of Japanese architecture, a secular building. The sacred building, for example, shows a striking resem­ blance to models of haniwa.^ and the two types of struc­ tures have two things in common: a rectangular plan and a heavy roof of curious design. In addition, the Honden ap­ pears to borrow a feature from a type of structure still older than that represented by haniwa. the takavukar which was raised on stilts, as is the Honden.^ The elevation of the Honden on stilts results in an unusual design which gives the building the appearance of being pushed upward but at the same time being held in aesthetic equilibrium by the weight of the heavy roof. The Honden roof, for example, occupies more than a third of the total height of the building. The Ise shrines are rebuilt once every twenty years but the design has retained what Soper calls "architectural fea- 12 tures of extreme archaism through their various buildings," and Drexler writes that "the complex of buildings and fences which together constitute the shrine is perhaps the most 1 0 Haniwa are terra-cotta objects which were put on the mounds of burial chambers during the Proto-Historic Period in Japan. F. Miki, Haniwa (T5ky5: Charles E. Tuttle Company^ 1958), p. 21. Also, two independent columns support the ridge pole of the_Jjjakavuka type of structure. Drexler, pp, c it., p. 20. S o p e r, 2p . c i t . , pp. 163-64. so impressive of all Shinto architecture.”^ It was stipulated during the reign of Qnperor Temmu ( 6 7 2 - 6 8 6 ) that the Ise structures be rebuilt regularly every twenty years, and although there have been a few lapses, the shrine actually has been reconstructed fifty-eight times since then.^ In the following paragraphs an attempt w ill be made to determine whether the eleven principles of the Momoyama Architectural Style also are apparent in Japan*s oldest monument. Ise Naiku stands within a forest that is bordered by the Isuzugawa (Plate XXV). The only entrance to the shrine is through the to rii on the entrance side of the bridge called Ujibashi. This entrance torii sets the Naiku pre­ cincts apart from the surrounding countryside (Plate XXVI). After a walk through the garden at the end of Ujibashi and past the ablution platform at the Isuzugawa, the worshiper enters deeper within the forest before he comes to the stone steps in front of the sanctuary compound (Plate XXVII). At the top of the steps is another to rii. which is part of a wall that encloses more walls; behind these the Honden, the most sacred building of Ise Naiku, stands. Thus, various to rii, Uijbashi, and the walls which surround the Honden, show Ise Naiku to be a monument which illustrates the

13 D re x le r, qje>. c i t . . p . 23. 14 Pageant e f Japanese Art, Vol. VI,o p . c i t . . p. 7. Naiku: Ground Plan -K ogeisha P la te XXVI Ise Naiku: Entrance Torii and Ujibashi S3

-K ogeisha Plate XXVII Ise Naiku: Torii Outside Honden Compound principle of isolating the structure in Japanese architec­ t u r e . The compound in which the Honden stands as a central building has a rectangular shape (Plate XXVIII). It would not have been impossible to use a square frame to enclose the Honden and its two accompanying buildings, the Treasure Houses (which also have rectangular plans), but the covered approach to the Honden could not have been accommodated with a square plan. The Honden itself has a rectangular plan, and it shows a striking resemblance to a model of haniwa (Plates XXIX and XXX), as indicated. It is at once apparent that both structures, even though they are of different types, one religious and the other secular, utilized a rectangular shape in their plans. Consequently, the principle of the rectangle as a basic shape in early Japanese architecture is demonstrated by the plan of the Honden compound as well as the three buildings within it. The adherence of the Naiku structures to the rec­ tangular plans of early Japanese buildings, as evidenced by the haniwa model, indicates this is a very old principle.

15 Other means of isolating a building were embank­ ments and palisades. These were sometimes basis for names; Soper writes: "...a traditional epithet is fthe eight-fold f e n c e , 1 suggesting the multiple barriers around the Ise shrines." Soper, an. c it. . p. 163. K5geisha

Plate XXVIII Ise Naiku: Birdseye View of Honden Compound -Sh<5kokusha

P la te XXIX Ise Naiku: Honden Compound Asahi Shinbunsha

P la te XXX Haniwa House Model 33 Japanese architecture of a time even prior to that evidenced by the haniwa model is generally considered to have been of two types: the pit dwelling and a kind of structure raised on stilts, the takavuka. The latter type of building possibly dates from the first or second century A.D., according to engravings on ancient bronze plaques, and it was with this type of building that Japanese architecture struck "its characteristic and most enduring note.11-^ The Honden resembles the takavuka structure in that it too is raised on pillars (Plate XXIX). The pillars are hidden to some extent by a surrounding veranda that is raised on wooden posts and reached by a series of steps. The total effect is that of an object which is perched on a platform preliminary to its launching into the heavens.^ The Treasure Houses likewise are raised upon wooden pillars so that the structures within the Ise Naiku com­ pound vividly demonstrate the principle of elevating the building in early Japanese architecture. The buildings of Shinf5 shrines have walls with no win­ dows; this may be due to the fact that Japanese consider the shrines as actual abodes of kamiT or gods. There are front doors, but these are primarily symbolic because they are 16 D re x le r, 222.. c it., p. 20. 17 As Kishida notes, the visitor is given "the im­ pression of having been transported to the land of gods." The Honden serves as the vehicle. Kishida, op. c it., p. 40. 89 intended only for the use of kami. At the Honden of Ise Naiku, for example, the doors are almost always closed. Within the space of the Honden itself there is an un­ interrupted flow of space. In view of the large scale of the building it would seem there should be interior walls; instead, there are only a few heavy pillars which hold up th e ro o f. The Honden court is comprised of a large area of white gravel on which there are only the structures of the sanc­ tuary and the two Treasure Houses (Plate XXVIII). The three buildings are so located that there are large open areas in the court. Thus, while Shinto shrines have walls, the open interior of the Honden and the spacious quality of its court indi­ cate the principle of an openness in Japanese architecture. The Honden roof features the qualities of a domination of the substructure, variety, and a manipulation of line within its design (Plate XXIX). The dominant element, for example, is apparent in the fact that the Honden roof oc­ cupies more than a third of the total height of the build­ ing; the other two-thirds are comprised of the pillars which support the building and its walls. Variety is achieved by the chigi. or scissors shapes, at each end of the ridge and katsuogi. the cylindrical weights, spaced equally along the ridge. As for a manipulation of line, the thatch of the roof is cut and trimmed with the aid of a 90 wooden tem plate^ to produce a gentle convex s u r f a c e . ^9 The

finished effect, particularly noticeable at the gable ends of the roof, has the underside of the cross section straight, while the topside is curved. Thus the Honden roof provides a spectacular demonstration of the principle of the roof as a vehicle of artistic expression in Japanese architecture. The entrance to rii to Ise Naiku is an imposing structure (Plate XXVI). After passing underneath it and crossing Uji­ bashi, the worshiper has to turn right into the large garden which precedes the forest of giant cedars. Then, he walks along a wide path into the forest and past the ablution platform beside Isuzugawa and finally comes to the imposing sight of the torii at the top of the steps outside the main sanctuary compound (Plate XXVII). In addition to this prel­ ude, which Gropius, the Western architect, calls ”impres- sive,”2® the rebuilding of the shrine every twenty years is 21 an extraordinary idea. It is remarkable that even the

latest structures, completed about 1 9 5 3> retain the design of the original shrine ; 22 it took strong w ill, if not boldness, IS Drexler, &E.. c it., p. 32. 19 If the building material is thatch, the roofs of Buddhist temples usually have concave surfaces, which is in contrast to the convex surfaces of Shinto shrine roofs. 20 Gropius et al, sy*. c it.T p. 203. 21 I b i d . 22 Soper, aE> cit. , pp. 163-64. 91 for the various architects of Ise Naiku to resist the changes in design which occurred in the Japanese architecture of the intervening centuries. The Honden itself provides further evidence of a forward expression. For example, its large wooden columns, ranging in diameter from two to four feet, are much larger than they need to be to support the structure. Secondly, the veranda (which serves no apparent function) is a bold device that sets the Honden apart from the Treasure H o u s e s . ^3 Finally, the elevating of the entire building results in an unusual design with ponderous roof of thatch. Hie roof is characterized by a heavy sculptural quality, for its cross section is thin at the ridge and thickens be­ fore it culminates at the eaves, and at the gable ends the edges of the thatch roof are trimmed at an angle (Plate XXIX). On the top of the roof along the ridge the soaring chlei and thick katsuogi contribute their unusual shapes to the Honden composition. Thus, the design of the Honden, the rebuilding concept and the Naiku precincts themselves demonstrate the principle of boldness in Japanese architecture. The Naiku precincts evoke a sense of ceremony which be­ comes apparent from the moment that one stands before the entrance to rii at Isuzugawa (Plate XXVI). After the bridge beyond this torii is crossed, there is the beauty of the garden before the worshiper enters a forest and goes to; the

23 The Treasure Houses are bold structures although the Honden veranda supposedly makes much less powerful their "awesome forms." Drexler, op. c it.r p. 3 5 . 92 stone platform beside Isuzugawa to perform ablution rites; then he continues through the forest to the enclosure of the Hodden. The to rii. bridge, garden, and forest can be considered as decorative parts within the whole of the Naiku design. The Honden itself shows exquisite decoration: brass plates on the chigi. for instance, are embellished by embossing, and they appear very precious.^4 The plates are partially functional in that they serve to protect the ends of exposed wooden mem­ bers of the building from weather. Particularly on the chigi. however, the shapes of the plates are so fanciful that their original function appears forgotten. And since the chigi themselves, as well as the katsuogi, are no longer functional, they too serve to decorate the Honden.^5 At the gable ends, below the chigi. thin decorative strips of wood capped by brass finials project slightly beyond the 26 ridge (Plate XXIX). Below, on the balustrade of the veranda which surrounds the Honden, oval brass plates of embossed designs mark the junctions between posts and railings. The posts show a somewhat incongruous decoration in the flame­ shaped mountings lacquered in red, yellow, black, and green. These various features of embellishment illustrate the principle of a decorative quality. Ise Naiku stands in one of the most scenic forests in

24 Gropius et al, o jd . c l t . . p . 203. 25 I b id . 26 These strips are believed originally to have carried the number of whips signifying a family*s rank. Drexler, o p . c it.. p. 31. 93 Japan, and full aesthetic advantage is taken of the giant trees by making them the framing elements of the wide path which leads from the garden to the sanctuary compound. The design is not unlike that at Katsura Hikyu where the archi­ tect makes an attempt to harmonize nature and man. The Honden is located in a large clearing in the forest (Plate XXVIII), and this is a seemingly appropriate setting for an edifice of the religion that has as its underlying force the worship of nature, Shinto. The construction of the Honden reflects the strength of the huge trees that sur­ round the compound by utilizing exclusively the natural material of wood. Some of the wooden pillars of the Honden indeed have a greater circumference than the trees within the forest. The Honden court with its gleaming stones is created a rti­ ficially, but the uniform surface of the stones suggests a quiet stretch of beach that has been produced by nature. The impression is part of the total one which Drexler gives of Ise: "Bold shapes...finally come to suggest...that they would look as they do if nature were suddenly to produce them. The Naiku forest and the setting of the Honden within it, and the exclusive use of natural materials in the construc­ tion of the sanctuary, illustrate the principle of the inter­ penetration between nature and the building in Japanese architecture; this is called by Tange "a quality typical of Japanese architecture in general.

' 2? Drexler, ££• cit. , p. 35. 2d Gropius et a l, &j>, c i t . . p. 215. 94 The Ise Naiku garden, as pointed out earlier, contains the off-center focal point of an oval area from which paths branch out to delineate unequal sections that contain vari­ ous informal planting arrangements (Plate XXV). Beyond the garden and the platform beside Isuzugawa, the Honden stands behind enclosing fences; Drexler remarks that the gates in all these, save one, are on the same a x i s . He th e n goes on to explain the asymmetrical gate:30 ...to align everything perfectly would be to flaunt a perfection appropriate only to the handi­ work of the spirits; so it is better, Japanese carpenters believe, to include a deliberate im­ perfection like an off-center gate, which also has the merit of conforming to the Japanese taste for informal, intuitively balanced composition. Moreover, it is significant that the course of the stone steps of the approach to the Honden compound is slanted out of alignment with the outer gate (Plate XXV). Also, an ir­ regular path within the court runs beside the Honden and contrasts its angular course with the rectilinear place­ ment of the building itself and its two Treasure Houses (Plate XXVIII). Thus, features of the Naiku garden and the Honden compound provide further evidence of the principle of asymmetrical balance in Japanese architecture. The tailored surfaces of textures within the exterior compositions of the Honden and its Treasure Houses contrast to those of the rougher textures of gravel within the court

29 Drexler, cit., p. 2 7 . 30 I b id . 95 and tree foliage outside (Plate XXII). Smoothness of wooden walls, for example, opposes roughness of court stones, and the velvet surfaces of the thatch roofs stand in contrast to the roughness of tree foliage in the forest surrounding the clearing. Also, evenly spaced rafters on the covered approach to the Honden provide a pattern which is still another varia­ tion in the total scheme of textural contrasts. Thus it is that the Honden and its court in the forest clearing provide further examples of the principle of contrasts of texture. The Naiku garden has its focal point in the off-center oval area and from that paths emanate to divide the garden into un­ equal parts which contain various plantings in informal ar­ rangements. Each of the paths, moreover, is different in its m eandering c o u rs e ( P la te XXV). V a r ie ty a ls o i s se e n in th e Honden compound where areas outlined by the fences are of different sizes and shapes (Plate XXVIII). further, it is to be noted that inside the sanctuary compound the three build­ ings are different in size, and the central one, the Honden, is distinguished from the other two by its elements of the roofed approach, the veranda, and steps. It is true that each Treasure House has steps, but there is neither roof nor rail­ ings connected with them. Thus, the Naiku garden and the sanc­ tuary compound contribute examples which demonstrate the principle of variety in early Japanese architecture. The buildings of Ise Naiku prove demonstrably that the eleven tentative principles ascribed to the Momoyama Architectural Style also were very much a part of Japan*s earliest existing architecture, Shinto shrines of the third century A.D. It now w ill be the goal to determine whether the principles appeared four hundred years later in the buildings of HCryUJi, which represent another type of religious structures. CHAPTER V

hS r y u ji

The monument of HSryuji was built four centuries later than Ise Naiku and is a completely different type of struc­ ture. In contrast to the third-century Shinto shrine it is a Buddhist temple and represents the oldest Buddhist architec­ ture in Japan. Buddhism was not a native religion of Japan but was imported. Thus, for purposes of this study, it would seem that a temple built during the time the new religion was being established in Japan might serve as a further test of the principles of Japanese architecture as set forth in the preceding pages,

HSryuji was founded about the year 607 during the reign of Snpress Suiko ( 554- 62#). The building of the temple took place during the time Buddhism was gaining a foothold in Japan. Construction of the first HSryuji buildings was ordered by Shotoku, the Prince Regent of Eknpress Suikb and so-called Father of Buddhism in the country, upon the mandate of his ailing father. Parts of the temple burned in 670,but were rebuilt about a decade later.^ The Buddhist temple of Hbryuji is located at Ikagura- machi, or Ikagura-town, about twenty-five miles southeast

