Voices of the River: the Confluence Story Gathering Interview Collection Author(S): Lily Hart Source: Oregon Historical Quarterly , Vol

Voices of the River: The Confluence Story Gathering Interview Collection Author(s): Lily Hart Source: Oregon Historical Quarterly , Vol. 119, No. 4 (Winter 2018), pp. 508-527 Published by: Oregon Historical Society Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5403/oregonhistq.119.4.0508

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Courtesy of Confluence, photograph by Chris Lonigro Voices of the River

The Confluence Story Gathering Interview Collection

RESEARCH FILES

by Lily Hart

“We know something everybody else doesn’t know — we’re never leaving. Our people have an intestinal fortitude that nobody else has because this is our country. You can’t get us out of here.” — Roberta “Bobbie” Conner1

ROBERTA “BOBBIE” Conner (Uma- ecology of the Columbia River system. tilla/Cayuse/Nez Perce) shared this Since its beginning in 2011, the Story JEFFERSON GREENE (Warm Springs), Allen Pinkham, Sr. (Nez Perce), and Thomas perspective in an interview arranged Gathering project has conducted inter- Morning Owl (Umatilla) participate in a Confluence Story Gathering at Chief Timothy Park by the Confluence Project as part of views with forty-one Indigenous people in Asotin County, Washington. the Confluence Story Gathering Col- of the Columbia River and, so far, has lection, which has recorded interviews made available to the public sixty-five with Indigenous elders, leaders, artists, excerpts from those interviews, now ers. What Confluence was doing, they Story Gathering collection consists and educators who, like their ances- uploaded to a digital archive, the Pla- pointed out, was gathering personal of interviews with Indigenous people tors, live along the Columbia River. Col- teau Peoples’ Portal at Washington stories, like roots at harvest. who have ties to those artwork sites. lectively, their story is one of resilience. State University (plateauportal.libraries. Confluence also hosts public In organizing the panels, Confluence The history of the Pacific North- wsu.edu), with more excerpts being events, Story Gathering panels, that staff selected interview excerpts that west, and especially of the Columbia continuously added. (Some interviews feature interview excerpts as well as reflected a set of themes that the River, is often centered on the events of in 2016 were assisted by this author, discussion among a panel of Indig- panelists could discuss: Celilo Falls, the Lewis and Clark Expedition and the currently on staff with the Confluence enous thinkers, writers, and leaders an important spiritual and economic pioneers who arrived via the Oregon Project.) Although the recordings fit the before a live audience. The Story site; lifeways, such as traditions and Trail. By collecting Indigenous stories, definition of oral histories provided by Gathering events have a double mean- culture; fishing rights on the Columbia the project organizers aim to present Valerie Yow — “recording of personal ing: people gather together to gather River; the violence of government-to- a broader, more holistic story. Written testimony delivered in oral form” — stories. The region that Confluence government relations; treaties and primary sources from two-hundred Confluence refers to them as “Story covers, which is part of the Columbia sovereignty, which includes the effects years ago provide valuable evidence Gathering Interviews,” because of a River ecosystem, stretches from east- of termination and federal recogni- regarding the Pacific Northwest, yet discussion with the Confederated Tribes ern Washington at the Idaho state line tion; and the resilience of Indigenous they were not authored directly by of Warm Springs Cultural Committee.2 to the mouth of the Columbia River at people. Several stories from the col- Indigenous people. That perspective Members of the committee explained Astoria and Ilwaco. Confluence has lection are offered here, and we also is needed. Through personal narrative, that oral histories within Tribes are often completed five art installations on the invite readers to visit the Washington these interviews provide a window stories related to a particular place or Columbia River, all designed by the State University (WSU) portal and hear into understanding the cultures and event and are told by tradition keep- artist Maya Lin, and the Confluence the original recordings.

This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Courtesy of Confluence, photograph by Chris Lonigro Voices of the River

