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Constructing a Collective Memory: Monuments Commemorating Warrior Kings in Limpopo Province, South Africa

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Constructing a Collective Memory: Monuments Commemorating Warrior Kings in Limpopo Province, South Africa CONSTRUCTING A COLLECTIVE MEMORY: MONUMENTS COMMEMORATING WARRIOR KINGS IN LIMPOPO PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA by MAHUNELE THOTSE A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR PHILOSOPHIAE (CULTURAL HISTORY) in the Department of Historical and Heritage Studies at the University of Pretoria Faculty of Humanities Supervisor: Dr. J.E.H. Grobler December 2014 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii FOREWORD x ABSTRACT xiii CHAPTER ONE: CONTEXTUALIZATION 1.1 Introduction and rationale of the thesis 1 1.2 Relationship between liberation struggles and commemorations 3 1.3 Monuments as social representations of Limpopo Province‘s history 6 1.4 Constructing collective memory in Limpopo Province 12 1.5 Context 19 1.6 Aims and objectives 21 1.7 Theoretical framework and methodology 22 1.8 Literature review 28 1.9 Chapter breakdown 39 CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPTUALIZING WARRIOR KINGS COMMEMORATIVE MONUMENTS IN LIMPOPO PROVINCE 2.1 Introduction 42 2.2 Conceptualisation of the project 45 2.3 Fields of memory: burial grounds or battlefields 49 2.4 Sculpting 57 2.5 Early challenges confronting the Project Team 61 2.6 Symbolism 69 CHAPTER THREE: ‘WARS OF RESISTANCE AGAINST COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISM’ IN LIMPOPO PROVINCE – A COLLECTIVE? 3.1 Introduction 72 3.2 Kings and the ‗wars of resistance‘: 73 3.2.1 Kgoši Mokopane 73 3.2.2 Kgošikgolo Sekhukhune 84 ii 3.2.3 Khosikhulu Makhado 97 3.2.4 Kgoši Makgoba 107 3.2.5 Hosinkulu Ngungunhane 114 3.2.6 Kgoši Malebogo 125 3.3 The collective and the need for a memory 136 CHAPTER FOUR: SCULPTURAL IMAGES OF THE WARRIOR KINGS MONUMENTS – AN ANALYSIS OF THE SCULPTORS’ DESIGNS 4.1 Introduction 139 4.2 Designs 140 4.3 Positioning 144 4.4 Location 147 4.5 Warrior kings statues 4.5.1 Kgošikgolo Sekhukhune‘s statue 148 4.5.2 Khosikhulu Makhado‘s statue 149 4.5.3 Kgoši Malebogo‘s statue 151 4.5.4 Hosinkulu Ngungunhane‘s statue 153 4.5.5 Kgoši Mokopane‘s memorial tombstone 154 4.5.6 Kgoši Makgoba‘s statue 159 4.6 The Ubuntu Memorial Monument 161 4.7 Functions and form 165 CHAPTER FIVE: ‘WARS OF RESISTANCE AGAINST COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISM’ IN LIMPOPO PROVINCE – COLLECTIVE MEMORY OR SHARED EXPERIENCES? 5.1 Introduction 172 5.2 Constituting collective memories and shared experiences 180 5.3 Collective inscriptions of shared experiences 188 5.4 Political iconography in Limpopo Province 195 CHAPTER SIX: UNVEILING AND DEDICATION OF WARRIOR KINGS MONUMENTS 6.1 Introduction 198 6.2 Timing of the commemorations 198 iii 6.3 Unveiling and dedication as political ritual 200 6.4 Premier Sello Moloto‘s commemorative speeches as epideictic addresses 203 6.4.1 Background to Premier Moloto‘s addresses 204 6.4.2 Finding an acceptable perspective 204 6.4.3 The speeches 6.4.3.1 Speech during unveiling of Kgošikgolo Sekhukhune‘s statue 206 6.4.3.2 Speech during unveiling of Khosikhulu Makhado‘s statue 208 6.4.3.3 Speech during unveiling of Kgoši Malebogo‘s statue 210 6.4.4 Analysis of the speeches 212 6.4.4.1 Discussion 213 6.4.4.2 Excerpts from the speeches 214 6.5 Commemorative ceremonies 216 CHAPTER SEVEN: FINAL THOUGHTS AND CONCLUSION 222 SOURCES 231 iv PHOTOGRAPHS Page 1. Former Lebowa Prime Minister Dr. C.N. Phatudi‘s statue 50 2. Archaeological remains found on the northern foot of Mosego, Tjate 51 3. (a) The ancestors must be informed at the sacred leadwood tree 53 (b) Woman engaged in salt harvesting activities 53 4. Declaration of sites as provincial heritage sites 56 5. Image of the painted statue 63 6. Picture of Makhado statue with a bullet hole in the head 63 7. The fibreglass statue of Hosinkulu Ngungunhane that sculptor Harry Johnson unveiled at Giyani before replacing it with a bronze statue 66 8. The monument at Moorddrift 81 9. Kgošikgolo Sekhukhune 84 10. Kgoši Makgoba‘s severed head 113 11. Kgošikgolo Sekhukhune‘s statue 148 12. Khosikhulu Makhado‘s statue 150 13. Kgoši Malebogo‘s statue 151 14. Photos on how a statue is made 152 15. Hosinkulu Ngungunhane‘s statue 153 16. Piet Makapaan 155 17. Monument erected in memory of Kgoši Mokopane of the Kekana Ndebele 156 18. A tombstone commemorating Kgoši Mokopane at his gravesite 157 19. Heritage Month‘s Programme [2005] of the Limpopo Province. 158 20. Bust of Kgoši Makgoba commissioned by well-meaning local white businessmen at the Magoebaskloof Hotel 160 21. The Ubuntu Memorial Monument in Musina 161 22. Draft initial design of the half-moon Ubuntu Memorial Monument with labels depicting original religious ideas. 163 23. The CEO of the NHC, Adv. Sonwabile Mancotywa and Premier Sello Moloto handing the Ubuntu Award to the acting ambassador for Cuba, Mr Enrique Orta. DSAC MEC, Joyce Mashamba is looking on. 164 24. Signboard of Tjate Heritage Site. 168 25. (a) Information Centre at Louis Trichardt where Khosikhulu Makhado‘s statue is located and (b) Information Centre at Giyani where v Hosinkulu Ngungunhane‘s statue is located. 