DOCSLIB.ORG

The Roman Empire

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Roman Empire S1 SOCIAL SUBJECTS Home Learning Booklet Angus Lauder WHEC S1 SOCIAL SUBJECTS HOME LEARNING This workbook has been created to support you with your social subjects learning at home. Please complete work at a pace that suits you and your family. Also, we understand that you have many different subjects sending you work and need to manage your time to complete work for all subjects. We would recommend completing 1 or 2 tasks per week - some will take longer than others. As you complete a task, you can email it to your teacher (email addresses below). This will allow your teacher to give you feedback. You can attach your work as a word document or take a picture of work you have handwritten. If you have any questions, we are also working from home, and will reply to any emails you send. Our email addresses are listed below: Mr Sinclair – [email protected] Ms Oliver – [email protected] Mrs Millar – [email protected] Mr Lauder – [email protected] 1 Contents History: The Romans 1. Curriculum Links 2. History Skills 3. The Growth of Rome 4. The People of Rome 5. The Roman Empire 6. The Roman Army 7. Life in the Roman Army 8. Roman Slavery 9. Roman Food 10. Just for Fun Curriculum for Excellence Level 3 2 • I can describe the factors contributing to a major social, political, or economic change in the past and can assess the impact on people’s lives. SOC 3-05a • I can use my knowledge of a historical period to interpret the evidence and present an informed view. SOC 3-01a 3 S1 History: The Romans The Roman Empire was the largest empire in history up until the creation of the British Empire in the 19th Century. Through the efforts of its people the Roman Empire lasted hundreds of years. 4 History Skills 5 6 7 The Growth of Rome Rome is the capital city of Italy. Building started in 753 BC and the Romans developed a story to explain how Rome was built. Task 1 Watch the video clip. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wA1D9wd29jI – Romulus and Remus, the story of. 1. According to the story who built the city of Rome and why? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 2. what parts of the legend are shown in source 1? Source 1 - Roman statue of Romulus and Remus 8 Source 2 From Gilles Feyel, a historian 1981 The story of Romulus and Remus is probably not accurate. The city was not founded in one day but instead when lots of small villages in the local area became larger and started to trade with cities in Greece. The legend is a traditional story handed down from the ancient Romans. 3. why does source 2 tell us that the story of Romulus and Remus is not accurate. SOC 3-01a ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ The People of Rome At the top of the of the pyramid came the Emperor. He was the most powerful Roman of all with a powerful army at his disposal. The Emperor decided on how Rome was governed. The Senate was where the laws were made. Most of the Emperors listened to the views of the Senate, those who did not were sometimes murdered! Senators were voted for by citizens. The Citizens of Rome were those who were born free in Rome. Many of the Roman citizens lived in very poor conditions and because of this there was always the fear that they would revolt against Emperor. 9 Next in the Pyramid came the freedmen and freedwomen, former slaves who were much the same as citizens but could not vote. The children of Freedmen and Freedwomen could become Roman citizens Finally, at the bottom of the pyramid came the slaves. These were people from around the Empire who werecaptured then bought and sold in Rome. They had no rights and no protection by the law. Many were treated very cruelly by the Romans. Task 2 On the lines of the pyramid write down the type of roman in order of status. Emperor 10 Describe each group of Roman people. Emperor – ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ The Senators – ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ The Citizens ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ Freedmen/women ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ The Slaves ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 11 The Roman Empire The roman empire outside of Italy was divided into areas called provinces. Each province was ruled by a Roman who was appointed as governor. These provinces were often as large as entire countries today. Britanniae was the name of the province which would later become Britain. Hispaniae would become Spain and Portugal. Source 3 is a map of the Roman Empire in 117 AD Task 3 1. Can you count on the map how many Roman provinces were part of the empire from source 3. What does this tell us about the Roman Empire? SOC 3-01a ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 12 Source 4 was written by a Roman historian about the growth of the Roman empire. We decided to invade the area known as Gaul in 51 BC. This area was rich in good farmland and could provide Rome with a large supply of food. The people of this area were very jealous of the Romans growing strength, so it was necessary to teach them a lesson. These savages were a menace and needed firm discipline. Source 5 was written in a school history textbook about the Roman Empire. The empire certainly benefitted from taking over Gaul. The Romans not only added more people to their army, but they also learned many skills which they would use in the future such as building roads and buildings. 