The Confluence Story Gathering Interview Collection

RESEARCH FILES

by Lily Hart

This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Bobbie Conner has been the direc- store and gave birth in the shopkeeper’s able to inform Conner about the original In her interview, Conner related a tor of the Tamástslikt Cultural Institute house. “She had the baby, Nettie — bearer of Conner’s Native name. When story from Maya Lin’s visit with a com- in Pendleton, Oregon, since 1998. In and she hated her name, Nettie — had she died in 2003 at age 102, Showaway mittee of Native elders to discuss one her interview, Conner recounted sto- the baby and they wrapped her in an was the oldest member of the Confed- of the art installations, the Sacagawea ries learned from her relative Nettie old dress and her mother rode home erated Tribes of Warm Springs.6 Story Circles in Sacajawea State Park. Queahpama Showaway, emphasized with the baby,” Conner related. “And Conner is Umatilla, Cayuse, and Lin asked why the elders were not [took] the kerosene, back to Nez Perce and grew up on the Uma- angrier when sharing difficult stories Simnasho.”4 tilla Indian Reservation. She recalled of loss along the river. Conner recalled As a little girl, Showaway that, in high school, she and her peers explaining to Lin: “Most people don’t was sent to boarding schools started the “first Indian high school understand how much injustice and at both Warm Springs and club.”7 At the University of Oregon hardship our people have endured NW Documentary Chemawa, which were two (UO), she was president of the Native already. And we haven’t left. We’re very different experiences. The American Student Union and involved still here. The attempts to evacuate Warm Springs Agency Boarding in UO’s student politics. She obtained people, annihilate people, assimilate School was established in the her degree in journalism and began people, have been experiments that late nineteenth century and, like working with nonprofit organiza- have somewhat failed, thank God. And many Indian boarding schools, tions, including as a volunteer with a we know something everybody else promoted assimilation.5 While Seattle-based nonprofit called Indi- doesn’t know — we’re never leaving.”9 there, she was whipped, which ans Into Communications, where she resulted in scars. Showaway was involved in a Native newspaper, THE STORIES OF THE COLUMBIA told Conner how much she radio show, and TV show. While in RIVER ECOSYSTEM liked Chemawa Indian School Seattle, she was also part of a Native The epicenter of the 1,243-mile-long (originally United States Indian American dance troupe. After living Columbia River is Celilo Falls, which Industrial and Training School), in Seattle for five years, she attended is located near The Dalles, Oregon, BOBBIE CONNER, stands to the left of her especially working the kitchens. Willamette University and earned a and is the focus in many of the Story mother Leah Conner, both interviewed by She wanted to stay and work master’s degree in Management, then Gathering interviews. Celilo Falls was Confluence. Leah passed away in November 2018. Confluence is thankful for her participation and to there, but her father said she worked for thirteen years in small both an economic hub and a deeply have had the opportunity to document her story. needed to come home. business. After living away from home spiritual place that has been continu- Sometime after she had in various cities for twenty-four years, ally inhabited for thousands of years. arrived home, Showaway Conner decided she wanted to come During the fishing season, there was a the importance of oral traditions, and rejected a marriage proposal. One home. In April 1998, she became the rush of activity. More water flowed over gave her perspective on the impor- morning she was coming out of the director of the Confederated Tribes Celilo Falls during spring flooding than tance of Celilo. sweathouse when she saw a man and of the Umatilla Indian Reservation’s Niagara Falls, creating a sound that Showaway was born near the her father talking. The man came bear- Tamástslikt Cultural Center. “I didn’t many of the interviewees remember.10 beginning of the twentieth century ing horses and Pendleton blankets, but realize,” she said, “until I had been in That water was the foundation for the and was the daughter of Chief Frank Showaway did not know him and did not the job for about five or six years that Wyam people. As Wilbur Slockish, an Queahpama of Warm Springs. He inher- want to marry him. In front of her father, this was the kind of work I had probably elder of the Confederated Tribes and ited the role of chief from his brother she rejected the man’s proposal. She always wanted to do.”8 That work has Bands of the Yakama Nation, said, Patana-shut.3 Showaway’s parents lived worried she had shamed her father, and made Conner a 2007 recipient of the “Water is the giver of life. If we don’t in Simnasho. As Conner told the story, so, she traveled to Simnasho, where Ecotrust Indigenous Leadership Award, have any water we have no life.”11 Louie Showaway’s mother rode on horseback she lived with Conner’s grandmother. and she was inducted into UO’s School Pitt Jr., the Director of Governmental from Simnasho to the Warm Springs Showaway told Conner stories about of Journalism and Communications Affairs for the Confederated Tribes of general store. She went in labor in the Conner’s grandmother and was also Hall of Achievement in 2013. Warm Springs, described the sound of

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms visited by people who traveled far dis- the compensation they received, some tances. Meriwether Lewis and William of them wouldn’t even accept it. A lot of Clark recorded between 7,200 and it was turned away. They said this does 10,400 Indigenous people in that area, not make up for what we’re losing.”21 NW Documentary between The Dalles and the Cascade While the compensation amount was Rapids.17 around $3,000 per person — it varied Celilo was a center of widespread by Tribe — the money was not always trading for thousands of years. Chief received and did not provide much William Yallup, Jr., described Celilo as economic security. State and county the “Wall Street of the West.” Yallup is welfare offices would often get involved Columbia River Chief, an honorary title in the disbursements and tried to dictate that is connected to fishing rights. He how the Tribes used their money. Many is also a direct descendant of treaty lost their welfare benefits because of signer Wish-Och-Kmpits and is related having the compensation, which they JOHNNY JACKSON, an elder of the Yakama Nation, was photographed during a May to the chiefs Kamiakin and Skloom, who then had to use for basic needs.22 2016 interview with Confluence. also signed the June 9, 1855, Yakama Among those who refused com- Treaty council.18 Yallup is an advocate pensation was the leader of the Wyam for treaty rights as well as a keeper people at the time, Chief Tommy Kuni the falls: “You could hear the growl, the The water was so fierce that falling of treaty-related oral histories. In his Thompson. He said that accepting the groaning of the river. You could hear it into the river could result in death or a interview, he pointed to the vast trade $3,750 he was offered would be signing from probably a quarter mile away, just narrow escape, which is what Aurelia network that centered on Celilo. Tribes away the salmon.23 The great-nephew really rumbled and the smell, you could Stacona experienced and spoke about from today’s Canada came to Celilo to of one of the 1855 treaty signers, Chief smell fish.”12 On March 10, 1957, The in her interview.15 Stacona is an elder obtain vital fish for their ceremonies. Stock-etley, Thompson had been chief Dalles Dam’s gates were closed, inun- of the Wyam people, enrolled with the “Maybe you can understand it as like a since the late nineteenth century.24 dating the falls and silencing their roar.13 Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs. sacrament. Like wine and bread — a sac- His granddaughter, Linda Meanus, Johnny Jackson is a respected She grew up going to Celilo Falls every rament,” Yallup said. “Well these people described the importance of salmon elder and honorary Columbia River summer and fall. Throughout her life, lived way in Canada and they have no to her grandfather, who “became chief Chief representing the Klickitat Cas- she has been a dancer and bead- salmon, no eels, no smelt. But those are when he was 20 and lived to be a 114 part of their sacraments. They

cades Band. He served in the U.S. Army worker and has attended pow-wows NW Documentary in the 1950s and has been a fisherman nationally. She also opened a church have to have those things. for many years. Currently, he serves as and ran a twelve-step program on the They came here and got those a Yakama Commissioner for the Colum- Warm Springs Reservation. Stacona things and take them back as bia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission described the cultural importance of part of their ceremonies.”19 (CRITFC). Jackson described his time Celilo: “We all originated along the On March 10, 1957, the at Celilo Falls, when the water was so Columbia. And when Celilo was there it gates on The Dalles Dam thick and the fish so strong that it took was good, we did that. But just the river were lowered, and in less than two men to pull them up with a pole. It itself still means a lot to us because five hours, Celilo Falls was was wartime and the kids at Celilo com- we are a part of that connection to that flooded.20 Virginia Beavert, an pared the powerful fish jumping over water. And we consider ourselves from elder from the Yakama Nation the falls to torpedoes. “The Falls made the Wyam which is the Columbia. To us who holds a Ph.D. in linguis- them strong” he said. “The struggle and it’s called Wyam.”16 The Wyam people tics, said, “I think a lot of the struggle and all the fighting going back were historically the permanent resi- Indian elders died with a bro- AURELIA STACONA is an elder of the Wyam up to Columbia.”14 dents of Celilo Village, a bustling place ken heart losing Celilo. And people and is pictured here during a 2016 interview.

