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Chapter 5: Rome and the Rise of Christianity, 600 B.C.-A.D

Chapter 5: Rome and the Rise of Christianity, 600 B.C.-A.D

and the Rise of 600 B.C.–A.D. 500 Key Events As you read, look for the key events in the and early Christianity. • Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and established a . • Romans crushed Hannibal and won the . • became the first emperor, signifying the beginning of the . • Constantine proclaimed official tolerance of Christianity. • Germanic tribes defeated the Romans, and the empire fell. The Impact Today The events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today. • Using their practical skills, the Romans made achievements in , , language, and engineering that became an important part of Western . • In the last two hundred years of the Roman Empire, Christianity grew, along with its new ideals of spiritual equality and respect for human life.

World History Video The Chapter 5 video, “The Roman World,” chronicles the emergence and expansion of the Roman Empire.

Etruscan

650 B.C. 264 B.C. Etruscans rule Rome begin

600 B.C. 500 B.C. 400 B.C. 300 B.C. 200 B.C. 100 B.C.

509 B.C. 450 B.C. 312 B.C. Rome becomes The Twelve a republic Tables is Way Rome’s first built code of

Ruins of the Appian Way

146 The Pont du Gard, a in southern

HISTORY 44 B.C. Assassination of Julius assassinated Chapter Overview Visit the Glencoe World History Web site at tx.wh.glencoe.com and click A.D. 1 A.D. 100 A.D. 200 A.D. 300 A.D. 400 A.D. 500 on Chapter 5–Chapter Overview to preview chapter information.

A.D.33 A.D.79 A.D. 180 A.D. 476 dies destroyed Fall of the in in eruption of ends Roman Empire Bust from Pompeii

147 Horatius at the bridge over the River

Horatius at the Bridge ne of the great heroes of early Rome was Horatius, Why It Matters whose bravery in battle made him a legend. As the Ostory goes, Roman farmers, threatened by attack from the Courage, duty, determination— neighboring Etruscans, abandoned their fields and moved these were common words to many into the city of Rome, protected by the city’s walls. One weak Romans, who believed that it was their mission to rule nations and point in the Roman defense was a wooden bridge over the peoples. Whereas the had Tiber River. On the day of the Etruscan attack, Horatius was excelled in and the arts, on guard at the bridge. the Romans were practical people. A surprise attack by the Etruscans caused many Roman They knew how to govern, make troops to throw down their weapons and run. Horatius acted laws, and build roads that took promptly, urging them to make a stand at the bridge in order them to the ends of the known to protect Rome. As a last resort, he challenged the Roman world. Even after the Roman Empire troops to destroy the bridge while he made a stand at the disappeared, those same gifts con- outer end to give them more time. tinued to play an important role in At first, the Etruscans held back, astonished at the sight of the that came after. a single defender. Soon, however, they threw their spears at History and You Horatius is the lone figure who barred their way. Horatius blocked the only one of the famous Romans you spears with his shield and held his ground as the Etruscans will meet in this chapter. To keep advanced on foot, ready to overwhelm him. track of the key people in Roman Meanwhile, the Roman soldiers used the extra time to history, create and maintain a com- bring down the bridge. When Horatius heard the sound of puterized database that shows the the bridge crashing into the river behind him, he dove, fully name, time lived, and notable armed, into the water and swam. Despite the arrows that fell accomplishments of each person around him, he safely reached the other side. Rome had been you study in this chapter. saved by the courageous act of Horatius, a Roman who knew his duty and was determined to carry it out.

148 The Rise of Rome Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • The Romans conquered the of , Etruscans, , Hannibal Categorizing Information As you read , the Italian peninsula, and then this section, complete a chart like the the entire Mediterranean world. Places to Locate one shown below listing the government • Their practical political skills allowed the Rome, , , officials and the legislative bodies of the Romans to maintain control over their Preview Questions . conquered lands. 1. How did the Etruscans impact the Officials Legislative Bodies Key Terms development of Roman civilization? republic, , plebeian, consul, 2. How did the Roman Republic gain control of the lands of the Mediter- ranean? Preview of Events ✦700 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦500 B.C. ✦400 B.C. ✦300 B.C. ✦200 B.C. ✦100 B.C.

650 B.C. 509 B.C. 146 B.C. 129 B.C. Etruscans control Romans overthrow Rome destroys Rome obtains first Rome Etruscans Carthage in Voices from the Past

Roman history is the story of the Romans’ conquest of the area around Rome, then of , and finally of the entire Mediterranean world. Judas Maccabeus, a Jewish mili- tary leader, said of the Romans:

They had defeated Antiochus the Great, king of Asia, who went to fight against “them with one hundred twenty elephants and with cavalry and chariots and a very large army. He was crushed by them. . . . Yet for all this not one of the Romans has put on a crown, but they have built for themselves a senate chamber, and every day three hundred senators constantly deliberate concerning the people, to govern them well.” —Western Civilization, Margaret L. King, 2000 The Romans were conquerors, but they also governed, using republican forms that have been passed down to us. Judas Maccabeus

The Land and Peoples of Italy Italy is a peninsula extending about 750 (1,207 km) from north to south. It is not very wide, averaging about 120 miles (193 km) across. The Apennine (A•puh•NYN) mountain range forms a ridge from north to south down the middle of Italy that divides west from east. Italy has some fairly large fertile ideal for farming. Most important are the River valley in the north; the plain of Latium, on which the city of Rome is located; and the region of Campa- nia, to the south of Latium.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 149 The Impact of Geography In the same way as the where the Tiber could be easily crossed. Thus, it other civilizations we have examined, geography became a natural crossing point for north-south traf- played an important role in the development of fic in western Italy. All in all, Rome had a good cen- Rome. The Apennines are less rugged than the moun- tral location in Italy from which to expand. tain ranges of and did not divide the Italian The Italian peninsula juts into the Mediterranean, peninsula into many small, isolated communities. making it an important crossroads between the west- Italy also had more land for farming than did Greece, ern and eastern . Once Rome had enabling it to support a large population. unified Italy, it easily became involved in Mediter- The location of the city of Rome was especially ranean affairs. After the Romans had established favorable to early settlers. Located about 18 miles (29 their Mediterranean empire, governing it was made km) inland on the Tiber River, Rome had a way to the easier by Italy’s central location. sea. However, it was far enough inland to be safe from pirates. Because it was built on seven hills, it The Peoples of Italy Indo-European peoples was easily defended. In addition, it was situated moved into Italy during the period from about 1500 to 1000 B.C. We know little about these peoples, but we do know that one such group was the Latins, who lived in the region of Latium. These people spoke Italy, 500 B.C. , which, like Greek, is an Indo-European lan- guage. They were herders and farmers who lived in Carthaginians settlements consisting of huts on the tops of Rome’s Etruscans hills. After about 800 B.C., other people also began Greeks 0 100 miles settling in Italy—the two most notable being the Latins 0 100 kilometers Azimuthal Equidistant projection Greeks and the Etruscans. S The Greeks came to Italy in large numbers during A L P R. the age of Greek colonization (750–550 B.C.). They set- Po tled in and then slowly moved around N 45°N the coast and up the peninsula. The eastern two- A W E d thirds of Sicily, an island south of the Italian penin- r S ia T t sula, was also occupied by the Greeks. The Greeks i i b c e S had much influence on Rome. They cultivated olives

r e

R a . A and grapes, passed on their alphabet, and gave the P Corsica E Romans artistic and cultural models through their N LATIUM N sculpture, architecture, and . Rome IN ES The early development of Rome, however, was influenced most by the Etruscans, who were located CA M B C P north of Rome in Etruria. After 650 . ., they expanded A N into north-central Italy and came to control Rome and I A 40°N Tyrrhenian most of Latium. The Etruscans found Rome a village Sea but launched a building program that turned it into a city. Etruscan dress—the and short cloak—was M Ionian adopted by the Romans. The organization of the ed ite Sea rra also was borrowed from the Etruscans. ne an Sicily Strait of Messina Carthage S ea Reading Check Evaluating What role did geography play in the prosperity and defensibility of Rome? 10°E 15°E The Roman Republic Roman tradition maintains that early Rome In 500 B.C., the Etruscans and Greeks occupied much of (753–509 B.C.) was under the control of seven kings Italy. Note the many that influenced . and that two of the last three kings were Etruscans. 1. Applying Geography Skills Why was Rome’s location Historians know for certain that Rome did fall under important for the Latins’ conquest of Italy? Etruscan influence during this time. In 509 B.C., the

150 History through Art

Etruscan mural, c. 500 B.C. Etruscan murals show colorful, lively scenes of Etruscan daily life. Particularly popular subjects were scenes of wrestling matches, religious cere- monies, and people enjoying music and feasts. Why do these murals provide archaeologists and historians with impor- tant clues to Etruscan life? What do the murals reveal about Etruscan life?

Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and estab- Why Rome Was Successful Romans believed that lished a republic, a form of government in which the their early ancestors were successful because of their leader is not a monarch and certain citizens have the sense of duty, courage, and discipline. The Roman right to vote. This was the beginning of a new era in historian Livy, writing in the first century B.C., pro- Rome’s history. vided a number of stories to teach Romans the virtues that had made Rome great. His account of War and Conquest At the beginning of the repub- Cincinnatus (SIHN•suh• NA•tuhs), a simple farmer lic, Rome was surrounded by enemies. For the next who was chosen as a temporary ruler to save Rome two hundred years, the city was engaged in almost from attack, is one such example. continuous warfare. Looking back today, how can we explain Rome’s In 338 B.C., Rome crushed the Latin states in success in gaining control of the entire Italian penin- Latium. During the next 50 years, the Romans waged sula? First, the Romans were good diplomats. They a fierce struggle against people from the central were shrewd in extending Roman and Apennines, some of whom had settled south of allowing states to run their own internal affairs. Rome. Rome was again victorious. The conquest Although diplomatic, however, they could be firm, gave the Romans control over a large part of Italy. and even cruel when necessary, crushing rebellions It also brought them into direct contact with the without mercy. Greek communities of southern Italy. Soon, the Second, the Romans excelled in military matters. Romans were at war with these Greek cities. By 264 They were not only accomplished soldiers but also B.C., they had overcome the Greeks and completed persistent ones. The loss of an army or a fleet did not their conquest of southern Italy. After defeating the cause them to quit but instead spurred them on to remaining Etruscan states to the north over the next build new armies and new fleets. In addition, they three years, Rome had conquered virtually all were brilliant strategists. As they conquered, the of Italy. Romans built colonies—fortified towns—throughout To rule Italy, the Romans devised the Roman Con- Italy. By building roads to these towns and thus con- federation. Under this system, Rome allowed some necting them, the Romans could move troops quickly peoples—especially Latins—to have full Roman citi- throughout their conquered territory. zenship. Most of the remaining communities were Finally, in law and , as in conquest, the made allies. They remained free to run their own Romans were practical. They did not try to build an local affairs but were required to provide soldiers for ideal government but instead created political institu- Rome. The Romans made it clear that loyal allies tions in response to problems, as the problems arose. could improve their status and even become Roman citizens. The Romans made the conquered peoples Reading Check Examining How did the Romans feel they had a real stake in Rome’s success. gain support for their empire?