1 Buddhism, an East Indian religion, was introduced into Japan via Korea in 552. Drexler, aa, c it., p. 75. 2 Soper, ££,. cit. , p. 177. 97 98 of KySto, in the vicinity of Nara, the first permanent capital and ancient cultural center of Japan, Hbryttji was originally called HCryu Gakumonji, which means Learning Temple, and it was in fact a combination of temple and college. Nowadays Horyuji contains two parts: Sai-in and T5-in, or Westminster and Eastminster, respectively, and together they comprise what is termed one of the most beauti­ ful temples in the world.^ Of further significance is that the temple contains a number of buildings which can be clas­ sified as the oldest existing structures of wood in the Orient, for as indicated by the date HSryTlji was built,some of them

are well over 1300 years old. The temple lies at the edge of a large open plain with its buildings standing against a background of rolling hills. The grounds cover an area of about twenty-five acres sur­ rounded by high earthenwork walls. Two other walls cut through the compound to divide it into two unequal parts with an open area in between. A roadway nans through the open area between the two sections. Sai-in, the oldest and largest part, occupies about two-thirds of the total area and To-in the other third. Within each is a court with an open corridor running around the edge of it. Some of the structures of the temple are built right into the corridors; others stand in the courts. All of the buildings are set on 3 Drexler, ££. cit., p. 75. 4 Kishida, £2.. cit. , p. 56. 99 stone platforms. Tall stately pine trees are interspersed throughout the Sai-in grounds to partially obscure the large roofs of buildings, and this, with carefully arranged smaller trees, bushes, two ponds and several paths leading past old buildings, gives this larger minster a campus-like appear­ ance. One of the paths widens into the narrow road that runs across the open area to To-in, where the atmosphere is more one of seclusion for this is the nunnery section of HSrydji.^ To-in is not only smaller than Sai-in but also is less pic­ turesque. It has fewer buildings, fewer trees and bushes, and no p o n d s. The vi&lbor to Horyuji w ill catch a train at Nara, and after a ride of about seven and one-half miles, get off at a station named after the temple. Since Ikagura-machi is a little less than a mile north of the station, he can either walk the distance or go by bus (another bus goes directly from Nara, but takes forty minutes, longer than by train). In Ikagura-machi the visitor sees at the end of a street with trees and souvenir shops a large roofed gate, called Nandaimon, or Great South Gate. It is flanked by high earthenwork walls and marks the southern entrance to Sai-in, generally considered the main entrance to HdrytXji. 5 T5-in is such as it is possibly because Buddhist nuns are not especially held in high regard. The Buddha at first refused to admit women to the order and is reported to have said the admission of women "would m aterially shorten the life of the Buddhist religion." C. Humphreys, Buddhism (London: Penguin Books, 1955), pp. 3#-39. Inside Nandaimon is a wide walkway that leads between more earthenwork walls to the campus-like area of trees, bushes, stone-paved paths and ponds. Some steps at the end of the walkway lead up to a higher level of Sai-in where the visitor sees a large enclosure ahead of him with an ir­ regularly shaped pond on each side of the front of it. Some buildings stand off at an angle behind each of the ponds. These buildings were the living quarters and dining halls used by monks of olden tim es. Nowadays the HSryTiji monks live, work,and eat in buildings located in enclosures that lie behind the walls bordering the sides of the entrance walkway. Beyond the buildings once used by the monks is Sai- end5 in the northwestern corner of the Sai-in grounds. It is a small octagonally shaped building which stands amidst trees on a knoll. At the front of the large, main enclosure of Sai-in is a two-story decorative gate which has two openings. It is called the Chumon, or Middle Gate, and has tomoeeawara. or round ornamental tiles with inset designs, painted rafter- ends, sculptured roof posts and an ornamental balcony. Jut­ t in g o u t from each s id e o f th e Chumon i s a c o r r id o r w hich runs around the edges of an interior court of white gravel. Forming part of the encircling court, in fact, built right into it, are three buildings: a long low structure called the KJ5d5, or Lecture Hall; a Kyoro, or Scripture House, and a Sh5r5, or Bell Tower. The corridors have roofs and forming 1G1 the sides of a pseudo-wall is a short skirt with thin wooden slats above so that a person can gaze through to see the dis- simlar shapes of a ta ll five-story pagoda and low two-story KondQ, or Treasure House, in the center of the court and a low single-story KOdC, the Lecture Hall, at the edge of it. All the buildings stand on platforms of cut stone and are dominated by heavy roofs of tile . Munsterberg, as does Kishida, singles out the roof as an important element in the design of Japanese buildings, and notes especially about HCryUji:^ Not only the size of the roof, which projects beyond the walls of the building, but also the elegant curve of the eaves and the weight and beauty of the grey clay tiles, so characteristic of Buddhist in contrast to ShintS architecture, add greatly to the impressive appearance of these temples. The ptegoda, with its stacked-up roof arrangement, stands as an impressive symbol of Buddhism, the stupa, with bal­ conies and railings inset from each tier of the decorative roofs. The two-story KondS, which contains the main icon of HSryuji, features such architectural elements as large roofs with painted rafter-ends and supporting roof posts of fantastic sculptural shapes. To the right of the steps that lead up to the level of the main enclosure of Sai-in is the roadway which links the two minsters. To-in, like Sai-in, is surrounded by earthenwork 6 Munsterberg, ££.. c i t . , p. 22. 102 walls and has a main enclosure. Within its main enclosure is the Dream Hall, or Yumedono, a majestic structure which contains in a closet a precious statue of Prince ShStoku. The Yumedono is elevated on a stone platform, octagonal in shape, which has steps on four of its eight sides. Other buildings within the T5-in compound are the ornate Sh5r5, which is a bell tower, the Denpodo (Evangelic H all), and the Chuguji nunnery, which is located in the northeastern corner of the grounds. The buildings of To-in, like those of Sai-in, have large roofs, are elevated on stone platforms, and utilize wood and whitewashed mud plaster in their structures. The textures within and without the buildings of both enclosures are many and varied. The ceramic of the tiles forms a corduroy pattern on the roofs to contrast with the foliage of trees and bushes and the court of brilliant white gravel. Parts of the in­ dividual buildings add to the overall effect, as silken hang­ ings fluttering between pillars on the large open frontotf the K5d5 and an intricate canopy of leather in the Kond5. HdryTiji, in a number of ways, bears resemblance to Ise Naiku even though the two monuments are those of two re­ ligions and one was built four centuries earlier than the other. Both are religious monuments and therefore have struc­ tures which function primarily as symbols: the Honden at Ise and the pagoda at Hffrydji, but other characteristics observed in the older shrine appear in the temple of the newer religion. 103 Ise buildings are set apart from the countryside by fences and those of Horyuji by walls and yet nature is made a part of the architectural arrangements at both sites, as the campus-like area of trees, bushes, and ponds at the Buddhist temple. Also, Ise has an open court of white gravel with build­ ings in it as does Horyuji which has two courts. HSryuji struc­ tures are elevated above ground, as are the ones at Ise, and Horyuji displays a variety of materials as does Ise. Thus, although Buddhism was a foreign religion and Chinese monks and Korean craftsmen accompanied the importation to help construct the new temples, it would appear significant that many of the same principles employed in the design of the third-century Shinto shrine of Ise Naiktl also are found in the seventh-century Buddhist temple of HSryTtji. Kishida notes: ’‘Generally speaking, it must be said that the Japan­ ese architects of olden days were by no means content to be the sedulous pupils of Chinese teachers."^ The details of Horyuji now w ill be examined further to determine the degree of conformance with the so-called "tentative” principles as set forth for this study. The entirety of Horyuji is separated from the town of Ikagura by earthenwork walls (Plate XXXI). These walls contain only one entrance, Nandaimon, or Great South Gate, which precedes the walkway leading to the main enclosure of

Sai-in. On each side of the walkway are walled-in secondary ?

K ish id a , ojd . c i t . . p . 7 . 104

P la te XXXI HSryuji: Ground Plan (A) Nandaimon, (B) Ghtimon, (C) Pagoda, (D) Kon- dC, (E) Kodo, (F) SaiendC , (G) Yurae- dono Enclosure, (H) ShBrfc, and (I) ChTigilji Nunnery 105 enclosures that house the present living and working quart­ ers of Horyuji monks, and these secondary enclosures help to set the main enclosure of Sai-in apart from Ikagura-machi. The corridors which surround the main enclosure of Sai-in isolate the pagoda and Kondo from other Sai-in buildings. To-in is separated from Sai-in by the open area with its roadway, and it also lies behind earthenwork walls. It, too, has a main enclosure in which the main building, Yumedono, is isolated from other buildings by the encircling corridor. Finally, the Chilguji nunnery stands by itself in the north­ eastern corner of the T3-in compound. Thus, HSryuji provides a number of examples which demonstrate the principle of isolating the structure in Japanese architecture. The plan of the main enclosure at Sai-in originally had the shape of a single large rectangle;^ later an offset was added to the design so that the plan now has the shape of a small rectangle placed aside a larger one. On the northern side of these two abutting rectangles is the K5do, which also has; a rectangular plan, as do the majority of Sai-in buildings. The main To-in enclosure has a rectangular plan, and the DenpSdo, part of the enclosure, also has a rectangular plan. Thus, Sai-in and T5-in show HCryuji to have several examples which would verify the principle of the rectangle as a basic shape in the plans of Japanese buildings.

Like the buildings at Ise, those of Horyuji are raised 6 S o p e r, &E.. c i t . , p . 176. 106 above ground: the HSryuji buildings on stone platforms and those of Ise on wooden pillars. The Chumon of Sai-in at H5- ryuji (Plates XXXII and XXXIII), for example, stands on a stone platform of substantial height, as indicated by the steps in front of it. The pagoda (Plate XXXIV), KondS5 (ELates XXXV and XXXVI), and Kodo ( P la te XXXVII) a ls o r e s t on p l a t ­ forms of considerable height. At T5-in, the ornate Shoro (Plate XXXVIII) has an unusual base which contrasts to the stone platform type of elevation employed elsewhere at H

9 D re x le r, qjsl. cit., p. 77. P la te XXXII H S ryuJi: Chumon Plate XXXIII H S ry u ji: D e ta il o f Ghumon P la te XXXIV HSryttji: Pagoda P la te XXXV Horyuji: Kondo P la te XXXVI Horyuji: Detail of Kond5 Interior P la te XXXVII H S ry ttji: K5do Plate XXXVIII Horyuji: Shoro 114 can see through its sides to sculpture within.-1-0 The interior space of the Kond5 also is broken only by a few sculptural forms.The front of the KSdXS is almost completely open. Two short sections of whitewashed mud plaster are at each side with the space between them broken only by six wooden pillars, equally spaced about twelve feet apart. The sole object inside the building is a religious statue. In front of the building the court has large open spaces around the pagoda and KondS. Thus the main enclosure of Sai-in further illustrates the principle of an open quality in Japanese architecture. The roofs, as stated, are dominant at Horyuji buildings, and there is audacious extension of the eaves. This can be noticed particularly in the pagoda (Plate XXXIV). Also, pro­ jection of the eaves of the second story of the KondS is so great that the appearance of the roof is not unlike that of a wide-brimmed hat. Horyuji roofs also are intricate in de­ ta il. In the eaves of the Chumon, for example, there are many tomoegawara. painted ends of rafter extensions below them, and posts of sculptural shapes at the corners above the eavew (Plate XXXIII). Thus the various elements in the designs of roofs at Horyuji provide additional examples of the principle of the roof as a vehicle of artistic expression. 1 0 The sculptural theme is Sumeru, or P illar Mountain of the Universe, and figures adorn its edges. "HSryuji: History and Treasures (HSrytlji: HCryUji Office, n.d.)." 11 The main group is the Shaka Trinity by Tori Busshi, the first great sculptor of Japan, according to Paine. Soper, op., c it. , p. 12. 115 From Nandaimon one has an uninterrupted line of sight for an almost incredible distance. For instance, he can see along the long walled-in walkway, up the steps leading to the main Sai-in enclosure, through the Chumon and across the court, all the way to the K5do (Plate XXXI). In Chumon itself is evidence of audacious design in that the gate has two openings instead of the one or three which is the more customary arrangement 12 for Japanese entrance gates. The plan of the enclosure fronted by ChUmon also demon­ strates unusualness because it is a direct departure from Bud­ dhist temple arrangements which were copied from China when Buddhism was first introduced into Japan. The Chinese system had the Chumon, pagoda, KondB, and K8d5 arranged on a central axis. The Horyltji arrangement, however, has the pagoda and Kondo placed to the right and left of an axis between the Chu­ mon and Kodo. It is considered,therefore, that the Horyuji plan is a Japanese innovation.1^ Thus, the Horyuji plan offers convincing evidence of the principle of boldness. The Chumon is more than just a gate for it has the tomoe- gawara. painted rafter-ends, sculptured roof posts, and an ornamental balcony with railings of complicated linear designs (Plate XXXIII). The pagoda has sim ilar features, as well as a sorin. or bronze ornament, on top of the building (Plate XXXIV). It should be noted, moreover, that since the balconies of the 12 S o p er, op,, c i t . , p. 176. 13 This is referred to as the Kudara plan. Ibid. 14 Pageant of Japanese Art. Vol. VI, ap.. c it. r p. 9. 116 pagoda are not accessible their railings serve no practical purpose.^5 Thus, in effect, they are decoration. Interiors of Sai-in buildings also have decoration. In the first floors of the pagoda and Kond®, for instance, is sculpture. In addition, the Kond® has a leather canopy of great detail over a sculptural group (Plate XXXVI). Parts of the Kondo originally had elaborate mural paintings. In the northwestern corner of the Sai-in grounds is the octagonally shaped Saiend® which stands on a rise of ground thickly surrounded by trees and bushes (Plate XXXIX). The location in this setting gives Saiend® the appearance of al­ most being a part of nature. In addition, Chumon has huge pines flanking its front, and upper branches of than push their needles into the space between the two roofs of the g a te . Inside the main enclosure of Sai-in are a few trees which grow near the Kyoro (Plate XL). Their small sizes compared with those of trees outside the enclosure suggest that the court trees were planted after the buildings of the Sai-in enclosure were constructed. Thus, there is indication of an attempt to make nature an integral part of the court and its structures. Consequently, the relationship at Sai-in between buildings and forms from nature verifies the principle of an interpenetration between nature and the structure.

15 D re x le r, &£. c i t . , p. 7#. 16 These were destroyed by fire in 1949, but full- scale copies s till can be seen in the HoryUji Museum. P la te XXXIX HSryUji: SaiendS P la te XL

HCrytlji: Ky5ro 119 The large sfcape of the Sai-in plan is asymmetrically balanced by the combination of the smaller shape of T5-in and the open area between the two minsters (Plate XXXI). The eastern section of Sai-in is larger than the western, but the two sections are asymmetrically balanced by the different dispositions of their buildings. It is to be noted, moreover, that the areas of the two irregularly shaped ponds in front of the main Sai-in enclosure balance each other. Then, in regard to the Chumon, Soper relates that it is asymmetrically located, being one bay closer to the west «£d pf the Sai-in enclosure than to the east end.-*-? This was reportedly done to restore the balance upset by the asymmetrical layout of the pagoda and Kondo in the court behind the ChUmon.^ Finally, the single mass of the main T5-in enclosure is balanced by the masses of buildings north of it. Thus, HSryuji demonstrates the principle of asymmetrical balance in Japanese architectural design. A contrast of the loose texture of the leather canopy to the smooth surface of sculpture below is apparent in the Kondo; these textures, in turn, contrast with those of plaster walls and wooden pillars (Plate XXVI). Contrasts also appear in the K5do where there are ceramic tiles, silken curtains, wood, whitewashed mud plaster, and cut stone (Plate XXXVII). In ad­ dition, the surface formed by the rows of ceramic tiles on the roof is much different from the surface of white gravel in the c o u rt. 17 Soper, ££• c it., p. 176. IS Pageant of Japanese Art. Vol. VI, ££• cit. . p. 9. 120

The ShS5ro illustrates textural contrasts further (Plate XXXVIII). At the base, for instance, are the three different surfaces of gravel, rocks, and cut stone, and above them are s till different surfaces of metal and whitewashed mud plaster. In the housing of the bell itself there is even another dis­ sim ilar surface, that formed by the texture of wood. Thus, Horyuji affords varied examples of the principle of contrasts of texture in the Japanese architecture of the seventh century. The Sai-in plan differs from the Tff-in plan in size and shape, and the size and shape of the main enclosure in each minster is unlike (Plate XXXI). Further, the main enclosure of Sai-in contains two buildings in its court, whereas the T5-in enclosure has only one. The main enclosure at Sai-in has within it the two dissim ilar masses of the low, long KondS and the ta ll narrow pagoda (Plates XXXIV and XXXV).