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms interview, Slockish recalled the Perce elder who is involved in the Nez nothing. Just right out of bed they got. sound of Celilo Falls as being Perce language program. The war took And she was in the river, that’s where they had to get to hide under the bank, where something he will never forget. place when the Nez Perce refused to the willows were leaning over the bank, In 1981, he was arrested (with NW Documentary be forced to move to an Idaho reser- she was trying to hide under there. And several other men, including vation, because the removal violated there were other children, and she was David Sohappy) for “poaching” the June 11, 1855, Treaty with the Nez gathering these kids. Trying to keep them warm and quiet. And she had seen a little fish, in what became known Perce, which reserved for them 7.5 as “Salmonscam.” Seventy- boy laying on the sandbar right across million acres of land in the Washington from them. He was laying there, and he five Indigenous people were and Oregon Territories.30 At the time of was dead. These are the things that she arrested for fishing along the the Battle of Big Hole in August 1877, experienced and witnessed.32 Columbia River, despite the fact they were trying to escape to Canada that their ancestors had negoti- Two days after the battle, the daugh- to join Sitting Bull and some members ated treaties that reserved the ter died. Bessie’s great-grandmother of the Lakota Tribe. The U.S. Army, led right to fish at “usual and accus- and great-grandfather journeyed to by Col. John Gibbon, caught up to the tomed places.”27 Federal and Canada, where they stayed with Sitting band and launched an early morn- state governments and Tribes Bull for a while before going home. ing attack on the encampment near had long had disputes over While forty-two Nez Perce individuals Wisdom, Montana.31 During the battle, tribal members’ rights to fish at were listed as fatalities of the Battle of Bessie’s great-grandmother took her off-reservation sites and without Big Hole, the actual deaths are likely young daughter and ran for the river- 33 permits. In 1969, the Oregon more in the range of sixty to ninety. courts determined that Tribes bank, but the little girl was shot. Many of the children, such as the little girl killed that day, were not identified. WILBUR SLOCKISH, an elder of the would be entitled to a “fair and And she [the great-grandmother] went Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama equitable share” of the salmon down to the willows, took her baby with This was not the only instance of Indian Nation, is pictured here in 2016 during a runs. Nevertheless, Slockish her. Just like she was, no blankets, no violent attacks on Tribes. Leah Con- Story Gathering interview. was sentenced to three years’

jail time for fishing without state Courtesy of Thomas Robinson, photograph by Percy Kramer permits and violating the Lacey when he died. But he lived on salmon Act.28 Slockish recalled telling the judge everyday so that was the importance that until the judge laid his “tax dollars, of trying to keep our Celilo Falls, was your license fees, your rules and regula- because of our salmon, because it was tions . . . on the table” Slockish would our way of life. It was our survival.”25 “exercise the rights given to me by my Her grandfather, Meanus said, died of creator.”29 a broken heart.26 Violence inflicted onto the people Fishing rights have long been a by the U.S. government is a common struggle for the Columbia River people. theme in the interviews. Wilfred Scott Wilbur Slockish was born on Septem- and Bessie Scott relate an incident of ber 19, 1944, in Wapato, Washington, the 1877 Nez Perce War, when Bessie and, as an adult, spent three years in Scott’s great-grandmother’s village prison for exercising his fishing rights. was attacked by the U.S. militia. Wilfred As a boy, he went to Celilo Falls with is a Nez Perce elder and veteran who his family and assisted the fishermen, served on the Nez Perce Tribal Execu- NATIVE PEOPLE fishing at Celilo Falls ride on carts from the mainland to the being too young for the platforms. In his tive Committee, and Bessie is a Nez islands. This activity is recalled in many interviews conducted by Confluence.

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms culture and lands by utilizing, as Tanna tribal sovereignty and liquidating res- Engdahl explained, “the white man’s ervations. In the case of many Tribes, tools in such a way that benefitted us.”40 including the Confederated Tribes of Engdahl is a Cowlitz spiritual leader. Grand Ronde, this was done without NW Documentary She explained that the Tribe “learned to tribal approval.43 Although termina- write, keep records, write testimonies, tion was not unique to Oregon, with affidavits. That became quite valuable sixty-one Tribes affected, the state had in the years to come when we had to the highest number of terminations.44 come back and fight for our standing, Before treaties, the Tribes of Western a thing called recognition.”41 Because Oregon held a total of 14 million acres the Cowlitz chose not to sign the treaty — the Grand Ronde then had a 61,440 relocating them from their land to res- acre reservation. The Dawes Act slowly ervations, they were not acknowledged reduced the reservation to about 600 by the United States government as a acres in the 1950s prior to termination. IN A 2016 INTERVIEW conducted by the Confluence Project, Wilfred Scott and Bessie Tribe. The Cowlitz began a case for After termination, they only had one 45 Scott, both Nez Perce elders, relate stories of violence the U.S. government inflicted on federal recognition, using the written cemetery. “But all we ended up with their families during the 1877 Nez Perce War. documents and testimonies Engdahl at that point in time was just our tribal referred to, and successfully obtained cemetery, which was just under five recognition in 2000.42 acres,” Greg Archuleta, who is an art- In Oregon, the Western Oregon ist and educator that is enrolled in the ner, an elder of Umatilla, Cayuse, and where they arrived on August 7 and Indian Termination Act of 1954 ended Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde, Nez Perce ancestry who holds three were held until April 22, 1878. During the relationship between Tribes and recalled. He went on to say how, as degrees in education and the fine arts, their captivity, an infant boy died.37 the federal government, destroying a child, he would go with his family to related a story of how her grandmother Every year in April, Wilfred Scott leads Bruce Foster escaped the militia in The Dalles by the Chief Redheart Memorial Ceremony paddling up the river in a canoe.34 Leah at Fort Vancouver. Of the memorial Conner’s grandmother “was born on he said, “I tell them, you know, when a island there and her parents were we honor them, we honor ourselves. I killed during the attack. And they remind the people of that.”38 wanted to get rid of the Indians so the Interviewees have emphasized that militia came and threw all their food despite the violence and trauma, the in the river. And her mother and father people have maintained and adapted were killed.”35 This likely occurred their culture. Mike Iyall, who is the chair sometime in the 1870s. of the Cowlitz Indian Tribe’s education Fort Vancouver, the site of the Con- committee, recalled how cultural knowl- fluence Land Bridge, was home to the edge, such as basketry and other visual captivity of the thirty-three-member Nez patterns, were lost due to the high per- Perce Band of Chief Redheart. General centage of his people who died from O.O. Howard ordered the capture and disease, yet there is revitalizing of the imprisonment of band, which mostly basketry today. The Cowlitz Tribe was included old men, women, and some devastated by disease in the nineteenth THIS AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH shows the Vancouver Land Bridge, dedicated in August children.36 They were captured on July century, with more than 80 percent of 2008 and the second of six planned public art installations designed, as Confluence 1, 1877, then marched to Fort Vancouver, the people lost.39 They preserved their explains, to “create reflective moments that can shape the Columbia River system.”