169 26. Bahananwa Tribal Offices at the back of Kgoši Malebogo‘s statue. 170 27. Wall of Remembrance at the Freedom Park on which people who fought the wars of resistance would be honoured. 171 28. Rain Queen Modjadji. 174 29. Inscription for Kgošikgolo Sekhukhune‘s statue. 190 30. Inscription for Khosikhulu Makhado‘s statue. 191 31. Inscription for Kgoši Malebogo‘s statue. 192 32. Inscription for Hosinkulu Ngungunhane. 195 33. Complimentary copy of the Speeches of the Premier given to the researcher. 203 34. Some cultural dance groups. 218 35. Performing the cleansing ceremony. 219 vi MAPS Page 1. Map of the approximate location of Kgoši Mokopane‘s territory. 77 2. Map of Limpopo Province showing all the District Municipalities. 176 vii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ANC African National Congress ANCYL African National Congress Youth League ASC African Studies Center ASGISA Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative South Africa BMS Berlin Missionary Society CEO Chief Executive Officer CRMP Cultural Resource Management Plans DAC Department of Arts and Culture DSAC Department of Sports, Arts and Culture (Limpopo) EPWP Extended Public Works Programme FRELIMO Mozambique Liberation Front (from the Portuguese Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) GNU Government of National Unity IDP‘s Integrated Development Plans IFP Inkatha Freedom Party JIPSA Joint Initiatives on Priority Skills Acquisition LIHRA Limpopo Heritage Resources Authority MEC Member of the Executive Council NHRA National Heritage Resources Act NMC National Monuments Council PGDP Provincial Growth and Development Plan SAHRA South African Heritage Resources Agency ToR Terms of Reference TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission UM University of Michigan UP University of Pretoria WKM Warrior Kings Monuments ZAR Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The path to the completion of this study has been long and convoluted. During the course of the research and writing, many individuals and institutions have given much needed assistance and encouragement: Dr. Jackie Grobler supervised and directed the study with great skill and energy and has also been a supportive friend. His critical reading of the text provided rich insights. Thanks to him for his unfailing support at all stages of the study. His house had become my third home away from my house and work office. Professor Ray Silverman of the University of Michigan [UM], Ann Arbor, provided valuable mentorship and guidance during the nascent stage of the work and encouraged my inquiry into American commemorative history for comparative purposes. Professor Franz provided wise council and material on the early relationship between the Boers and the indigenous Africans of the Transvaal in the late 1830s and early 1840s as he continued to take interest in my research. I am grateful to the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, for the African Scholarship Exchange Program support that made this study possible. The African Studies Center (ASC) International Institute under the directorship of Professor Kelly Askew provided a much needed six months scholarship (February to July) to the UM, Ann Arbor in 2009 during which I was exposed to rich material on the subject of commemoration and construction of collective memories. The ASC organized that I continued to receive much needed material until February 2014. Kate Christlieb of the interlibrary loan section at Hatcher Library of the UM played a crucial role in ensuring that I received material as expected. Thanks also to the University of Pretoria [UP] for the initial sponsorship that kick started research on this project. In the same vein, my thanks go to Ms Alett Nel, the History Librarian in the Merensky Library of the UP for her consistent assistance. At the University of Leiden, my gratitude goes to Ms Mieneke van der Salm of the Social Sciences Library. I owe special thanks to the families of sculptors Harry Johnson and the late Phil Minnaar for their support and generosity. Harry Johnson shared remembrances of his youth and mother. The Johnson family welcomed me and my wife to their farm and studio in Groblersdal. For at least two days the family hosted us and Harry not only ushered me to his studio, but also exposed me to some of his primary operations, that also informed this study. Both his wife and son shared with us during a braai one evening, the family story that chronicled the history of the sculptor‘s career. Phil Minnaar and his wife also welcomed me to their studio in ix Garsfontein, Pretoria East. The Minnaars also shared not only a family scrapbook that chronicled the history of Phil‘s career, but their friendship as well. I would also like to thank the officials of the Department of Sports, Arts and Culture in Limpopo Province namely Mishack Mulaudzi, Khethowakhe Lithole, Gezani Mabunda, and Derik de Wet, all of whom were working in the heritage unit of the department and were involved with the Warrior Kings project.
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