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A Relational Complexity Approach to the Development Age Related Changes During Adulthood in Cognitive Processes Reliant on the Pre-Frontal Cortex: Attention, Inhibitory Control, Working Memory and Relational Processing Author Todd, Jo-Anne Published 2011 Thesis Type Thesis (PhD Doctorate) School School of Psychology DOI https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/1986 Copyright Statement The author owns the copyright in this thesis, unless stated otherwise. Downloaded from http://hdl.handle.net/10072/367957 Griffith Research Online https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au Age Related Changes During Adulthood in Cognitive Processes Reliant on the Pre-frontal Cortex: Attention, Inhibitory Control, Working Memory and Relational Processing Jo-Anne Todd BPsych (Honours) School of Psychology, Griffith Health Griffith University Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of a Doctor of Philosophy April, 2011 i ABSTRACT The frontal lobe hypothesis of ageing proposes that cognitive functions associated with the prefrontal cortex (PFC) are more susceptible to age-related changes than those supported by other brain regions (e.g., Dempster, 1992; West, 1996). Age-related declines previously demonstrated in working memory (e.g., Bopp & Verhaeghen, 2005), inhibitory control (Dempster, 1992), executive attention (e.g., West, 2004) and fluid intelligence (Horn & Cattell, 1967), have been linked to changes in PFC functioning. Relational processing also depends on the integrity of the PFC (e.g., Christoff et al., 2001), but research on age-related declines in relational processing is limited (Andrews & Todd, 2008; Viskontas, Holyoak, & Knowlton, 2005; Viskontas, Morrison, Holyoak, Hummel, & Knowlton, 2004). Unlike previous research which tended to focus on a single construct, the current research investigated age-related changes in executive attention, inhibitory control, working memory and relational processing. Distinctions within three constructs were also of interest. Three aspects of inhibitory control (response inhibition, task-set switching and inhibition in memory retrieval) were examined. Relational processing was examined in four tasks, three of which involved items at two or more levels of complexity. Working memory was examined using simple span and complex span tasks. The test battery of 16 tasks assessed these constructs as well as speed of processing, crystallized and fluid intelligence, and frontal functioning (Tower of London). It was administered to a sample of 125 normally ageing adults who ranged in age from 18 years to 92 years with all age decades represented. Significant age-related declines were found in the four constructs. However, the patterns of age-related decline were not uniform within or across constructs. Relational ii processing at the lowest level of complexity (binary-relational) did not decline until 70 years of age. Task-set switching declined from 58 years. Executive attention, response inhibition, inhibition in memory retrieval, simple and complex working memory, and relational processing at higher (ternary- and quaternary-relational) levels of complexity declined from 45 years. Response inhibition, simple and complex working memory, ternary-relational processing and quaternary-relational processing declined further, beyond these initial declines. The different patterns of age-related change observed on the tasks of inhibitory control were consistent with inhibition being a multi-dimensional rather than unitary construct. Furthermore, the different patterns of age-related change for binary-relational versus ternary- and quaternary-relational processing show that relational processing at more complex levels was more sensitive to age-related change. Links between constructs were examined in a number of ways. One approach involved evaluating the evidence for dedifferentiation. To the extent that dedifferentiation occurred, the associations between pairs of constructs should change with age from non- significant (younger participants) to weak (middle aged participants) to stronger (older participants). There was no evidence of dedifferentiation of inhibitory control with executive attention, working memory, or relational processing. However, there was strong evidence of dedifferentiation in executive attention, working memory and relational processing. Each of executive attention, working memory and relational processing showed evidence of dedifferentiation with fluid intelligence (Matrix reasoning), but only relational processing showed evidence of dedifferentiation with frontal functioning (Tower of London). This stronger evidence of dedifferentiation of relational processing with measures of frontal functioning than the other constructs (executive attention, inhibitory control, and working memory) might be because the relational processing tasks included iii items at different levels of complexity and therefore were more sensitive to age-related change and individual differences in performance. The findings are generally consistent with age-related declines in cognitive functioning supported by prefrontal regions of the brain, and therefore with the frontal lobe theory of cognitive ageing. However the continued viability of the frontal lobe theory of cognitive ageing will depend on the extent to which it can account for these different patterns of age-related decline and for the different patterns of dedifferentiation. iv STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself. ___________________________ Jo-Anne Todd v TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. FRONTAL LOBES AND COGNITIVE AGEING ................................. 1 Frontal lobes ..................................................................................................................... 1 Age-related Changes in Frontal Lobes in Later Adulthood ...................................... 2 Frontal Lobes and Cognitive Processes .................................................................... 4 Frontal Lobe Theory of Cognitive Ageing ................................................................ 5 Evidence for the Frontal Lobe Hypothesis of Cognitive Ageing ............................... 6 Other Approaches in Cognitive Ageing .................................................................. 10 Summary .................................................................................................................. 13 The Current Research .................................................................................................... 14 Executive Attention .................................................................................................. 14 Inhibitory Control ................................................................................................... 14 Working memory ..................................................................................................... 15 Relational Processing ............................................................................................. 15 Reference Measures ................................................................................................ 16 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 16 CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ......................................... 18 General Method ............................................................................................................. 18 Participants ............................................................................................................. 18 Procedure ................................................................................................................ 20 Reference Measures ................................................................................................ 23 Treatment of Results ................................................................................................ 25 Results ............................................................................................................................ 26 Verbal Intelligence .................................................................................................. 26 Fluid Intelligence .................................................................................................... 27 Representativeness of the Sample............................................................................ 28 Processing speed ..................................................................................................... 29 Tower of London ..................................................................................................... 31 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 32 vi CHAPTER 3. EXECUTIVE ATTENTION AND AGEING .......................................... 35 Brain regions involved in Stroop performance. ...................................................... 35 Age-related declines in Stroop task performance. .................................................. 37 Method ........................................................................................................................... 39 Stroop Colour Word Test ........................................................................................ 39 Results ...........................................................................................................................
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