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 151 History through Art ’s Denunciation of in the Senate Romans devised a sophisticated sys- The Roman State tem of government. What similarities can you find between the and our The Romans had been ruled by kings under the current government? Etruscans. As a result, they distrusted kingship and devised a very different system of government. served for life. At first, the Senate’s only role was to The Government of Rome Early Rome was advise government officials. However, the advice of divided into two groups or orders—the patricians the Senate carried a great deal of weight. By the third and the (plih•BEE•uhns). The patricians century B.C., it had the force of law. were great landowners, who became Rome’s ruling The Roman Republic had several people’s assem- class. Less wealthy landholders, craftspeople, blies in addition to the Senate. By far the most merchants, and small farmers were part of a larger important of these was the . The group called plebeians. centuriate assembly elected the chief officials, such as Men in both groups were citizens and could vote, consuls and , and passed laws. Because it but only the patricians could be elected to govern- was organized by classes based on wealth, the mental offices. The chief executive officers of the wealthiest citizens always had a majority. The coun- Roman Republic were the consuls and praetors cil of the plebs was the assembly for plebeians only, (PREE•tuhrs). Two consuls, chosen every year, ran and it came into being as a result of the struggle the government and led the Roman army into battle. between the two social orders in Rome. The praetor was in charge of civil law—law as it applied to Roman citizens. As the Romans’ territory The Struggle of the Orders There was often con- expanded, another praetor was added to judge cases flict between the patricians and the plebeians in the in which one or both people were noncitizens. The early Roman Republic. Children of patricians and Romans also had a number of officials who had spe- plebeians were forbidden to marry each other. Ple- cial duties, such as supervising the treasury. beians resented this situation, especially since they The Roman Senate came to hold an especially served in the Roman army that protected the Repub- important position in the Roman Republic. It was a lic. They that they deserved both political select group of about three hundred patricians who and social equality with the patricians.

152 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity The struggle between the patricians and plebeians Africa by Phoenicians. dragged on for hundreds of years. Ultimately, it led The state had created to success for the plebeians. A popular assembly for an enormous trading Corsica Sardinia plebeians only, the council of the plebs, was created empire in the western Sicily Carthage in 471 B.C. New officials, known as of the Mediterranean. By the CARTHAGINIAN plebs, were given the power to protect the plebeians. third century B.C., the EMPIRE Mediterranean Sea In the fourth century B.C., plebeians were permitted Carthaginian Empire AFRICA to become consuls. Finally, in 287 B.C., the council of included the coast of the plebs received the right to pass laws for all northern Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, Corsica, Romans. and western Sicily. With its control of western By 287 B.C., all male Roman citizens were suppos- Mediterranean trade, Carthage was the largest and edly equal under the law. In reality, however, a few richest state in the area. wealthy patrician and plebeian families formed a The presence of Carthaginians in Sicily, an island new senatorial that came to the close to the Italian coast, made the Romans fearful. In political offices. The Roman Republic had not 264 B.C., the two powers began a lengthy struggle for become a . control of the western Mediterranean.

Roman Law One of Rome’s chief gifts to the The Rome’s first war with Mediterranean world of its day and to later genera- Carthage began in 264 B.C. It is called the First Punic tions was its system of law. Rome’s first code of laws War, after the Latin word for Phoenician, punicus. The was the , which was adopted in war started when the Romans sent an army to Sicily. 450 B.C. This code was a product of a simple farming The Carthaginians, who thought of Sicily as part of and proved inadequate for later Roman needs. their empire, considered this an act of war. Both sides From the Twelve Tables, the Romans developed a became determined to conquer Sicily. more sophisticated system of civil law. This system The Romans—a land power—realized that they applied only to Roman citizens, however. could not win the war without a navy and created a As Rome expanded, legal questions arose that large naval fleet. After a long struggle, a Roman fleet involved both Romans and non-Romans. The Romans defeated the Carthaginian navy off the coast of Sicily, found that although some of their rules of civil law and the war came to an end. In 241 B.C., Carthage could be used in these cases, special rules were often gave up all rights to Sicily and paid a fine to the needed. These rules gave rise to a body of law known Romans. Sicily became the first . as the Law of Nations. The Romans came to identify Carthage vowed revenge, however, and added the Law of Nations with natural law, or universal law new lands in Spain to make up for the loss of Sicily. based on reason. This enabled them to establish stan- The Romans encouraged one of Carthage’s Spanish dards of that applied to all people. allies to revolt against Carthage. In response, These standards of justice included principles still Hannibal, the greatest of the Carthaginian generals, recognized today. A person was regarded as innocent struck back, beginning the Second Punic War (218 to until proved otherwise. People accused of wrongdo- 201 B.C.). ing were allowed to defend themselves before a judge. A judge, in turn, was expected to weigh evidence care- The Second Punic War Hannibal decided that the fully before arriving at a decision. These principles Carthaginians would bring the war home to the lived on long after the fall of the Roman Empire. Romans. Hannibal entered Spain, moved east, and Reading Check Explaining How did the differences crossed the Alps with an army of about 46,000 men, between plebeians and patricians prevent Rome from becom- a large number of horses, and 37 battle elephants. ing a true democracy? The Alps took a toll on the Carthaginian army; most of the elephants did not survive. The remaining army, however, posed a real threat to the Romans. Rome Conquers the Mediterranean In 216 B.C., the Romans decided to meet Hannibal After their conquest of Italy, the Romans found head on. It was a serious mistake. At Cannae themselves face to face with a strong power in the (KA•nee), the Romans lost an army of almost forty Mediterranean—the state of Carthage. Carthage had thousand men. On the brink of disaster, Rome been founded around 800 B.C. on the coast of North refused to surrender and raised yet another army.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 153 In a brilliant military initiative, Rome decided to invade Carthage rather than fight Hannibal in Italy. Hannibal This strategy forced the Carthaginians to recall Han- 247–183 B.C. nibal from Italy. At the Battle of Zama (ZAY•muh) in Carthaginian general 202 B.C., the Romans crushed Hannibal’s forces, and the war was over. Carthage lost Spain, which became When Hannibal was only nine a Roman province. Rome had become the dominant years old, his father, a Carthaginian power in the western Mediterranean. general, took him to a temple in Carthage and made him swear that he More Conquests Fifty years later, the Romans would always hate the Romans. Hannibal fought their third and final struggle with Carthage, later inflicted terrible losses on the Romans— the . For years, a number of promi- his army killed or captured thousands of Romans and nent Romans had called for the complete destruction allied soldiers in Italy. Unable to win the war, Hannibal of Carthage. eventually sought refuge with Rome’s enemies. In 146 B.C., Carthage was destroyed. For 10 days, The Romans never forgave Hannibal. They pursued Roman soldiers burned and demolished all of the him for years and finally caught up with him in Bithynia. city’s buildings. The inhabitants—fifty thousand To avoid capture, Hannibal took poison after remarking, men, women, and children—were sold into . “Let us relieve the Romans of the fear which has so long afflicted them, since it seems to tax their patience too The territory of Carthage became a Roman province hard to wait for an old man’s death.” called Africa. During its struggle with Carthage, Rome also bat- tled the Hellenistic states in the eastern Mediter- ranean. The Fourth Macedonian War ended in 148 Rome gradually recovered. Although Hannibal B.C., and was made a Roman province. remained free to roam Italy, he had neither the men Two years later, Greece was placed under the control nor the equipment to attack the major cities, includ- of the Roman of Macedonia. In 129 B.C., ing Rome. The Romans began to reconquer some of Pergamum became Rome’s first province in Asia. the Italian cities that had been taken by Hannibal. Rome was now master of the Mediterranean Sea. More important, they sent troops to Spain and, by 206 B.C., they had pushed the Carthaginians out Reading Check Evaluating What is the historical and of Spain. cultural significance of the Roman destruction of Carthage?

Checking for Understanding Analyzing Visuals 1. Define republic, patrician, plebeian, 6. Discuss What was the importance of 8. Examine the picture of Horatius on consul, praetor. the Senate and other assemblies to the page 148 of your text. How does this Roman Republic? picture represent Roman military values? 2. Identify Latins, Etruscans, Livy, Senate, centuriate assembly, council of the 7. Contrasting Information Create a plebs, of the plebs, Twelve chart that shows the major differences Tables, Law of Nations, Hannibal. between the patricians and the 9. Informative Writing Imagine that plebeians. you are a journalist covering the 3. Locate Rome, Sicily, Carthage, Alps. Second Punic War. Using the text or Patricians Plebeians 4. Describe the significance of the Twelve outside authoritative sources, write Tables and the Law of Nations. an account of one of the major bat- tles of the war. Be sure to pose and 5. List ways in which the Greeks influ- answer questions for both Hannibal enced the Romans. and the Roman generals in your account.

154 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity Cincinnatus Saves Rome

THERE IS PERHAPS NO BETTER account of how the virtues of duty and simplicity enabled good Roman citizens to succeed during the difficulties of the fifth century B.C. than Livy’s account of Cincinnatus.

“The city was thrown into a state of turmoil, and the general alarm was as great as if Rome her- self were surrounded. The situa- tion evidently called for a dictator [the position of dictator was a temporary one used only in emer- gencies], and, with no dissenting voice, Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, Roman statesman and dictator, is was named for the post. shown here receiving his dictatorship. Now I would solicit the particu- lar attention of those numerous people who imagine that money is everything in In Rome the Senate was convened, and a decree this world, and that rank and ability are inseparable was passed inviting Cincinnatus to enter in triumph from wealth: let them observe that Cincinnatus, the with his troops. The chariot he rode in was pre- one man in whom Rome reposed all her hope of ceded by the enemy commanders and the military survival, was at that moment working a little three- flags, and followed by his army loaded with its acre farm west of the Tiber. A delegation from the spoils. . . . Cincinnatus finally resigned after holding city found him at work on his land—digging a ditch, office for fifteen days, having originally accepted it maybe, or ploughing. Greetings were exchanged, for a period of six months. He returned to his and he was asked—with a prayer for divine blessing farm.” on himself and his country—to put on his toga and —Livy, The Early History of Rome hear the Senate’s instructions. This naturally sur- prised him, and, asking if all were well, he told his Analyzing Primary Sources wife to run to their cottage and fetch his toga. The toga was brought, and wiping the grimy sweat from 1. How did Cincinnatus embody the his hands and face he put it on; at once the envoys characteristics of an ideal Roman citizen? from the city saluted him, with congratulations, as 2. What lesson(s) did Livy hope to teach Dictator, invited him to enter Rome, and informed his readers? him of the terrible danger of the enemy’s army. . . . 3. Compare the position of dictator in this [Cincinnatus proceeded to raise an army, account with present-day dictators. marched out, and defeated the enemy.]

