DOCSLIB.ORG

Problematic Smartphone Use, Screen Time and Chronotype Correlations in University Students

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Problematic Smartphone Use, Screen Time and Chronotype Correlations in University Students Research Article European Addiction Eur Addict Res Received: September 5, 2019 Research DOI: 10.1159/000506738 Accepted: February 21, 2020 Published online: March 13, 2020 Problematic Smartphone Use, Screen Time and Chronotype Correlations in University Students a a b a Pavle Randjelovic Nenad Stojiljkovic Niko Radulovic Nikola Stojanovic c Ivan Ilic a b Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Nis, Niš, Serbia; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of c Science and Mathematics, University of Nis, Niš, Serbia; Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Nis, Niš, Serbia Keywords type. Those students spent significantly more time on their Students · Chronotype · Screen time · Problematic phones compared to the non-addicted ones. There was no smartphone use statistically significant difference between the number of male and female students with problematic smartphone use. The best predictors of problematic smartphone use were Abstract longer daily smartphone screen time and evening chrono- Background: Besides numerous advantages and commodi- type personality. Conclusions: The results of our study ties offered by smartphones, there are obvious unhealthy ef- showed that a significant number of students of medicine fects. The global trend of an increase in the frequency of us- showed problematic smartphone use. There was a strong age of smartphones, that is, prolonged screen time, is close- correlation between extensive screen time and the level of ly related to problematic smartphone use. The aim of our problematic smartphone use in the studied population. study was to measure the level of problematic smartphone © 2020 S. Karger AG, Basel use in a student population through the assessment of the smartphone screen time and the determination of the stu- dent chronotype, as well as through the correlation between Introduction these variables. Methods: The participants were students of medicine of both sexes. Problematic smartphone use was In 1997, the term smartphone was introduced by the measured by the short version of the Smartphone Addiction manufacturer Ericsson to point out the advanced features Scale. Smartphone screen time was assessed by the free An- of a new generation of mobile phones [1]. Ever since, the droid application Quality Time. Chronotype was established smartphones are becoming irreplaceable in an everyday by the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire. Results: Al- life and are offering a wide spectrum of applications for most one quarter (22.7%) of students involved in our study news, entertainment, communications, and education. could be classified as being “smartphone-addicted”. The stu- Smartphones have touchscreens, Internet connection, dents with problematic smartphone use more frequently possibility to add new applications, and other interesting (statistical significance) belonged to the evening chrono- functions such as a digital camera, GPS navigation, and a © 2020 S. Karger AG, Basel Pavle Randjelovic Department of Physiology Faculty of Medicine, University of Niš E-Mail [email protected] Bulevar Dr Zorana Djindjica 81, 18000 Niš (Serbia) www.karger.com/ear E-Mail pavleus @ gmail.com Downloaded by: National Univ. of Singapore 137.132.123.69 - 3/15/2020 4:41:49 PM music player. Besides numerous advantages and commod- Chronotype refers to the preference for sleep-wake ities offered by smartphones, there are obvious unhealthy timing: for example, morning types go to bed, get up, and effects related to their usage. Some examples of such un- experience peak alertness and performance earlier in the wanted effects are neck pain syndrome [2] or traffic acci- day than do evening types [12]. Individual circadian type dents [3]. Recent studies showed that increased screen time can be clustered into 3 categories as “morning type”, “in- is connected to the sleep disturbances and depression [4]. termediate type”, and “evening type” with the normal dis- Also, the global trend of the rise in the frequency of usage tribution around the middle [13]. of smartphones, termed as “screen time”, is closely related to problematic smartphone use [5]. Lin et al. [6] showed Aim of the Study that problematic smartphone use has similar aspects to The aim of our study was to measure the level of prob- substance addiction. The term “smartphone addiction” is lematic smartphone use in a student population and the not an official disorder and so it is recommended to use the screen time of smartphones and to determine the chro- term problematic smartphone use. The usage of the word notype of the students. Also, the significance of the cor- addiction in the context of mobile phone overuse is also relation between studied variables was assessed. problematic due to stigmatization of users [7]. When we talk about mobile phones, the problematic smartphone use could start when usual behavior, such as Material and Methods owning a mobile phone for communication or security reasons, starts to produce negative