Munsterberg noted a diversity in the pagoda itself when he wrote of its roofs, "each is somewhat smaller than the one below, a device which adds variety to the structure."^ In contrast to the dissim ilar shapes of the five-story pagoda and the two-story Kondd, the K5d5 has an exceptionally long low design of only one story. Thus, Horyuji provides examples which are demonstrative of the principle of variety. HSryuji has provided evidence that the eleven principles first discerned in Japanese monuments of the early seventeenth century, and proved evident in the third century also, are 19 Munsterberg, &£>. c it . . p. 23. 121 found again in structures of the seventh century. The aim now w ill be to determine whether the same principles can be observed in the eleventh century. CHAPTER VI

THE HOODS AT BY£5 d 5IN

The Buddhist monument of Bydddin, which is located a few miles south of Kydto at Uji, was constructed during the Fuji- wara Period (&4S-11S5) by the warlord, Fujiwara-no-Michinaga. It was built originally as a villa for his private use but was converted later into a Buddhist temple. Because of this transformation from villa to temple, Bydddin is different from either Ise or Hdrydji, which were constructed ex­ pressly as places for worship. The v illa wa3 presented by Michinagars son, Torimichi, to the Buddhist clergy in 1052. Torimichi not only made the gift of the country mansion but also instructed the most famous sculptor of the time, Jdchd, to begin work on a large Amida statue to serve as the main icon for the new temple. To complete the transformation of the villa into a monastery, a structure was built especially to house this character­ istic symbol of Buddhism. The building now carries the of­ ficial name of Amidadd, or Hall of Amida, but it is more commonly called the Hdddd, or Phoenix Hall, of Bydddin. Byddoin is situated at the foot of mountains and beside a river in the resort town of Uji, which also is well known for its tea. Bamboo and pine tree-covered mountains rise to 122 123 the south and east of the town, and the Uji River, which is fed by streams from the mountains, flows from south to north, almost through the center of the town. It supposedly was the beauty of the Uji location that led Michinaga to choose it as the site for his country mansion outside of KySto.^ The transformed villa stands a short distance from the Uji River, just beyond a row of teahouses and an earthenwork dike on the western bank of the river. The dike is lined with trees on each side and has a wide walkway on top of it from which the visitor can view the temple grounds and, at the same time, see vacationing Japanese relaxing on boats in the river or eating picnic lunches on the river bank. To get to Bydddin from Kydto the visitor w ill make the short trip by train and get off at the Uji station, which is the end of the line. The station is located almost in the center of Uji, thus near the river that flows through the small town. Just outside the station is a stone bridge which spans the river and leads to the Byoddin grounds to the west. The visitor w ill cross the bridge, then turn left down a narrow street lined with shops displaying packaged varilet&es of Uji tea. After walking several hundred yards,he w ill be at the Bydddin entrance. The entire site is encircled by a large earthenwork wall, and the visitor enters a gate to the northern section of the temple grounds. Just inside the gate 1 S o p e r, 2j3. c i t . , p. 214. 124 Is a park-like expanse of turf, a few trees and some path­ ways, and it is here that the visitor gets his first view of the picturesque ByBdBin garden. Several of the paths branch out through the garden, but the main one leads through a thin grove of trees almost to the center of the grounds where there is a large irregularly shaped pond with an island. This is the focal point of the garden, and the beautiful H5od5 rises m ajestically from its moorings on the tiny island in the pond. The main path of the garden continues into the eastern section of the grounds and widens at a spot across the pond directly opposite the front of the H55do. Sightseers can stand in this special viewing area and peer across the pond at the rare features of the building, look at other sight­ seers walking along the various paths in the garden, or gaze down into the pond to see large carp swimming around in the water. A steady procession of worshippers also can be seen from here going to and from the HSodo over a small bridge which spans the pond on its northern side. In the southern section of the compound is a rise of ground which is thickly covered with trees, and in a small clearing among them is a bell tower where tourists stand in a queue waiting to take souvenir photographs of their friends in the line. Beyond the tower and trees the temple grounds rise to their highest level in the western part of the compound. Here is a small court, enclosed by a mud plaster 125 wall, where there are a number of buildings. Several of these were parts of Michinaga*s villa and it is in then, along with later buildings, that the BySdoin monks live and work. Notwithstanding the old buildings of the original villa, the H35d5, according to most students of Japanese architec­ ture, is the only building of significance at BySdoin. The large structure, as may be indicated by its name, the HSodo, or Phoenix Hall, has the shape of a phoenix with outspread wings.2 A beautiful central hall, which rests upon a cut stone platform, houses the Amida statue and represents the phoenix*s body. A corridor-like hall trails out from the rear of the central hall to form the tail of the bird, and two other corridor-like sections, which are composed pri­ marily of wooden pillars capped by roofs, branch out from the sides of the central hall to correspond to the bird*s wings during flight. These three appendages to the icon hall are generally referred to as corridors, even though they lead nowhere. Actually, the only access to the HCodo is across a bridge which spans the pond. The intricate design of the Hoodo, with its ornate decora­ tion, is characteristic of the beauty and boldness found in Fujiwara architecture. The exterior embellishment, for ex­ ample, includes tomoeeawara (round ornamental tiles) at the eaves, bronze plates on doors and beam-ends, and colors of 2 The name also may derive from two metal phoenixes "perched on the gable." Munsterberg, &R. cit. t p. 35. 126 cinnabar, green and white on wooden surfaces and plaster walls. On the roofs are overlapping tiles, which contribute to an appearance that might be likened to feathers of a phoenix, and delicate sculptural decorations of a bronze phoenix adorn each end of the ridge of the central hall ro o f . The interior decoration of the H55d5 also reflects the beauty associated with Fujiwara architecture. Fifty-two sculptured figures of wood, the Heavenly Musicians Attending the Amida in His Paradise, for example, adorn the upper parts of walls. Fanciful detailed paintings, now very faded, de­ pict Buddhism iconography on the lower parts of the walls; designs in precious mother-of-pearl accent the altar decora­ tion; gold leaf covers the Amida statue, and a magnificent canopy of intricate carving dominates the entire area. The Amida figure itself, a triple-lifesize icon, was one of the supreme efforts of the artist, J5ch75. It shows the inventive genius of the man who gave to Japanese sculpture the joined-wood technique for up until the time of the Fuji- wara most Buddhist statues of wood had been carved from a single section of a large tree. J5ch<5 also carved the fifty- two statues of the Musicians ,but these appear almost as an after-thought when compared to the Amida. The Fujiwara fineries of design and the elaborate em­

bellishments help to make the H35d5 the National Treasure that it is and has been so designated by the Japanese 127 government, but a contributing factor to the magnificence of the Hoodo is its isolated location in the garden setting of the one-time country villa. The garden pond, whose water is usually so still as to perfectly mirror the image of the front of the H55d5 upon its surface, and the trees, which cup the island site of the H55do, help produce an extraordinary aesthetic effect of calmness and intimacy. The H35d5, indeed, personifies the Fujiwara ideal, and, according to Langdon Warner, is ”by far the most important architectural monument and relic of jcourt life that remains after all the destruc­ tion in the Japanese civil wars.”3 The details of By5d5in and the HiJSdB now w ill be given a closer look in an attempt to show that the principles listed at the end of Part One are evident also in Japanese architecture of the eleventh century, the height of the Fujiwara Period. By5d<3in, as indicated, is located within the town of Uji, but is isolated from it by the earthenwork dike of the river that runs through the center of town and the walls which en­ circle the temple site. Within the temple grounds is the ir­ regularly shaped pond, and in it is the island upon which the H55d5 stands (Plate XLI). The only access to the H35d3 is by means of the bridge spanning the northern part of the pond. Thus, BySdbin and the HS5d5 furnish two further examples of

Langdon Warner, The Enduring Art of Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1952), p. 35. 12&

P la te XLI

Byodoin: Ground Plan 129 the principle of the isolation of the structure in Japanese architecture. The symbolic shape of a phoenixi with outspread wings, which, as mentioned, is the shape of the HS5d5 plan, utilizes rec­ tangular design throughout. The central hall, or "body," for example, has a rectangular plan; the two "wing" corridors, and the two respective parts of them that. Munsterberg calls "pavilions,"^ contribute four more rectangular plans, and the "tail" corridor also has a rectangular plan. Thus, the H5dd5, with its composition of the six rectangles that comprise the four major parts of the total structure, is a noteworthy ex­ ample of the principle of the rectangle as a basic shape in the design of Japanese buildings. The HSodo is elevated above ground by two types of founda­ tions: wooden pillars and a stone platform. Pillars are used exclusively at Ise and stone platforms exclusively at Horyuji, but in the H5odo both means of elevation are found to be used together. Wooden pillars, for example, support the wing corri­ dors while the central hall is elevated upon a stone platform (Plate XLII). Thus, the H5od5 is another example which il­ lustrates the principle of elevating the building in Japanese

architecture. The wing corridors of the H5od5 have no walls, only pillars, to interrupt a free flow of space, and there are no interior walls within the central hall. Moreover, the interior of the 4 The term pavilion may be not quite correct, but these parts of the building do have rectangular shapes. Munster­ b e rg , 2jd. c i t . , p. 85. Plate XLII Byodoin: Perspective View of HS5do 133) central hall of the HoddO, unlike the Honden at Ise, does not even have pillars. In fact, the Hffod3 interior has only the Anida statue as obstruction and this interruption to a free flow of space is minor in view of the largeness of the hall. The ta il corridor displays a different kind of openness than that which is apparent in the wing corridors. Tire sides of the wing corridors, as indicated, are constructed of pillars rather than walls. The tail corridor, on the other hand, has walls, although there are large openings within them. More­ over, the space enclosed by these partial walls is entirely open. Thus, the openness of the central hall and that of the three corridors is illustrative of the principle of an open quality in Japanese buildings. Roofs of the H3od5 have various shapes, sizes, and pitches. The large roof over the central hall (Plate XLII), for instance, has a hipped-and-gabled design, known as the irimova type, and the steepest pitch within the entire Hoodo roof composition. Roofs over the wing corridors have a lesser pitch and are hipped only. rinally, roofs which cover small towers at the junctions between the wing corridors and the so-called pa­ vilions culminate at a point rather than a hip, and they have the shallowest pitch of all. Thus, the variety of shapes, sizes, and pitches to the H55do roofs is not unlike that encountered in the roof compositions of Hiunkaku and Ni-no-maru. The H85do roofs also have qualities of gracefulness and elegance, much like the roof of the Honden at Ise NaikS. A Plate XLIII By5doin: H55d5 front Elevation 133 graceful quality is achieved in the Honden roof by trimming its thatch material so that a subtle curvature of the roof lines occurs at the gable ends; the touch of elegance is pro­ vided by the chiei and katsuogi decorations. Likewise, graceful and elegant qualities appear in the central hall roof of the H55d<5, where there is a slight curvature of the lines of the ridge and eaves, and roof decoration provided by a bronze phoenix at each end of the ridge. Consequently, differences of shapes, sizes, and pitches, and qualities of gracefulness and elegance in the H55db roofs tend to support the principle of the roof as a vehicle of artistic expression in Japanese architectural design. If making the building a symbol of a bird was indeed the intention, the plan of the HCSdo is a bold conception. Nowhere in Japanese architecture, prior to 1052, had a \ buildings sym­ bolized a form from nature. Moreover, the H5od5 design is un­ usual in two other respects. Soper notes these in detail*5 First, its (the H55d5) short end corridors that lead nowhere suggest an abbreviation of a larger group design. Then the hall proper, though it follows the ambulatory formula, breaks with front- and-back symmetry in a way foreshadowed in the kondo of Toshodaiji (an eighth-century Buddhist temple). Here only the rear aisle is enclosed, the others serving as an open porch. The intention must have been to preserve ease of circumambulation. Since the throne of the colossal Amida backs up against the rear wall of the chancel, it would have been impossible otherwise to pass behind it without going out-of-doors. The porch in turn adds a sense of lightness and movement to the exterior.

Soper, cit. ♦ p. 223. 134

The symbolism of the bird, the short end corridors, and the "break with front-and-back symmetry" illustrate the principle of boldness in the HbbdC monument. There is decoration in buildings at Ise and Hffryuji, but much less in each than in the Hb5d5. Soper notes "Heian (Fuji­ wara) taste is revealed by a substitution of obviously decora­ tive effects for the old combination of strength and subtlety."^ He writes further:*^ The most pretentious interiors show an extra­ ordinary decorative brilliance. In the HSQdO all of the chancel woodwork is intricately painted; the altar platform is lacquered with a delicate, all-over inlay of mother-of-pearl and panel di­ visions marked by gold plates. The undersides of the beams are punctuated by gilded rosettes, and pierced gold plates again mark the intersections. The canopy over the icon exceeds everything else in the shimmering delicacy of its colors and open­ work carving. The outside of the H5odo has simpler decoration; there are only the colors of cinnabar, green, and white; ornamental tiles along the eaves; bronze fixtures on doors, and the bronze figure of a phoenix adorning each end of the ridge. Thus, the pretentiousness of the interior and the decoration of the exterior show the H5od5 to be an excellent example of the principle of a decorative quality in Japanese buildings. The BySdSin pond, like the garden, is an integral part of A the H5od5 setting. Soper terms it the "lotus lake," and, “ 6 S o p er, op. c i t . , p . 22&. 7 I b id . S I b id . 135 according to Munsterberg, it is part of the scheme taken from numerous pictorial versions of Amida’s paradise.^ Within the pond is the island upon which the HSodo stands, and the ta il of the bird-like structure actually spans a part of the pond. This element of the HoSdo demonstrates the principle of inter- > penetration of nature and the structure, or what Munsterberg describes as nthe way in which the whole is fitted into its s e t t i n g . 1,1-0 Unlike plans of buildings at Nishihonganji, Nij5-j5, and Katsura RikyS, the plan of the Hoodo is symmetrical, somewhat sim ilar to those of buildings at Ise and HSryuji. Like the plans of the sites at Ise and Hdryuji, however, the site plan of ByodSin shows asymmetry. At Ise, asymmetry is evident in the design of the garden, and at HSryUji it is apparent in the disposition of the buildings within the main Sai-in enclosure. It is the location of the H55do which causes asymmetry at the Bydddin site. If a line along an east-west axis were drawn through the center of the Bybdoin grounds, the H35d5 would be found located slightly south of the line. In other words, there would be a larger area of the temple grounds to the north of the HoodS than to the south. The northern area has the park-like expanse of turf, a few trees, and scattered pathways, while the area south of the HCSdo has the rise of ground covered with trees.

~ 9 Munsterberg, 0£ . c i t . , p . 35. 10 Ib M . 136 The large northern area of a few trees is balanced by the small southern area of many trees, and the Hoodo is positioned between the two areas in the manner of a fulcrum. Thus, the Byodoin monument is illustrative of the principle of asym­ m etrical balance in Japanese architecture. Both the exterior and interior of the H5od5 present a di­ versity of textural contrasts. The outside of the building, for example, shows a contrast of smooth ceramic surfaces of roof tiles to scarred surfaces of wood around sections of whitewashed mud plaster (Plate XLIV). In addition, the central hall of the H5odo stands on a cut stone platform; the surface of cut stone contrasts with that formed by small rocks arranged in channels in the ground directly below the eaves. The small rocks, which provide drainage for the water that falls from the HoodS roofs during Japan's rainy seasons, not only differ in color and texture from the cut stone of the central hall platform but also from the white gravel that lies on the ground surrounding the HSodS. Even further variety of tex­ ture is achieved at the HSodS by having swirling patterns raked into the areas of white gravel. The interior of the HCSdS shows textural contrasts through the counterplay of the different surfaces of wood, mother- of-pearl, and metal. For example, just as surfaces of stone

are used in three different ways for contrast in the HSodd exterior—in cut form, as small rocks, and as gravel raked into swirling patterns—surfaces of wood are used in different 137

P la te XLIV Byodoin: Side View of Hoodo Tail Corridor 13$ ways in the HOffdff interior. In the joined-wood Amida statue (Plate XLV), for instance, the figure has a smooth texture, the swirling flame and cloud forms of a kohai (body halo) have a rough texture, and the canopy of wood overhead features a delicate texture. The enduring slickness of mbthBr-of-pearl is offset by uneven surfaces of embossed metal plates, now tar­ nished, and these two different materials contrast with the whitewashed surfaces of mud plaster walls. Thus, the utilization of different surfaces and materials on the outside and the inside of the H55do is further il­ lustrative of the principle of contrasts of texture in Japan­ ese architecture. A v a r i e t y o f d e s ig n i s a p p a re n t in t h e HSSdo r o o f s , w hich have different sizes, shapes, and pitches. Other parts of the building also show this quality of variety; the wing corri­ dors, for example, are constructed mainly of pillars, while the ta il corridor has walls with large openings.