155 From Republic to Empire

Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • The internal instability of the Roman Crassus, , Julius Caesar, Octavian, Sequencing Information Using a chart Empire eventually led to civil wars and Antony, Augustus, like the one shown below, create a increased power for the military. sequence of the five good emperors and • Octavian, titled Caesar Augustus, was Places to Locate their accomplishments. named emperor, an event that stabi- Rubicon River, , Mesopotamia, Sinai lized the Roman Empire and paved the Peninsula, Rhine River, River Emperor Emperor way for expansion and prosperity. Preview Questions Key Terms 1. What was Marius’s political legacy? Accomplishments Accomplishments , dictator, 2. How did Julius Caesar gain control of the Roman government? Preview of Events ✦60 B.C. ✦A.D.1 ✦A.D.60 ✦A.D. 120 ✦A.D. 180

60 B.C. 44 B.C. 27 B.C. A.D. 96 A.D. 180 Julius Caesar Octavian is named Rule of Five Good Pax Romana is formed is assassinated emperor Emperors begins ends Voices from the Past

By 133 B.C., Rome stood supreme over the Mediterranean Sea, but problems arose in Rome itself. The Roman historian tried to explain why:

But when our country had grown great through toil, when great kings had been “vanquished in war, when Carthage, the rival of Rome’s sway, had perished root and branch, then Fortune began to grow cruel. . . . Hence the lust for power first, then for money, grew upon them; these were, I may say, the root of all evils. For greed destroyed honor, integrity, and all other noble qualities. Ambition drove many men to become false; to have one thought locked in the breast, another ready on the tongue; to friendships and enmities not on their merits but by the standard of self-interest.” —Sallust, J.C. Rolfe, trans., 1921 Sallust While Rome was creating an empire, its internal stability was disintegrating.

Growing Inequality and Unrest By the second century B.C., the Senate had become the real governing body of the Roman state. Members of the Senate were drawn mostly from the landed aris- tocracy. They remained senators for life and held the chief offices of the republic. The Senate directed the wars of the third and second centuries B.C. and took con- trol of both foreign and domestic , including financial affairs. The Senate and

156 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity political offices were increasingly controlled by a Marius left a powerful small circle of wealthy and powerful families. legacy. He had created a HISTORY Of course, these aristocrats formed only a tiny new system of military minority of the . The backbone of the recruitment that placed Web Activity Visit Roman state and army had always been the small much power in the hands the Glencoe World farmers. Over a period of time, however, many small of the individual generals. History Web site at farmers had found themselves unable to compete Lucius Cornelius tx.wh.glencoe.com with large, wealthy landowners and had lost their was the next general to and click on lands. As a result, many of these small farmers take advantage of the new Chapter 5–Student drifted to the cities, especially Rome, forming a large military system. The Sen- Web Activity to learn class of landless poor. ate had given him com- more about the Roman Republic. Some aristocrats tried to remedy this growing mand of a war in Asia economic and social crisis. Two brothers, Tiberius Minor. The council of the and Gracchus (GRA•kuhs), believed that the plebs tried to transfer command to Marius, and a basic cause of Rome’s problems was the decline of civil war broke out. Sulla won and seized Rome itself the small farmer. To remedy the problem, they in 82 B.C., conducting a reign of terror to wipe out all urged the council of the plebs to pass land-reform opposition. Then Sulla restored power to the hands bills that called for the government to take back of the Senate and eliminated most of the powers of public land held by large landowners and give it to the popular assemblies. landless Romans. Sulla hoped that he had created a firm foundation Many senators, themselves large landowners to restore a traditional Roman republic governed by whose estates included large areas of public land, a powerful Senate. His real legacy was quite different were furious. A group of senators took the law into from what he had intended, however. His example of their own hands and killed Tiberius in 133 B.C.His using an army to seize power would prove most brother Gaius later suffered the same fate. The attractive to ambitious men. attempts of the Gracchus brothers to bring reforms Reading Check had opened the door to more instability and more Explaining Explain the conse- violence. Changes in the Roman army soon brought quences of Sulla’s actions, especially his eliminating the even worse problems. power of the popular assemblies. Reading Check Explaining What was the sequence The Collapse of the Republic of events that led to the deaths of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus? For the next 50 years (82–31 B.C.), Roman history was characterized by civil wars as a number of indi- viduals competed for power. Three men—Crassus, A New Role for the Army Pompey, and Julius Caesar—emerged as In 107 B.C., a Roman general named victors. Marius became consul and began to recruit Crassus was known as the richest man his armies in a new way. For a long time, in Rome. Pompey had returned from a the Roman army had been made up of successful command in Spain as a mili- small farmers who were landholders. Now tary hero. Julius Caesar also had a mili- Marius recruited volunteers from the tary command in Spain. The combined urban and rural poor who owned no prop- wealth and power of these three men was erty. To recruit them, he promised them enormous and enabled them to dominate land. These volunteers swore an oath the political scene and achieve their of loyalty to the general, not to the basic aims. Roman state. As a result, Marius cre- ated a new type of army that was not The First Triumvirate In 60 B.C., under government control. In addi- Caesar joined with Crassus and tion, generals were forced to become Pompey to form the First Triumvi- involved in politics in order to get rate. A triumvirate is a government laws passed that would provide the by three people with equal power. land they needed for their veterans. Julius Caesar Pompey received a command in

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 157 History At the Battle of (shown left), Octavian’s forces defeated the combined forces of Antony and . What impact did the have on the development of the Roman Republic?

Spain, Crassus was given a command in Syria, and Roman world between them. Octavian took the west; Caesar was granted a special military command in Antony, the east. (modern France)—where he achieved success The empire of the Romans, large as it was, was still and distinction as a military leader. too small for two masters. Octavian and Antony soon When Crassus was killed in battle in 53 B.C., how- came into conflict. Antony allied himself with ever, only two powerful men were left. Leading sen- the Egyptian queen Rubicon ators decided that rule by Pompey alone would be to Cleopatra VII. Like River their benefit. They voted for Caesar to lay down his Caesar before him, Rome GREECE command. Antony had fallen Sea rranean Medite Caesar refused. During his time in Gaul, he had deeply in love with Actium gained military experience, as well as an army of her. At the Battle of Battle loyal veterans. He chose to keep his army and moved Actium in Greece in Antony and EGYPT Cleopatra's flight into Italy by illegally , the river 31 B.C., Octavian’s that formed the southern boundary of his province. forces smashed the army and the navy of Antony and (“Crossing the Rubicon” is a phrase used today to Cleopatra. Both fled to Egypt, where they committed mean being unable to turn back.) suicide a year later: Caesar marched on Rome, starting a civil war between his forces and those of Pompey and his “Antony was the first to commit suicide, by the allies. The defeat of Pompey’s forces left Caesar in sword. Cleopatra threw herself at Octavian’s feet, and complete control of the Roman government. tried her best to attract his gaze: in vain, for his self- Caesar was officially made dictator in 45 B.C.A control enabled him to ignore her beauty. It was not dictator is an absolute ruler. Realizing the need for her life she was after, . . . but a portion of her king- reforms, Caesar gave land to the poor and increased dom. When she realized this was hopeless. . . she the Senate to 900 members. By filling it with many of took advantage of her guard’s carelessness to get his supporters and increasing the number of mem- herself into the royal tomb. Once there, she put on bers, he weakened the power of the Senate. the royal robes . . . and lay down in a richly per- Caesar planned much more in the way of building fumed coffin beside her Antony. Then she applied projects and military adventures to the east. How- poisonous snakes to her veins and passed into death ever, in 44 B.C., a group of leading senators assassi- as though into a sleep.” nated him. Octavian, at the age of 32, stood supreme over the The A new struggle for power Roman world. The civil wars had ended. So had followed Caesar’s death. Three men—Octavian, Cae- the republic. The period beginning in 31 B.C. and last- sar’s heir and grandnephew; Antony, Caesar’s ally ing until A.D. 14 came to be known as the Age of and assistant; and Lepidus, who had been com- Augustus. mander of Caesar’s cavalry—joined forces to form the Second Triumvirate. Within a few years after Cae- Reading Check Summarizing How did Caesar sar’s death, however, only two men divided the weaken the power of the Senate?

158 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity The Age of Augustus

In this section, you will learn how, after the collapse of Rome’s republican institutions and a series of brutal civil wars, Augustus created a new Roman Legions Had Defeated order that began the Roman Empire. Germanic Tribes? In 27 B.C., Octavian proclaimed the “restoration of The Roman Empire was near its height during the Republic.” He knew that only traditional republi- the first century A.D. However, in A.D. 9, three can forms would satisfy the Senate. At the same time, Roman legions, approximately 15,000 men, were he was aware that the republic could not be fully wiped out by Germanic tribesmen led by Arminius restored. Although he gave some power to the in the Teutoburg Forest. From that point on, Rome Senate, Octavian in fact became the first Roman made no serious attempts to conquer what we emperor. In 27 B.C., the Senate awarded him the know today as . of Augustus—“the revered one,” a fitting title in Consider the Consequences Identify and view of his power. explain at least two ways in which European Augustus proved to be highly popular, but his history might have been different if the Romans continuing control of the army was the chief source had defeated the German in the Teu- of his power. The Senate gave Augustus the title toburg Forest. imperator, or commander in chief. Imperator gave us our word emperor. Augustus maintained a standing army of 28 legions, or about 150,000 men. (A legion was a mili- more and more of the responsibilities that Augustus tary unit of about 5,000 troops.) Only Roman citizens had given to the Senate. At the same time, as the could be legionnaires (members of a legion). Subject emperors grew more powerful, they became more peoples could serve as auxiliary forces, which num- corrupt. bered around 130,000 under Augustus. Augustus Nero, for example, had people killed if he wanted also set up a of roughly 9,000 men them out of the way—including his own mother. who had the important task of guarding the emperor. Without troops, the senators were unable to oppose Augustus stabilized the frontiers of the Roman his excesses, but the Roman legions finally revolted. Empire, conquering many new areas. His attempt to Nero, abandoned by his guards, chose to commit sui- conquer Germany failed, however, when three cide by stabbing himself in the throat after allegedly Roman legions under Varus were massacred by Ger- uttering these final words: “What an artist the world man warriors. These defeats in Germany taught is losing in me.” Augustus that Rome’s power was not unlimited. This At the beginning of the second century, a series of knowledge devastated him. For months, he would five so-called good emperors came to power. They beat his head on a door, shouting, “Varus, give me were , , Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and back my legions!” . These emperors created a period of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana—the Reading Check Evaluating Why did the Roman “Roman Peace.” The Pax Romana lasted for almost a defeat in Germany devastate Augustus? hundred years. These rulers treated the ruling classes with respect, ended arbitrary executions, maintained The Early Empire peace in the empire, and supported domestic Beginning in A.D. 14, a series of new emperors generally helpful to the empire. By adopting capable ruled Rome. This period, ending in A.D. 180, is called men as their sons and successors, the first four good the Early Empire. emperors reduced the chances of succession problems. Under the five good emperors, the powers of the Emperors of the Early Empire Augustus’s new emperor continued to expand at the expense of the political system allowed the emperor to select his Senate. Officials who were appointed and directed by successor from his natural or adopted family. The the emperor took over the running of the govern- first four emperors after Augustus came from his ment. The good emperors also created new programs family. They were Tiberius, Caligula, , and to help the people. Trajan, for example, created a Nero. During their reigns, these emperors took over program that provided state funds to assist poor

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 159 Roman Empire: Trade and Expansion

60°N

Height of the Roman Empire, A.D. 200 Roman Empire, Olive oil A.D. 200 Perfume Trade route North Silk Sea 50 Traded goods: Slaves °N Aral

ES Sea BRITAIN Glassware IC P Spices ATLaNTIC S OCEaN R Grain Timber h i n e Horses R Wild animals . D an Marble Wine ube R GAUL . Metals Wool C a sp i A a SPAIN Massalia ITALY d n 4 r Black Sea 0°N ia S t e Tarraco Corsica Rome ic a Se a Puteoli T Fro Sardinia GREECE ig m C r h S i i CE ASIA s n PI a S R MINOR Euph . rat es R Carthage Sicily SYRIA .