consequences and the The experimental proposal followed the principles suggested in user becomes increasingly addicted [8]. Owning a mobile the 2013 Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the local phone for primary purposes becomes secondary and the Ethical Committee. The study was carried out at the Faculty of Med- owner starts to use his phone for entertainment reasons icine, University of Niš (Serbia) during March 2018. The partici- pants were second-year students of medicine, 20–22 years of age, of solely. Over time, a smartphone user could develop pro- both sexes. The study was based on simple random sampling. The gressively dangerous behavior, such as texting while driv- involvement in the study was strictly on a voluntary basis and anon- ing a car, and in the end, the person reaches a point where ymous. Before the commencement of the study, all participants he cannot control smartphone usage. The addiction pro- were informed about the study design. All enrolled students signed cess differentiates the need and desire. In other words, a an informed consent document. The students could drop out of the study at any moment without any consequence to them. The inclu- smartphone user starts with the desire to use his phone sion criteria were having and using an Android-based mobile and ends up feeling the need to use it. This overlapping phone. The exclusion criteria were usage of sedative medications or point is showing the transition from safe behavior, being psychoactive substances, the existence of recent stressful situations, pleasant with minor unhealthy effects, to addictive be- and other sleep-interfering reasons. Primary outcomes of the study havior, where the urge (physical and/or mental) replaced were the problematic smartphone use level, smartphone screen time, screen unlock number, and chronotype score. the desire as a motivation factor. It is believed that this Problematic smartphone use was measured by the short ver- type of problematic smartphone use uses the same neural sion of the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS-SV) [14]. This as- pathways involved in substance use disorder [9]. sessment tool was created in South Korea and published in the The constant use of mobile phone gives rise to the con- English language in 2013. It has 10 questions with answers on a cept of Nomophobia (No-Mobile-Phobia), which is the scale from 1 (completely agree) to 6 (completely disagree). The to- tal score could range from 10 to 60, with higher values indicating fear of losing contact with a mobile phone [10]. Griffiths higher addiction from a smartphone. The questionnaire showed [10] suggests that everything that produces a feeling of ex- good validity and internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha 0.91). citement can cause an addiction. Having that in mind, the The authors of SAS-SV proposed cutoff values for the prediction cause of problematic smartphone use could be the fact that of problematic smartphone use as 31 for males and 33 for females. the usage of smartphones brings a feeling of excitement. Smartphone screen time and screen unlock number were as- sessed by the free Android application Quality Time [15]. The data So if a certain type of behavior results in a sense of excite- were collected for 14 consecutive days, and the average for 14 days ment or helps to reduce negative or unpleasant feelings, was calculated for each participant and those values were used for then such behavior is intensified and the person continues further analysis. with it for pleasure or to reduce the unpleasant situation. Chronotype was assessed by the Morningness-Eveningness Problematic smartphone use gives a sense of pleasure to Questionnaire (MEQ) [16], a self-rating questionnaire that con- sists of 19 items with a total score ranging from 16 to 86. Higher consumers as a result of usage and relieves them from anx- scores indicate greater morningness, while lower scores indicate iety or stress [11]. Therefore, it could be assumed that this more evening type. very scenario causes addiction-like processes. The average grade was self-reported by study participants. 2 Eur Addict Res Randjelovic/Stojiljkovic/Radulovic/ DOI: 10.1159/000506738 Stojanovic/Ilic Downloaded by: National Univ. of Singapore 137.132.123.69 - 3/15/2020 4:41:49 PM Table 1. Comparison of BMI, average grade, MEQ score, smartphone screen time, and screen unlocks between smartphone-addicted and non-addicted students Addicted Non-addicted p value d BMI 21.88±3.22 21.94±3.13 0.95 0.019 Average grade 8.65±0.88 8.64±0.62 0.97 0.013 MEQ score 44.05±6.15 48.41±10.29 0.042 0.514 Smartphone screen time, min 301.5±103.4 208.7±133.6 0.011 0.777 Screen unlocks, n 177.2±67.25 115.8±79.74 0.006 0.832 Values are represented as mean ± SD. BMI, body mass index; MEQ, Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire. The body mass index (BMI) was calculated from body classifying students to those with and without problem- weight and height measured by standard equipment by one of the atic smartphone use, 31 points for males and 33 for fe- authors.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Nomophobia: Is the Fear of Being Without a Smartphone Associated with Problematic Use?