2. Use the sources to explain two reasons why the Romans decide to invade Gaul. (read the sources carefully!) SOC 3-05a ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 3. What kind of sources are sources 4 and 5? Primary or secondary? Remove the wrong answer. Source 4 – Primary/Secondary Source 5- Primary/Secondary 13 The Roman Army The Roman Empire grew strong because it had a very good army to help conquer and later control all the other lands. The Roman Army had better weapons and was more organised than any army had been before. A Roman soldier was called a legionary. Roman soldiers had to be tough. They were expected to march 20 miles a day wearing armour. They were also expected to carry their own shield, some food and camping equipment. Soldiers were also trained to fight together. They marched into battle in a flexible line with their shields next to each other. If the enemy shot arrows at them the soldiers in the rows behind, the front line would lift their shields over their heads like a roof to protect them. This was called a testudo, which means tortoise. Source 6 was written by a Jewish writer called Josephus who describes training in the Roman army. Josephus fought against the Romans. They do not sit around waiting for a war to start and then start training men to fight. It looks as if they are born with weapons in their hands. They never stop training; every soldier puts all he has into training, as if he were in a real war. Enemies are no match for romans and the romans always win. 14 Task 4 1. How far would Romans have to march each day and what made this even more difficult? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 2. How would Romans protect themselves from marching into battle? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 3. Read the source and explain why Roman legionaries made such good soldiers. ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ Life in the Roman Army Centurions were in charge of discipline. They carried a stick of very hard wood and they used it to beat their soldiers. They used to punish even small things with extra duties, a whipping or a fine. Serious crimes such as desertion were punished by decimation. 15 Source 7 is by Polybius in the 2nd Century BC describes punishment in the Army. An officer takes a bat and simply touches the man with it. This is a sign to all other soldiers that they must stone him or beat
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Ius Militare – Military Courts in the Roman Law (I)
    International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) ISSN 2307-4531 (Print & Online) http://gssrr.org/index.php?journal=JournalOfBasicAndApplied --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ius Militare – Military Courts in the Roman Law (I) PhD Dimitar Apasieva*, PhD Olga Koshevaliskab a,bGoce Delcev University – Shtip, Shtip 2000, Republic of Macedonia aEmail: [email protected] bEmail: [email protected] Abstract Military courts in ancient Rome belonged to the so-called inconstant coercions (coercitio), they were respectively treated as “special circumstances courts” excluded from the regular Roman judicial system and performed criminal justice implementation, strictly in conditions of war. To repress the war torts, as well as to overcome the soldiers’ resistance, which at moments was violent, the king (rex) himself at first and the highest new established magistrates i.e. consuls (consules) afterwards, have been using various constrained acts. The authority of such enforcement against Roman soldiers sprang from their “military imperium” (imperium militiae). As most important criminal and judicial organs in conditions of war, responsible for maintenance of the military courtesy, were introduced the military commander (dux) and the array and their subsidiary organs were the cavalry commander, military legates, military tribunals, centurions and regents. In this paper, due to limited available space, we will only stick to the main military courts in ancient Rome. Keywords: military camp; tribunal; dux; recruiting; praetor. 1. Introduction “[The Romans...] strictly cared about punishments and awards of those who deserved praise or lecture… The military courtesy was grounded at the fear of laws, and god – for people, weapon, brad and money are the power of war! …It was nothing more than an army, that is well trained during muster; it was no possible for one to be defeated, who knows how to apply it!” [23].
    [Show full text]
  • 2 the Assyrian Empire, the Conquest of Israel, and the Colonization of Judah 37 I
    ISRAEL AND EMPIRE ii ISRAEL AND EMPIRE A Postcolonial History of Israel and Early Judaism Leo G. Perdue and Warren Carter Edited by Coleman A. Baker LONDON • NEW DELHI • NEW YORK • SYDNEY 1 Bloomsbury T&T Clark An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Imprint previously known as T&T Clark 50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway London New York WC1B 3DP NY 10018 UK USA www.bloomsbury.com Bloomsbury, T&T Clark and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2015 © Leo G. Perdue, Warren Carter and Coleman A. Baker, 2015 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Leo G. Perdue, Warren Carter and Coleman A. Baker have asserted their rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Authors of this work. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the authors. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: HB: 978-0-56705-409-8 PB: 978-0-56724-328-7 ePDF: 978-0-56728-051-0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Typeset by Forthcoming Publications (www.forthpub.com) 1 Contents Abbreviations vii Preface ix Introduction: Empires, Colonies, and Postcolonial Interpretation 1 I.