Cyprus Sidon Mediterranean Sea Crete PALESTINE P N er si an G E ulf 0 500 miles W EGYPT S 0 500 kilometers Red N i F Sea Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection l r e o AFRICA R. m In ARABIA d ES IC ia SP

0° 10°E 20°E

In about 350 years, the Romans conquered an area about the size of the present-day . Exchange and communication through trade was extensive throughout the vast Roman Empire. parents in the raising and of their children. 1. Interpreting Maps Explain how the trading routes The good emperors were widely praised for their indicated on this map allowed for the areas in the building programs. Trajan and Hadrian were espe- furthest reaches of the Roman Empire to trade with cially active in building public works—aqueducts, one another. bridges, roads, and harbor facilities—throughout the 2. Applying Geography Skills How did control of the and in Rome. Mediterranean region contribute to the achievements of the five good emperors? Why would control of the Mediterranean region benefit Rome’s economy? Extent of the Empire Rome expanded further dur- ing the period of the Early Empire. Trajan extended Roman rule into Dacia (modern ), Rivers. He also built a defensive wall (Hadrian’s Wall) Mesopotamia, and the Sinai Peninsula. His succes- about 74 miles (118 km) long across northern Britain to sors, however, realized that the empire was too large keep out the Picts and the Scots. By the end of the sec- to be easily governed. ond century, it became apparent that it would be more Hadrian withdrew Roman forces from much of and more difficult to defend the empire. Roman forces Mesopotamia and also went on the defensive in his were located in permanent bases behind the frontiers. frontier policy. He strengthened the fortifications At its height in the second century, the Roman along a line connecting the Rhine and Danube Empire was one of the greatest states the world had

160 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity Expansion of the Roman Empire

146 B.C. 44 B.C. A.D. 14 50 50 50 °N BRITAIN Extent of Roman Empire °N BRITAIN Extent of Roman Empire °N BRITAIN Extent of Roman Empire N N N W GAUL W GAUL W GAUL E E E S S S 4 ITALY Black Sea 4 ITALY Black Sea 4 ITALY Black Sea 0°N 0°N 0°N Rome GREECE Rome GREECE Rome GREECE SPAIN SPAIN SPAIN Me Me Me diterr ASIA MINOR diterr ASIA MINOR diterr ASIA MINOR an an an e Athens e Athens Athens a a ea Carthage n Carthage n Carthage n Sea SYRIA Sea SYRIA Sea SYRIA 30°N PALESTINE 30°N PALESTINE 30°N PALESTINE 0 500 miles 0 500 miles 0 500 miles EGYPT EGYPT EGYPT 0 500 kilometers 0 500 kilometers 0 500 kilometers Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection 0° 10°E 20°E30°E 0° 10°E 20°E30°E 0° 10°E 20°E30°E

At the end of the Punic Wars At Caesar’s death At Augustus’s death

The “Five Good Emperors” of the Pax Romana

Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius A.D. 96–98 A.D.98–117 A.D. 117–138 A.D.138–161 A.D. 161–180 Reformed land laws in Expanded the empire to Constructed Hadrian’s Promoted art and sci- Helped unify the empire favor of the poor; its greatest extent; imple- Wall in Britain; erected ence, the construction of economically; made revised taxation mented the construction many fine buildings; public works, legal legal reforms of many public works codified reform, and new provi- sions for orphans

ever seen. It covered about three and a half million Latin was the language of the western part of the square miles (about 9.1 million square km) and had a empire, whereas Greek was used in the east. Roman population that has been estimated at more than fifty spread to all parts of the empire and freely million. mixed with Greek culture. The result has been called The emperors and the imperial government pro- Greco-Roman civilization. vided a degree of unity. Much leeway was given to local customs, and the privileges of Roman citizen- Economic and Social Conditions The Early ship were granted to many people throughout the Empire was a period of much prosperity, with inter- empire. In A.D. 212, the emperor gave nal peace leading to high levels of trade. Merchants to every free person in the from all over the empire came to the chief Italian empire. ports of Puteoli (pyuh•TEE•uh•LY) on the Bay of Cities were important in the spread of Roman cul- and Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. Trade ture, Roman law, and the Latin language. Provincial went beyond the Roman frontiers as well and cities resembled each other with their temples, mar- included even silk goods from China. Large quanti- kets, and public buildings. Local city officials acted as ties of grain were imported, especially from Egypt, to Roman agents, performing many government duties, feed the people of Rome. Luxury items poured in to especially taxation. satisfy the wealthy upper classes.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 161 History

A detail from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii shows that life for many in the city offered several comforts and pleasures. The city of Pompeii was buried in a single day when the volcano Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79. What does this surviving wall from Pompeii tell us about the lifestyles of upper-class Romans?

Despite the active trade and commerce, how- great leisure and luxury in their villas and on their ever, farming remained the chief occupation of vast estates. Small farmers often became dependent most people and the underlying basis of Roman on the huge estates of their wealthy neighbors. prosperity. Large landed estates, called latifundia In the cities, many poor citizens worked in (LA•tuh•FUHN•dee•uh), dominated farming in shops and markets. Thousands of unemployed southern and central Italy. These estates raised people depended on the emperor’s handouts of sheep and cattle on a large scale using mostly slave grain to survive. labor. Small farms continued to exist in northern Italy. Reading Check Summarizing What were the An enormous gulf separated rich and poor in economic conditions and chief occupations in Rome during . The upper classes lived lives of Early Empire?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define triumvirate, dictator, imperator. 6. Analyze What qualities made the good 8. Analyze the picture of a Roman emperors good in comparison woman shown above. The woman is Crassus, Pompey, Julius 2. Identify to Augustus’s successors? holding a cithera, a type of ancient Caesar, Octavian, Antony, Augustus, Greek lyre, or stringed instrument. In Nero, Create a Venn Pax Romana. 7. Compare and Contrast what ways do you think that this paint- diagram like the one shown below to Rubicon River, Dacia, ing represents the vastly different living 3. Locate compare and contrast the accomplish- Mesopotamia, Sinai Peninsula, Rhine conditions between the rich and poor ments of the three men. River, Danube River. in Roman society? 4. Explain how Augustus’s political sys- tem provided for succession of rulers in Crassus Pompey the empire. 9. Persuasive Writing Pretend you are part of the council of the plebs. 5. List the men who made up the Second Julius Caesar Argue for or against the land Triumvirate and explain their fates. reforms instituted by Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus.

162 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity Culture and Society in the Roman World

Guide to Reading Main Idea People to Identify Reading Strategy • Roman culture and society were heavily , , Livy, Spartacus Compare and Contrast As you read this influenced by the Greeks. section, create a Venn diagram like the • The Romans spread both Greek and Places to Locate one shown below comparing and con- Roman contributions to art, architec- Mantua, Rome trasting the lifestyle of a wealthy Roman ture, and literature throughout the Preview Questions with that of a poor citizen. empire. 1. How were slaves utilized in Roman Key Terms households? 2. What similarities existed between the Wealthy Poor paterfamilias, insulae Patrician Citizen Greek and Roman cultures? 3. What was the main purpose of the Preview of Events public spectacles in Rome? ✦225 B.C. ✦150 B.C. ✦75 B.C. ✦A.D.1 ✦A.D.75 ✦A.D. 150 ✦A.D. 225

c. 200 B.C. 73 B.C. C. A.D. 100 Rome adopts Greek Spartacus leads a Dynamics of Roman cultural features slave revolt family undergo change Voices from the Past

Virgil’s masterpiece, the Aeneid, was an epic poem clearly meant to rival the work of Homer. It was also meant to express that the art of ruling was Rome’s gift, as seen here:

Let others fashion from bronze more lifelike, breathing images— “For so they shall—and evoke living faces from marble; Others excel as , others track with their instruments The planets circling in heaven and predict when stars will appear. But, Romans, never forget that government is your medium! Be this your art: to practise men in the habit of peace, Generosity to the conquered, and firmness against aggressors.” —Aeneid, C. Day Lewis, trans., 1952 One of the most noticeable characteristics of Roman culture and society is the Virgil impact of the Greeks.

Roman Art and Architecture During the third and second centuries B.C., the Romans adopted many features of the Greek style of art. They developed a for Greek statues, which they placed not only in public buildings but also in their private houses. Reproduc- tions of Greek statues became popular once the supply of original works ran low.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 163 While Greek sculptors aimed for an ideal appear- population of one million supplied with water. The ance in their figures, Roman sculptors produced Romans were superb builders. realistic statues that included even unpleasant phys- Reading Check ical details. Contrasting Why were the Romans The Romans excelled in architecture, a highly able to construct buildings larger than those of the Greeks? practical art. Although they continued to use Greek styles such as colonnades and rectangular build- Roman Literature ings, the Romans also used forms based on curved Although there were many talented writers, the lines: the arch, vault, and dome. The Romans were high point of was reached in the Age the first people in antiquity to use concrete on a of Augustus. Indeed, the Augustan Age has been massive scale. Using concrete along with the new called the golden age of Latin literature. architectural forms made it possible for the Romans The most distinguished poet of the Augustan Age to construct huge buildings undreamed of by the was Virgil. The son of a small landholder in north- Greeks. ern Italy near Mantua, he welcomed the rule of The remarkable engineering skills of the Romans Augustus and wrote his greatest work, the Aeneid were also put to use in constructing roads, bridges, (ih• NEE•uhd), in honor of Rome. In the poem, the and aqueducts. The Romans built a network of some character of is portrayed as the ideal 50,000 miles (80,450 km) of roads throughout the Roman—his virtues are duty, piety, and faithfulness. empire. In Rome, almost a dozen aqueducts kept a Virgil’s overall purpose was to show that Aeneas had

Roman and American Builders Concrete enabled the Romans to build mammoth that held tens of thousands of spectators. One need only look at many public buildings in the The Romans also used concrete to erect domed build- United States to realize that Roman architectural models ings that created new interior spaces. played an important role in their design. Thomas Jeffer- American engineers continue to learn from the son, for example, believed that architecture could be a Romans. For example, all of us are aware of highway means for expressing the ideals of the newly founded potholes, as well as crumbling bridges on American United States. He wanted the ideals of classical architec- highways. In many cases, these problems are a result of ture, especially as put into practice by the Romans, to concrete that is not hard and dense enough to survive serve as a model for American buildings. Jefferson the ravages of wind, ice, and rain. Recently, however, copied Roman temples for his designs for the buildings American engineers have experimented with a form of of the University of Virginia at Charlottesville. concrete used by the ancient Romans and have found it to be considerably harder and more durable than the Hadrian’s Pantheon in Rome usual concrete. By analyzing , they found that the Romans combined lime with deposits of volcanic ash to form a very hard and durable building material that would set into shape even under water. Almost two thousand years later, American engineers have finally caught up with the Romans.