    International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Article Nomophobia: Is the Fear of Being without a Smartphone Associated with Problematic Use? Fareed Kaviani 1,* , Brady Robards 2 , Kristie L. Young 3 and Sjaan Koppel 3 1 Monash Sustainable Development Institute, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia 2 School of Social Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia; [email protected] 3 Monash University Accident Research Centre, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia; [email protected] (K.L.Y.); [email protected] (S.K.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 29 June 2020; Accepted: 17 August 2020; Published: 19 August 2020 Abstract: Mobile phones are changing behaviour, relationships, communication and the dynamics of physical environments. As such, reliance on the device for everyday activities has increased. Consequently, “nomophobia”, defined as the fear of being without one’s mobile phone, has emerged as a new phobia. The current study aimed to determine if nomophobia can increase the likelihood of problematic dependent, prohibited and dangerous mobile phone use. The sample comprised 2838 participants (males n = 1337 females n = 1501) recruited from various online platforms. The instrument used to measure nomophobia was the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q), while problematic mobile phone use was measured using the Problematic Mobile Phone Use Questionnaire (PMPUQ-R). The findings revealed a strong positive correlation between nomophobia and all three problematic use factors. In addition to nomophobia, regression models revealed younger age and more time spent on a mobile phone per day significantly increased problematic dependency, prohibited use and dangerous use. Males were more likely to engage in prohibited and dangerous use, while no significant gender differences were found in dependent use.
    [Show full text]
  • Too Much Screen Time?
    O YOU WORRY about the amount of time your child with ADHD spends playing videogames? Does your son scream D when you try to get him o the computer? Is your daughter honest about her online activities? Does trying to limit your child’s screen time bring about World War III? Just how much screen time is too much? What eect is all of this technology having on your child? e rapid explosion of digital technology in the past een years has led to unprecedented opportunities and challenges for us all. is is particularly true for people with ADHD, who tend to be attracted to the Internet, digital media, and videogames like moths to a bright light. too According to a 2013 policy statement from the American Acad- emy of Pediatrics, ● Children aged eight to ten spend nearly eight hours a day on media. ● Older children and teens spend more than eleven hours a day on much media. ● Seventy-one percent of children have a TV or Internet device in their room. ● One-third of teens send more than a hundred texts per day (largely replacing phone use). screen ● Our children spend more time with media than in school. ● Yet, two-thirds of children and teens say that their parents have no media rules. is technology attraction spills over into the classroom, where 62 percent of iGeneration students state that while in class they check their digital devices more frequently than every een minutes. And time? it’s not just children who are so hooked on their screens: One out of three adults say that they check their mobile device before getting out of bed in the morning.
