Air Pollution: the Case of Jordan 37 Lelia Croitoru, Raffaello Cervigni, and Amer Jabarin
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Public Disclosure Authorized DIRECTIONS IN DEVELOPMENT Environment Public Disclosure Authorized The Cost of Environmental Degradation Case Studies from the Middle East and North Africa Public Disclosure Authorized Lelia Croitoru Maria Sarraf Editors Public Disclosure Authorized The Cost of Environmental Degradation The Cost of Environmental Degradation Case Studies from the Middle East and North Africa Lelia Croitoru and Maria Sarraf Editors © 2010 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: [email protected] All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 13 12 11 10 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The bound- aries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgement on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone: 978-750-8400; fax: 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright.com. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: [email protected]. ISBN: 978-0-8213-8318-6 eISBN: 978-0-8213-8396-4 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8318-6 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Croitoru, Lelia. The cost of environmental degradation : case studies from the Middle East and North Africa / Lelia Croitoru and Maria Sarraf. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-8213-8318-6 — ISBN 978-0-8213-8396-4 (electronic) 1. Environmental degradation—Middle East—Case studies. 2. Environmental degradation— Africa, North—Case studies. 3. Middle East—Environmental conditions—Case studies. 4. Africa, North—Environmental conditions—Case studies. I. Sarraf, Maria. II. Title. GE160.M628C76 2010 363.700956—dc22 2010010933 Cover photo: Corbis Cover design: Naylor Design, Washington, DC Contents Foreword xi Acknowledgments xiii Abbreviations and Symbols xv Chapter 1 Introduction1 Lelia Croitoru and Maria Sarraf Measuring the Cost of Environmental Degradation2 The Cost of Environmental Degradation in the Middle East and North Africa4 Notes8 References9 Chapter 2 Water Degradation: The Case of Tunisia 11 Lelia Croitoru, Maria Sarraf, Fadhel Ghariani, Mohamed Salah Matoussi, and Hamed Daly-Hassen Overview of the Water Sector 11 Methodology 13 v vi Contents Cost of Water Degradation 15 Conclusions 28 Notes 29 References 32 Chapter 3 Air Pollution: The Case of Jordan 37 Lelia Croitoru, Raffaello Cervigni, and Amer Jabarin Overview of Air Pollution 37 Methodology 39 Cost of Air Pollution 41 Conclusions 46 Notes 48 References 50 Chapter 4 Deforestation and Forest Degradation: The Case of the Islamic Republic of Iran 53 Lelia Croitoru Overview of the Forest Sector 53 Deforestation and Forest Degradation 55 Methodology 58 Costs of Deforestation and Forest Degradation 59 Conclusions 66 Notes 68 References 70 Chapter 5 Land Degradation: The Case of Morocco 75 Maria Sarraf and Abdeljaouad Jorio Overview of Land Resources 75 Methodology 77 Cost of Cropland Degradation 79 Cost of Rangeland Degradation 81 Conclusions 82 Notes 85 References 86 Contents vii Chapter 6 Oil Spill and Waste due to Conflict: The Case of Lebanon 89 Maria Sarraf, Lelia Croitoru, Mutasem El Fadel, Karim El-Jisr, Erkki Ikäheimo, Erich Gundlach, and Samia Al-Duaij The Oil Spill 90 Demolition, Military, and Medical Waste 114 Conclusions 133 Notes 135 References 141 Chapter 7 Implications for Policies, Investments, and Institutions 147 Sherif Arif Overview 147 The COED’s Impact on Policy Making 149 The COED’s Impact on Investments 152 The COED’s Impact on Institutional Strengthening 154 Notes 156 References 157 Index 161 Figures 1.1 Estimated COED in Selected Middle Eastern and North African Countries8 2.1 Fish Production in Most Polluted Areas vs. Rest of Tunisia 20 2.2 Fish Production per Boat in Most Polluted Areas vs. Rest of Tunisia 21 2.3 Annual Cost of Water Degradation in Tunisia 28 3.1 Estimated Damages from Air Pollution 46 3.2 Shares of Environmental Degradation Cost in Jordan, by Category 47 4.1 Annual Costs of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in the Islamic Republic of Iran, by Category 67 viii Contents 4.2 Shares of Environmental Degradation Cost in the Islamic Republic of Iran, by Category 67 5.1 Classes of Land Degradation Severity 78 5.2 Annual Cost of Cropland and Rangeland Degradation, by Category 83 5.3 Shares of Environmental Degradation Cost in Morocco, by Category 84 6.1 Oil Impact Areas, July 15 to August 2, 2006 91 6.2 Annual Degradation Cost Caused by the Oil Spill 113 6.3 Map of Cluster Bomb Strikes as of July 23, 2007 129 6.4 Impacts of the July–August 2006 Hostilities on Waste 132 6.5 Estimated COED in Lebanon, by Category, 2006 134 Tables 1.1 Comparative Data on Middle East and North African Economies4 2.1 Estimated Impacts of Water Degradation and Valuation Methods 14 2.2 Cost of Replacing Dam Capacity 19 2.3 Tunisian Groundwater Resources and Their Exploitation 25 2.4 Water Volume and Change in Groundwater Table, by Region 26 2.5 Annual Costs to Pump Additional Water for Resources Subject to Overexploitation in Tunisia 27 2.6 Replacement Cost of Wells, by Region and Nationally 27 3.1 Pollutant Emissions from Transportation and Industry Sources, 2004 38 3.2 Estimated PM10 Concentration and Exposed Population in Selected Urban Areas 41 3.3 Dose-Response Coefficients for Morbidity from PM10 Exposure 44 3.4 Estimated Loss of DALYs from Health Effects of Air Pollution 45 4.1 Characteristics of Forests in the Islamic Republic of Iran, by Region 57 4.2 Methods to Estimate the Value of Forest Benefits 58 5.1 Severity of Cropland Degradation in Morocco 80 5.2 Estimated Cost of Degraded Cropland 81 Contents ix 5.3 Distribution of Rangelands by Region and Vegetation Type 82 5.4 Estimated Loss of Forage Production and Damage Costs to Rangelands 83 6.1 Comparison of Jiyeh Fuel with Other Fuels 92 6.2 Oil Spill Damages to Selected Coastal Activities 96 6.3 Forgone Coastal Hotel and Apartment Income due to Oil Spill 97 6.4 Forgone Beach Resort, Chalet, Public Beach, and Event Income due to Oil Spill 98 6.5 Forgone Marina Income from Boat Rental and Water Sports due to Oil Spill 101 6.6 Individual Visitors and Groups Using Palm Island Nature Reserve Boats 104 6.7 Palm Island Nature Reserve: Forgone Income due to the Oil Spill 105 6.8 Forgone Tourism Income from the Byblos World Heritage Site 106 6.9 Income Forgone by Restaurants due to the Oil Spill 108 6.10 Income Forgone to Commercial and Shoreside Fishing due to the Oil Spill 109 6.11 Estimated Costs of Damage and Cleanup due to the Oil Spill 112 6.12 Estimated Volume of Demolition Waste 119 6.13 Estimated Cost of Loading and Transporting Demolition Waste 123 6.14 Cost of Road Depreciation in Beirut 124 6.15 Estimated Cost of Traffic Delays 125 6.16 Estimated Cost of Land for Demolition Waste Disposal 125 6.17 Estimated Damage Costs of Demolition Waste 126 6.18 Estimated Damage Cost of Unexploded Ordnances (UXOs) 128 6.19 Estimated Annual Value of Agricultural Production in the South and Nabatiyeh 129 6.20 Estimated Range of UXO Damage Cost to Agricultural Productivity 130 6.21 Estimated Damage Cost due to UXOs 131 6.22 Estimated Cost of Damage due to Military Waste 132 6.23 Estimated COED of the 2006 Hostilities in Lebanon 133 xContents Photos 2.1 Reservoir in Northwest Tunisia 18 2.2 Gullies Drain into a Reservoir in Northwest Tunisia 18 4.1 Forested Areas in Rasht, Gilan Province 54 5.1 Wheat Field in Morocco 76 5.2 Grazing Sheep in Morocco 76 6.1 Jiyeh Electrical Power Station and Tanks 90 6.2 Oil Impact on Major Shoreline Types 92 6.3 Oil Pollution in the Port of Daliyi 102 6.4 Oiled Bird 104 6.5 Containers of Oiled Waste 111 6.6 Building Damage in Beirut’s Southern Suburbs 118 6.7 Rubble Disposal Site in Beirut 120 6.8 Aytaroun Pond Filled with Demolition Waste 121 6.9 Demolition Waste in Baalbeck El-Hermel 122 Foreword Environmental degradation is costly—to individuals, to societies, and to the environment. This book, edited by Lelia Croitoru and Maria Sarraf, makes these costs clear by examining a number of studies carried out over the past few years by the World Bank’s Middle East and North Africa Region. Even more important than estimating the monetary cost of envi- ronmental degradation (COED), however, are the clear guidance and pol- icy implications derived from these findings. The Middle East and North Africa region is large—stretching from Morocco in the west to the Islamic Republic of Iran in the east—and is home to more than 310 million people in 13 countries.