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms communities that do not have clear of the Confederated Tribes of Grand and non-Native. It was so widely used recognition . . . or acknowledge- Ronde through education. He teaches that there were at least five dictionaries ment by the federal government.”50 ethnobotany, carving, cedar hat making, written on it between 1863 and 1913.57 One example of how lack of Native art design, and basketry. Johnson discussed its history: “So that NW Documentary federal recognition affects Tribes is As Euro-Americans began to arrive language [Chinook Wawa], according that it keeps them from having legal in the Pacific Northwest during the late- to my elders, was here long before the rights to fish in traditional places. eighteenth and early-nineteenth cen- fur trade or anything else. It was just a United States v. Washington, 384 turies, Tribes incorporated new trade reduced form of our language. And it F. Supp. 312, better known as the items, such as the copper mentioned was just again to bare bones commu- Boldt Decision, reaffirmed that by Archuleta, into their longstanding nicate with somebody that came into Washington Tribes could fish in networks. Iyall recounted how the cur- your territory.”58 Today, Chinook Wawa “usual and accustomed grounds.”51 rent I-5 highway follows an Indigenous is used and taught by the Chinook Despite the rights outlined in trading trail. The trading network Nation in Washington and the Confed- the 1854, 1855, and 1856 treaties, extended all the way to the Mohegan erated Tribes of the Grande Ronde in non-Native commercial fishermen Tribe, in what is now Connecticut. “The Oregon.59 When the U.S. government had been taking over the fishing Mohegan have spiral flute dentalia on forced western Oregon tribal people sites. Tribes responded during the their tribal regalia,” said Iyall, “and that’s on to the reservation, there were eight 1960s by staging “fish-ins,” and really awesome because spiral flute different dialects present amongst the GREG ARCHULETA is an educator with the many were arrested for “illegally” dentalia comes from [two places] in people.60 Chinuk Wawa proved to be Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde. fishing. In 1970, the U.S. Attorney the world — northern Vancouver Island a uniting factor. filed a complaint against the State and the Queen Charlottes. Those shells Bessie Scott, who is Nez Perce, of Washington on the basis that in Connecticut would have passed teaches Niimi’ipuutímt, a Sahaptin clean the graves.46 Conner described Washington had violated Native treaty through our hands. That’s just mind language of the Nez Perce Tribe. She how the government “continued to try rights. In 1974, George Boldt, the Senior blowing. It shows to me how intercon- is among a group of elders in the Nez to break down the fabric of our social Federal District Judge for the state, nected native peoples were.”55 During Perce Tribe who compiled a language structure,” first through reservations and held a six-day trial during which he his interview, Iyall also discussed the book. Scott described in her interview shared ownership, then through reloca- interviewed forty-nine people, including history of “high Chief” Scanewa, Cowlitz how learning their Native language tion and termination during the 1950s.47 tribal members. He concluded that fed- marriage traditions, federal recognition, builds confidence in children. “That Tribes, including the Grand Ronde and erally recognized treaty Tribes had the tribal sovereignty, traditional village song was in there, and it’s ‘I am special,’ Klamath, fought for and won restoration right to 50 percent of the annual catch.52 structure, the role of the headmen and ’iin wees hete’ew. ’iim ’ee wees hete’ew. of their sovereign status. This ability to use new systems matriarch, the Lewis and Clark Expedi- You are special. So we started singing The Chinook Indian Nation, head- of law to continue old traditions is tion, Native art, and the multilingual that, and that became a song we sang quartered in Bay Center, Washington, reflected in an interview statement tradition of the Cowlitz. 56 every day. And that’s what I would tell is currently in the process of fighting by Greg Archuleta: “I think one of the Language had a significant role in them, you know, if you’re feeling bad, for federal recognition, although this is important things is that we were never trade, of course, and it has emerged as you just sit down and you think, you not due to termination.48 The Chinook a stagnant people. We were always an important theme in the Confluence say that word, I am special, iin wees signed the Tansey Point Treaties in continually changing, adopting.”53 He Story Gathering Collection. Many of hete’ew.61 1851; however, Congress never ratified described how Tribes adapted copper the interviewees both discussed their Virginia Beavert teaches her native the agreement.49 Tony Johnson, the brought by traders for other uses and Native language and spoke it for a language, Ichishkíin Sɨ́nwit, and in tribal chairman for the Chinook Indian how today one might make a wallet out portion of their interviews. Often dis- addition to talking about her family, Nation and Education Program Director of cedar in addition to making a tradi- cussed was Chinook Wawa, or Chinook the river, and her time at Celilo, she for the Shoalwater Bay Tribe, explained tional basket.54 As an artist and educa- Jargon, which was the lingua franca of discussed the importance of language that “all across the country there are tor, Archuleta maintains the culture Pacific Northwest traders, both Native in her interview. She completed her

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Sɨnwit́ and other Sahaptin languages. ees themselves. The process started She continued on in her interview to in 2011, with a purpose of gathering emphasize the importance of preserving interviews for the Confluence web-