    [Show full text]
  • Screen Time Associated with Health Behaviors and Outcomes in Adolescents
    Screen Time Associated with Health Behaviors and Outcomes in Adolescents Vincent Busch, MSc; Lieke Ananda Manders, MSc; Johannes Rob Josephus de Leeuw, PhD Objectives: To study the associations problems and being overweight. Conclu- of screen time (Internet / video games / sions: Screen time was of significant im- television) with health-related behaviors portance to adolescent health. Behavioral and outcomes in adolescents. Methods: interrelatedness caused significant con- Regression analyses were performed to founding in the studied relations when assess the associations of screen time behaviors were analyzed separately com- with several health-related behaviors and pared to a multi-behavioral approach, outcomes in 2425 Dutch adolescents. Re- which speaks for more multi-behavioral sults: Screen time was associated with analyses in future studies. bullying, being bullied, less physical ac- Key words: screen time, health behav- tivity, skipping school, alcohol use and ior, overweight, psychosocial problems, unhealthy eating habits. Compulsive and adolescent excessive screen times were associated Am J Health Behav. 2013;37(6):819-830 respectively with several psychosocial DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.37.6.11 ith the advance of technology, time spent conduct disorder.10-12 In particular, self-efficacy is on television, Internet and video games is an aspect receiving increasing attention among in- Wincreasing among today’s youth.1-3 Televi- terventions in the field of adolescent health promo- sion viewing, Internet use and video game
    [Show full text]
  • Children and Screen Time: Research Overview
    Children and Screen Time: Research Overview ACM Interactivity Pasadena, CA May 3, 2017 Scott Burg Rockman et al Screen Time – Historical Context “The modern world has “Disrupting the balance “Ruining conversation overwhelmed people of young children’s minds.” and the pattern of family living.” with information that is confusing and harmful to the mind.” Headlines – How bad is it? • Screen Addiction Is Taking a Toll on Children, New York Times, 7/6/15 • Screen time Is Making Kids, Moody, Crazy and Lazy, Psychology Today, 8/18/15 • TECHNOLOGY ADDICTION: Concern, Controversy, Finding Balance, Common Sense Media, 5/3/16 • Electronic media keeping kids from communicating with parents, Science Daily, 5/27/16 Is our screen-time anxiety more detrimental than screen time? Washington Post, 5/30/16 • It’s ‘digital heroin’: How screens turn kids into psychotic junkies, Dr. Nicholas Kardaras, New York Post, 8/17/16 Headlines – Or is it that bad ? • Children benefit from the right kind of screen time, New Scientist, 3/26/14 • Research says screen time can be good for your kids, Forbes, 7/17/13 • Screen time for kids is probably fine, FiveThirtyEight, 6/18/15 • Sorry Kate Winslet, some screen time can be good for kids, The Daily Telegraph, 11/4/15 • Parents: Reject technology shame, The Atlantic, 11/4/15 Some statistics • Average child spends 3 hours per day watching television and 5-7 hours total on screens (NIMH). • The average age a child first watched a television in the 1970’s was 4 years; in 2012, it was 4 months (Rideout, V.
    [Show full text]
  • Changing Behaviour: Children, Adolescents and Screen Use
    The British Psychological Society Promoting excellence in psychology Changing behaviour: Children, adolescents and screen use Adam Galpin and Gemma Taylor Recommendations ■■ Encouraging certain media behaviours, such as co-use and active goal-directed use, can help young people gain the most from digital media. ■■ Minimise media use before bed, and encourage children to experience a mix of screen-based and non-screen-based activities. ■■ Parents and carers should share and discuss media activities with their children. ■■ Studies should be designed which can identify causality (longitudinal studies and experimental manipulations if appropriate) and they should allow for identification of mediating and moderating factors. ■■ More qualitative methods, such as interviews, ethnography and participatory design, should be employed with young people to understand their media practices and what they themselves seek from their digital experiences. ■■ Designers/producers and developmental psychologists should be encouraged to collaborate to create and evaluate age-appropriate products/content. ■■ The Department of Digital, Culture, Media and Sport should focus on helping children and families gain the most from the digital world. www.bps.org.uk/behaviourchange The background Digital media is embedded in our 21st century society and with recent technological advancements, the number of opportunities to be exposed to digital media has increased. It is therefore not surprising that children’s screen use is increasing with 5- to 15-year-olds using digital
    [Show full text]
  • Screen Time: Impact and Guidelines for All Ages
    Screen Time: Impact and Guidelines for All Ages Once a child is over the age of two, allowing a limited amount of screen time is appropriate. Playing an hour max per day can help developing brains increase coordination, hone quick reactions, and even sharpen language skills. As with all the other toys and tools available to your developing child, smartphone use should stay in moderation, and never stand in for human interaction or real-world face time. Screen use is like eating smoking and eating, early intervention, parent modeling and setting limits, can prevent addiction. The US Department of Health and Human Services estimates that American children spend a whopping seven hours a day in front of electronic media. Other statistics reveal that kids as young as two regularly play iPad games and have playroom toys that involve touch screens. Researchers have shown that the frontal lobe development is actually being retarded by extended use of screen time. This is the part of the brain which is responsible for the child’s attention span, controlling emotions and empathic skills. A child’s brain is growing at an enormous rate and in the first year of life, it actually grows by 300%. This is the time when real world play is extremely important for development. Electronic play does not allow a child to experience real dimension, movement which encourages motor skills, tactile exploration. This type of play cannot be replaced with screen play. Too much screen time too soon limits the development process of emerging skills such as focus, concentration, building vocabulary, building attention, reading other’s emotions and attitudes…these are all abilities can that be harmed with too much video stimuli.
