The Diffusion of Innovative Biodiversity Conservation Policies and Practices
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Received: 16 January 2017 Accepted: 10 January 2018 DOI: 10.1111/conl.12442 POLICY PERSPECTIVE When conservation goes viral: The diffusion of innovative biodiversity conservation policies and practices Michael B. Mascia1∗ Morena Mills2,3,4∗ 1 Moore Center for Science, Conservation Abstract International, Arlington, Virginia, USA Despite billions of dollars invested, “getting to scale” remains a fundamental chal- 2Department of Life Sciences, Imperial Col- lege London, Ascot, Berkshire, United King- lenge for conservation donors and practitioners. Occasionally, however, a conserva- dom tion intervention will “go viral,” with rapid, widespread adoption that transforms the 3 Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation relationship between people and nature across large areas. The factors that shape rates Science, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia and patterns of conservation interventions remain unclear, puzzling scientists and hin- 4Australian Research Council (ARC) Centre dering evidence-based policymaking. Diffusion of innovation theory—the study of of Excellence in Environmental Decisions, the how and why innovations are adopted, and the rates and patterns of adoption— University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia provides a novel lens for examining rates and patterns in the establishment of conser- Correspondence Michael B. Mascia, Moore Center for Science, vation interventions. Case studies from Tanzania and the Pacific illustrate that charac- Conservation International, 2011 Crystal teristics of the innovation, of the adopters, and of the social-ecological context shape Drive, Arlington, VA 22202, USA. spatial and temporal dynamics in the diffusion of community-centered conservation Email: [email protected] interventions. Differential trends in adoption mirrored the relative advantage of inter- ∗Both authors contributed equally to this work. ventions to local villagers and villager access to external technical assistance. Theo- Correction added on 9 May 2018, after first online publication on 29 January 2018: The ries of innovation diffusion highlight new arenas for conservation research and pro- caption of Figure 1 was updated to correct color vide critical insights for conservation policy and practice, suggesting the potential to descriptions of lines within the figure that were previously transposed. empower donors and practitioners with the ability to catalyze conservation at scale— and to do so at less cost and with longer-lasting impacts. KEYWORDS biodiversity conservation, CBNRM, communal conservancies, diffusion, environmental governance, inno- vation, marine protected areas, wildlife conservancies 1 INTRODUCTION community-based natural resource management systems, cer- tification schemes, and other policies, programs, and projects Biodiversity conservation efforts are widespread and prolif- designed to conserve biodiversity (hereafter, conservation erating rapidly, but Parties to the Convention on Biologi- interventions; Gullison, 2003; Kellert, Mehta, Ebbin, & Licht- cal Diversity are unlikely to meet global conservation tar- enfeld, 2000; Mascia et al., 2014). A history of “fads” gets by 2020 (Butchart et al., 2015). For example, although and “hot moments,” however, demonstrates the potential some countries have exceeded targets for spatial extent of for rapid, widespread adoption of novel conservation strate- protected areas, others lag behind (Fox et al., 2012). Even gies and tactics (Radeloff et al., 2013; Redford, Padoch, countries that have met these area-based targets often over- & Sunderland, 2013), a necessary—but insufficient—step represent some ecosystems and leave others largely unpro- to address biodiversity loss and other global environmental tected (Devillers et al., 2015). Similar challenges plague challenges. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright and Photocopying: © 2018 The Authors. Conservation Letters published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Conservation Letters. 2018;11:e12442. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/conl 1of9 https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12442 2of9 MASCIA AND MILLS The factors that shape patterns and trends in establishment (1) innovation characteristics; (2) adopter characteristics; and of conservation interventions remain unclear, puzzling scien- (3) the social-ecological context surrounding an innovation tists and hindering evidence-based policymaking (Fox et al., and its adopters (Rogers, 2003). Within each set, numerous 2012). Researchers have examined these spatial and tempo- variables influence adoption; here, these variables may shape ral dynamics, but evidence is limited and largely atheoretical rates and patterns of adoption of conservation interventions. (Fox et al., 2012). Protected areas, for example, are prefer- Though most diffusion of innovation research focuses on entially located in areas of endemic and threatened species adoption among individuals, the theory also addresses adop- (Fox et al., 2012; Loucks, Ricketts, Naidoo, Lamoreux, & tion among social groups, organizations, and governments. Hoekstra, 2008) and low opportunity costs (Devillers et al., 2015; Joppa & Pfaff, 2009). These spatial biases vary among 2.1 Innovation characteristics ecoregions (Loucks et al., 2008), likely because subnational and local processes shape protected area siting decisions The characteristics of an innovation, as perceived by potential (Fox et al., 2012), including government policies (Alcala & adopters, shape the likelihood of adoption. The relative Russ, 2006), stakeholder participation (Dalton, 2006), and advantage of an innovation (i.e., perceived superiority rela- donor funding (Miller, Agrawal, & Roberts, 2013). Conser- tive to status quo and other options), for example, accelerates vation actions appear particularly rapid amid transformative adoption (Pannell et al., 2006; Rogers, 2003). The observ- sociopolitical change (Radeloff et al., 2013). ability of an innovation, and its compatibility with adopter Diffusion of innovation theory (Rogers, 2003)—the study beliefs and values, fosters more rapid and widespread adop- of how and why innovations are adopted by people, groups, tion (Rogers, 2003). Flexible innovations, which adopters organizations, or countries (hereafter adopters), and rates tailor to their needs, and those that are simple (i.e., low and patterns of adoption—provides a novel lens for exam- complexity) and can be trialed (i.e., trialability), are more ining establishment of conservation interventions. Innova- rapidly adopted (Greenhalgh, Robert, MacFarlane, Bate, & tions are ideas, practices, or objects perceived as new by Kyriakidou, 2004; Pannell et al., 2006). These characteristics adopters (Rogers, 2003); diffusion is the process by which are not fixed attributes of the innovation itself, but, rather, “prior adoption of a trait or practice in a population alters the reflect the interplay between the innovation, adopters, mode probability of adoption for remaining non adopters” (Strang, of implementation, and broader social-ecological context 1991). In the social sciences, diffusion of innovation the- (Greenhalgh et al., 2004). ory has been applied widely to medicine, business, agricul- ture, and other sectors (Wejnert, 2002). Surprisingly, diffu- sion of innovation theory has never been applied to examine 2.2 Adopter characteristics rates and patterns in biodiversity conservation interventions, Characteristics of potential adopters of an innovation also though studies have examined adoption processes (Abernethy, shape rates and patterns of diffusion. Individual personality Bodin, Olsson, Hilly, & Schwarz, 2014; Korhonen, Hujala, & traits such as psychological strength, self-confidence, and Kurttila, 2013) and other environmental initiatives (Pannell risk orientation increase adoption (Rogers, 2003), as do et al., 2006; Vasi 2006). socioeconomic factors such as higher levels of individual To advance conservation science and inform conservation education, literacy, and economic well-being. Existing policy, we explore the potential for diffusion of innovation the- knowledge is positively correlated with adoption; individuals ory to explain the spatial and temporal dynamics of conserva- who must develop new skills and knowledge to benefit from tion interventions. First, we introduce foundational concepts an innovation are less likely to adopt (Pannell et al., 2006). in diffusion of innovation theory. We then draw upon the- With increasing time horizons, likelihood of an individual ory and existing data to examine spatial and temporal dynam- adopting an innovation with long-term relative advantage ics of conservation interventions in Tanzania and the Pacific. also increases (Pannell et al., 2006). Similarly, individuals are Finally, we consider the implications of diffusion of innova- more likely to adopt innovations as their connectedness to the tion theory for conservation science and policy. Our findings outside world increases through social engagement, contact suggest the potential to catalyze conservation at scale through with change agents, and exposure to mass media (Rogers, social science-based planning, design, and implementation. 2003). Familiarity with an innovation—through experience, peer advice, media, connections to other adopters, and advisory support—also increases adoption rates (Dolowitz & 2 DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION Marsh, 1996; Pannell et al., 2006). THEORY The position of an