    [Show full text]
  • Alexander and the 'Defeat' of the Sogdianian Revolt
    Alexander the Great and the “Defeat” of the Sogdianian Revolt* Salvatore Vacante “A victory is twice itself when the achiever brings home full numbers” (W. Shakespeare, Much Ado About Nothing, Act I, Scene I) (i) At the beginning of 329,1 the flight of the satrap Bessus towards the northeastern borders of the former Persian Empire gave Alexander the Great the timely opportunity for the invasion of Sogdiana.2 This ancient region was located between the Oxus (present Amu-Darya) and Iaxartes (Syr-Darya) Rivers, where we now find the modern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, bordering on the South with ancient Bactria (present Afghanistan). According to literary sources, the Macedonians rapidly occupied this large area with its “capital” Maracanda3 and also built, along the Iaxartes, the famous Alexandria Eschate, “the Farthermost.”4 However, during the same year, the Sogdianian nobles Spitamenes and Catanes5 were able to create a coalition of Sogdianians, Bactrians and Scythians, who created serious problems for Macedonian power in the region, forcing Alexander to return for the winter of 329/8 to the largest city of Bactria, Zariaspa-Bactra.6 The chiefs of the revolt were those who had *An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Conflict Archaeology Postgraduate Conference organized by the Centre for Battlefield Archaeology of the University of Glasgow on October 7th – 9th 2011. 1 Except where differently indicated, all the dates are BCE. 2 Arr. 3.28.10-29.6. 3 Arr. 3.30.6; Curt. 7.6.10: modern Samarkand. According to Curtius, the city was surrounded by long walls (70 stades, i.e.
    [Show full text]
  • Online Library of Liberty: Shakespeare's Plutarch, Vol. 2
    The Online Library of Liberty A Project Of Liberty Fund, Inc. Plutarch, Shakespeare’s Plutarch, Vol. 2 (containing the main sources of Anthony and Cleopatra and of Coriolanus) [1579] The Online Library Of Liberty This E-Book (PDF format) is published by Liberty Fund, Inc., a private, non-profit, educational foundation established in 1960 to encourage study of the ideal of a society of free and responsible individuals. 2010 was the 50th anniversary year of the founding of Liberty Fund. It is part of the Online Library of Liberty web site http://oll.libertyfund.org, which was established in 2004 in order to further the educational goals of Liberty Fund, Inc. To find out more about the author or title, to use the site's powerful search engine, to see other titles in other formats (HTML, facsimile PDF), or to make use of the hundreds of essays, educational aids, and study guides, please visit the OLL web site. This title is also part of the Portable Library of Liberty DVD which contains over 1,000 books and quotes about liberty and power, and is available free of charge upon request. The cuneiform inscription that appears in the logo and serves as a design element in all Liberty Fund books and web sites is the earliest-known written appearance of the word “freedom” (amagi), or “liberty.” It is taken from a clay document written about 2300 B.C. in the Sumerian city-state of Lagash, in present day Iraq. To find out more about Liberty Fund, Inc., or the Online Library of Liberty Project, please contact the Director at [email protected].
    [Show full text]
  • The Ancient People of Italy Before the Rise of Rome, Italy Was a Patchwork
    The Ancient People of Italy Before the rise of Rome, Italy was a patchwork of different cultures. Eventually they were all subsumed into Roman culture, but the cultural uniformity of Roman Italy erased what had once been a vast array of different peoples, cultures, languages, and civilizations. All these cultures existed before the Roman conquest of the Italian Peninsula, and unfortunately we know little about any of them before they caught the attention of Greek and Roman historians. Aside from a few inscriptions, most of what we know about the native people of Italy comes from Greek and Roman sources. Still, this information, combined with archaeological and linguistic information, gives us some idea about the peoples that once populated the Italian Peninsula. Italy was not isolated from the outside world, and neighboring people had much impact on its population. There were several foreign invasions of Italy during the period leading up to the Roman conquest that had important effects on the people of Italy. First there was the invasion of Alexander I of Epirus in 334 BC, which was followed by that of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 280 BC. Hannibal of Carthage invaded Italy during the Second Punic War (218–203 BC) with the express purpose of convincing Rome’s allies to abandon her. After the war, Rome rearranged its relations with many of the native people of Italy, much influenced by which peoples had remained loyal and which had supported their Carthaginian enemies. The sides different peoples took in these wars had major impacts on their destinies. In 91 BC, many of the peoples of Italy rebelled against Rome in the Social War.