    [Show full text]
  • Reappraisal of Video Game Addiction for the Digital Future
    Loading… The Journal of the Canadian Game Studies Association Vol 12(19): 1-17 http://loading.gamestudies.ca Reappraisal of Video Game Addiction for the Digital Future Jiow Hee Jhee Singapore Institute of Technology [email protected] Lye Qin Ting Singapore Institute of Technology [email protected] Kenneth Woo Singapore Institute of Technology [email protected] Abstract The rapid expansion of video gaming in an internet-using society has brought forth a renewed focus on the phenomenon of video game addiction. Despite this, there remains a crucial absence of consensus over the diagnostic criteria of video game addiction. Currently, both psychological and behavioral interventions take screen time as an indicator of video game addiction, however, these interventions are challenged by substantial literature that increasingly disputes time as a predictor of addiction. To build onto the work that has been done, this paper argues that time is an inadequate criterion in which to ascertain video game addiction, proposing that a physiological-based criteria be used in conjunction with contextualized understandings of video game dynamics to approach video game addiction. This realignment is all the more pressing as video games begin a transition from a leisure activity to its current orientation as a viable career option. Author Keywords Addiction; Video Games; Screen Time Introduction The phenomenon of video game addiction is one that plagues a segment of internet-using society. Through barometers assessing psychological inclinations, social life exposure, gaming habits and an assortment of other factors, many have been deemed to be suffering from this condition (Király, Nagygyörgy, Griffiths, & Demetrovics, 2014; Shaffer et al., 2004).
    [Show full text]
  • Children & Young People's Mental Health in the Digital
    Children & Young People’s Mental Health in the Digital Age Shaping the Future Children & Young People’s Mental Health in the Digital Age Shaping the Future Contents What the evidence says 4 Recommendations 10 References 14 lmost half of the world is connected to the internet, and in countries that are members of the OECD almost everyone is online (Echazarra, 2018[1]). For chil- dren and young people today, being online and using social media have become an integral part of their lives. In 2015, a typical 15-year-old from a country that is a member of the OECD had been using the internet since age 10 and spent Amore than two hours every weekday online after school, and more than three hours on a weekend day (OECD, 2017[2]). This reliance on digital technology has fuelled concerns from parents, teachers, gov- ernments and young people themselves that digital technologies and social media are exacerbating feelings of anxiety and depression, disturbing sleep patterns, leading to cyber-bullying and distorting body image. In response to these and other concerns, some countries are taking action. Legislation prevents Korean children from playing online games that require a resident registration number between midnight and 6am without parental permission; while the Government of the United Kingdom is reviewing how so- cial media affect children’s wellbeing, as well as how much screen time is healthy. As the mass availability and use of digital technologies is a relatively recent phenomenon, there is limited hard evidence available to date on whether digital technologies, including social media, cause mental health problems in children and young people.
    [Show full text]
  • Loneliness Unlocked: Associations with Smartphone Use and Personality
    Western University Scholarship@Western Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository 6-15-2021 9:30 AM Loneliness Unlocked: Associations with Smartphone Use and Personality Kristi J. Baerg MacDonald, The University of Western Ontario Supervisor: Schermer, Julie A., The University of Western Ontario : Saklofske, Donald H., The University of Western Ontario A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the Master of Science degree in Psychology © Kristi J. Baerg MacDonald 2021 Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd Part of the Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Baerg MacDonald, Kristi J., "Loneliness Unlocked: Associations with Smartphone Use and Personality" (2021). Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. 7829. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/7829 This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarship@Western. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository by an authorized administrator of Scholarship@Western. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Abstract Communication and relationships have been dramatically altered because of the rapid adoption of the smartphone in just over a decade. The present study examined loneliness, facets of neuroticism, communication apprehension, emotional support, and nomophobia with individual differences in smartphone use. In addition, the research also looked at differences in loneliness and smartphone use as a result of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Participants (302 women and 290 men) completed a survey of the variables and reported smartphone data over two years. The sample was also divided into pre-COVID-19 (N = 226) and during-COVID-19 (N = 251).