The tail corridor itself shows diversification in these openings in two different ways. First of all, some openings are of bell-silhouette shape while others are rectangular. Secondly, the bell-silhouette openings are in walls between pillars, whereas the rectangular openings fill the space be­ tween the pillars (Plate XLIV). It might be noted, moreover, that there are different latticework designs within the two dissim ilar kinds of wall openings: one design has an uneven pattern of rectangles and the other has an even pattern. P la te XLY ByCdSin: Amida Statue and Canopy 140

Thus, the dissim ilarity of roofs, divergency among the three corridors, the different openings in the tail corri­ dor walls, and the unlike latticework designs within these openings provide further evidence of the principle of variety within Japanese architectural design® It has been demonstrated in the discussion of BySdSin and its main building, the H55d5, that principles which ap­ pear in Japanese architecture of the seventeenth century at the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku at Nishihonganji, Nij5-j5, and Katsura Rikyu monuments, the third century at Ise, and the seventh-century HSryuji also are apparent in Japanese archi­ tecture of the eleventh century. In the next chapter an at­ tempt w ill be made to show evidence of the principles at Japanese monuments of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, as represented by Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji, respectively. CHAPTER V II

KINKAKUJI AND GINKAKUJI

In 1397, or almost three and a half centuries after Michinaga had built his Uji V illa south of KySto, a second warlord, Ashikaga-no-Yoshimitsu, picked another site near Kyoto for his Kitayama (north mountain) V illa. He built it as a p la c e f o r h i s r e tir e m e n t. In 14*30, o r l e s s th a n a cen­ tury later, his grandson, Yoshimasa, constructed, a third residence near KySto. It was called Higashiyama (east moun­ tain) V illa and was modeled after the Kitayama V illa. Strangely enough, all these private mansions were later converted into Buddhist monasteries and given different names: U ji, of course, became known as By5d5in; Kitayama took the name Rokuonji and Higashiyama that of Jishoji. Rokuonji, however, is popularly called Kinkakuji, or Golden Pavilion Temple, and Jishoji is perhaps better known today as Ginkakuji, or Silver Pavilion Temple. Also like BySdoin and its HCddo, Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji are important from an architectural standpoint primarily be­ cause of their main buildings, the Golden and Silver Pavilions. The three monuments, however, are different: the Golden Pa­ vilion has three stories, the Silver Pavilion two ,and the HbSdo one. Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji were both built during 141 142 the Muromachi Period (1333-1573), and Munsterberg states: nOf all the monuments of Muromachi architecture, by far the most important is the Golden P avilion.B ut, the Silver Pavilion is regarded by Japanese architectural historians as "an extremely important example of Muromachi residential architecture."2 Both structures have had an almost miraculous survival. Half of KySto was destroyed during a civil war in the second half of the fifteenth century, and only the Silver Pavilion and another building remained at Higashiyama and Just the Golden Pavilion at Kitayama. The latter structure, how­ ever, was burned in 1950, but has since been rebuilt accord­ ing to its original design. Interestingly enough, the two monuments are located at the edges of KySto on forested mountain slopes that border the city on the east and west, and the visitor can reach either of them by taking a trolley which makes a loop around Kyoto. Kinkakuji lies to the northwest and overlooks a sec­ tion of Kyoto called Kamikybku, and Ginkakuji stands on a rise above the suburb of SakyBku to the northeast of KyTFto. Kinkakuji actually is situated on a small foothill, and the entrance to the temple grounds is through a tree-framed S3- mon (general gate) made of cut stone, wood, metal and tile . The S5mon leads to a large walled-in gravel court. Beyond the court is another gate and then a wide gravel road lined 1 Munsterberg, 2J*. c it., p. 119. 2 Pageant of Japanese Art. Vol. VI, c i t . , p . 119. 143 by trees on each side. After a long walk along the road, the visitor suddenly comes upon a magnificent sight: a large pond hollowed out on a level of the foothill, with the dazzling Golden Pavilion standing at one of its edges. The revelation is so spectacular that one is almost totally unaware of other temple buildings, which stand off to his right. The three-story Golden Pavilion is constructed of wood, plaster and paper, and as the name implies, is of golden color. Indeed, since it has only recently been rebuilt and gilted, it sparkles as burnished metal. The entire structure, which is elevated slightly above ground on wooden stilts, stands on a

small piece of ground that juts out into the pond. A large porch oh the front of the building faces the pond, and at­ tached to the side of the structure is a small tsuridono (pavilion over a pond) . A part of the second story is a balcony which is covered by one of the two thatch roofs of the building. Above is the third story, which is smaller than the other two, has bell-shaped window openings, and is capped by the second roof and the adornment of a golden phoenix. There is little within the building except two statues and religious trappings. To the rear of the pavilion is a path that leads up from the hollowed-out area of the pond to a large teahouse where Toshimitsu sipped tea and did ink paintings and calligraphy. The teahouse is rustic in appearance and contrasts sharply with the stately atmosphere that pervades below. To be sure, after one goes down the h ill from the teahouse and departs 144 from the temple grounds, he is left with the feeling that the warlord must have had a grand retired life. Directly across town, as mentioned above, is Ginkakuji in its sim ilar scenic mountain setting. It was here that Toshimasa, who was perhaps an even greater dilettante than his grandfather, YoshimitSu,^ patterned the Silver Pavilion after the Golden Pavilion.^ There is, however, only a super­ ficial resemblance between the two structures. The main building of Ginkakuji, for example, has the one less story and, contrary to what its name implies, is not of silver color. Nevertheless, in its modest way the Silver Pavilion is beautiful and elegant, and its quiet quality gives it a distinctive aura of its own when compared to the glimmering appearance of the Golden Pavilion.^ To get to Ginkakuji the visitor gets off the trolley at SakyCku and walks up a cobblestone road which inclines sharply above the KyCto suburb and ends at a leveled-off area fronted by a picturesque SSmon. The gate is framed by a tree-lined approach of whitewashed mud plaster walls. From in front of the gate one sees only a background of stone, bamboo and tree foliage. On the other side of the S£>mon, however, this com-

3 The Muromachi aristocracy, between the battles of the civil wars, engaged in poetry-writing contests, tea-tasting parties, and the study of Chinese masterpieces of painting and poreelain. Munsterberg, £ £ .. c it., p. 10$. 4 Ibid.. p. 120. The Silver Pavilion was to be covered with silver-leaf, following the idea of the Golden Pavilion, but this idea was not realized due to the death of Yoshimasa. Pageant of Japan­ ese Art. Vol. VI, cit., p. 1 1 4 . 145 position is discovered to be part of a majestic-looking wall that forces the visitor to turn right and walk along a wide gravel path. At what appears to be a deadend the pathway makes a 90-degree turn left through a Chumon ipto a court with an earthenwork wall on one side and temple of­ fice buildings on the other. The path parallels the wall for a short distance and then angles toward the center of the court where it is bordered on each side by gardens with bushes', trees, and ground designs raked in white sand. ; Angular stones are inset in the center of the path which then leads to a window in a gate at the far end of the court. Through the window opening the visitor can catch a glimpse of the inner garden of the temple* Two large and unusual sculpture-like forms stand in b ril­ liant white sand on the other side of the gate, and at the entrance of the inner garden. One is called Ginshanada (Sil- ver-sand-seas), and it juts out at one end toward the other, Kogetsudai (M oon-indication-platform). Beyond Ginshanada and Kogetsudai is an irregularly shaped pond, which is surrounded by small trees and bushes and spanned by occasional bridges that are formed from huge stone slabs. The exquisite Silver Pavilion, which like the Golden Pavilion is constructed of wood, plaster and paper, stainds at one edge of the pond, and the entire structure, again like the Golden Pavilion, is raised above ground and has thatch roofs. The lower story has a veranda on the front; the upper one has a surrounding balcony 146 and bell-shaped openings in its walls, and the top of the building, like the Golden Pavilion, is ornamented with the sculpture of a phoenix. Inside the first story is a plat­ form with an altar, and on the second a Buddhist figure. In the following paragraphs an attempt w ill be made to further demonstrate the eleven tentative principles of Japan­ ese architecture by pointing out specific details of the Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji monuments. Kinkakuji is located on a small h ill at the edge of the outlying d istrict of KamikyTSku in KyCto, and the main build­ ing of the temple, the Golden Pavilion, stands by itself at the edge of the pond which is scooped out of the crest of the h ill (Plate XLVI). The pond, of course, is reached only after a long walk from the entrance of the temple (Plate XLVII). Similarly, Ginkakuji, on the other side of Kyoto, is located on a mountain slope—at the end of ah inclined road leading up from the residential area of SakyCku. The Silver Pavilion also stands at the edge of a garden pond (Plate XLVIII), which, like the Golden Pavilion, lies beyond gates and at the end of paths leading from the entrance (Plate XLIX). Thus, the main buildings of' these two monasteries provide outstanding examples of the principle, of isolating the structure in Japanese archi­ t e c t u r e . The first floor plans of both, pavilions are longer than they are wide; that of the Golden Pavilion has the shape of one large.rectangle and that of the Silver Pavilion is com- 147

-Asahi Shiribunsha

P la te XLVI Kinkaktgi: Birdseye View of Golden Pavilion -Asaili Shinbunsha

Plate XLVII Kinkakuji: Somon Plate XLVIII Ginkakuji: Ground Plan (A) SSmon, (B) Middle Court, (C) Temple Offices, (D) Ginshanada, (E) Ko­ getsudai, and (F) Silver P a v ilio n P la te XLIX G in k a k u ji: Somon 151 prised of several rectangular areas (Plate L). The front ele­ vation of the Silver Pavilion shows a complex design of ortho­ gonal shapes (Plates LI and LII ), and so does the Golden Pa­ vilion (Plate LIII). The design of the Silver Pavilion is slightly different, however, due to its having one less story. Notwithstanding the dissim ilarity, there is not a square shape to be found in either building. Thus, the two monuments supply further evidence of the principle of the rectangle as a basic shape in the design of Japanese buildings. The two temples are either located on a h ill or incline, and, in addition to that, their pavilions are elevated above ground. The Golden Pavilion, for example, stands on wooden posts, while the elevated position of the Silver Pavilion is revealed by openings for ventilation in the skirt-w alls under­ neath the building. Thus, the two pavilions furnish additional illustrations of the principle of elevating the structure in

Japanese architecture. The Golden Pavilion stands in a clearing in an otherwise heavily forested area. In addition, the building has openings in its sides to provide for a free passage of air through it (Plate LTV); the edifice has no interior walls and, in fact, little within it. The first story contains only a statue, that of Yoshimitsu, with a few religious trappings. Another statue is the only object on the second story and an altar, two small

stands and incense burners are the sole items on the third story. The Silver Pavilion also is located in an open space sur­ rounded by trees and likewise has openings that allow air to 152

F ig u re 1 First Floor

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P la te L

Ginkakuji: Silver Pavilion Floor Plans Asahi Shinbunsha

P la te LI Ginkakuji: Silver Pavilion Exterior F ig u re 1 Front Elevation

F ig u re 2 Side Elevation

P la te L II Ginkakuji: Silver Pavilion Elevations -Asahi Shinbunsha

P la te L III Kinkakuji: Golden Pavilion Front Elevation -Asahi Shinbunsha

P la te LIV Kinkakuji: Golden Pavilion Detail 157 flow freely through it. Inside the buildings are only the sparse contents of a platform with an altar on the first story and a dais with a seated Buddha on the second. Thus, these two Muromachi monuments further reflect the open quality as a principle of Japanese architecture. The roofs of both pavilions are of thatch which is trimmed so that the lines at the eaves are gently curved, being shal­ low in the middle and sweeping upward at the corners. The various stories of both pavilions are dominated by the roofs because of the wide overhanging eaves. Exposed ends of rafters- contribute their rhythmic patterns to the total roof composi­ tion, and the top roof of each structure is adorned by the figure of a phoenix. Thus, both buildings provide examples of the principle of the roof as a vehicle of artistic expression. At Kinkakuji the visitor has a long line of sight across the court behind the SSmon; at Ginkakuji he has the surprising view of the background from outside the entrance gate. Inside the entrance to Kinkakuji, one is forced to turn at the end of a walled-in court, and go through an inner gate and along a wide road before sighting the Golden Pavilion, which stands conspicuously at the edge of a pond. At Ginkakuji the visitor also is fortfed to make a sharp turn, just inside the Somon, He then is confronted with an apparent deadend in the pathway (Plate LV) but discovers he can make a 90-degree turn to enter an inner court. *rom the center of this court he catches the stunning view of the inner garden through the window in the 158

P la te LV Ginkakuji: Entrance Passageway 159 gate at the end of the court (Plate LVI). On the other side of the gate the visitor sees the bold sculptural forms of

Ginshanada and Kogetsudai (Plate LVII), and he must go around these to get to the Silver Pavilion. Both the Golden and Silver Pavilions are structures of audacious design with none of the stories alike, although the total design of each building is a harmonious one. The two temples and their elements thus offer a number of examples which support the principle of boldness in Japanese architec­ tural design. Decoration forms an integral part of the architectural schemes of the two structures. First of all, there are the elegant roofs and figures of phoenixes which adorn the tops of both pavilions. Secondly, the bell-shaped openings on the top floors of each have fanciful shapes and, third, the constructional elements of both buildings are a part of the total adornment. Confirming th is, Kishida comments: the structural members are at the same time ornamental members of a building."^ Finally, the Golden Pavilion, of course, has the sparkling gold leaf embellishing it. Thus, both the Golden and Silver Pavilions further demonstrate the principle of a decorative quality in Japanese buildings. The foliage of trees blends in with the architectural elements at the entrance to Kinkakuji (Plate XLVII) and at 6 Kishida, cit.. p. 15. -Asahi Shinbunsha

P la te LVI Ginkakuji: Gate to the Inner Garden -Asahi Shinbunsha

Plate LVII Ginkakuji: Ginshanada and Kogetsudai 162

Ginkakuji trees grow out of small holes cub into the tightly packed stones on each side of the approach. Inside the SSmon of the latter temple the trees are trimmed so as to form pseudo­ walls, and in the inner garden Ginshanada and Kogetsudai sym­ bolize nature by their forms, which represent, respectively, the seas and the mountains of the world. Both pavilions stand at the edges of ponds. At the Silver Pavilion only a narrow band of rocks and a large stepping- stone (for getting into the building) lie between the structure and the water. In contrast, the Golden Pavilion stands on a little area of ground which extends out into the pond that, in fact, runs underneath part of the structure, the tsuridono. Consequently, Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji provide additional evi­ dence of the principle of interpenetration between nature and the structure in Japanese architecture. The mass of the Golden Pavilion and its pond is balanced by the mass of the remainder of the temple buildings, and the high tsuridono on one side of the edifice is offset by a low stone platform on the opposite side. The middle court of Ginkakuji is so divided by the path (Plate LVIII) that there are four unequal parts, the largest of which is balanced by the total area of the other three. The inner garden of Ginkakuji has the area containing the dissim ilar shapes of Ginshanada, Kogetsudai, and a small part of the pond toward the north, counter-balanced by the area of the pond and pavilion toward the south. Moreover, the Silver -Asahi Shinbunsha

Plate LVIII Ginkakuji: View of the Court 164 Pavilion has at one of its corners a protuberance that is offset by an inset porch on a corner opposite it (Plates

L and LII). Thus, the two pavilions illustrate further the principle of asymmetrical balance. dt the SSmon of Kinkakuji textures of tile , wood, metal, and cut stone contrast to those of gravel and tree foliage. In the pavilion itself is a variety of textures achieved throug* the use of many patterns of the wooden members of the building, the huge rocks, cut stones, and water of the pond. The same textures evident at the Kinkakuji SSmon are apparent also at the Ginkakuji SSmon, but the surroundings of the latter in­ clude the additional surfaces of rocks, bamboo, and white­ washed mud plaster walls. The pathway immediately inside the gate has the various surfaces of gravel, stone, bamboo, and foliage of trees and hedges. In the court are teartures of cut stone inset in the path, bushes, trees, white gravel in gardens, and the earthenwork walls, all contracting with each other. Both pavilions have the thatch roofs, whose surfaces are in contrast with those of wood, plaster, and paper used in other parts of the buildings."^ These illustrations show Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji to have an abundance of examples of the principle of contrasts of texture. The Golden Pavilion has the singular tsuridono on one side, and each of the three stories of the building is different. Also, the front of the building has huge rocks at its base, compared with a cut stone ledge at the side. The pathway y Paper has been replaced by white translucent glass in the nefwly-constructed Golden Pavilion as a precaution, pre­ sumably, against further burnings. 165 inside the Ginkakuji entrance has bamboo on oneside but a hedge on the other, and each of the areas divided by the path in the court has a different design. Ginshanada and Kogetsudai are different from each other, of course, and the Silver Pa­ vilion has two dissim ilar stories. Thus, Kinkakuji and Gin­ kakuji effectively demonstrate variety in their buildings and g ro u n d s.