NW Documentary language for future generations. Brittney site, which was to be an educational Parnham, one of Beavert’s students at resource. The interviewers were Donna the UO’s Northwest Indian Language Sinclair and Leslie Miller, who traveled Institute, worked on the translation for to tribal headquarters and studios to this excerpt. conduct the interviews. An advisory committee, comprising tribal members shapáshukwaasha túyay awkú kunkínk and academics, identified individuals íchi iwá shapáwach’akiɨ s ́nwit kushxí̱ íchi interviewees and topic areas. 2016 I am informing or explaining, recording The second phase started in , my words in the native language, and on with a partnership with NW Documen- tary. The aim was to conduct interviews kw nk video anakúsh wapíitatya and then turn them into excerpts that VIRGINIA BEAVERT, an elder of the Yakama Nation who holds a Ph.D. in Linguistics, ɨ myánashmaman anakwmák chaw tun could be used at events or in class- is pictured here during a Confluence interview. rooms. The questions were prepared the video to help the children, and by Colin Fogarty, Executive Director those who did not have (the younger of Confluence, Meaghan Stetzik, the Ph.D. in Linguistics at the University of And also at Lapuwai, Idaho from my generation) Project Manager at the time, and Ian Oregon, where she wrote a disserta- paternal side and also from those that McCluskey of NW Documentary. As Palusknik. pashukwáasha kushxí tíixwat imamanák tion on two points, one, on the aca- ̱ ̱ before, an advisory committee of tribal amkwpɨnḱ paysh álaaksha kuunák. demic research surrounding Ichishkin members and academics identified Anakúsh nash wa x twayma tł’áaxwkan and two, her language and culture.62 In ̱ɨ́ ̱ people to interview. Confluence also miin, íkushx̱i. the privilege of learning from their elders, her interview with Confluence Beavert or they have forgotten the teachings.65 worked with formal tribal cultural com- recalled her time as translator with mittees, which then contacted and Warm Springpa, are from the Lower Margaret ‘Kit’ Kendell, who was doing Snake River Palouse. I have relatives Here, Beavert emphasized to the impor- identified individuals who should be interviews and research on the river everywhere, at Warm Springs, Klikitatpa. tance of recording her language for interviewed. Cultural committees also people.63 Beavert was assigned by the the children. The knowledge held by received the questions so they could tribal council to act as translator, since Áwknik mɨniḱ kush áyknxaasẖ Ichishkíin Beavert and other Indigenous elders provide for feedback before interviews. she knew multiple languages. She sɨ́nwityaw. Áwkłaaw nash chaw and and leaders is key in understanding the Interview question lists and interest grew up learning Nez Perce as well as Klickitat. Columbia River and its tributaries. By forms were sent out to potential inter- Klickitat, Umatilla, and Yakama dialects recording their individual voices, each viewees, whose responses gave Con- of Sahaptin. In her interview with Con- From these places, I’ve listened to stories unique in how it relates to the Columbia fluence an idea of what the interviewee in their Indian language. However I do not fluence, hes speaks in Ichishkíin Sɨ́nwit River ecosystem, Confluence hopes to would like to discuss. The most recent about her language and kinship ties. preserve them for future generations. interviews, with Chief Delvis Heath and nash áshukwaasha s ́nwitnan. Anakúsh ɨ Shirley Stahi-Heath, were conducted in Ashkú wa palaláay x ̱ɨ́twayma nash míshkin awkú chaw áshukwaana. THE TECHNICAL PROCESS Nix̱yáwipa. partnership with Woodrow Hunt of Tule Films. During the summer of 2016, when claim to be fluent in all those languages.64 The Confluence Story Gathering I have many relatives at Umatilla. Collection has been made possible I was one of two interns involved in the Beavert has used her knowledge through partnerships with NW Docu- project, we would often travel to the Kushx̱í íkwna Lápuwaypa inmíknik of these languages to write dictionar- mentary, the WSU Plateau Peoples’ interviewees’ homeland or a site that ttáwax̱tknik kushx̱í anakwmák pawá. ies and linguistics studies on Ichishkíin Portal, Tule Films, and the interview- was important to them. We interviewed

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms to hold Indigenous materials through a The excerpts were and are deter- software called Mukurtu. Mukurtu has mined through various processes. built-in protocols that were designed The transcribers (myself and another to protect content created by and for intern at the time) went through the tribal communities. It allows for each transcripts and identified stories that item in the Plateau Peoples’ Portal to emerged. The staff then decided which be restricted in various ways, allowing stories to prioritize. I am currently the access only, for example, for a specific staff member mostly responsible for Tribe, a specific family, or elders.67 Kim the Story Gathering Collection, and Christen, a professor at WSU, and Craig I select new excerpts to upload. The Dietrich of Occidental College, created Plateau Peoples’ Portal has been the the software with the Warumungu tribe destination for the excerpts since the of Australia.68 “Our goal,” Christen wrote beginning of the phase 2 of the project, “with the Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal so interviewees are aware of where project was to undo these privileging the excerpts will live. Confluence is practices and, in their place, to establish currently in the process of contact- a set of standards that allows for mul- ing the phase 1 interviewees to gain tiple voices, layered context, diverse permission for uploading those to the forms of metadata, and the expansion Portal, since the Portal was not part of of the archival record.”69 Historically, the plans back in 2011. These decisions archives have not protected Indigenous are guided in part by themes that often materials under the argument of public occur during Story Gathering Panels, TWO VIEWS of Washington State University’s Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, including access, but many of the materials used such as resilience, and themes that the home page and collections search page, are pictured above. in archives are deeply private. The the Portal has identified as important, Mukurtu software allows the materials such as lifeways. The Portal, which is a to be stored and maintained and also collaborative effort between Tribes and for Tribes and families to have control WSU, identifies these themes through a Stacona at the Warm Springs Museum, a group of fifteen Indigenous and four over these holdings. Mukurtu provides detailed process with Tribes.70 for example, and interviewed Archuleta non-Indigenous archivists, museum a way for Indigenous material to be The collection is easily acces- once at the Sandy River Delta and later curators, librarians, historians, and archived in an ethical and respectful sible and searchable. Researchers at the Grande Ronde Portland office. anthropologists. The group emphasized manner. While all of the Confluence can simply go to browse, click on the This approach emphasized the con- that Tribes are sovereign governments excerpts are currently set to public Confluence Collection, and filter by nection to place that is present in the and therefore have rights and laws that access, if the interviewee requests it, tags, such as Natural Resources, or interviews. need to be respected by archivists.66 protocols will be changed to restrict search for keywords, such as trade. In searching for a place for these What is deemed culturally sensitive the interview. The full interviews and It is Confluence’s hope that these recordings to be archived, Confluence impacts the restrictions placed on mate- transcripts are housed at the Conflu- excerpts will enhance the work of looked for digital preservation software rials and varies by Tribes and bands; ence office library and eventually will researchers and educators and that or a website that would both allow for archives — and organizations such as be stored in WSU’s physical archive. they will be utilized in a respectful excerpts intended for public audiences Confluence — need to allow for this The Plateau Peoples’ Portal is not an manner. Personal narratives enrich and provide interviewees with control difference. archive but, rather, an educational site. the landscape of source material, over their recordings and excerpts. In These considerations resulted in Excerpts allow viewers to find and listen providing perspective that is often 2006, Protocols for Native American Confluence’s decision to use WSU’s Pla- to a story easily, rather than searching lost in the historical record. Written Archival Materials were developed by teau Peoples’ Portal, which is designed through an hour-long video. sources and personal interviews can