Rotunda at the University of Virginia CHAPTERIdentify 5 Romea building and thein yourRise communityof Christianity or state that 164 has been modeled on Roman architecture. What fea- tures are most similar to Roman temples? Describe the similarities and the differences to your class.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity fulfilled his mission to establish the Romans in Italy and thereby start Rome on its divine mission to rule the world. Another prominent Augustan poet was Horace, a friend of Virgil’s. He was a sophisticated writer who enjoyed pointing out to his fellow Romans the “fol- lies and vices of his age.” In the Satires, Horace directs attacks against job dissatisfaction and greed. (“How does it happen, Maecenas, that no man alone is content with his lot?”) Horace mostly laughs at the weaknesses of humans. The most famous Latin prose work of the golden age was written by the historian Livy, whose master- piece was the History of Rome. In 142 books, Livy traced the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 B.C. Only 35 of the books have survived. Livy saw history in terms of moral lessons. He stated in the preface:

The study of history is the best medicine for a sick“ mind; for in history you have a record of the infi- A Roman couple nite variety of human experience plainly set out for all to see; and in that record you can find for yourself slaves because upper-class Romans had to learn and your country both examples and warnings: fine Greek as well as Latin to prosper in the empire. things to take as models, base things, rotten through Roman boys learned reading and writing, moral and through, to avoid.” principles and family values, law, and physical train- ing to prepare them to be soldiers. The end of child- Livy’s history celebrated Rome’s greatness. He hood for Roman males was marked by a special built scene upon scene that not only revealed the ceremony. At the age of 16, a young Roman man character of the chief figures but also demonstrated exchanged his purple-edged toga for a plain white the virtues that had made Rome great. Livy had a toga—the toga of manhood. serious weakness as a historian: he was not always Some parents in upper-class families provided concerned about the factual accuracy of his stories. education for their daughters by hiring private tutors He did tell a good tale, however, and his work or sending the girls to primary schools. However, at became the standard history of Rome for a long time. the age when boys were entering secondary schools, Reading Check Evaluating Why are the works of girls were entering into marriage. Livy considered to be so invaluable to historians? Attitudes toward Women Like the Greeks, Roman males believed that the weakness of females made it The Roman Family necessary for women to have male guardians. The At the heart of the Roman social structure stood paterfamilias had that responsibility. When he died, the family, headed by the paterfamilias—the domi- his sons or nearest male relatives assumed the role of nant male. The household also included the wife, guardian. Fathers also arranged the marriages of sons with their wives and children, unmarried their daughters. daughters, and slaves. For females, the legal minimum age for marriage Unlike the Greeks, the Romans raised their chil- was 12, although 14 was a more common age in dren at home. All Roman upper-class children (boys practice (for males, the legal minimum age was 14, and girls) were expected to learn to read. The father although most men married later). Although some was the chief figure in providing for the education of Roman doctors warned that pregnancies could be his children. He made the decision whether to teach dangerous for young girls, early marriages continued. his children himself, acquire a teacher for them, or Traditionally, Roman marriages were meant to send them to school. Teachers were often Greek be for life, but divorce was introduced in the third

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 165 century B.C. and became fairly easy to obtain. Either officially participate in politics, but a number of husband or wife could ask for a divorce. No one important women influenced politics through their needed to prove the breakdown of the marriage. husbands.

Reading Check Contrasting How were expectations Changing Roles By the second century A.D., impor- for Roman boys and girls different? tant changes were occurring in the Roman family. The paterfamilias no longer had absolute authority over his children. He could not sell his children into Slavery slavery or have them put to death. The husband’s Slavery was common throughout the ancient absolute authority over his wife also disappeared. By world, but no people had more slaves or relied so the late second century, women were no longer much on slave labor as the Romans did. Before the required to have guardians. third century B.C., a small Roman farmer might pos- Upper-class Roman women in the Early Empire sess one or two slaves, who would help farm his few had considerable freedom and independence. They acres and work in the house. These slaves would had the right to own, inherit, and sell property. most likely be from Italy and be regarded as part of Unlike Greek wives, Roman wives were not segre- the family household. The very rich would have gated from males in the home. They were appreci- many slaves. ated as enjoyable company and were at the center of household social life. The Use of Slaves The Roman conquest of the Outside their homes, upper-class women could Mediterranean brought a drastic change in the use of attend races, the theater, and events in the amphithe- slaves. Large numbers of foreign peoples who had ater. In the latter two places, however, they were been captured in different wars were brought back to forced to sit in separate female sections. Women Italy as slaves. of rank were still accompanied by maids and com- Greek slaves were in much demand as tutors, panions when they went out. Women could not musicians, doctors, and artists. Roman businessmen

The Gladiatorial Shows the central focus of these games. Most were slaves or condemned crim- ladiatorial shows were an important inals who had been trained for combat in Gpart of Roman society. They took special gladiatorial schools. place in public arenas known as amphithe- Gladiatorial games included other forms aters (similar in appearance to our modern of entertainment as well. Criminals of all football stadiums) and were free to the ages and both sexes were sent into the public. The most famous amphitheater was arena without weapons to face certain the , constructed in Rome to death from wild animals. Numerous kinds seat fifty thousand of animal contests were people. also held. It is recorded Gladiatorial games that nine thousand beasts were held from dawn were killed during 100 to dusk. Contests to days of games when the the death between Emperor Titus inaugurated trained fighters the Colosseum in A.D. 80. (gladiators) formed

166 The Colosseum in Rome CHAPTER # Chapter Title would employ them as shop assistants or crafts- Daily Life in The City of Rome people. Many slaves of all were used as household workers, such as cooks, valets, waiters, At the center of the colossal Roman Empire was cleaners, and gardeners. the ancient city of Rome. Truly a capital city, Rome Slaves built roads and public buildings, and had the largest population of any city in the empire— farmed the large estates of the wealthy. The condi- close to one million by the time of Augustus. For any- tions under which these slaves lived were often piti- one with ambitions, Rome was the place to be. People ful. One Roman writer argued that it was cheaper to from all over the empire resided there. work slaves to death and then replace them than to treat them well. Living Conditions Rome was an overcrowded and noisy city. Because of the congestion, cart and wagon Slave Revolts Some slaves revolted against their traffic was banned from the streets during the day. owners and even murdered them, causing some However, the noise from the traffic at night often Romans to live in great fear of their slaves. The mur- made sleep difficult. Walking in Rome at night was der of a master by a slave might mean the execution also dangerous. Augustus had organized a police of all the other household slaves. force, but people could be assaulted or robbed. They The most famous slave revolt in Italy occurred in could also be soaked by filth thrown out of the 73 B.C. Led by the Spartacus, the revolt upper-story windows of Rome’s massive broke out in southern Italy and involved seventy buildings. thousand slaves. Spartacus managed to defeat sev- An enormous gulf existed between rich and poor. eral Roman armies before being trapped and killed in The rich had comfortable villas, while the poor lived 71 B.C. Six thousand followers of Spartacus were cru- in apartment blocks called insulae, which might be cified (put to death by nailing to a cross). six stories high. Constructed of concrete walls with Reading Check Describing What jobs did the wooden beam floors, these buildings were usually Romans assign to slaves? poorly built and often collapsed.

Amphitheaters, which varied greatly in size, were built through- out the empire. Many resources and much ingenuity went into building them. In most cities and towns, amphitheaters came to be the biggest buildings, rivaled only by the circuses and the public baths. Bloody spectacles were indeed popular with the Roman people. The Roman historian said, “Few indeed are to be found who talk of any other subjects in their Gladiators in battle homes, and whenever we enter a classroom, what else is the conversation of the youths.” CONNECTING TO THE PAST To the Romans, the gladiatorial games, as well as the other forms of public entertainment, ful- 1. Drawing Conclusions What was the appeal of filled a political need. Certainly, the games served gladiatorial contests? to keep the minds of the idle masses off any 2. Writing about History Explain how the games sat- political unrest. isfied the ruling class’s political purposes.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 167 Bas-relief of chariot races in the

Fire was a constant threat in the insulae because of hundred thousand people received free grain. Even the use of movable stoves, torches, candles, and so, conditions remained grim for the poor. lamps within the rooms for heat and light. Once Entertainment was provided on a grand scale for started, fires were extremely difficult to put out. The the inhabitants of Rome. The poet said of the famous fire of A.D. 64, which Nero was falsely Roman masses, “But nowadays, with no vote . . . , accused of starting, destroyed a good part of the city. their motto is ‘Couldn’t care less.’ Time was when High rents forced entire families to live in one their vote elected generals, heads of state, command- room. There was no plumbing or central heating. ers of legions: but now. . . there’s only two things that These conditions made homes uncomfortable. As a concern them: Bread and Circuses.” result, many poor Romans spent most of their time Public spectacles were provided by the emperor as outdoors in the streets. part of the great religious festivals celebrated by the state. The festivals included three major types of Public Programs Rome boasted public buildings entertainment. At the Circus Maximus, horse and unequaled anywhere in the empire. Its temples, mar- chariot races attracted hundreds of thousands. Dra- kets, baths, theaters, governmental buildings, and matic performances were held in theaters. The most amphitheaters gave parts of the city an appearance of famous of all the public spectacles, however, were the grandeur and magnificence. gladiatorial shows. Although it was the center of a great empire, Rome had serious problems. Beginning with Augustus, the Reading Check Evaluating Why did the Roman emperors provided food for the city poor. About two emperors provide free grain to the poor?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define paterfamilias, insulae. 6. Explain Why do historians not find 8. Examine the photograph of the Pan- Livy a reliable source of information? theon on page 164 of your text. How Virgil, Horace, Livy, Spartacus. 2. Identify does it illustrate the architectural inno- 7. Summarizing Information Create a Mantua, Rome. vations of the Romans and the ideas 3. Locate table like the one below describing the they borrowed from the Greeks? 4. Explain how the Romans were able to contributions of the Greeks and the obtain large numbers of slaves. Why Romans to Western civilization. did some Romans live in great fear of Greek contributions Roman contributions their slaves? 9. Expository Writing In this section there are several excerpts from 5. Compare and contrast Greek and Roman writers. What does each pas- . Do you prefer one sage reveal about Roman life and style over the other? If so, why? society?

168 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity The Development of Christianity

Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • Jesus, a Jew from Palestine, began his Jesus, Simon Peter, Paul of Tarsus, Con- Summarizing Information In the dia- public preaching. stantine, Theodosius the Great gram below, identify the political views • Christianity spread throughout the held by the three groups. empire and eventually became the state Places to Locate religion of Rome. Judaea, Jerusalem, Aegean Sea Key Terms Preview Questions Sadducees Essenes procurator, New Testament, , laity 1. What religious climate existed in Rome prior to Christianity? Why were Christians persecuted? 2. Zealots 3. Why did Christianity grow so quickly? Preview of Events ✦75 B.C. ✦A.D.1 ✦A.D.75 ✦A.D. 150 ✦A.D. 225 ✦A.D. 300

A.D. 6 A.D. 40 A.D. 100 A.D. 313 Judaea becomes a The Gospels begin Churches are established Constantine proclaims official Roman province to be written throughout the Roman world tolerance of Christianity Voices from the Past

Christian views on God, human beings, and the world were quite different from those of the Greeks and Romans, as is shown in the Gospel of Matthew:

Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or drink; or “about your body, what you will wear. Is not life more important than food, and the body more important than clothes? . . . So do not worry, saying, What shall we eat? or What shall we drink? or What shall we wear? For the pagans run after all these things, and your heavenly Father knows that you need them. But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well.” —New International Version Bible, Matthew 6:25–34 The rise of Christianity marked an important break with the dominant values of the Saint Matthew Greek and Roman worlds.