SUMMARY:

It was the purpose in the chapters of Part Two to show that the eleven so-called tentative principles listed at the g end of Part 0ne were evident also in buildings which predate those of the Momoyama Architectural Style. In Chapter IV, for example, it was shown that these principles, which were ob­ served in seventeenth-century Japanese monuments, also were evident in the earliest existing type of Japanese architecture, a Shinto shrine of the third century. In Chapter V it was demonstrated that the principles again were manifest at a totally different type of ionument, HbryHji, a Buddhist temple of the seventh century. This was found to be the case also in Chapters VI and VII at the eleventh-century HbSdO and the Golden and Silver Pavilions of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Thus, it is clear from the monuments discussed in Parts One and Two that the eleven principles ap­ pertain to Japanese ardhitecture from the third to the seven­ teenth centuries, or a period of 1400 y e a r s . 8 > P» 72. 166 As at the end of Part One, however, it is apparent that ad­ ditional characteristics can be applied to Japanese architec­

ture—two stand out in particular: ( 1 ) veneration for the

past, and ( 2 ) the element of mystery as an artistic device. At this point a review w ill be made of all monuments examined thus far to confirm the presence of these two characteristics in their structures. Veneration for the past naturally is suggested by the shrines of Ise, which are^newly rebuilt every twenty years according to a third-century design. Veneration also is evident at HSryilji, whose Sai-in structures remain basically unchanged after 1300 years. In the H05d5 of BybdOin the plan derives from a good luck symbol of ancient Oriental mythology, the phoenix. The Golden and Silver Pavilions are revered as remnants of the fabulous villas of Kitayama and Higashiyama. The Great Shoin and Hiunkaku also demonstrate admiration for the past because they were saved from old castle-palaces, dismantled, and moved to their present locations and reconstructed. And, most of the seventeenth-century buildings of Nij5-jS and Katsura RikyTt still stand in immaculate condition at their original loca­ tions, finally, it is significant that the Japanese government ■a ' classifies all of these monuments as National Treasures. The use of mystery as an element for effect is evident in the design of Ise Naiku where the worshiper walks through a

garden and forest to the enclosure of the sanctuary but cannot enter to see its main building, the Honden. The quality of the unknown is apparent also at HSryuji where the worshiper can see the KffdS from the front of the main enclosure of Sai-in, but he cannot gain aecess to the building through the entrance, Chumon. At T5-in, he can go into the Yumedono but not see its precious contents (the statue of Prince ShBtoku, which is termed a hibutsu, or secret statue), except upon rare occasion.^ In the H55d5 plan there is the question of the emptiness of the ta il corridor until one realizes that the corridor functions only as a part of the giant phoenix symbol. Other examples of the element of mystery appear at the Sdraons of Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji where the apparent deadends in pathways keep the visitor in doubt of what to expect next. The Great Shoin has adjoining apartments usually hidden from the main audience chamber by closed fusumaT and the unusual three-story design of Hiunkaku causes wonderment for the viewer. The buildings of Nij5-jb are hidden behind a maze of moats and walls, and Katsura Rikyu has its teahouses screened by various elements in the large garden around the central pond. Since it is apparent that early Japanese architects utilized mystery as a device in the planning of their structures and tried to incorporate the spirit of the past in their works, these traits also should be given the title of tentative prin­ ciples and be included with those listed at the end of Part One. Consequently, the list of principles w ill be expanded to

include all of the following: 1. Isolation of the building

9 Doors of the closet housing the statue are opened once or twice a year to air the interior. 2 . The rectangle as a basic shape in buildings 3. The elevated position of the structure

4. Open quality of the building 5. The roof as a vehicle of artistic' expression

6 . B oldness 7. Decorative quality Interpenetration between nature and the structure 9. Asymmetrical balance 10g, Contrasts of texture 11. Variety within a structure

1 2 . Veneration for the past 13. The element of mystery as an artistic device In Part Three an attempt w ill be made to show that the thirteen principles persisted in Japanese structures built after all those examined thus far. Two monuments have been selected for this phase of the study: TSshogu, which was begun in the first quarter of the seventeenth century, and M eiji-jingu, which was built in 1921 but burned during World War II and rebuilt in 195#. PART THREE

LATE JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE

169 CHAPTER V III

tosh Cgu

T5sh5gu was founded as a mausoleum in 1616, according to terms of the w ill of Ieyasu, the same Tokugawa shSgun who al­ lowed Tomohito, the adopted son of Hideyoshi, to retain pos­ session of Katsura Rikyu. In 1617, the year after Ieyasu died, he was deified as Tdshogu Daigongen, or Great Mani­ festation of the Buddha Resplendent in the Eastern Region,^ and his son, Hidetaka, ordered the start of construction of th e ToshSgjG b u ild in g s . T h is was d u rin g t h e Genna E ra (1615- 23). The task of completion, however, was left to the grand­ son, Iemitsu, for the most part, and this was accomplished 2 i n 1 6 3 6 . The appearance of the shrine today is much the same as when it was completed. The buildings of TSshBgjQ are located about ninety miles north of Tokyo in the Nikko National Park. The park en­

compasses a tremendous area of 2 0 6 ,6 6 5 acres of mountains, forests, rivers, waterfalls and lakes. The shrine itself stands on a site of four levels on the side of a mountain just north of Nikko-machi (Nikk5-town), a city in the main part of the park. As ToshogG lies near NikkS-machi, it is sometimes referred to as The Shrine at NikkS.

1 Munsterbejrg, cit.. p. 160. A mausoleum for Iemitsu, Daiyuin, was built about eighteen years later; it stands west of Toshogu. 170 At the entrance to T5sh5g$ is a huge granite to rii (a ShinfS symbol) and beyond it on the first level a ta ll five- story pagoda (a Buddhist symbol). At the edge of the next level is an Omotemon, or front gateway, to a large court. On one side of it stand two Sacred Storehouses of Buddhism, and on the other, a Shint? Stable for Sacred Horses and a guards* station. Beyond these is Suibansha (pavilion of sacred fountain), another to riir and a Ky3d5 (library of Buddhist sutras). Steps lead up to a K5r5 (drum tower) and a Sh5r5 (bell tower) on a third level. At the edge of the fourth and highest level is a Ydmeimon (sunbright-gate) Walls branch off from the gate and encircle a court within which are two stages for ShintB ceremonial dances, a GomadB (hall for esoteric Buddhist services), and an inner court that houses the Honden, the inner sanctuary of TSshogiu. The monument of Toshogu is unusual, for as Munsterberg states: nA new style of building was created to do honor to the deity (Ieyasu), and the result was buildings which were a mixture of' a Buddhist temple, a ShintS shrine, and a stupa - tomb. One will frequently find a small ShintS shrine in the vicinity of a Buddhist temple, but nowhere in Japan is there another monument which combines these three discordant features from two different religions. 3 Another name is Higurashimon (tw ilight-gate), imply­ ing one wishes to inspect it until overtaken by tw ilight. Japgn: O fficii GjiidS., &&. £i£.., p. 416. 4 Munsterberg, qjt* cit., p. 160. 172 To get to Toshogu the visitor w ill catch a train in T5kfro, and after a three-hour ride, w ill get off at Nikko station in the eastern part of this small city. He then w ill walk about a mile to Mishi-machi (also called Iri-machi, or entering-town), which is the name of the western section of Nikko. There he w ill turn northward and soon come to some wide stone steps that lead up to the huge granite to riif the ShintS symbol which marks the entrance to T5sh5gii. The huge to rii stands at the forward edge of the first level of the shrine site, and beyond it is a wide pavement that leads through an open area. To the left of the pavement t^he visitor w ill see the ta ll five-story pagoda, and he w ill stop briefly to admire the beauty of this Buddhist symbol. He then w ill proceed further along the pavement to some steps that lead up to the large roofed Omotemon on the next level. The gate is adorned with a Tokugawa crest and beautiful carvings. Walls with more carvings flank the gate. The pave­ ment continues beyond Omotemon, then makes a 45-degree turn to the left because some buildings are directly ahead. These, are the Sacred Storehouses of Buddhism. The visitor can view only their sides from this point, but after walking a short

* . distance, he will see the entrances to the buildings. At the same time, he w ill see other buildings: the Stable for Sacred

Horses and Guards 1 Station on his left, and the Sacred Foun­ tain, Suibansha, and the KySdo directly ahead. In the center 173 of this area is a huge bronze to riif and the pavement turns again at this point. From the bronze to rii the pavement leads to a long series of wide stone steps, at the top of which is the third level of the shrine grounds. On this level are the K5r$ and ShSrS, and two towering cedars, which frame another series of steps that lead up to the fabulous roofed Yomeimon at the front edge of the fourth and highest level. Walls emanate from TSmeimon to encircle a rectangular court that contains the stages for S&ih&o dancing, one opposite the other, the hall for Buddhist services and the inner court where the Honden is located. This court within a court is of rectangular shape and has a roofed gate, called Karamon, with doors which are usually closed. On them one can see carvings of Japanese apricots and bamboo in relief along the borders* and apri­ cots, chrysanthemums and peonies in the panels. A tama- gaki (sacred fence) branches out from the Karamon to en­ circle the court-and hide from view a precious building which has three parts: a Haiden (outer sanctuary), a closed passageway called Ishi-no-ma (stone room) and a Honden (in­ ner or main sanctuary). A covered approach leads from the Karamon to the Haiden, which has five steps of metal in front, of it because,the structure is elevated on wooden posts. Inside the Haiden 174 are richly decorated interiors with lacquered pillars en­ cased in brass settings, sudare (rattan blinds) bordered by embroidered bands of silk and g ilt thread, ramma of in tri­ cately carved tree-and-bird designs, and coffered ceilings with golden dragons painted upon blue backgrounds. At the rear of the Haiden three copper-plated steps lead down to the Ishi-no-ma. Opposite than are five sim ilar steps, and these are in front of the Honden, which is elevated higher than any other shrine building. The Honden has a hipped-and-gabled roof which is adjoined to the Ishi-no-ma and Haiden roofs. However, it has filjAgi. and katsuoci on its ridge, and carvings of phoenixes and heads of tapirs at the gables and along the eaves. As at Ise, the doors to the Hon­ den are closed, but if one could see inside he would find the Honden interior divided into three areas: Naijin (in­ ner chamber) to the front, Heiden (chamber of goheif cut paper symbol) in the middle, and Nai-Naijin (innermost chamber) in the rear. The decoration of the Naijin is much like that of the Haiden; the embellishment of the Heiden is a little richer, however. In the center of this middle chamber is an altar covered with a luxurious fabric, and on top of it a sacred staff of gold gohel. Serving as a background for this Shinto symbol is a set of closed doors with panels of abstract designs. Above are sudare decorated with embroidered flowers 175 and colored tassels. Behind the doors is Nai-Naijin. In this innermost chamber is a small, resplendent, gold-lac­ quered shrine that serves as the abode of the TdshCgH deities, and surrounding it is decoration that is devcribed as being of the "highest workmanship."5 Only shrine priests can view it,fo r the ordinary TffshBgB. v isito r can go no further than the Karamon of the inner court. ■Across th e a re a from t h e in n e r c o u rt i s th e h ig h ly deco­ rated Tomeimon. It has an enormous roof decorated with tomoe- gawara. and under the roof are designs painted on brackets and sculptured groups of children, princes, sages and im­ mortals between the brackets. Elsewhere, carved lions adorn

lintels, sculptured dragons* heads decorate rafter-ends, and pillars have surface embellishment, sometimes carved upside- down. Walls flank lomeimon, as mentioned, and these have roofs decorated with more tomoeeawara and panels with carved designs of frolicking lions and swirling clouds. The YSmeimon walls encircle the fourth level where the Gomado stands with elaborate decoration of carved flowers to the sides of front steps, doors with panels of tiny designs^ and embossed metal plates on railings and railing- posts. On the levels below Yomeimon are sim ilarly decorated structures. Suibansha, for example, has a heavy curved roof with ridge ornaments containing abstract designs atop gable _ 5 J&paa- gh& official Saids, o s l. £ & . , p. 419. 176 carvings of flower, bird and cloud forms, and pillars and lintels decorated with brass plates of fanciful shapes. Also from TSmeimon the observer can see a variety of tex­ tures resulting from the use of many materials, as gravil in courts; cut stone in pavements, steps, platforms and walls; wood, painted and carved; metal in decorative plates, and ceramic in roof tiles. These varied tailored textures con­ trast to those of nature, as tree bark, leaf foliage, and rocks. The textures of the forms of nature within the T5- shbgu grounds also blend with the magnificent forested moun­ tains in the background to add to the beauty of the Toshogu monument. In addition to its overall architectural beauty, TQshSgh is often singled out as the most decorated monument in the entirety of Japanese architecture. And, it is the extreme ornateness which causes TSshogu to be viewed with mixed emotions; it is praised by some scholars while others criticize it. It should be pointed out, however, that most of the critics are Western s c h o l a r s . ^ The Japanese themselves have the saying "Nikkb o minai de kekka to iunai,"? for which Kishida*s free translation is "donrt use the word magnifi­ ed cent until you*Ve seen Nikko.” Even the distinguished 6 Soper, for example, says "the tangled luxuriance has the smell of autumn,” while Drexler states "...a decline in taste,” and Munsterberg: "...not only vulgar in its ostenta­ tion, it is completely unsatisfactory from an architectural point of view." 7 Asahi Photograph Series #53, "NikkS (Tbkyb: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1957)," p. 9* 8 K ish id a , 2£ , c i t . , p . 49. Western scholar, Soper, admits "the ultimate effect on the observer is not too different from that made by the Ise Shrines,and these are generally acknowledged to be one of the high points in Japanese architecture. Despite specific disagreements by scholars about its general aesthetic effect, ToshSgd is regarded by nearly all of them to be a grand achieve­ ment, mainly because of this same abundance of decoration. The roofs, for example, might be described as excessively lavish, but at the same time they reflect an extraordinary amount of artistic craftsmanship. Even walls of the shrine reveal a sig­ nificant degree of creative effort. Indeed, most of the struc­ tures display this quality for they represent the efforts of thousands of persons conscripted from all parts of Japan to build the shrine deifying Ieyasu.^® Thus, since the shrine is controversial and yet belowed by the Japanese people, it seems a worthy subject for this stage of the investigation. The de­ tails of the T5sh5gu monument now w ill be examined in an at­ tempt to provide still further evidence of the thirteen so- called tentative principles of Japanese architecture. The TSshSgu Honden is located on the fourth and highest level of the shrine grounds and is located in a court within a court, with each surrounded by a wall (Plate LIX). Y5«*imon stands at the front edge of the fourth level and serves to set it apart from the three lower levels. The bronze to rii 9 S o p e r, o]3, c it.. p. 274. 10 Pageant of Japanese Art, Vol. VI, ££. c i t . . p. 134. ,1______—______I

P la te LIX TBshCgG: Ground P lan (A) Entrance Torii. (B) Pagoda,(C) Qmote mon, (D) Sacred Storehouses. (Ej Sta­ ble for Sacred Horses, (F) Sui- bansha, (G) Yomeimon, and (H) the Honden 179 and wide stone steps of the second level set that area of TSshdgQ apart from the one fronting YBmeimon, the third level. Omotemon and flanking walls isolate the second level from the first, and the huge granite entrance torii at the edge of the first level sets the entirety of the shrine grounds apart from Nishi-machi, which is reached only after a long walk from the Nikko station. Thus, Tffshogu is a notable example of the prin­ ciple of isolating the structure in Japanese architecture. As at Ise, the court of the TffshSgu Honden has a rectangular shape. And, the TdshSgu sanctuary court also contains three buildings though they are joined together. Nevertheless, all— Haiden, Ishi-no-ma, and Honden— have rectangular plans; like­ wise do Gomado, YSmeimon, Suibansha, the Sacred Storehouses, Stable for Sacred Horses, Guards’ Station, and Omotemon. Consequently, It is evident that Toshbgu provides a variety of examples of the principle of the rectangle as a basic shape in the buildings of Japanese architecture. Like Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji, TSshBgH is located on a mountain slope, and thus the entire site is elevated. Also, within the site itself are the four levels, each of which is successively higher than the one before. The first is beyond the entrance to rii. the next is behind Omotemon, and the third and fourth are in front and in back of YSmeimon. The view beyond the to rii on the second level shows that the Stable for Sacred Horses and the Guards* Station are raised above ground (Plate LX), and it is evident in the P la te LX

T5sh5ga: Bronze Torii and Guards* Station l & L walls flanking YSmeimon that even minor architectural ele­ ments have features of support (Plate LXI). Finally, as in­ dicated by the steps which lead up to it, GomadS is elevated above ground (Plate LXII). Thus, TbshB^X in its entirety is an outstanding example of the principle of elevating the structure in Japanese architecture. The Honden, as its court indicates, stands in a clearing on a forested mountain (Plate LXIII). The second level is also in a large clearing and reveals a spacious quality about it (Plate LXIV). V.'ithin the Haiden there is another instance of an openness, for outside of a few displayed articles be­ longing to Ieyasu the area is empty (Plate LXV). Moreover, the interior areas can be expanded by means of the sudare. which are rolled up in hot humid weather to allow air to freely circulate throughout the buildings, and sometimes outer panels of the sacred buildings are removed for the same reason, and at this time the inner area of a building is linked with that of the outside. Thus, the open clearings in the forest, the f l e x i b i l i t y f o r openness i n th e i n t e r i o r s o f t h e TffshBgQ buildings, and the linking of the outside with the inside serve to support the principle of an open quality. The roofs of TSshBgu buildings, perhaps better than any­ thing else, show why scholars have mixed emotions about this monument, for the roofs indeed, with their lavish decoration, present amazing sights. At the same time, however, TSshBgd roofs reveal the same qualities evident in all earlier P la te LXI T5sh<5gu: Ifcmeimon Flanking Wall Plate LXII TSshogvi: GomadS 1S4

-Asahi Shinbunsha

Plate LXIII

T5sh5gu: Honden P la te LXIV TSshCgu: Second Level Towards TCmeimon -Asahi Shinbunsha