    [Show full text]
  • A Case Study on Reducing Children's Screen Time
    http://wje.sciedupress.com World Journal of Education Vol. 8, No. 1; 2018 A Case Study on Reducing Children’s Screen Time: The Project of Screen Free Week Hatice Gözde Ertürk Kara1,* 1Faculty of Education, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey *Correspondence: Faculty of Education, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey. E-mail: [email protected] Received: January 31, 2018 Accepted: February 10, 2018 Online Published: February 25, 2018 doi:10.5430/wje.v8n1p100 URL: https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v8n1p100 Abstract The current study aims to direct children to alternative activities within a week period by applying the project of screen free week to voluntary families. The ultimate aim of the study is to reduce children’s screen time. The instrumental case study method; one of the qualitative research methods, was employed. Five children attending the preschool class of an elementary school in the Kartal district of İstanbul and their families voluntarily participating in the project of screen free week constituted the study group in the current research. Documents and structured interview form were used to collect data. The document used to collect data is the weekly chart in which the families noted the activities they performed during the week spent without screen. The structured interview form was developed by the researcher by reviewing the related literature. Content analysis was conducted on the data collected in the current research. As a result of the families’ participation in the project of screen free week, they recognized the importance of family-child interaction, that their children are happier when they spend time with them, that they can decide on programs to be watched and games to be played together with their children and that this decision should not be taken as a rule rather as a routine of the family.
    [Show full text]
  • A Review of Digital Addiction: a Call for Safety Education
    Journal of Education and e-Learning Research ISSN: 2410-9991 Vol. 3, No. 1, 17-22, 2016 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/JEELR A Review of Digital Addiction: A Call for Safety Education 1 1,2 Joseph, Rugai Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of 2 Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Joy-Telu Hamiliton-Ekeke Bayelsa State, Nigeria. ( Corresponding Author) Abstract In reviewing digital addiction, this paper recognized that digital technology has been useful in various spheres of life and the reach is undeniable, with an “average” user spending long hours on their phone or online daily. These hours increase as new applications are released by various technological companies. The demands of modern lifestyles have also lead to heavy dependence on various digital technologies for information, inter-personal relationships, entertainment and even economic transactions. There is no doubt that the over dependence on digital technology may result in addiction. Digital addiction is similar to other addictions; those suffering from it exhibit compulsive behaviour and use the virtual fantasy world as a substitution for real-life human connection. Although all of its true effects are not known, the impacts on an addicted users‟ life are serious and may led to social isolation, anxiety, depression, immune system disruption, brain damage and even death, Indeed, we are all at the receiving end of digital technology and deserve adequate safeguards and protections against the attendant risks of this technological revolution. In recommendations, health and safety education, time restriction and constant monitoring should be employed to safeguards healthy ways of using digital technology. Keywords: Addiction, Digital, Health, Safety, Technology.
    [Show full text]
  • Digital Detox - Addressing the Issue of Screen Addiction in Millennials Tyler M
    East Tennessee State University Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University Undergraduate Honors Theses Student Works 5-2019 Digital Detox - Addressing the Issue of Screen Addiction in Millennials Tyler M. Hicks East Tennessee State University Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.etsu.edu/honors Part of the Graphic Design Commons Recommended Citation Hicks, Tyler M., "Digital Detox - Addressing the Issue of Screen Addiction in Millennials" (2019). Undergraduate Honors Theses. Paper 513. https://dc.etsu.edu/honors/513 This Honors Thesis - Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Works at Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Undergraduate Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Hicks i TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 The Origin Story .......................................................................................................................... 1 Purpose .......................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]