Background: Roman Religion Augustus brought back traditional festivals and ceremonies to revive the Roman state religion, which had declined during the turmoil of the late Roman Republic. The official state religion focused on the worship of a number of gods and goddesses, including , , , and Mars. (In addition, begin- ning with Augustus, emperors were often officially made gods by the Roman Sen- ate, thus bolstering support for the emperors.)

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 169 Greek and Roman Gods Greek God Roman God Role Ares Mars god of war The Romans adopted many of the gods of the peoples they conquered. Zeus Jupiter chief god Eventually the most important gods Hera Juno wife of chief god took on the characteristics of the Greek gods. Aphrodite Venus goddess of love 1. Applying Chart Skills Nike— Artemis goddess of the hunt the Greek goddess of victory—is Athena Minerva goddess of wisdom the name of a sports shoe. What names in the chart do you recog- Hermes messenger god nize and what do you associate Hades Pluto god of the underworld them with? In your examples, what is the connection to a Poseidon Neptune god of the sea particular god? Hephaestus Vulcan god of fire

Minerva

The Romans believed that The Jewish Background the observation of proper rit- In Hellenistic times, the Jewish people had been ual by state priests brought given considerable independence. By A.D.6, how- them into a right relationship ever, Judaea, which embraced the lands of the old with the gods. This guaran- Jewish kingdom of Judah, had been made a Roman teed peace and prosperity. province and been placed under the direction of a Indeed, the Romans believed Roman official called a procurator. that their success in creating Unrest was widespread in Judaea, but the an empire meant that they differed among themselves about Roman rule. The had earned the favor of the priestly Sadducees (SA·juh·SEEZ) favored cooper- gods. As the politician Cicero ation with Rome. The scholarly Pharisees claimed in the first century (FA·rah·SEEZ) held that close observance of religious B.C., “We have overcome all law would protect Jewish identity from Roman influ- the nations of the world, ences. The Essenes lived apart from society, sharing because we have realized that the world is directed goods in common. Like many other Jews, they and governed by the gods.” waited for God to save from oppression. The At the same time, the Romans were tolerant of Zealots, however, called for the violent overthrow of other religions. They allowed the worship of native Roman rule. In fact, a Jewish revolt began in A.D. 66, gods and goddesses throughout their provinces. only to be crushed by the Romans four years later. They even adopted some of the local gods. The Jewish temple in Jerusalem was destroyed. After the Romans conquered the states of the Hel- lenistic east, religions from those regions flooded the Reading Check Identifying Name four of the western Roman world. The desire for a more emo- Jewish groups in Judaea and explain how they differed. tional spiritual experience drew many people to these religions. They promised their followers an The Rise of Christianity entry into a higher world of reality and the promise of a future life superior to the present one. It was A few decades before the revolt, a Jewish prophet believed that, by participating in these ceremonies, a named Jesus traveled and preached throughout person could communicate with spiritual beings and Judaea and neighboring Galilee. open the door to life after death. The Message of Jesus Jesus believed that his mis- Reading Check Explaining How were religion and sion was to complete the salvation that God had government connected in the Roman Empire? promised to Israel throughout its history. He stated:

170 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity “Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or The Spread of Christianity Christianity began as a the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to movement within Judaism. After the reports that fulfill them.” According to Jesus, what was impor- Jesus had overcome death, the Christian movement tant was not strict adherence to the letter of the law won followers in Jerusalem and throughout Judaea but the transformation of the inner person: “So in and Galilee. everything, do to others what you would have them Prominent apostles, or leaders, arose in early do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Christianity. One was Simon Peter, a Jewish fisher- Prophets.” man who had become a follower of Jesus during God’s command was to love God and one another. Jesus’s lifetime. Peter was recognized as the leader of Jesus said, “Love the your God with all your heart the apostles. Another major apostle was Paul, a and with all your soul and with all your mind and with highly educated Jewish Roman citizen who joined all your strength. This is the first commandment. The the movement later. Paul took the message of Jesus to second is this: Love your neighbor as yourself.” Jesus Gentiles (non-Jews) as well as to Jews. He founded voiced the ethical concepts—humility, charity, and love Christian communities throughout Asia Minor and toward others—that would later shape the value sys- along the shores of the Aegean Sea. tem of Western civilization. At the center of Paul’s message was the belief Jesus’s preaching eventually stirred controversy. that Jesus was the Savior, the Son of God who had Some people saw Jesus as a potential revolutionary come to Earth to save humanity. Paul taught that who might lead a revolt against Rome. Jesus’s oppo- Jesus’s death made up for the sins of all humans. nents finally turned him over to Roman authorities. The By accepting Jesus as Christ (from Christos, the procurator ordered Jesus’s crucifixion. Greek term for Messiah) and Savior, people could After the death of Jesus, his followers proclaimed be saved from sin and reconciled to God. that he had risen from death and had appeared to The teachings of early Christianity were passed them. They believed Jesus to be the Messiah on orally. Written materials also appeared, however. (anointed one), the long expected deliverer who Paul and other followers of Jesus had written would save Israel from its foes. letters, or , outlining Christian beliefs for

The Last Supper by Philippe de Champaigne, 1648

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 171 act of treason, punishable by death. The Christians, however, believed there was only one God. To them, the worship of state gods and the emperors meant wor- shiping false gods and endangering their own salvation. The Roman government began perse- cuting (harassing to cause suffering) Christians during the reign of Nero (A.D. 54–68). The emperor blamed the Chris- tians for the fire that destroyed much of Rome and subjected them to cruel deaths. In contrast, in the second century, perse- cution of Christians diminished. By the end of the reigns of the five good emper- ors, Christians still represented a small minority, but one of considerable strength.

Reading Check Explaining Why did the Roman authorities fear Jesus? Roman mural of Christian disciples

communities they had helped found around the The Triumph of Christianity eastern Mediterranean. Also, some of Jesus’ disci- Under Theodosius the Great, who ples, or followers, may have preserved some of the ruled from 378 to 395, the Romans adopted Christian- sayings of Jesus in writing and passed on personal ity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. memories. Later, between A.D. 40 and 100, these The Romans persecuted Christians in the first and accounts became the basis of the written Gospels— second centuries, but this did nothing to stop the the “good news” concerning Jesus. These writings growth of Christianity. In fact, it did just the opposite, give a record of Jesus’ life and teachings, and they strengthening Christianity in the second and third form the core of the New Testament, the second part of the Christian Bible. By 100, Christian churches had been established in most of the major cities of the eastern empire and in some places in the western part of the empire. Most early Christians came from the Jews and the Greek- Perpetua speaking populations of the east. In the second and ?–A.D. 203 third centuries, however, an increasing number of Christian martyr followers were Latin-speaking people. Many women found that Chris- Roman Persecution The basic values of Christian- tianity offered them new roles. Many ity differed markedly from those of the Greco-Roman also died for their faith. Perpetua was world. In spite of that, the Romans at first paid little an aristocratic woman who converted attention to the Christians, whom they regarded as to Christianity. Her pagan family begged her to renounce her new faith, but she refused. simply another sect of Judaism. As time passed, how- Arrested by the Roman authorities, she chose instead to ever, the Roman attitude toward Christianity began die for her faith. She was one of a group of Christians to change. who were slaughtered by wild beasts in the arena at The Romans tolerated the religions of other peo- Carthage on March 7, 203. She wrote a diary while she ples unless these religions threatened public order or was in prison. The final entry read, “Thus far I have writ- public morals. Many Romans came to view Chris- ten this, till the day before the games; but the deed of the tians as harmful to the Roman state because Chris- games themselves let him write who will.” tians refused to worship the state gods and emperors. The Romans saw the Christians’ refusal to do so as an

172 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity Spread of Christianity, A.D. 325–600

Main areas of Christian growth to A.D. 325 North Areas largely Christian by A.D. 600

50 Sea °N 0 500 Miles BRITAIN N 0 500 Kilometers Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection ATLaNTIC W E OCEaN S GAUL

C a sp ia n S 4 e 0°N Black Sea a ITALY SPAIN Corsica Rome ASIA Sardinia GREECE MINOR Athens Tarsus Sicily Aegean Carthage Sea SYRIA Cyprus Mediterranean Crete Tyre Damascus Sea Galilee Nazareth Jerusalem JUDAEA AFRICA Alexandria EGYPT R e d S e a

By the time Constantine converted, Christianity was well established in the Roman Empire and spreading quickly. 0° 10°E20°E30°E 1. Interpreting Maps Which close grouping of cities con- stituted some of the main areas of Christian growth up to A.D. 325? How does this correlate to the ? First, the Christian message had much to offer 2. Applying Geography Skills What geographical factors the Roman world. The Roman state-based religion both helped and limited the spread of Christianity? was impersonal and existed for the good of Rome. Christianity was personal and offered salvation centuries by forcing it to become more organized. Fear and eternal life to individuals. Christianity gave of persecution meant that only the most committed meaning and purpose to life. individuals would choose to follow the outlawed faith. Second, Christianity seemed familiar. It was Crucial to this change was the emerging role of the viewed by some as similar to other religions, offer- bishops, who began to assume more control over ing immortality as the result of the sacrificial death communities. The Christian church was creat- of a savior-god. ing a new structure in which the clergy (the church Finally, Christianity fulfilled the human need to leaders) had distinct functions separate from the laity belong. Christians formed communities bound to (the regular church members). one another. In these communities, people could Christianity grew quickly in the first century, took express their love by helping one another and offer- root in the second, and by the third had spread ing assistance to the poor and the sick. Christianity widely. Why was Christianity able to attract so many satisfied the need to belong in a way that the huge followers? Roman Empire could never provide.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 173 History Early Christians buried their dead in catacombs, underground chambers that sometimes had multiple rooms and levels. This catacomb was built in Rome in the second century. Why might early Christians have wanted an underground sanctuary for their dead?

Christianity proved attractive to all classes, but especially to the poor and powerless. Eternal life was promised to all—rich, poor, aristocrats, slaves, men, and women. As Paul stated in his letters to the Colos- sians and the Galatians, “And [you] have put on the new self . . . . Here there is no Greek nor Jew . . . bar- barian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all.” Although Christianity did not call for revolu- tion, it stressed a sense of spiritual equality for all people, which was a revolutionary idea. Some emperors began new persecutions of the Christians in the third century, but their schemes failed. The last great persecution was by (DY•uh•KLEE•shuhn) at the beginning of the fourth century. Even he had to admit, however, what had become obvious in the course of the third century: of Christianity. Then, under Theodosius the Great, Christianity was too strong to be blotted out by force. the Romans adopted Christianity as their official In the fourth century, Christianity prospered as religion. never before when Constantine became the first Christian emperor. Although he was not baptized Reading Check Explaining Why and how did the until the end of his life, in 313 Constantine issued the Christian church become more organized in the second and , which proclaimed official tolerance third centuries?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define procurator, New Testament, 6. Drawing Conclusions Explain why 8. Examine the photograph of a Roman clergy, laity. Romans began to accept Christianity catacomb shown above. What conclu- and why it took so long for it to be sions can you draw about early Christ- Jesus, Simon Peter, Paul, Con- 2. Identify accepted by the state. ian practices and beliefs? stantine, Theodosius the Great. 7. Contrasting Information Use a chart Judaea, Jerusalem, Aegean 3. Locate like the one below to contrast the Sea. beliefs of the Roman state religion with 9. Expository Writing rea- 4. Explain why the Romans persecuted the beliefs of Christianity. sons why Romans thought Christian- Christians despite their general reli- ity was dangerous to their empire. Roman State Religion Christianity gious tolerance. Compare these arguments to actual Christian doctrine and practices. Pre- 5. List the ethical concepts voiced by sent your findings in a carefully pre- Jesus. pared . Show that your sources corroborate your position.