P la te LXV TSshogu: Haiden Interior 137 structures; that is, each roof dominates its substructure, has variety within its makeup, and shows a manipulation of line. At Suibansha, for example, the heaviness of the roof dom­ inates the supporting pillars; this is magnified further by the abundance of embellishment which includes tomoegawara. ridge ornaments, and elaborate decoration of the gables, where there is curvature of the roof line (Plate LXVI). The ShorU, which is to the left and front of YSmeimon, presents a sim ilar picture with its tremendous roof overpowering the substructure, both from the standpoint of size and plentiful garnishment. The same qualities are contained in the roof of the Honden, where lower parts of the building are subordinated to the roof, which is of the elegant irimoya style of hipped-and-gable shape. The Honden roof also displays variety by its chigj and katsuogi and decoration of the gables. Also to be noted about the Hon­ den roof is the graceful curvature of its lines. Thus, ToshSgS is literally overflowing with illustrations of the principle of the roof as a vehicle of artistic expression. The plan -of Toshogu shows bold conception in the placement of various buildings of the shrine on different levels and by placement of the most important building, the Honden, on the highest level. To get to this upper area the worshiper must enter the huge granite entrance torii (the largest of its kind ip Japan) and go through the Omotemon, where the wide stone

pavement veers to the left because of the Sacred Storehouses which stand directly ahead. At the end of the angled stretch i&e

• i

•tzg

P la te LX\TI TSshOgQ: Suibansha 189 of pavement is Suibansha, the location of which almost forces the visitor to stop and wash his hands at the fountain like the worshiper would do anyway. The second huge to rii stands audaciously on the second level, and slightly beyond it are the stone steps that lead to the next level, which has the fanciful Y5*»imon. YSmeimon, of course, displays the bold decoration of its carved lions, dragons, and depictions of other forms of life. Thus, the overall plan of TffshCgS, the huge entrance to rii, the angled pathway, and the decorative Yomeimon are further substantiations of the principle of boldness in Japanese architecture. Munsterberg writes of TSshOgil: "the whole of the shrine complex was executed with garish splendor, and every part was embellished with the most elaborate sculptural detail. "H Of the thousands of persons who worked at the shrine during the long years of its construction,^ many were artists and sculp­ tors who were drafted from all parts of the country. They created decoration which, according to Kishida, "gives perfect expression to the high standard of technical development achieved in the applied arts at the beginning of the Edo (Toku- gawa) P e r i o d . "13 Certainly, TSshSgu has some of the most decorated edifices upon the islands of Japan. Among the TgshbgS architectural elements which show con­ siderable embellishment are the walls flanking Yomeimon, the 11 Munsterberg, aa. c it., p. 160.

' In the first stages of construction 127,000 persons were employed.Reportedly, 4 , 5 4 1 ,2 3 0 persons worked on the shrine before completion.Asahi Photograph Series#53rop.c it.« p. 16. 13 K ish id a , 0£ . c i t . , p . 50. 190 gate itself, and the interior of the Haiden. Yomeimon, for example, has designs painted on brackets and sculptured groups of tiny figures below them (Plate LXVTI). Also, there are carved lions which adorn the lintels, and surface patterns are inscribed on the pillars of the gate. On the walls adjacent to Yomeimon is a sim ilar profusion of decoration, as there is in the Haiden, which has handsome ceilings and luxurious sudare with elaborate embroiderwork. Also in the Haiden and its adjoining buildings is an enormous amount of gold leaf, which is abundantly used throughout the shrine buildings.^ Thus, there is at T5sh3gQ a preponderance of examples of the principle of a decorative quality. TdshSgu, of course, is built on the m ulti-level clearing within a dense forest, and Soper states the forest background provides "a serene depth of shadow into which their (the Nikko buildings) sinks without an echo.Indication of the flow be­ tween nature and architecture is seen further at Suibansha, for example, where the yawning opening between the huge trees on each side of the structure tiessifefi architecture into the forest background. Trees in the small court of the Honden to the side and rear of the building blend in with the chigi. katsuogi. lines of the roof tiles, and the pillar construction of the building itself. Two large cedars tower over the front of Yo­ meimon and tend to tie the entire temple grounds with the trees which surround the site. Thus, Tosh3g3 provides additional 14 Some 2 , 4 ^9 ,0 0 0 sheets of gold leaf, whose total area would cover nearly six acres, are said to have been used. Japan: The O fficial Guide, op. c i t . , p. 41&. 15 S o p er, a a , c i t . , p . 274. Plate LXVII TSshCgd: D etail of YSmeimon 192 examples of the principle of interpenetration between nature and the structure in Japanese architecture. On the other side of the entrance to rii the pagoda stands to the left of the stone pavement, while the area opposite it is empty. A short distance away is the Omotemon, which is placed off-center in flanking walls. In the area beyond Omotemon, the second level, the masses of buildings on the left side of the pavement are balanced by those on the right side. Ifcmeimon has a longer stretch of wall on its left than on the right, and the level which the gate fronts, the fourth, is larger on one side than the other. Moreover, the two stages for ceremonial dances on the fourth level are not in equal balance with each other. Thus, TSshogQ affords several examples of the principle of asymmetrical balance in Japanese architectural design. The tailored textures of the T3sh75gQ buildings offer a sym­ phony of contrasts. Suibansha, for example, shows the various textures of wood, metal, and tile which are in contrast with the rough textures of bark and foliage of surrounding trees. The second level of the shrine has stone patterns of two kinds— pebbles and the cut stone of the pavement and walls—and there is the horizontal pattern of stone steps contrasting to the vertical design of stone railings. On the fourth level the Goraado also contains textural contrasts in the wood, metal at­ tachments, patterns within door panels, the cut stone pavement, and the large pebbles within the court. The interior of the Haiden has a floor of tatami whose 193 plain woven surfaces are in contrast with the simulated walls of the complicated surfaces of sudare. and the ceiling differs from the surfaces of tatami and sudare because of its coffered pattern with painted dragons. The outside of the Honden places the regularity of the tile lines of its roof against the irregularity of foliage forms in the surrounding trees, and the linear pattern of the roof is in contrast to stones in the court below which has a texture not unlike that of heavy grit sandpaper. Thus, Toshogu presents numerous examples of the principle of contrasts of texture. The entrance to ril is made of granite, but the to rii on the second level is of bronze. The panels in the walls flanking Y 5 - meimon have dissim ilar compositions, and the gate itself displays diversity, for no two designs are the same among the sculptured groupds between the roof brackets. On the lintels and pillars are the carvings of the lions, which have dissim ilar postures and expressions: one lion is shown chasing another, which is glancing back at its pursuer, and another lion is seemingly snarling, while still another has its mouth open in the manner of a full roar. The Yomeimon pillars offer an additional example of di­ versification: the Sakasabashira (inverted column), or Moyoke- no-Bashira (evil-averting column), has its volute decoration carved upside down purposely, recalling Drexler*s observation about unusual design at Ise Naikd.^ Thus, it is evident that 16 S u p ra , p . 94. 194 T5sh5gQ has a number of examples of the principle of variety with the structures of Japanese architecture. Several elements of the seventeenth-century Tosh5gQ i l ­ lustrate a veneration for the past. The huge entrance to rii. for example, traces its shape all the way back to those of the third-century Ise. The pagoda, moreover, is reminiscent of the one at seventh-century HSryuji. Likewise are the tomoegawara. which are seen on most of the ToshSgu roofs, and the irimova roof of YSmeimon, whose shape is sim ilar to the KondS and KSd5 roofs. Finally, the chigi and katsuogi on the roofs of the T5- shogu Honden are seventeenth-century extensions of those of the

Ise Honden. Consequently, T 5 sh$gu presents noteworthy examples of the principle of a veneration for the past. From in front of the entrance to rii at TCshSgQ one can see a ll the way to the Sacred Storehouses beyond Omotemon. Though the tall five-story pagoda is just inside the entrance to rii, it stands back toward the left so one is not aware of it right away; he sees it only after entering the first level of the shrine grounds and walking a few yards along the pavement. From in front of Omotemon the visitor sees only the sides of the Sacred Storehouses, but beyond the gate he w ill discover Suibansha after the pavement makes a 45-degree turn. At Sui- bansha the pavement again turns and the visitor can see lomei- mon standing far above at the edge of the fourth level of the shrine. From the second level, however, the enormous detail of the gate cannot be seen, nor is there any indication of the 195 court behind. Within the court there is additional mystery because the Honden is hidden behind the Karamon and tamagaki. which form another court. The latter court and what is in it must remain a mystery to all except the Snperor of Japan and high priests of the shrine because it is not the privilege of ordinary worshipers to go beyond the Karamon and its fence, and, as Drexler states:^ For most Japanese it is not necessary to see what is hidden behind the fences. "I know not what lies w ithin,” the Priest SaigyS declared in a famous poem, "but I am in tears with gratitude."

The elem ent o f m y stery p e rv ad es TdshSgCt and th u s t h i s s h r in e is a further example of the use of mystery as an artistic device in Japanese architectural design. As demonstrated in the preceding pages, the principles which prevailed in Japanese architecture from the third to seventeenth centuries continued to be in evidence in later structures. In the next chapter an attempt w ill be made to determine whether the thirteen traits are also found in twentieth-century architecture. A monument that is considered a modern landmark of Japanese architecture w ill be observed in this phase of the study: the Meiji shrine, or Meiji-jingE, which was completed in 1953.

17 Drexler, op., c it., p. 3 2. CHAPTER IX

MEIJI-JING5

About 250 years after Ieyasu’s death, his Tokugawa sh3- gunate successors voluntarily returned control of the country to the Imperial Court in a move known as the Restoration of 1363. The sovereign at the time was Einperor M eiji, and the ensuing period, the Meiji Era (1363-1912), took his name. The 45-year reign of the illustrious Meiji was a significant one, for it was under his leadership that the foundations of modern Japan were laid. His achievements so greatly impressed the Japanese nation that when he died in 1912 plans immedi­ ately were launched to erect a shrine to his memory. The re­ sult was the Meiji shrine, or M eiji-jingu, located in Greater T5ky5. M eiji-jingu was completed in 1920, but much of the shrine was destroyed by fire in 1945. Plans were made for reconstruction soon after the fire, and the main Meiji build­ ings seen today were completed in 1953. Like Toshbgji, Meiji is a popular shrine visited by great numbers of persons each year. Unlike the shrine at Nikkb, however, the buildings of M eiji-jingS adhere closely to a pure Shintb style in contrast to the TdshSgu structures which combine elements from both Buddhist and Shintb architecture. 196 197 Meiji-jingG, in fact is the largest Shinto shrine to be built in recent times. The M eiji grounds are located in west-central T5ky5 and extend over an expansive area that includes the picturesque

Yoyogi forest consisting of over 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 tr e e s d o h a t ed:by w or­ shipers from all parts of Japan.^ The forest is bordered on three sides by a huge garden of iris, shade trees, and rolling lawns with ponds. It is called the Inner Harden and covers about 179 acres. A large neck of the upper Meiji grounds veers back into the central T5kyo district to the east to fonn the Outer Garden, which centers around the Meiji Manorial Art Gallery. This section is known internationally as the Sports Center of Japan, and concentrated within it are large baseball stadiums, volleyball and tennis courts, and swimming pools. The Meiji shrine itself stands in a clearing in the Yo- yogi forest. A wide gravel roadway cuts through the forest to the clearing. The roadway makes two 90-degree turns with a large to rii marking each turn. Finally, the forest thins out, and some stone steps lead up to a roofed entrance gate at the edge of te large clearing. A wall extends out from the gate to encircle a rectangularly shaped area that includes a large outer court of white gravel in the foreground. A 1 M eiji Shrine Office, Mei.ii Shrine (Tokyo: Otsuka K og eish a, n.d.), p. 4 . 19# cut stone pavement runs across the court to steps that lead up to a huge building elevated on a stone platform. The build­ ing is the Outer Haiden (also called Oratory Hall). A flank­ ing building and wall extends from each side of the Outer Haiden to screen a view of courts and three buildings toward the rear of the area: the Inner Haiden, Honden,and Treasure House. To reach the Meiji shrine the worshiper needs only to get on a train that encircles the central part of TOkyS. The route of the train passes through the park-like Meiji grounds. The worshipper w ill disembark, however, at the Harajuku station, near the southeastern corner of the Inner Garden, to make a more leisurely tour. After passing through the entrance to rii. he w ill walk along the gravel pathway that runs through the forest and soon w ill come to another wide pathway, which is marked by a second to rii. This to rii is the largest wooden structure of its kind in Japan. From the to rii the pathway, which is known as M eiji-jingu-sando, or Approach to the Meiji Shrine, runs for a short distance and then makes a 90-degree turn to the right. Slightly beyond the turn the worshiper sees a third to rii and a roofed entrance gate behind it. The gate is much like the ChUmon at HBryHji, and corridors, sim ilarly, branch out from each side of it to encircle a large outer court of the shrine.

Across the court is the Outer Haiden, which has emanating from it walls that hide an inner rectangular court, more 199 walls and two more courts. The Outer Haiden has a rectangular plan and stands boldly on a large stone platform. Fanciful brass fittings adorn its large wooden doors, which are usually open during daylight hours to expose rich woven hangings of sudare in their openings. The Outer Haiden is the closest point to which an ordinary worshiper can approach the most sacred building of the shrine, the Honden. On an annual cele­ bration day, however, privileged guests may sit around a temporary stage set up in a small inner court behind the

Outer Haiden to watch special dance performances by priests . 2 The ’’dance” court has roofed corridors on two sides of it and a building called the Inner Haiden on the third. A closed passageway links the Inner Haiden with the Honden. The sacred Honden towers over all other shrine buildings, for it is elevated the highest. Chigj and katsuogi decorating its ridge thus can be seen from outside all the walls around it. The Honden stands in an oddly-shaped court of its own with one other building, a Treasure House. Outside this deepest court is a fourth court which is U-shaped and extends all the way from the rear of the clearing to the Outer Court to envelop the Honden and its court, and the Inner Haiden and the corri­ dors around its small court. The Honden and the Treasure House stand peacefully on their holy site in their court within a court, and are sur- 2 The celebration is held on November 3rd, Eiaperor M eiji’s birthday, and the author had the rare delight of witnessing one of the dance performances. 200 rounded by the ta ll trees of the luxuriant Yoyogi forest. Both buildings are elevated on wooden pillars that set on plat­ forms of white gravel. The platforms have a stone step around than, and the surfaee of the cut stone contrasts with the fields of white gravel elsewhere in the court. The height of the Honden is emphasized even further by the soaring chigi at each end of the ridge. The chigi are decorated with shiny brass plates, and other, more elaborate, plates embellish the cornice. Gleaming white paint protects rafter-ends of both the Honden and the Treasure House and contrasts with the mellowed cypress walls of the two structures. The Honden court presents a picture of a small clearing within a large one. Only the two buildings stand in the smaller court, and the inner perimeter of the larger clearing can be seen through the open latticework of surrounding fences to give a feeling of openness. This is also so in the large Outer Court where an already spacious quality is magnified by the expansive front of the Outer Haiden. Only six slender pillars appear to hold up the tremendous roof of the building, and when the huge decorated doors are open, as they usually are during the day, one can see across the small inner court to the Inner Haiden and its curious roof. Roofs are a major part of the M eiji-jingil design for one is perhaps as conscious of them: as any other architectural

feature of the shrine. The Honden roof, of course, has the chigi andkatsuogiT but the Inner Haiden roof is no less unusual with its complicated compositions of hips, gables, and a karavg (Chinese-style) roof. Likewise the roof of the entrance gate stands out for it is large and has a graceful curvature along the eaves. The most striking aspect of the M eiji-jingu roofs, however, is their russet color which tends to make them appear even larger since they contrast rather than blend with the foliage of the Toyogi trees. The forest is an ever-present part of the atmosphere of the Meiji shrine, not only adding to the beauty and splendor of the monument but helping to give it an element of mystery. As one enters the grounds and walks along the gravel road that runs through the forest, he finds the trees luxuriant and somber, providing, in Hamaguchi’s words: "something wonderful."^ As the pathway makes its turns, the M eiji visitor wonders what he w ill see next. Adding to the feeling of pageantry are the various to rii. When the visitor sees the huge cypress torii that is the largest of its kind in Japan, he notes its size and medallion decoration. As he goes further and comes to the second to rii, the roofed entrance gate, and then--the large Outer Court and Outer Haiden, the impression of the magnitude of the shrine continues to build up and he is left with the feeling that the Meiji-jingEL buildings and„., grounds collectively represent one of the most sacred places in modern-day Japan.