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms be combined to create an accurate, be an emotional process. Confluence table 1. For an analysis of population estimates 26. Linda Meanus, interview by Donna thoughtful, and respectful research is honored and grateful to our inter- recorded by Lewis and Clark, see Robert Sinclair, 2012, full transcript, Confluence office T. Boyd and Yvonne P. Hajda, “Seasonal library, Vancouver, Washington. project. Interviews should also be viewees for granting us the privilege Population Movement Along the Lower 27. Kappler, “Treaty with the Yakima, 12 Stat., used with care. These are people’s of conducting these interviews and Columbia River: the Social and Ecological 951,” Indian Affairs, 698–702. personal stories, and telling them can sharing these stories. Context,” American Ethnologist 14:2 (May 28. Andrew H. Fisher, “David Sohappy 1987), 309–326. (1925–1991),” The Oregon Encyclopedia, https:// 18. Charles J Kappler, comp., “Treaty oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/sohappy_ with the Yakima, 12 Stat., 951,” Indian Affairs: david_1925_1991_/#.W8tOzhNKjdQ (accessed Laws and Treaties, vol. 2, (Washington D.C.: October 20, 2018). See also Andrew H. Fisher, NOTES Government Printing Office,1904 ), 698–702. “Submergence and Resurgence,” Shadow 19. Bill Yallup, Jr., “Wall Street of the West,” Tribe: The Making of Columbia River Indian 1. Roberta Conner, “Intestinal Fortitude salmon-culture/tribal-salmon-culture/celilo- interview by Ian McCluskey and Colin Fogarty, Identity, (Seattle: University of Washington [extended version],” interview by Ian falls/ (accessed October 29, 2018). Lyle, Washington, July 6, 2017, Plateau Peoples’ Press, 2010). McCluskey and Colin Fogarty in Umatilla, 11. Wilbur Slockish, “Water is the Giver of Web Portal, plateauportal.wsulibs.wsu.edu/ 29. Wilbur Slockish, “Prison Experience,” Oregon, August 31, 2016, Confluence Story Life,” interview by Ian McCluskey and Colin digital-heritage/bill-yallup-jr-wall-street-west interview by Ian McCluskey and Colin Fogarty, Gathering Collection, Plateau Peoples’ Web Fogarty, Portland, Oregon, May 24, 2016, (accessed October 25, 2018). Portland, Oregon, May 24, 2016, Plateau Portal [hereafter Plateau Peoples’ Web Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal. 20. Barber, Death of Celilo Falls, 4. Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal.libraries. Portal], plateauportal.libraries.wsu.edu/digital- libraries.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/wilbur- 21. Virginia Beavert, “Celilo Falls and wsu.edu/digital-heritage/wilbur-slockish-prison- heritage/bobbie-conner-intestinal-fortitude- slockish-water-giver-life. Fishing,” interview by Ian McCluskey and Colin experience (accessed October 25, 2018). extended-version (accessed October 25, 2018). 12. Louie Pitt, “Celilo Memories,” interview Fogarty, Eugene, Oregon, September 29, 2016, 30. Kappler, “Treaty with the Yakima, 12 Stat., 2. Valerie Yow, Recording Oral History: by Ian McCluskey and Meaghan Stetzik, Warm in Eugene, Oregon, Plateau Peoples’ Web 951,” Indian Affairs, 702–706). A Practical Guide for Social Scientists, Springs, Oregon, October 5, 2016, Plateau Portal, plateauportal.wsulibs.wsu.edu/digital- 31. Bruce Hampton, “Battle of the Big Hole,” (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications, Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal.libraries. heritage/virginia-beavert-celilo-falls-and-fishing Montana: The Magazine of Western History 44:1 1994), 3. wsu.edu/digital-heritage/louie-pitt-celilo- (accessed October 25, 2018). (1994): 2–13. 3. Susan Matheny, “102-year-old tribal memories (accessed October 25, 2018). 22. For a more in depth history of the 32. Wilfred Scott and Bessie Scott, “Battle elder shares wisdom,” Madras Pioneer, March 13. Katrine Barber, Death of Celilo Falls, compensation negotiation, see “Negotiating at Big Hole,” interview by Ian McCluskey and 18, 2003, https://pamplinmedia.com/msp/129- (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2005), Values: Settlement and Final Compensation” in Colin Fogarty, Portland, Oregon, April 28, 2016, news/132544-102-year-old-tribal-elder-shares- 4, 12, 15–16. Barber, Death of Celilo Falls, 172–75. Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal. wisdom (accessed October 25, 2018). 14. Johnny Jackson, “Fishing at Celilo,” 23. Barber, Death of Celilo Falls, 153. libraries.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/wilfred-and- 4. Roberta Conner, “Stories from Nettie interview by Ian McCluskey and Colin Fogarty, 24. Chief Stock-etley signed the “Treaty bessie-scott-battle-big-hole (accessed October Showaway,” interview by Ian McCluskey and Portland, Oregon, May 24, 2015, Plateau between the United States and the Confederated 25, 2018). Colin Fogarty, Umatilla, Oregon, August 31, 2016, Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal.libraries. Tribes and Bands of Indians in Middle Oregon,” 33. Jerome A. Greene, Nez Perce Summer, Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal. wsu.edu/digital-heritage/johnny-jackson-fishing- June 25, 1855. It was ratified April 18, 1859. 1877: the U.S. Army and the Nee-Me-Poo Crisis libraries.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/roberta- celilo (accessed October 25, 2018). The text and signatories of the treaty can be (Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, conner-stories-nettie-showaway. 15. Aurelia Stacona, “Falling into Celilo found online at plateauportal.libraries.wsu.edu/ 2000), 374, online at nps.gov/parkhistory/ 5. Melinda Jette, “Warm Springs Agency Falls,” interview by Ian McCluskey and Meaghan digital-heritage/treaty-between-united-states- online_books/nepe/greene/appb.htm. Boarding School, 1890,” Oregon History Project, Stetzik,Warm Springs, Oregon, October 5, 2016, and-confederated-Tribes-and-bands-indians- 34. Leah Conner, “Encounter with Militia,” https://oregonhistoryproject.org/articles/ Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal. middle (accessed October 25, 2018). Cain interview by Ian McCluskey and Colin Fogarty, historical-records/warm-springs-agency- libraries.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/aurelia- Allen, “Chief Tommy Kuni Thompson,” Oregon Umatilla, Oregon, August 31, 2016, Plateau boarding-school-1890/#.W9JNhFVKhaQ stacona-falling-celilo-falls (accessed October History Project, https://oregonhistoryproject. Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal.libraries.wsu. (accessed October 25, 2018). 25, 2018). org/articles/historical-records/chief-tommy- edu/digital-heritage/leah-conner-encounter- 6. “Obituaries for week of 10-22-03,” 16. Aurelia Stacona, “Wyam,” interview by kuni-thompson/#.W9JSI1VKhaR (accessed militia (accessed October 25, 2018). Madras Pioneer, October 21, 2003, https:// Ian McCluskey and Meaghan Stetzik, Warm October 25, 2018). 35. Ibid. portlandtribune.com/component/content/ Springs, Oregon, October 5, 2018, Plateau 25. Linda Meanus, “Tommy Thompson 36. Gregory P. Shine, “Guardhouse article?id=133349 (accessed October 25, 2018). Peoples’ Web Portal, https://plateauportal. and Salmon,” interview by Ian McCluskey and Stereoscope,” in Revealing Our Past: A History 7. Conner, “Need interview name.” libraries.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/aurelia- Colin Fogarty, City, State, March 2012, Plateau of Nineteenth Century Vancouver Barracks 8. Ibid. stacona-wyam (accessed November 8, 2018). Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal.libraries. Through 25 Objects, ed. Gregory P. Shine and 9. Ibid. 17. Robert Boyd, People of the Dalles: wsu.edu/digital-heritage/linda-meanus-tommy- Marc Carpenter (Fort Vancouver, Wash.: Fort 10. “Celilo Falls,” Columbia River Inter- The Indians of Wascopam Mission, (Lincoln: thompson-and-salmon (accessed October 25, Vancouver National Historic Site, 2013), also Tribal Fish Commission, www.critfc.org/ University of Nebraska Press, 2004), p. 50, 2018) online at nps.gov/fova/learn/photosmultimedia/