    [Show full text]
  • The Roman Army's Emergence from Its Italian Origins
    CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Carolina Digital Repository THE ROMAN ARMY’S EMERGENCE FROM ITS ITALIAN ORIGINS Patrick Alan Kent A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2012 Approved by: Richard Talbert Nathan Rosenstein Daniel Gargola Fred Naiden Wayne Lee ABSTRACT PATRICK ALAN KENT: The Roman Army’s Emergence from its Italian Origins (Under the direction of Prof. Richard Talbert) Roman armies in the 4 th century and earlier resembled other Italian armies of the day. By using what limited sources are available concerning early Italian warfare, it is possible to reinterpret the history of the Republic through the changing relationship of the Romans and their Italian allies. An important aspect of early Italian warfare was military cooperation, facilitated by overlapping bonds of formal and informal relationships between communities and individuals. However, there was little in the way of organized allied contingents. Over the 3 rd century and culminating in the Second Punic War, the Romans organized their Italian allies into large conglomerate units that were placed under Roman officers. At the same time, the Romans generally took more direct control of the military resources of their allies as idea of military obligation developed. The integration and subordination of the Italians under increasing Roman domination fundamentally altered their relationships. In the 2 nd century the result was a growing feeling of discontent among the Italians with their position.
    [Show full text]
  • Caesar's Legion: the Epic Saga of Julius Caesar's Elite Tenth Legion
    CAESAR’S LEGION : THE EPIC SAGA OF JULIUS CAESAR’S ELITE TENTH LEGION AND THE ARMIES OF ROME STEPHEN DANDO-COLLINS John Wiley & Sons, Inc. flast.qxd 12/5/01 4:49 PM Page xiv ffirs.qxd 12/5/01 4:47 PM Page i CAESAR’S LEGION : THE EPIC SAGA OF JULIUS CAESAR’S ELITE TENTH LEGION AND THE ARMIES OF ROME STEPHEN DANDO-COLLINS John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Copyright © 2002 by Stephen Dando-Collins. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authoriza- tion through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, email: [email protected]. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. This title is also available in print as ISBN 0-471-09570-2.
    [Show full text]
  • ROMA SURRECTA: Portrait of a Counterinsurgent Power, 216 BC - AD 72
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons CUREJ - College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal College of Arts and Sciences 5-2011 ROMA SURRECTA: Portrait of a Counterinsurgent Power, 216 BC - AD 72 Emerson T. Brooking University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/curej Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, Comparative Politics Commons, Military History Commons, and the Other Political Science Commons Recommended Citation Brooking, Emerson T., "ROMA SURRECTA: Portrait of a Counterinsurgent Power, 216 BC - AD 72" 01 May 2011. CUREJ: College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal, University of Pennsylvania, https://repository.upenn.edu/curej/145. This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/curej/145 For more information, please contact [email protected]. ROMA SURRECTA: Portrait of a Counterinsurgent Power, 216 BC - AD 72 Abstract This study evaluates the military history and practice of the Roman Empire in the context of contemporary counterinsurgency theory. It purports that the majority of Rome’s security challenges fulfill the criteria of insurgency, and that Rome’s responses demonstrate counterinsurgency proficiency. These assertions are proven by means of an extensive investigation of the grand strategic, military, and cultural aspects of the Roman state. Fourteen instances of likely insurgency are identified and examined, permitting the application of broad theoretical precepts
    [Show full text]
  • Ancient History, Rome
    4rome.qxd 4/14/04 2:33 AM Page 125 Ancient Rome Lesson 11 Rome: Republic to Empire OBJECTIVES Overview This lesson traces the history of Rome from its founding Students will be able to: myths through its kings, the republic, and the end of the republic. First, students hold a discussion on what a dictator • Explain the founding is. Then they read and discuss an article on the beginning of myths of Rome. Rome, the Roman Republic, and its transformation into an • Identify Cincinnatus, empire. Finally, in small groups, students role play members Julius Caesar, Cicero, and of a congressional committee deciding on whether the U.S. Augustus. Constitution should be amended to give the president greater • Describe the government powers in an emergency. of the Roman Republic, the checks on it, and its use of dictators. • Express a reasoned opin- STANDARDS ADDRESSED ion on whether the United States should adopt an California History–Social Science Standard 6.7: Students amendment to grant the analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, president greater powers and social structures during the development of Rome. in an emergency. (1) Identify the location and describe the rise of the Roman Republic, including the importance of such mythi- cal and historical figures as Aeneas, Romulus and Remus, PREPARATION Cincinnatus, Julius Caesar, and Cicero. (2) Describe the government of the Roman Republic and its significance Handout 11A: Timeline of (e.g., written constitution and tripartite government, Ancient Rome—1 per student checks and balances, civic duty). Handout 11B: Map of the (4) Discuss the influence of Julius Caesar and Augustus in Roman Empire—1 per student Rome’s transition from republic to empire.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Western Perceptions of Eastern Romans Undergraduate Research