3 Hamaguchi goes on to say: n,..we are given to forget instantly things like the squalidness of central T5ky5." R. Hamaguchi, "Cities, Forests, and Shrines (T5ky5: Shin- kenchiku. Vol. 34, March, 1959)," p. 4$. 202

The large Meiji shrine, as evidenced by the millions of worshipers who go there each year,**- has ranked as one of the holiest pilgrimage centers in Japan for more than a quarter of a century. This immense popularity, the quiet park-like set­ ting within the bustling TSkyo, and its fairly recent construc­ tion seemingly make this twentieth-century Shint<5 shrine an ap­ propriate monument for this investigation. Details of M eiji- jingu now w ill be considered in an attempt to show that prin­ ciples evident in monuments built before the twentieth century also appear in modern Japanese architecture. M eiji-jingu, as indicated, is located in a clearing in the forest of Yoyogi, and its main buildings are hidden behind a series of walls that surround several courts (Plates LXVIII, LXIX, and LXX). The Outer Haiden stands in the outermost court, and this building screens other courts and other parts of the shrine. The most important structure, the Honden, is located in the innermost court of the deepest reaches of the shrine, and it cannot be visited by the ordinary worshiper. M eiji-jingu thus provides another example of the principle of isolating the structure in Japanese architecture. The overall plan of M eiji-jingu is a complex composition made up of the rectangular shapes of courts and buildings. A11 the courts, including the small one enclosed by the Inner and Outer Haidens, are basically of rectangular form. In addition,

Eight million persons visit the shrine annually. Meiji Shrine O ffice, £»£• c i t .. p. 5. New Year’s Day alone a "mini­ mum” of two million visitors are expected at the Meiji shrine. "Kami Comeback," Time. December 2 9, 1961, pp. 47-4#. 203

Plate LXVIII M eiji-jingu: Ground Plan (A) Harajuku Station. (B) Sanctuary- Compound, and (c) Outer G arden F ig u re 1 F ig u re 2 1921 Design 195® Design

P la te LXIX M eiji-jingu: Plan of the Sanctuary Compound (A) Outer Haiden, and (B) Honden -Ofcsuka Kogeisha

P la te LXX M eiji-jingji: Birdseye View 206 since the plans of all of the buildings also have rectangular shapes, M eiji-jingu presents further examples of the principle of the rectangle as a basic shape in Japanese building design. Corridors around the outermost court and gates are raised to various heights on cut stone platforms. The Outer Haiden, as mentioned, also is elevated on a stone platform (Plate LX- XI). The Honden stands on a higher level than other buildings of the shrine, and its lower parts show a curious sort of ele­ vating arrangement (Plate LXXII). First there is a platform, with gravel on top, which is enclosed by a stone step. Next there are wooden posts which support the Honden veranda, and behind the posts is an odd-shaped concrete form that supports the pillars of the main part of the building. The Treasure House (Plate LXXIII) also is elevated but some­ what differently than the Honden. It, too, has a platform of gravel, though the platform is surrounded by two stone steps instead of one. Also, the Honden pillars rest directly on gravel whereas the Treasure House is held up by pillars, which have individual stone footings. Thus, it is evident from the build­ ings at M eiji-jingu that the principle of elevating a struc­ ture is apparent even in late Japanese architecture. M eiji-jingu, as pointed out, stands in a large clearing in a luxuriant forest, and the outer court is open except for a few scattered trees. From the outer court the worshiper can see the small inner court behind the Outer Haiden, and there is a free flow of space between the two areas. -Otsuka KSgeisha

Plate LXII M eiji-jingu: Outer Haiden -Otsuka KSgeisha

Plate LXXII M eiji-jingu: Honden -Otsuka Kogeisha

Plate LXXIII M eiji-jingu: Treasure House 210

To the rear of the small inner court and beyond the Inner

Haiden is the Honden, which stands with its Treasure House in the innermost court. This latter court has fences with open latticework in their upper parts to allow space to penetrate with that of the 0-shaped court outside. These illustrations from the Meiji-jingQ plan provide further evidence of the principle of an open quality in Japanese architecture. The roof of the entrance gate demonstrates once more the same three traits seen in roofs of earlier monuments: domina­ tion of the substructure, variety, and manipulation of line (Plate LXXIV). In addition, its metal surface (which deviates from the earlier ShintS convention of using thatch for roofs) is painted russet so that the roof is emphasized in contrast to the green foliage of trees in the background. The simply designed roof of the Outer Haiden is huge in contrast to smaller roofs on each side of it. The Inner Hai­ den has a more complicated roof design (Plate LXXV), which in­ cludes three parts: a karavg. a gabled roof immediately above, and the main roof. This complexity contrasts sharply with the relative sim plicity of the Honden roof whose most elaborate features are the ancient forms of chigi and katsuogi. The roof of the Treasure House is less complicated, although it still possesses the qualities of heaviness, variety, and curvature of its lines. Thus, M eiji-jingu offers further proof of the

principle of the roof as a vehicle of artistic expression. The cypress to rii at the beginning of the Sando is an -Otsuka Kogeisha

P la te LXXIV M eiji-jingu: Outer Gate and Court Otsuka K5geisha

P la te LXXV M eiji-jingu: Inner Haiden 213 imposing-looking structure; it is the largest wooden to rii in Japan. This basic symbol of ShintS at M eiji-jingo is almost fifty feet in height, and its posts measure four feet in di­ ameter. At the turn of the Sando the spectacle of sight is much like that at HCryfiji but is perhaps even more impressive because the scale of M eiji-jingu is larger. From this point the worshiper can see all the way to the Outer Haiden through the third to rii. the roofed entrance gate, and across the court (Plate LXXVT). The Outer Haiden itself is a bold struc­ ture whose tremendous roof appears to be held up by only six slender pillars. In addition, the small inner court which separates the Inner and Outer Haidens is somewhat unique be­ cause a stage can be set up in it for ceremonial dances; this is in contrast to other shrines where dance stages are per­ manent structures. The Inner Haiden fronts the Honden which stands in the in­ nermost court, and this court has two small shapes intersect­ ing corners of its plan to give it an unorthodox form. Con­ sequently, examples at Meiji-jingCi offer additional evidence of boldness in Japanese architecture. On the top member of the first to rii at M eiji-jingl are decorative brass plates shaped in forms of chrysanthemums.5 The other two to rii also have this adornment. The roofed en­ trance gate shows integral rather than attached embellishment.

^The chrysanthemum is the Meiji crest, but every ShintB shrine has a seal which is utilized for architectural purposes and ornamenting articles distributed by the shrine. T. Maeda. Japanese Decorative Design (T5ky5: Japan Travel Bureau, 1957J. p . 143. -Otsuka K5 geisha

P la te LXXVI M eiji-jingu: Third Torii and Outer Gate 215

Its entire roof, for example, is a fanciful design achieved by ilegant curved lines (Plate LXXIV). Ends of various wooden members of the brackets below the roof are painted white to form rhythmic patterns which are extended over into adjoining corridors. The Outer Haiden has ornamental brass plates affixed to its wooden doors, and the Inner Haiden has two prominent features of decoration within its roof composition: gegyg. ornaments which hang in the karavB roof and gable above, and shishiguchi. which is decoration at the ends of ridges. The Honden has its main decoration in the chigi and katsu- ogjT but there are also gegyg. shishiguchi, and fanciful brass plates contributing to the total embellishment of the building. Even the simply designed Treasure House has adornment of brass plates on its doors and painted ends of wooden beams. These ex­ amples indicate that M eiji-jing3 is not lacking in elements which demonstrate the principle of a decorative quality. The monument to Emperor M eiji, as noted, is located in the forest of loyogi, and its is significant that his mourners contributed the large number of varied trees for planting at the site.^ Thus, part of the setting of the shrine was created artificially. It should be added also that careful consideration was given to the placement of many of these trees in order to produce a linking effect between the shrine grounds and the setting of the forest. On each side of the area between the third to rii and the roofed entrance gate, for example, the 6 At the time of contribution there was also a "memorable donation of voluntary labor by over 1 1 ,0 0 0 exemplary members of youth organizations." Meiji Shrine Office, an. cit. . p. 5. 216 trees are so placed as to help make a transition between those in the outer court of the shrine and the forest (Plate LXX). It is noteworthy also that the trees are so thick that they almost hide an outermost wall that runs around two sides of the compound. At the same time, trees in the outer court blend in with the surrounding walls (Plate LXXI). Trees also spring up amidst the architecture in the U-shaped court which lies outside the Honden court. Thus, there is indication at M eiji- jingB of a definite relationship between nature and the archi­ t e c t u r e . The 1921 plan of the Meiji shrine had two asymmetrical fea­ tures. An irregularly shaped wall, for example, encircled the entire complex, and it had a larger area on one side than the other; moreover, there was provision for only one area of a Treasure House. The original asymmetrical elements of the shrine were mostly destroyed in the 1956 reconstruction. The irregularly shaped wall now runs around only part of the site, and there is only one feature which demonstrates the principle of asymmetrical balance: the single Treasure Houses in the northwestern corner of the Honden court, which is balanced by a covered passageway just outside the southeastern corner of the court (Plate T.XIX). The huge cypress to rii which stands at the beginning of the 7 Now two areas are provided although there is s till only one Treasure House. S, Suminami, "The Reconstruction Plan of M eiji-jingO (TdkyS: Shinkenchiku. Vol. 34, March, 1959) >11 p. 42. 217

Sando is part of a textural composition that has wood, gravel, and tree foliage as its elements. The roofed entrance gate has the painted metal surface of its roof in contrast to the sur­ faces of wood, cut stone, and gravel below. The textural sur­ faces of the Outer and Inner Haidens have the same ingredients. Contrasts of textures are also a mark of the Honden. Brass caps on the wooden chiei and katsuoei contrast to the painted metal of the roof, for instance, and the underside of the roof has a rhythmic pattern of equally spaced rafters contrasting to smooth wooden surfaces of wooden walls below. All the fore­ going textures are in contrast to the concrete shape underneath the building and the gravel bed with the cut stone step sur­ rounding it (Plate LXXII). The Treasure House with its aze-kura (ridge-warehouse) walls contributes the pattern of its bold horizontal lines in a textural composition of metal, wood, gravfel, and cut stone. Thus, M eiji-jingu provides a variety of examples of the principle of contrasts of texture. The Outer Haiden has an office on one side where shrine personnel answer questions, sell souvenirs, and attend machines which give message of supposed import to worshipers who purchase the chance to operate them. Similar offices are commonplace at other ShintS shrines, but they are not normally found in Outer Haiden buildings. A second example of diversity appears toward the rear of the Inner Haiden which has a small cubicle on each side; these were isolated structures of equal shape in the original plan but now are incorporated into the Inner Haiden

and have different shapes. 218 The innermost court, which contains the Honden and Treasure

House, is a third example of irregularity at Meiji-jingEL. The court deviates from the 1 9 2 1 design in that two small areas intersect its corners and thus present a perhaps unprecedented shape for a Honden court—ordinarily, a Honden court is strictly rectangular without any offsets. Thus, as shown above, it is apparent that in spite of departures from the 1 9 2 1 plan of Mei- ji-jingu, the 195# reconstruction still reflects the principle of variety. The three to rii of M eiji-jingu by virtue of their conformity to ancient shapes illustrate immediately a clinging to the past their designs are not unlike the ones at Ise Naifcu, which pre­ ceded them by seventeen centuries. Other parts of M eiji-jingu also derive their inspiration from the Ise shrines. The plan, for example, allows the worshiper to go only so far before he is considered to be infringing on sacred territory of kami. The Honden, moreover, has the antique forms of chigi and katsu- ogi. Finally, the innermost court of the Honden follows the pattern of the one at Ise NaikB, as space is provided for two Treasure Houses though only one has been built. It is therefore evident that Meiji-jingtT is illustrative of the principle of a veneration for the past in Japanese architecture. The total area of the Meiji shrine is so large and diversi­ fied that it is indeed difficult for travelers on the trains which pass through the ceiter of it to comprehend all of what is on either side of them (Plate LXVIII). When the visitor gets off the train at the Harajuku stop, he cannot be aware of the many components of the shrine because of the vastness of the grounds and the thickness of the Yoyogi forest. The first ink­ ling that he gets that there is a shrine comes at the first torii where the gravel pathway leads into the forest. A little later he sees the huge cypress to rii that marks the entrance to the Sando, but he has not yet seen any major building of the shrine. The worshiper is still kept in suspense because there is an apparent deadend to the Sando, but he finds it makes an abrupt turn to the right. He then sights the third to rii. From here he can see all the way to the Outer Haiden, but there is little suggestion of the large outer court beyond the roofed entrance gate. Finally, after the worshiper arrives in the Outer Court and walks across it, he finds he must stop at the Outer Haiden. He can see through this building to the Inner Haiden, but the most sanctimonious part of the shrine, the Honden, w ill remain inaccessible to him. M eiji-jingu thus pro­ vides an illustration of the principle of using mystery as an artistic device in Japanese architectural plans. It was the purpose of Chapter IX to determine whether the thirteen principles evident at earlier monuments were also in­ corporated into Japanese architecture of the twentieth century. This indeed was found to be the case in the preceding discussion of M eiji-jingu, which was built in 1921 and reconstructed in 1953. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In Part One eight characteristics of Japanese architec­ ture were observed in the monuments of Hiunkaku (1536) and the Great Shoin (1594) at Nishihonganji, Ni-no-maru and Hon- maru a t NijB-je (1603), and Katsura RikyQ (begun 1620). Also, as noted in the summary of Part One, three additional qual­ ities were apparent in these structures. Since the eleven traits were evident in monuments built during the Momoyama Period,^ or in buildings which took their creative impetus from that era, it was suggested that they be termed principles of the Momoyama Architectural Style. It was further proposed that the eleven characteristics be tentatively regarded as principles of Japanese architecture. In Part Two the eleven principles of seventeenth-century Momoyama-style architecture were found to be present in third, seventh, eleventh, fourteenth and fifteenth-century monuments, as at Ise, HBrytiji, By5d5in, and the Golden and Silver Pa­ vilions, respectively. Also, as indicated in the summary of Part Two, two additional characteristics were discerned, and since these were apparent in previously examined monuments, it was proposed that they also be termed tentative principles. Thus, at this stage of the investigation there were thirteen 1 These traits are listed and described on page 72 at the end of Part One: Momoyama Architectural Style. 220 221 principles which were found applicable to monuments re­ presenting 1 4 0 0 years of Japanese architectural history 2 from the third to the seventeenth centuries. In Part Three the thirteen principles discerned in the monuments built from the third to the seventeenth centuries also were observed in two monuments which represent Japanese architecture of the period from the seventeenth to the twentieth centuries: TSshBgQ and Meiji-jingQ. Thus, Japanese monuments from the third to the twentieth centuries have now been examined in this study, and it has been evident that the thirteen principles were clearly dis­ cernible throughout 1700 years of Japan1s architectural history. The foregoing principles now w ill be evaluated, and an attempt w ill be made to distinguish any additional characteristics and determine if any of these traits can be termed persistent principles. These traits w ill be analyzed with the thirteen tentative principles on an individual basis, according to the evidence presented in the preceding pages. Finally, the characteristics w ill be listed in a chart form at the end of this section so the reader may easily see the relative strength and persistency of the principles In Japanese monuments.

2 The thirteen principles are listed and described on pages 167-6# at the end of Part Two: Early Japanese Archi­ t e c t u r e . 222 1. The isolation of the building

This principle was evident at every monument observed. It was especially pronounced in the Hondens of Ise, TSshbgu, and M eiji-jingu, but it also was strongly apparent in other types of structures, such as the Buddhist temples of H5ry3ji, ByS- d5in, Kinkakuji, and Ginkakuji, and the private buildings of Hiunkaku, Nij5-j5, and Katsura Rikyu. The principle is the least pronounced in the case of the Great Shoin although there is evidence that it does indeed exist at this monument. This characteristic therefore can be termed a persistent p r i n c i p le .

2 . The rectangle as a basic shape in buildings

The rectangle as a basic unit of design in Japanese build­ ings is evident in the majority of the monuments examined. The rectangular shape, for instance, is strongly apparent in the plans of buildings at Ise, HSrySji, ByOdSin, Kinkakuji, Gin­ kakuji, Hiunkaku, the Great Shoin, Nij5-j5, Katsura RikyU, ToshS^Q, and M eiji-jin^t. The pavilions of Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji somehow evoke a feeling of squareness, but it should be noted that these buildings do indeed have rectangular plans. As a result, this principle also should be termed persistent. 223 3 . Sis. elevated position &f £h§. structure

Buildings of all monuments observed are elevated, mostly on wooden pillars or stone platforms but sometimes by metal shafts. The buildings of Ise, for example, are raised on wooden pillars, while the majority of those at H&ryTiji are elevated on stone platforms. Also at HSrytlji the bell tower is perched atop the elaborate metal substructure. Buildings of later centuries likewise are raised above ground; BySdSin, for instance, Kinkakuji, Ginkakuji, Hiunkaku, the Great Shoin, Nijo-jo, Katsura Rikyu, Toshbgu, and M eiji-jingu. Thus, this characteristic is indeed a persistent principle.