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms guardhouse-stereoscope.htm (accessed tribes_of_grand_ronde/#.W-TJ6NVKjmE Oregon, December 12, 2016, Plateau Peoples’ program/ and learnchinookjargon.wordpress. October 25, 2018). (accessed November 8, 2018). Web Portal, plateauportal.libraries.wsu.edu/ com/tribal-nights (accessed October 15, 37. The Columbian, “Remembering 46. Greg Archuleta, “Treaties,” interview digital-heritage/greg-archuleta-adapting- 2018). Liz Jones, “The Chinook People & Chief Red Heart,” Clark History, http://history. by Meaghan Stetzik, Portland, Oregon, cultural-loss (accessed October 25, 2018). Language Survive,” http://www.chinooknation. columbian.com/chief (accessed October 29, December 12, 2016, Plateau Peoples’ Web 54. Greg Archuleta, “Honoring the org/justice/2016/Q1’16/day192.html (accessed 2018). Portal, plateauportal.libraries.wsu.edu/digital- Ancestors,” interview by Ian McCluskey and November 7, 2018). 38. Wilfred Scott and Bessie Scott, “Redheart heritage/greg-archuleta-treaties (accessed Colin Fogarty, Sandy River Delta, Oregon, 60. Henry Zenk and Tony A. Johnson, “A Band,” interview by Ian McCluskey and Colin October 25, 2018). July 19, 2016, Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, Northwest Language of Contact, Diplomacy, and Fogarty, Portland, Oregon, April 28, 2016, 47. Roberta Conner, “Treaty Impacts and plateauportal.libraries.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/ Identity: Chinuk Wawa / Chinook Jargon,” Oregon Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal. Property Rights [Extended Version],” interview greg-archuleta-honoring-ancestors (accessed Historical Quarterly 111:4 (Winter 2010): 458. libraries.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/wilfred-and- by Ian McCluskey and Colin Fogarty, Umatilla, October 25, 2018). 61. Wilfred Scott and Bessie Scott, “I Am bessie-scott-redheart-band (accessed October Oregon, August 31, 2016, Plateau Peoples’ 55. Mike Iyall, “Trade,” interview by Colin Special,” interview by Ian McCluskey and Colin 25, 2018). Web Portal, plateauportal.libraries.wsu.edu/ Fogarty, Vancouver, Washington, December 4, Fogarty, Portland, Oregon, April 28, 2016, Plateau 39. Christine Dupres. Being Cowlitz: How digital-heritage/bobbie-conner-treaty-impacts- 2017, Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal. Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal.libraries. One Tribe Renewed and Sustained Its Identity, and-property-rights-extended-version (accessed wsulibs.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/mike-iyall- wsu.edu/digital-heritage/wilfred-and-bessie- (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2014), October 25, 2018). trade (accessed October 25, 2018). scott-i-am-special (accessed October 25, 2018). 16. 48. The Chinook tribe was briefly 56. Mike Iyall, interview conducted by Colin Translation from Volume 6 of the Nimipuutimt 40. Tanna Engdahl, “Adapting to New recognized in 2001; however the George W. Fogarty and Sam Gaty, Vancouver, Washinton, language books. Angel Sobotta, Songs, 2008, Technology,” interview by Colin Fogarty, in Bush Administration reversed the decision in December 4, 2017, full transcript in Confluence www.nimipuutimt.org/uploads/1/4/0/6/14060280/ Vancouver, Washington, December 4, 2017, 2002 — only two days after the Chinook Nation office library, Vancouver, Washington. nimipuutimt_volume_6.pdf (accessed October Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, plateauportal. had visited Washington D.C. for the Lewis and 57. See George Gibbs, A Dictionary of the 25, 2018). wsulibs.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/tanna-engdahl- Clark Bicentennial. See https://www.hcn.org/ Chinook Jargon, Or, the Trade Language of 62. See dissertation: Virginia Rosalyn adapting-new-technology-excerpt-5. issues/232/11350 (accessed November 8, 2018) Oregon, (New York: Cramoisy Press, 1863); John Beavert, “Wantwint Inmi Tiinawit: A Reflection 41. Tanna Engdahl, “Preserving Culture,” 49. “Portland State University History Gill, Gill’s Dictionary of the Chinook Jargon, with of What I Have Learned” (Ph.D. diss., University interview by Colin Fogarty, Vancouver, Department, Tansey Point Treaties,” Public Examples of Use in Conversation and Notes of Oregon, 2012). Washington, December 4, 2017, Plateau Peoples’ History PDX, publichistorypdx.org/projects/ Upon Tribes and Tongue (Portland: J. K. Gill 63. Virginia Beavert, interview conducted Web Portal, plateauportal.wsulibs.wsu.edu/ chinook/tansey-point-treaties (accessed Company, 1909). Horatio Hale, An International by Colin Fogarty and Ian McCluskey, Eugene, digital-heritage/tanna-engdahl-preserving- October 29, 2018). Idiom. A Manual of the Oregon Trade Language, Oregon, September 29, 2016, full transcript in culture-excerpt-3 (accessed October 25, 2018). 