    1 Western Perceptions of Eastern Romans Undergraduate Research Thesis Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduation with honors research distinction in Classics in the undergraduate colleges of The Ohio State University By Kaelyn McAdams The Ohio State University April 2017 Project Advisor: Professor Anthony Kaldellis, Department of Classics Chapters Introduction 2 Issues of Roman Identity: Western Perceptions of Eastern Romans 2 Claudian: In Eutropium 3 Context 3 In Eutropium 4 Conclusion 10 Sidonius Apollinaris: Panegyric on Anthemius 11 Context 11 The Panegyric for Anthemius 13 Conclusion 18 Cassiodorus: The Variae 20 Context 20 Cassiodorus and the Variae 21 The Variae: Looking Deeper 22 Conclusion 31 Procopius: On the Outside Looking In 34 Context 34 Procopius’ Wars of Justinian 35 Conclusion 44 Wrapping Up 46 Conclusion 46 Bibliography 49 2 Introduction Issues of Roman Identity: Western Perceptions of Eastern Romans This thesis seeks to explore and interpret perceptions of eastern Romans from Latin political rhetoric produced by western authors. The study begins in 395 CE after the death of Theodosius, and continues through the reign of Justinian. The two sections provided below confront perceptions of eastern Romans through the authors Claudian and Sidonius. Although Claudian and Sidonius are writing at different time periods, they are both writing at a time when the Roman emperors are puppets for semi-barbaric leaders. Roman authors propagate to their audience that Roman culture continues to dominate, and particularly that western Romans are superior to even the eastern Romans. Claudian proclaims western dominance by asserted that the east is made effeminate by Eutropius, and therefore the eastern Romans defaulted to being subordinate to masculine westerners due to gender stereotypes.
    [Show full text]
  • Theoderic the Great Vs. Boethius: Tensions in Italy in the Late 5Th and Early 6Th
    Theoderic the Great vs. Boethius: Tensions in Italy in the Late 5th and Early 6th Centuries By Sarah V. Coelho Senior Seminar HST 499W June 6, 2008 Primary Reader: Dr. Benedict Lowe Secondary Reader: Dr. David Doellinger Course Instructor: Dr. David Doellinger History Department Western Oregon University Coelho 2 Theoderic the Great vs. Boethius: Tensions in Italy in the Late 5th and Early 6th Centuries In 524AD the Roman senator Boethius was executed for committing treason against Theoderic the Great, the ruling gothic king in Italy. Boethius was never given a trial, and the charge of treason may have been an exaggeration of what actually happened. The charges levied against Boethius were never actually given in a detailed account; they have merely been hearsay on the part of historians throughout the ages. The reasoning behind the fall of Boethius has been told in a variety of accounts giving various reasons for the downfall of the friendship between the gothic king and the roman senator. There were three major reasons causing tension in Italy during this time which were; the relations between the Goths and the Romans, differences in the two main religions in Italy; Arianism and Catholicism, and Theoderic’s relationship with the Romans in Italy and Constantinople. Each of these reasons plays a part in Theoderic’s decision to arrest and execute Boethius without trial. Because Theoderic was a Goth and Boethius was a Roman Senator, the relationships between the Goths and Romans were divided among those loyal to either the gothic monarchy or the roman senate. Doubtless the Romans had reason to dislike the Goths.
    [Show full text]
  • Polybius and Livy on the Allies in the Roman Army
    POLYBIUS AND LIVY ON THE ALLIES IN THE ROMAN ARMY Paul Erdkamp* From the fourth or third century until the beginning of the rst century bc, Rome’s armies were also the armies of her allies. The socii and nomen Latinum raised at least half of the soldiers that fought wars for Rome. The Italic allies were clearly distinguished from the non-Italic troops, such as Cretan archers or Numidian horsemen, by the fact that they were governed by the formula togatorum. This can be concluded from their ‘de nition’ in the lex agraria from 111 bc: socii nominisve Latini quibus ex formula togatorum milites in terra Italia imperare solent. The formula togatorum is seen as a de ning element, distinguishing the Latin and Italic peoples from Rome’s overseas allies. Although in the second century bc a con- sciousness of Italy as a political and cultural unity gradually emerged, it was still referred to as a military alliance of Roman citizens and allies at the end of that century.1 The beginnings of this system remain in the dark, due to the inadequacies of our sources. The foedus Cassianum between Rome and the Latin League (traditionally dated to 493 bc) supposedly established a federal army under Roman command, but next to nothing is known about its functioning. The participation of the allied peoples was based on the treaties between their communities and Rome. The position of the Latin colonies was slightly different, because their obligations were probably based on the lex coloniae governing each Latin colony.2 We may assume that the role of the allies was re-de ned * I wish to thank John Rich, Luuk de Ligt and Simon Northwood for their many valuable comments.
    [Show full text]