4. Open quality of the building

An open quality is pronounced in the monuments of the Hood5, the Great Shoin, Nij5-j5, and Katsura Rikyu. The Hon- dens of Ise, T5shZ5gu, and M eiji-jingu have solid outside walls although there is no interruption of space within the build­ ings. At the same time, a characteristic of openness is only mildly evident in the structures of Hbryuji, Kinkakuji, Gin­ kakuji, and Hiunkaku. Consequently, this principle cannot be termed truly persistents

5. The roof as a vehicle of artistic expression

There is variety in the roof designs of the buildings at all eleven monuments examined, and the roofs display the same 224 qualities: domination of the substructure, diversification, and manipulation of line. There are, of course, such other elements as tomoegawara. shishiguchi. gegyg. chigi. and katsuogi. which also add to the artistic expression. This principle can be thus termed a persistent principle.

6 . B oldness

The quality of boldness appears throughout Japanese archi­ tecture although it manifests itself in different ways in different periods. At the third-century Ise, for instance, there is the powerful roof of the Honden with its soaring chigi and broad forms of katsuogiT and in the twentieth-cen­ tury Meiji-jin^L there is the largest wooden to rii in Japan and the imposing structure of the Outer Haiden. The eleventh- century Hbodo, which is likened to a giant phoenix with out­ spread wings, shows boldness of conception. The odd placement of buildings, such as at the seventh-century Hdryiiji, or the fourteenth-century Kinkakuji or fifteenth-century Ginkakuji, was still another device used by the Japanese architect to achieve boldness in his design. Thus, this principle like­ wise can be termed persistent,

7. Decorative quality

There is considerable adornment to be found in the monu­

ments of the H3 od 5 , Kinkakuji, the Great Shoin, Nijo-j5, and 225

TBshSgu. The adornment is not as pronounced in the ShintC architecture of Ise and M eiji-jingu, but there is some embellishment. Likewise, there, is not a great amount of decoration at Horyuji, Ginkakuji, Hiunkaku, or Katsura Ri- kytt, but one cannot overlook the use of cinnabar paint, fanciful-shaped windows, roof ornaments, or the decorative patterns on fusuma. Consequently;, this is a persistent principle even though there is a lesser degree of adorn­ ment at some of the monuments.

#. Internenetration between nature and the structure

There is a strong relationship between nature and the building at most of the monuments examined so it would seem there is little doubt that nature was a prime consideration of Japanese architects in their design of palaces and shrines. The Ise shrine, for example, is nestled among huge trees, as v is TSshSgu. The buildings of the HbffdS, Kinkakuji, Ginkakuji, Hiunkaku, and Katsura Rikyu, moreover, all stand beside large ponds in beautiful gardens. At the same time, the Great Shoin has its adjoining garden as do Ni-no-maru and Hon-maru. The relationship between nature and the buildings may not be as strong at HSryHji, but there are trees in the campus-like area and beside buildings in the main enclosure of Sai-in.

This principle thus may be also called persistent. 226

The following three characteristics were listed at the end of Part One because the last two chapters of that section more strongly suggested them than the first chapter.

9. Asymmetrical balance

This characteristic was suggested by the rambling plans of buildings at Nij5-j5 and Katsura %kyu, but it was found to exist also in Hiunkaku and the Great Shoin even though to a lesser degree. Evidence of the trait was found as well in the asymmetrical placement of the gate to the Ise Honden compound, and the trait was ascertained further in the place­ ment of the buildings within the Sai-in compound of HSryuji. Asymmetrical design at the Hoodo, Kinkakuji, Ginkakuji, and M eiji-jingu, however, is virtually non-existent, although it is strongly apparent at Tbshogu. Thus, as the characteristic is not represented by a preponderance of examples, it cannot be termed a persistent principle.

1 0 . Contrasts of textures

It became apparent upon the review of Part One that Katsura Rikyu had an overwhelming abundance of textural contrasts, and upon looking for this quality in all the other ten monuments, it became obvious that this was indeed an exceptionally strong characteristic. It is almost impossible to single out any one

Japanese monument that displays this characteristic to a 227 greater extent than any other. Consequently, it is worthy of the classification of persistent principle.

1 1 . Variety within the structure

This characteristic also was suggested by the monument of Katsura Rikyu; it is evident as well in the monuments of Nij5-j<5, the Great Shoin, and Hiunkaku, where it can be observed in the different roof compositions and diversified elements of the interiors. Likewise, the trait is apparent in the structures at Byodoin, Kinkakuji, Ginkakuji, and To- shSgd. Variety also can be observed to some extent at Ise, HSryuji, and M eiji-jingu. Thus, this characteristic also can be termed persistent.

In the summary of Part Two it was found that two more characteristics of Japanese architecture could be ascertained: veneration for the past and the element of mystery as an artistic device. The first was suggested by Ise and the second by the remainder of the monuments in that section.

1 2 . Veneration for the past

Ise quite naturally underscores this characteristic be­ cause its latest construction is based upon a third-century design. In addition, Horyuji has basically the same appearance that it did in the seventh century. Byodoin, Kinkakuji, and

Ginkakuji do not especially demonstrate the characteristic 22S although it appears strongly again in the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku, whose structures were dismantled at their original locations, moved, and reconstructed later at another location.

N i$B -j5 and Katsura Rikyu are revered as relics of the past, and the late Hondens of Tffshbgu and M eiji-jingn embody es-- sentially the same design as the early Honden of Ise. Since this characteristic cannot be observed with equal facility at all monuments, however, it perhaps should not be termed a persistent principle.

13. The element pf mvsterv as. an artistic ^,eyj,ca

The Hondens of Ise, TSshbgu, and M eiji-jingu are outstand­ ing examples of this characteristic because they are totally inaccessible to the ordinary viewer. Likewise, at all the other monuments, there are such devices as gates, walls, ap­ parently deadend pathways, outer courts, and screening edifices to keep the viewer in doubt about what he w ill see next. Also, there are numerous instances of buildings hidden by nature. At HbryQji, for example, there are various gates and walls; at Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji, the mysterious pathways; at the Great Shoin and Hiunkaku, outer courts and screening build­ ings, and at Katsura Rikyu, teahouses are hidden amidst trees and bushes within the garden. Nij5-j5 has its maze of moats and walls, and at Byddoin the HdSdS is the personification of mystery. Thus, this characteristic can quite emphatically be termed a persistent principle. 229 Before ranking the afore-mentioned principles, according to the strength of evidence presented, a concluding look will be made, as indicated earlier, to determine whether there are any additional characteristics that should be considered. Upon review of the entire study two additional traits are indeed suggested: the presence of water and the use of subdued colors.

14. The presence of water

At all of the monuments water is to be found in the vicinity of the site and almost always near buildings. At Ise, for instance, there is the Isuzugawa, which borders the site on two sides. HSryuji has ponds, as do the compounds of BySdSin, Kinkakuji, Ginkakuji, Hiunkaku, N ijs-js, Katsura Rikyu, and M eiji-jingu. The Great Shoin has its exit water­ fall, and TSshSgu, of course, is located in the NikkC National

Park which has lakes, w aterfalls, and rivers. Consequently, this characteristic should be termed persistent.

15. The use of subdued colors

The Ise Honden has colors derived from nature since its buildings are of cypress and thatch. At HSryuji parts of buildings are painted vermilion although the paint was ap­ plied with restraint. There was no restraint, however, in the use of lavish color at BySdoin, nor in the monuments of the Great Shoin, Nijo-j5, and TSshSgu where red, yellow, blue, and green are among the colors used. Kinkakuji has the natural-colored gold leaf, and Ginkakuji, Katsura Rikyu, and M eiji-jingu use colors which are not unlike those found in nature. Nevertheless, since the characteristic does not re­ veal itself with equal force at all eleven monuments ex­ amined, it would not seem appropriate to call it a persist­ ent principle.

Since there are degrees of difference of persistence of the fifteen characteristics at different monuments, it might be advantageous and convenient to rate the principles accord­ ing to their seeming importance or frequency of application. Thus, the principles are hereby listed in the order in which an observer might expect to find them in Japanese buildings:

1 . The isolation of the building 2. The rectangle as a basic shape in buildings 3. The elevated position of the structure 4. The roof as a vehicle of artistic expression 5. Boldness

6 . Decorative quality 7. Interpenetration between nature and the structure S. Contrasts of textures 9. Variety within the structure

10. The element of mystery as an artistic device 11. The presence of water 231

The following principles, which cannot be termed persistent, also may be observed in the m ajority of Japanese monuments:

12. Open quality of the building 13. -Asymmetrical balance

14. Veneration for the past 15. The use of subdued colors

For further convenience to the reader a chart has been prepared to assist him in quickly relating the degree of persistence of the principles of the eleven monuments of this investigation. It now should be clear from the evidence produced that there are eleven persistent principles to be observed in Japanese architecture and four less evident characteristics that nonetheless are apparent in the majority of Japanese monuments. If an observer of Japanese architec­ ture fortifies himself with these criteria of fifteen points, as evaluated in chart form on the following page, he w ill have a reliable guide by which to judge the general aesthetic quality of Japanese monuments. H d ry ttji BySdOin K in k a k u ji G in k a k u ji H iunkaku Great Shoin N ijO -jO K a tsu ra T5sh$gd M e iji 1. I s o la te d S s S s s S S s s S a ♦ 2. Rectangular S s s s s s s s s S s * 3. E le v a te d S s s s s s s s s s s ♦ 4. A rtistic roof S s s s s s s s s s s * 5. B o ld n ess s s s s s s s 3 s s s * 6. D e c o ra tiv e A A s s A A s SA s A * 7. N ature S A s s S s s S S s s * S. C o n tra s ts s S s s S s s s S s s * 9. V a r ie ty A A s s S s s s 3 s s * 10. M ystery s S s s S s s s S s s * 11. W ater s s s s s s s s S s s ♦ 12. O penness w A s AA A s s s w w 13. Asymmetry A S w tf W s A s s s w 14. V e n e ra tio n s SAA A s s A A s s 15. Subdued color s A w A S 3 w w S w s

*: Persistent Principle S: S tro n g A: Average W: Weak BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Carver, Norman. Form asd Space o£. Jflpapgeg A rchitecture. Toky&s S nokokulha, 19557 Drexler, Arthur. The Architecture of Japan. New York: Miseum of Modern Art, 1955. Gropius, W., Ishimoto, Y., and Tange, K. Katsura: Tradition 3 S& SraflUgB la JftP§agaa T5ky® and New York: ZSkeisha Publications Limited and Yale University Press, I960. Humphreys, Christmas. Buddhism. London: Penguin Books, 1955. Ishizawa, M., Kondo, I., Okada, J ., and Tazawa, Y. Pageant o f Ja p a n e se A rt. S ix volum es. TOkyB: C h a rle s' E. Tuttle Company, 1957. Kishida, Hideto. Japanese Architecture. Toky3: Japan Travel Bureau, 1954. Kitao, Harumichi. Fuauma to Shb.ii. Ttfkyb: Shbkokusha, 1956. Kobayashi, Iwao. Ise no jiraalt. Tokyo: KOgeisha, 1956. Maeda, T aiji. Japanese Decorative Design. T5kyo: Japan Travel Bureau, 1957. Miki, Fumio. Haniwa. Tokyo: Charles E, Tuttle Company, 1956. Munsterberg, Hugo. Tfra A rtgo£ Japan? An Illustrated History. T&kyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.

Natsuji, Tetsuo. Katsura Stiodli SteMfcl 2& HfllgS. S l S ag u ru . TSkyb: Chuokoronsha, 1956. Oka, M. and Tazawa, Y. Zug_e$sa Njh g n B i.lu ts u -s h i. TSkyo: Iwanami ohSfceji, 1958. Ota, H,, Tanabe, Y. and Hatsutori, K. Nihon Kenchiku. To- ky5: Shokokusha, 1954.

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Paine, R.T. and Soper, A. T&& Aj& fiM Arghifregfrm£, fi£ Japflfl. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1955* Shimouehi, K (Ed.). Sekai Kenchlku Zenshu. "Nihon III Kin- se i." TSkyo: Heibonsha, 1959. Taniguchi, 7. and Hatsutori, K, Nihon Biiutsu Taikei. Vol. I, *Kenohiku." T5ky5i Kodansha, 19607 Tatsui, Matsunosuke. Japanese Gardens. TokyS: Japan Travel Bureau, 1959. Terry, Charles. Mastersorks of Japanese Art. TSkyo: Charles E. T attle Company, 195?.

Tourist Industry Bureau and the Ministry of Transportation. Japan: The O fficial Guide. TSkyo: The Japan Travel Bureau, 1955.

W arn er, Langdon. The E nduring Aj& q £ _ Japan. Cambridge: Har­ vard University Press, 1952.

Catalogues an& Gal&gg Asahi Riotograph Series # 89."Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji.” TS- ky5: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1959. Asahi Photograph Series # 23. "Haniwa no Utsukushisa.” To- kyS: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1956. Asahi Riotograph Series #53. "NikkS." TSkyS: Asahi Shin­ bunsha, 1957. Association of the Kysto Tourist League. Katsura Rikvu. KySto: Kyoto Tourist League, 1958. Iwanami Riotograph Library #50. "Katsura Rikyu to Shugakuin." Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1957. Iwanami Photograph Library #62. "KySto G3sh5 to Nij5-J5." TSkyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1958. Iwanami Riotograph Library # 51. "NikkU." T8ky5: Iwanami Shcten, 1953. JingQ ShichS. Jingu. Ise: Otsuka Kffgeisha, 1958.

KySto H istorical Research Society. Ginkakuii. Kybto: SuikS Shoin, 1954. 235 M eiji Shrine Office* M ei.ii-iingfl. TSkyS; Otsuka Kbgeisha, I960. M eiji Shrine Office. Mei.1l Shrine. Tbkyb: Otsuka KSgeisha, n .d . Ogawa, M (Ed;). BvSdSin. Nara: Asukaen, 1956. Yamada. S. Honean.ii. Kyoto: Ryuba Honganji, 1957. Yamamoto, Kuichiro. The Nii5 Castle. Kybto: Kuichiro Yama­ m oto, 195S

Articles and Periodicals '•The Bloom of Time Called Wabi and Sabi.n House Beautiful. August, I960. "The Garden as Part of the House." House Beautiful. August, I960. flhe Most Flexible Houses in the World." House Beautiful. August, I960. "What Japan Can Contribute to Your Way of Life." House Beautiful. August, I960. "The Katsura Experience: How Architecture Can Reveal the 'Core of Things.'" House Beautiful. August, I960. "Lessons We Are Learning From Japan." House Beautiful. September, I960. "How Americans Are Using Japanese Ideas." House Beautiful. September, I960. "Translating the Japanese Garddn Into American Terms." House Beautiful. September, I960. "N aturalistic M aterials for Fences." House Beautiful. September, I960. "The Man-Made Accent in the Garden." House Beautiful. September, I960.

"The Lure of the Irregular." House Beautiful. September, i 9 6 0 . Fujishima, G. "The Grand Shrines of Ise and Izumo." This is Japat\. October, 1956. 236 Hamaguchi, Ryuichi. "Toshi to Mori to Jinsha.11 Shinkenchiku. March, 1959. "Kami Comeback.” Time. December, 1961. Kishida, Hideto. "M eiji-jingu Naru." Shinkenchiku. March, 1959. Sawaiyama, Toshio. "Jinsha Kenchiku-shi ni Okeru Nagare- zukuri." Shinkenchiku. March, 1959. Suminami, Sakan. "M eiji-jingu Shaden no Fukkg-Keikaku ni Tsuite." Shinkenchiku. March, 1959. Tsuchigado, K. "Watakushi no Bigaku: Byodoin ni Tsuite." Gei.iutsu Shinchg. February, 1961. West, Anthony. "What Japan Has That We May Profitably Bor­ row." House Beautiful. August, I960. AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Leon Neal Quera, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsyl­ vania, March 22, 1926, and received my secondary-sehool education in the public schools of cities in Pennsylvania and Ohio. After m ilitary service, 1943-45, I received my undergraduate training at The Ohio State University, which granted me the Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 1949. For three years, 1955-5&, I was a graduate assistant in the art history area at The Ohio State University, where I received the Master of Arts degree in 1957. While completing the re­ quirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, I did re­ search in Japan in 195S-59, was lecturer in Oriental Art at Denison University during 1959-60, and since I960 have been a faculty member of San Jose State College*

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