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Interference and Transfer in the Acquisition of Problem Solving Skills Knowing How and Knowing That, But Knowing What? Interference and Transfer in the Acquisition of Problem Solving Skills BY Philip Robert Groff A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Q Copyright by Philip Robert Groff 2001 National Library Bibliothèque nationale l*l of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibiiographic Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue WelIington Ottawa ON Kt A ON4 Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Canada Canada Your Ne Vofferd@- Our 6k Notre rëidrence The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant a la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or seIl reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/fïJm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d' auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fkom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent êeimprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. Abstract Knowing How and Knowing That but Knowing What? Interference and Transfer in the Acquisition of a Cognitive Skill. Doctor of Philosophy, 200 1 Philip Robert Groff, Graduate Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Prier research has suggested that acquisition of problem solving skill may involve mechanisms similar to those of other skill learning (Groff, 1992; Saint Cyr, Taylor, & Lang, 1988; Trepanier, 1989). Theones of skill leamhg often proceed fiom the assumption that one learns skilled performance as a sort of habit (Anderson, 1983; Fitts & Posner, 1967) and are often embraced by labels such as implicit learning (Reber, 1989) and procedural learning (Nissen, 1992). Recent criticisms of the implicit learning literature have suggested a conflation between the notions of automaticity of learning and the abstract nature of what has been learned (Shanks & St. John, 1994). The current studies atternpt to disentangle the issues of automaticity and abstraction through the use of interference conditions and transfer conditions respectively on the standard Tower of Toronto problem solving task. In the first experiment, subjects demonstrated pieserveci leaniing in each of four transfer conditions: an additional five trials identical to the learning set; five trials of a size coded puzzle; five trials with the second peg as the goal; or five trials solving the puzzle backwards. This suggested that leaniing in this task is abstract in nature. The second experiment involved leaniing to solve the puzzle during ten trials under one of four interference conditions based upon the Stroop task (Macleod, 1991; Stroop, 1935): no interference; congruent colour and six coding; inverse colour and size coding; and randomly shuffled colour and size coding. Subjects learned to solve the puzzle equally well under al1 four interference conditions, though the congruent condition did speed performance. This suggests that leaniing the puzzle proceeds, at least in part, autornatically, without demand for conscious attentional resources. The third experiment tested subjects in one of four conditions, based upon the extremes of the above two experiment. The presence of interference during learning had no impact upon subjects ability to transfer their learning, thus demonstrating the independence of these issues in this context. The implications of the findings are discussed in terms of traditional theories of problem solving, procedural and implicit learning, and neuropsychology of ski11 leaming. Future directions are suggested. Acknowledgments This dissertation has been the labour of many years and it goes without saying that it would not have been completed without the support 1received from many persons during those years. Tndeed it is my fear that it has gone too ofien without saying, and thus I would like to take this oppominity to thank some of the many people who have enriched my life and supported my work during this time. First, of course, is my supervisor Jean Saint-Cyr, whose patience, guidance and support have helped shape this paper, and al1 my endeavours as a research psychologist. Second, then would be the rest of my cornmittee, Dr. Philip Zelazo, and Dr. Robert Lockhart. 1 would fürther like to thanks those that have helped me out through employment as a teacher and researcher, and thus given me the material support needed to carry on this work and more importantly their guidance and fiiendship. I'm pariicularly indebted to Dr. Bernie Schiff, and Dr. Sholom Glouberman in these regards. You both took chances on me and 1 hope I've been able to live up to your hopes. My family has been a constant source of strength throughout this process and rny deepest gratitude goes to my parents, Don and Clara Groff, and my brother Stephan Groff. 1 am most especially indebted to my wife Mary Desrocher for her love, support, guidance, and most especially her nearly limitless patience. .. Szmzlm Fzndrngs ........... ., ................................................................................... 67 Implict Processes in Problem Solving? .................................................................. 68 CHAPTER 3 THE EXPERIMENTS.......................................................................... 70 GENERALINTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 70 MËTHOD: FEATURES COMMONTO ALL EXPERIMENTS............................................... 75 ....................................... Subjects and Power ....................................... 75 The Tower of Toronto ............................................................................................ 76 Die AnciZZmy Tests................................................................................................ 77 EXPERIMENT~-TFUWSFER OF TRAINING................................................................... 82 In froduction........................................................................................................... 82 Mëthod .................................................................................................................. 85 Reds................................................................................................................... 88 Discussion of Results ............................................................................................. 96 EXPERIMENT2-LEARNING UNDERINTERFE~~ENCE .................................................... 97 Introduction........................................................................................................... 97 Method ............................................................................................................ 100 Results................... .., ........................................................................................... iû4 Discussion of Results .............................., ............................................................ 112 EXPERIMENT3-WSFER MTER INTERFERENCE................................................... 113 Introduction. ........................................................................................................ 113 Method ................................................................................................................ 114 Results ................................................................................................................. 117 Discussion of Results ........................................................................................... 128 CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS AND GENERAL DISCUSSION ........................... 129 THE EXPERIMENTALFINDINGS ................................................................................. 129 neindividual Dzfferences Variables................................................................... 129 The Leaming Cuwes .............................. .... ......................................................... 131 2Xe Expementa l Manipulations ......................................................................... 133 A~TOMATICITYAND ABSTRACTION.......................................................................... 136 Is the Tower Learned AutomaticaIfy ? .................................................................. 136 Is the Leming, .ïhat of Abstract Information? .................................................... 138 GENERALCONCLUDING REMARKS ........................................................................... 140 Knowing How and ffiowing nat, But Knowzng What?..................................... 140 Possible Next Steps ............................................................................................. 111 Figure 31 Loups. Long and Short Backtracks by Trial............................................................................ 120 Figure 32 Median Move Latencies by Trial............................................................................................ 121 Figure 33 Relationship behveen Speed and Accuracy ............................................................................. 122 Figure 34 Percentage Savings during
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