174 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity Decline and Fall Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • Under two strong emperors, Diocletian Diocletian, Constantine, Huns, , Cause and Effect Complete a chart and Constantine, the Roman Empire , Augustulus describing the events that led to the gained a new lease on life. decline and fall of the Roman Empire. • Ferocious warriors from Asia and Ger- Places to Identify many finally brought an end to the Byzantium, Bosporus, Danube River Decline Fall Roman Empire. Preview Questions Key Terms 1. How did Diocletian and Constantine plague, inflation restore order and stability to the Roman Empire? 2. What became of the Roman Empire Preview of Events after it was divided into two parts? ✦A.D. 200 ✦A.D. 300 ✦A.D. 400 ✦A.D. 500

A.D. 193 A.D. 235 A.D. 410 A.D. 476 Severan rule starts Military leaders begin The Visigoths Deposition of Emperor to seize throne sack Rome marks the end of the Voices from the Past

In A.D. 410, the unthinkable happened. The city of Rome was sacked by a German tribe, the Visigoths. The responded in disbelief:

A terrible rumor had arrived from the West. Rome is besieged. . . . The City is “taken which took the whole world. It had perished of famine before it died by the sword, and only a few captives were found. [As Virgil said in the Aeneid:] What tongue can tell the slaughter of that night? What eyes can weep the sorrows and affright? An ancient and imperial city falls.” —Jerome, Letters, J. Hillgarth, trans., 1986 Jerome The Western Roman Empire would fall before the end of the century.

The Decline Marcus Aurelius, the last of the five good emperors, died in A.D. 180. A period of conflict and confusion followed.

Political Upheavals Following a series of civil wars, a military government under the Severan rulers restored order. told his sons “to pay the soldiers, and ignore everyone else,” setting the tone for the new dynasty. After the Severan rulers there was a period of disorder. For almost fifty years, from 235 to 284, the Roman throne was occupied by whoever had military strength to seize it. During this period there were 22 emperors. Many of these emperors met a violent death.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 175 Invasions into the Roman Empire, A.D. 200–500

60°N

N North W Sea E 0 500 miles S 5 0°N BRITAIN 0 500 kilometers Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection ATLaNTIC OCEaN

GAUL

Da Black Sea 40° nu N be R. Adrianople SPAIN Rome Constantinople ITALY ASIA MINOR GREECE

AFRICA Mediterranean Sea

Alexandria Western Roman Empire Angles/Saxons Eastern Roman Empire Vandals EGYPT Battle Huns Visigoths

0° 10°E

Contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire were invasions small industry. A labor shortage created by plague that pressed in on all sides of the empire. (an epidemic disease) affected both military recruit- 1. Interpreting Maps Which group of invaders made the ing and the economy. Farm production declined as most limited incursions? fields were ravaged by invaders or, even more often, 2. Applying Geography Skills Which parts of the by the defending Roman armies. The monetary sys- Roman Empire seem to have been more secure from the tem began to show signs of collapse. invasion? Why do you think this was? Armies were needed more than ever, but finan- cial strains made it difficult to pay and enlist more soldiers. By the mid-third century, the state had At the same time, the empire was troubled by a to rely on hiring to fight under Roman series of invasions. In the east, the Sassanid commanders. These soldiers did not understand (suh•SAH•nuhd) Persians made inroads into Roman traditions and had little loyalty to either the Roman territory. Germanic tribes poured into the empire or the emperors. , Gaul, and Spain. Not until the end of the third century were most of the boundaries restored. The Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine At the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth Economic and Military Problems Invasions, centuries, the Roman Empire gained a new lease on civil wars, and plague came close to causing an eco- life through the efforts of two emperors, Diocletian nomic collapse of the Roman Empire in the third and Constantine. The empire was changed into a century. There was a noticeable decline in trade and new state: the Late Roman Empire, which included a

176 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity new governmental structure, a rigid economic and strategic location. Calling it his “New Rome,” Con- social system, and a new state religion—Christianity. stantine enriched the city with a , large palaces, Believing that the empire had grown too large for and a vast amphitheater. Constantinople would a single ruler, Diocletian, who ruled from 284 to 305, become the center of the Eastern Roman Empire and divided it into four units, each with its own ruler. one of the great cities of the world. Diocletian’s military power still enabled him to claim In general, the economic and social policies of Dio- a higher status and to hold the ultimate authority. cletian and Constantine were based on control and Constantine, who ruled from 306 to 337, continued coercion. Although temporarily successful, such poli- and even expanded the policies of Diocletian. cies in the long run stifled the very vitality the Late Both rulers greatly strengthened and enlarged the Empire needed to revive its sagging fortunes. administrative of the Roman Empire. Reading Check A hierarchy of officials exercised control at the vari- Describing Describe the economic ous levels of government. The army was enlarged to and social conditions in the Roman Empire prior to Diocletian five hundred thousand men, including German and Constantine. troops. Mobile units were established to support frontier troops at threatened borders. The Fall The political and military reforms of Diocletian The restored empire of Diocletian and Constantine and Constantine greatly enlarged two institutions— limped along for more than a century. After Constan- the army and civil service—which drained most of tine, the empire continued to be divided into western the public funds. More revenues were needed to pay and eastern parts. The capital of the Western Roman for the army and . The population was Empire remained in Rome. Constantinople remained not growing, however, so the tax base could not be the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. The West- increased. ern Roman Empire came under increasing pressure Diocletian and Constantine devised new economic from the invading Germanic tribes. The major break- and social policies to deal with these financial bur- through of invaders into the west came in the second dens. To fight inflation—a rapid increase in prices— half of the fourth century. The Huns, who came from Diocletian issued a price edict in 301 that set wage Asia, moved into eastern and put pressure on and price controls for the entire empire. Despite the Germanic Visigoths. The Visigoths, in turn, severe penalties, it failed to work. moved south and west, crossed the Danube River To ensure the tax base and keep the empire going into Roman territory, and settled down as Roman despite the shortage of labor, the emperors issued allies. However, the Visigoths soon revolted. The edicts that forced people to remain in their desig- Romans’ attempt to stop the revolt at Adrianople in nated vocations. Hence, basic jobs, such as bakers 378 led to a crushing defeat for the Romans. and shippers, became hereditary. The fortunes of free Increasing numbers of Germans now crossed the tenant farmers also declined. Soon they found them- frontiers. In 410, the Visigoths sacked Rome. Another selves bound to the land by large landowners who group, the Vandals, poured into southern Spain and took advantage of depressed agricultural conditions Africa. They crossed into Italy from northern Africa to enlarge their landed estates. and, in 455, they too sacked Rome. (Our modern Constantine began his reign in 306, and by 324 he word vandal is taken from this ruthless tribe.) had emerged as the sole ruler of the empire. Con- In 476, the western emperor, Romulus Augustu- stantine’s biggest project lus, was deposed by the Ger- was the construction of a manic head of the army. This is new capital city in the usually taken as the date of the east, on the site of the fall of the Western Roman Greek city of Byzantium Empire. As we shall see in on the shores of the Chapter 9, a series of German Bosporus. The city, even- kingdoms replaced the West- tually renamed Constan- ern Roman Empire. The East- tinople (modern Istanbul ern Roman Empire, or the in Turkey), was devel- , however, oped for defensive rea- continued to thrive with its sons and had an excellent Relief showing Roman tax collectors center at Constantinople.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 177 • Lead poisoning through leaden water pipes and cups caused a mental decline in the population. • Plague wiped out one-tenth of the population. • Rome failed to advance technologically because of slavery. • Rome was unable to put together a workable political system. There may be an element of in each of these theories, but each has also been challenged. History is an intricate web of relationships, causes, and effects. No single explanation can sufficiently explain complex historical events, such as the fall of a great empire. For example, both the Han dynasty in China and the Roman Empire lasted for centuries. Both of these empires were able to govern large areas of land effectively. They instituted and maintained laws and a language. In spite of their attempts at unifying con- quered territories, both empires experienced prob- lems that came from acquiring so much land. Both tried to protect their borders with walls, forts, and troops. Both, however, eventually fell to invaders. Emperor Constantine The Han dynasty fell to the Xiongnu. The Roman army in the west was not able to fend off the hordes Many theories have been proposed to explain the of people invading Italy and Gaul, and the Western decline and fall of the Roman Empire. They include Roman Empire fell. In contrast, the Eastern Roman the following: Empire, which would survive for another thousand • Christianity’s emphasis on a spiritual kingdom years, was able to withstand invaders. weakened Roman military virtues. • Traditional Roman values declined as non- Reading Check Identifying Which groups invaded gained prominence in the empire. the Western Roman Empire?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define plague, inflation. 6. Evaluate Summarize the theories about 8. Examine the relief of Roman tax collec- why the Roman Empire fell and then tell tors shown on page 177 of your text. Diocletian, Constantine, 2. Identify why some theories seem more possible What do you think each of the people Huns, Visigoths, Vandals, Romulus than others. depicted in the image is doing? Augustulus. 7. Summarizing Information Create a Byzantium, Bosporus, Danube 3. Locate chart like the one below to list ways River. that Diocletian and Constantine 4. Explain why the decline in population strengthened the Roman Empire. was so harmful to the Roman Empire. 9. Persuasive Writing Imagine you Diocletian Constantine are the adviser to a benevolent 5. List the economic and military prob- . Write a letter to lems that contributed to the decline of the emperor describing the steps he the Roman Empire. should take to preserve the Roman Empire.

178 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity Making Decisions Why Learn This Skill? chance to take band. You decide to take computer A decision is a choice you make from among two graphics at the local junior college this summer. or more alternatives. For instance, when choosing • Evaluate the decision Ask: How did the outcome which elective class to take, how will you decide? affect you and others? Would you make the same What if you are equally interested in taking com- decision again? Why or why not? If you had taken puter graphics and band? Following the steps below computer graphics, you would be working at a software will help you make more thoughtful decisions. company. Instead you play with a jazz band at night and could not be happier. Learning the Skill To make decisions more Practicing the Skill easily, follow the steps below. Decisions affect not just your daily life, • State the situation or define the they affect the outcome of history. Each of problem Gather all the facts. Ask: the following events took place as a Why do I have to make a decision on result of a decision made by a person or a this matter? Whom will my decision group of people. Think of an alternative affect? In the example above, you can for each event and describe its possible only take one elective, so you need to consequences. 1 make a choice. During the Third Punic War, in • List the options Ask: What are the alter- 146 B.C., the Romans burned natives? How can I deal with this situ- Carthage. 2 ation in a different way? Is there any In 27 B.C., Augustus Caesar way to take both electives? If only one fit became Rome’s first emperor. 3 your schedule, it would be an easier Roman persecution of Chris- choice. Can you take one of them tians in the second and third at some other time? centuries did nothing to stop • Weigh the possible outcomes What are the growth of Christianity. 4 the positive or negative effects of The Emperor Theodosius made each? Which would be more interest- Christianity the official religion ing for you? Which would be more Augustus Caesar of the Roman Empire. useful when you graduate? Which would look more impressive on your college application? Applying the Skill • Consider your values Values are the beliefs and ideas that are important to you. Your values Read for articles about an event that should serve as your guidelines in making all affects your community, such as a decision whether or decisions. You love music, but feel you have to be not to tear down a historic landmark to build a new practical and take the computer class. What is more shopping mall. Make a decision about how you would important to you? handle the situation. Explain your reasoning. • Make a decision and act Use all the information gathered to make a decision. Then act on your Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook, decision. You decide that this might be your last Level 2, provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

179 Using Key Terms 7. The writings recording Jesus’ life and teachings form the core of the . 1. Cases of civil law were applied to citizens and later to non- The in the Christian church were officials who were citizens by judges who were called . 8. separate from regular church members called the . 2. The term refers to the idea in Roman society that were Roman citizens who wanted political and social males should be dominant because females were too weak. 9. equality with the wealthy . 3. In the Roman Republic, two ran the government and An epidemic disease that kills thousands is known as a led the Roman army into battle. 10. . 4. Judaea became a Roman province under the direction of an Augustus was a popular ruler who was given the title of official called a . 11. , or commander in chief, by the Senate. 5. housed the poor in the city of Rome. 12. A form of government in which the leader is not a monarch 6. Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed a powerful govern- and certain citizens have the right to vote is called a . mental coalition called the . Reviewing Key Facts 13. Geography List at least three ways in which geography influenced Roman history. The history of ancient Rome was a series of causes and effects. 14. History Why were the Etruscans considered to be the great- est influence on early Rome? Cause Effect 15. Government Who were the patricians and plebeians and why were they in conflict with each other? Rome defeats Carthage Hannibal brings the 16. Citizenship Describe the different roles of citizens and non- and takes Sicily. Second Punic War into citizens in the Roman Empire, especially as the roles pertain Italy, defeating the to civic participation. Romans at Cannae. 17. History Who was Hannibal, what happened to him, and why was he important? Marius recruits armies The Roman army is no 18. Economics What factors contributed to the high level of by promising them land. longer under government trade in the Early Empire? He requires an oath of control; military power 19. Science and Technology Identify new ideas in technology loyalty to him. rests in the hands that occurred during the Greco-Roman civilization. of individual generals. 20. Culture Name three famous Roman writers. Name their works and explain why these works are important. Sulla uses his army to Sulla restores power to seize governmental the government with a Critical Thinking power. strong Senate, but his actions set the precedent 21. Compare and Contrast Compare the historical origins, cen- for military coups. tral ideas, and the spread of Buddhism and Christianity. 22. Drawing Conclusions Identify the ways in which the Romans preserved the heritage of the Greek Julius Caesar fills the The power of the Senate world. Senate with his own is weakened. Julius supporters. Caesar is assassinated Writing About History in 44 B.C. 23. Expository Writing Find a picture of Roman architecture. Discuss how it demonstrates Roman culture, including Economic and social The policies of these potential influence from other cultures. In what ways do policies of Diocletian and two emperors contribute archaeologists and anthropologists analyze Roman culture, Constantine are based on to the empire’s eventual based on the limited remains of architecture and artifacts? control and coercion. collapse. Justify your answer with outside research.

180 Ancient Empires Assyrian Empire c. 1275 B.C.–605 B.C. Athenian Empire ’s Empire HISTORY Sumerian civilization 450 B.C.–405 B.C. 334 B.C.–320 B.C. c. 3000 B.C.–c.1750 B.C. Persian Empire Self-Check Quiz Ancient Egyptian kingdoms Roman Empire 539 B.C.–330 B.C. 27 B.C.–A.D. 476 Visit the Glencoe World c. 2700 B.C.–c.1085 B.C. History Web site at tx.wh.glencoe.com and 3000 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1000 B.C. B.C. A.D. A.D. 500 click on Chapter 5–Self- Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test. Shang Empire Roman Republic Gupta Empire c. 1750 B.C.–1122 B.C. 509 B.C.–27 B.C. A.D. 320–A.D. 550 Indus Valley civilization Zhou Empire Han Empire c. 3000 B.C.–c.1500 B.C. 1122 B.C.–256 B.C. 202 B.C.–A.D. 220

Analyzing Sources Analyzing Maps and Charts Read the following poem by Virgil, and answer the questions. Study the chart above that shows various empires of the ancient world. Then answer the following questions. Let others fashion from bronze more lifelike, “ 28. Which lasted longer, the Roman Republic or the Zhou breathing images— Empire? For so they shall—and evoke living faces from marble; 29. How long did the Roman civilization last? Which lasted Others excel as orators, others track with their longer, the Roman Republic or the Roman Empire? instruments 30. Which empires overlap the Roman period? The planet circling in heaven and predict when stars 31. Is there any correlation between the length of an empire’s will appear. existence and its impact on later civilizations? But, Romans, never forget that government is your 32. Which empire lasted the shortest time period, and which medium! lasted the longest? Be this your art: to practise men in the habit of peace, Generosity to the conquered, and firmness against aggressors.” 24. What did the poet feel was Rome’s gift? Who are the “others” mentioned in the poem? Directions: Choose the best answer to the How does this poem summarize the fundamental ideas of 25. following question. Western civilization that originated in Rome? One lasting contribution of the Roman Empire was Applying Technology Skills A the idea of the Triumvirate. 26. Using the Internet Use the Internet and other resources to B the Christian church. research the Twelve Tables. Design a similar code of laws C the gladiatorial shows. using modern-day language. D its system of law.

Making Decisions Test-Taking Tip: Do not pick an answer just because it 27. Pretend you are in a public forum in Rome. In class, debate sounds good. Sometimes a choice is deliberately meant to with another citizen the extent to which the gulf between the sound correct but is not. Read all of the answer choices patricians and plebeians is straining the Roman Empire. very carefully before you select the best one and avoid Together, decide on measures that could provide stability to making any hasty decisions. the government and the empire as a whole.

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 181 ektor was first to speak. “I will no longer flee from the H you, son of Peleus,” said he, “as I have been Iliad doing hitherto. . . .[Let] me either slay or be slain, By Homer, translated by Samuel for I am in the mind to face you. Let us, then, give pledges to one another by our gods; . . . [that if] Butler I take your life, I am not to treat your dead body in any unseemly fashion, but when I have stripped you of your armor, I am to give up your body to the Achaeans, And do you likewise.” Achilles glared at him and answered, “Fool . . . [there] can be no covenants between men and lions, wolves and lambs can never be of one mind, but hate each Homer is probably one of the best known other out and out . . . . figures to have emerged from Greek antiq- Therefore there can be no uity. Writing in the eighth century B.C., understanding between you Homer’s most famous works are the Odyssey and the Iliad. These works mark and me . . . till one or the beginnings of what we know as Greek other shall fall. . . . You literature and are used as models even in have no more chance, and contemporary work. The Iliad is the story of Pallas Athena will forthwith the , and the Odyssey recounts vanquish you by my spear: you the challenges of one Greek hero, Odysseus shall now pay me in full for the (also known as “Ulysses”), in returning grief you have caused me on to his homeland. account of my comrades whom you have killed in battle.” Read to Discover He poised his spear as he spoke In the Iliad, Hektor was the Trojans’ hero and son of King Priam. Achilles, the Greeks’ hero, and hurled it. Hektor saw it com- was the son of Peleus. Hektor killed Achilles’ ing and avoided it; he watched it friend Patroklos, and Achilles was determined and crouched down so that it flew to avenge the death. What language does over his head and stuck in the Homer use to show Hektor’s and Achilles’ ground beyond; Athena then feelings about each other? Do you see evi- snatched it up and gave it back to dence of the heroic tradition in this passage? Achilles without Hektor’s seeing her; Hektor thereon said . . . “You Reader’s Dictionary have missed your aim, Achilles. . . . covenant: a binding agreement or [And] now for your own part avoid promise spoil: to plunder from an enemy in war Athena

182 my spear if you can—would that you might receive shall give him all due funeral rites, while dogs and the whole of it into your body; if you were once vultures shall work their will upon yourself.” dead the Trojans would find the war an easier mat- Then Hektor said, as the life-breath ebbed out of ter, for it is you who have harmed them most.” him, “I pray you . . . , let not dogs devour me at He poised his spear as he spoke and hurled it. His the ships of the Achaeans, but accept the rich treas- aim was sure for he hit the middle of Achilles’ ure of gold and bronze which my father and shield, but the spear rebounded from it, and did mother will offer you, and send my body home, not pierce it. Hektor was angry when he saw that that the Trojans and their wives may give me my the weapon had sped from his hand in vain, and dues of fire when I am dead.” stood there in dismay for he had no second Achilles glared at him and answered, “Dog . . . spear . . . . [Then] he said to himself, “Alas! The [though] Priam . . . should bid them offer me your gods have lured me on to my destruction . . . . weight in gold, even so your mother shall never lay [Death] is now indeed exceedingly you out and make lament over the near at hand and there is no way out son she bore, but dogs and vultures of it . . . . My doom has come upon shall eat you utterly up.” me; let me not then die ingloriously Hektor with his dying breath then and without a struggle, but let me said, “I know you what you are, first do some great thing that and was sure that I shall be told among men should not move you, hereafter.” for your heart is hard As he spoke he drew the as iron . . . .” keen blade that hung so great When he had thus said the and strong by his side, and shrouds of death’s final out- gathering himself together he come enfolded him, whereon sprang on Achilles . . . . Achilles his life-breath went out of him mad with rage darted towards and flew down to the house of him . . . . He eyed [Hektor’s] fair Hades, lamenting its sad fate that flesh over and over to see where he it should enjoy youth and strength could best wound it, but all was pro- no longer. tected by the goodly armor of which Hektor had spoiled Patroklos after he had slain him, save only the throat where the collar- bones divide the neck from the shoulders, and this is the quickest place for the life-breath to escape: here then did Achilles strike him as he was coming on towards him, and the point of his spear went 1. How does Achilles plan to avenge his friend Patrok- right through the fleshy part of the neck, but it did los’ death beyond killing Hektor? not sever his windpipe so that he could still speak. 2. Who is Athena supporting in this conflict? Hektor fell headlong, and Achilles vaunted over 3. Explain Achilles’ concern with Hektor’s armor. him saying, “Hektor, you deemed that you should 4. CRITICAL THINKING What does Hektor’s last come off scatheless when you were spoiling Patrok- request reveal about Greek attitudes towards los . . . . Fool that you were: for I, his comrade, death? mightier far than he, was still left behind him at the Applications Activity ships, and now I have laid you low. The Achaeans Outline a story for a modern epic. Who would be your hero and why?

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