50. Tony Johnson, “Treaties,” interview or “Chinook jargon” (London: Whittaker & Co, Confluence office library. 42. Rosemary Sweeney, “Federal by Colin Fogarty, Tokeland, Washington, 1890); George C. Shaw, The Chinook Jargon 64. Virginia Beavert, “Virginia Beavert Acknowledgement of Indian Tribes: Current February 27, 2017, Plateau Peoples’ Web Portal, and How to Use It: a Complete and Exhaustive Speaks to Confluence in Ichishkíin Sɨ́nwit,” BIA Interpretations of the Federal Criteria for plateauportal.libraries.wsu.edu/digital-heritage/ Lexicon of the Oldest Trade Language of the September 29, 2016, Plateau Peoples’ Web Acknowledgment with Respect to Several tony-johnson-treaties. American Continent, (Seattle, Wash.: Rainier Portal, https://vimeo.com/226822135 (accessed Northwest Tribes.” American Indian Law Review 51. The Treaty of Olympia, January 6, 1856, Printing Company, Inc., 1909); W.S. Phillips, October 25, 2018). 26:2 (2001): 203–31. available online at Northwest Indian Fisheries The Chinook Book, A Descriptive Analysis of 65. Ibid. 43. David G. Lewis. “Four Deaths: The Near Commission website, https://nwifc.org/w/wp- the Chinook Jargon in Plain Words, Giving 66. First Archivist Circle, “Protocols for Destruction of Western Oregon Tribes and content/uploads/2018/02/treaty-of-olympia.pdf Instructions for Pronunciation, Construction, Native American Archival Materials,” Protocols Native Lifeways, Removal to the Reservation, (accessed November 8, 2018). Expression and Proper Speaking of Chinook for Native American Archival Materials, Northern and Erasure from History.” Oregon Historical 52. United States v. State of Washington, with All the Various Shaded Meanings of the Arizona University, April 9, 2007, http://www2. Quarterly 115:3 (2014): 433. 384 F. Supp. 312 (W.D. Wash. 1974). For Words, (Seattle Wash.: R.L. Davis Printing Co., nau.edu/libnap-p/protocols.html (accessed 44. Public Law 588, August 13, 1954. information on Boldt Decision, see Northwest 1913). October 25, 2018) Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. VI Indian Fisheries Commission, “Boldt 40: U.S. 58. Tony Johnson, “Chinuk Wawa 67. Kimberly Christen, “Working Together: (Washington: Government Printing Office), p.641 . v. Washington, 1974–2014),” http://blogs.nwifc. Language,” interview by Colin Fogarty, Tokeland, Archival Challenges and Digital Solutions in For information on termination, see also Charles org/boldt40/ (accessed November 8, 2018). Washington, February 27, 2017, Plateau Peoples’ Aboriginal Australia,” SAA Archaeological F. Wilkinson and Eric R. Biggs, “The Evolution of Jovana J. Brown, “Treaty Rights: Twenty Years Web Portal, plateauportal.wsulibs.wsu.edu/ Record 8:2 (March 2008): 22. the Termination Policy,” American Indian Law after the Boldt Decision,” Wicazo Sa Review 10:2 digital-heritage/tony-johnson-chinuk-wawa- 68. Kimberly Christen, “Opening Archives: Review 5:1 (1977), 151. (1994): 1–16. Fronda Woods, “Who’s In Charge of language (accessed October 25, 2018). Respectful Repatriation,” The American Archivist 45. Lewis, “Four Deaths,” 432–33; Fishing?” Oregon Historical Quarterly 106:3 (Fall 59. Tony Johnson is a teacher of Chinook 74:1 (Spring/Summer 2011), 185–210. David Lewis, “Confederated Tribes of Grand 2005): 412–41. Wawa. See the Grande Ronde website for 69. Ibid., 198 Ronde,” The Oregon Encyclopedia, https:// 53. Greg Archuleta, “Adapting to Cultural language classes, grandronde.org/departments/ 70. Christen, “Opening Archives: Respectful oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/confederated_ Loss,” interview by Meaghan Stetzik, Portland, education/elementary-chinuk-language- Repatriation,” 200.

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This content downloaded from 131.252.96.10 on Thu, 20 Jun 2019 17:06:45 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms