The Fauna of King Island

Home , Abantiades, Anthela, Anthochaera, Banded lapwing, Brush bronzewing, Common bronzewing

A guide to identification and conservation management

Edited by Richard Donaghey 2003

A guide to identification and conservation management

Edited by Richard Donaghey 2003 Published by: King Island Natural Resource Management Group Inc KIRDO Building, George Street, Currie, King Island PO Box 293, King Island 7256 Ph. (03) 6462 1709 or 6462 1825 Fax (03) 6462 1726 © KINRMG Inc July 2003 ISBN XXXXX XXXXX Written by: Dr Richard W. Barnes, Nature Conservation Branch, Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, GPO Box 44, Hobart, Tasmania 7001. Katie Brown, 6 Dangali Court, Golden Grove SA 5125. Former Waterwatch Coordinator of King Island Natural Resource Management Group Inc. Laurie Cook, Freshwater Systems, 82 Waimea Avenue, Sandy Bay, Tasmania 7005 Dr Peter E. Davies, Freshwater Systems, 82 Waimea Avenue, Sandy Bay, Tasmania 7005 and Research Fellow, School of Zoology, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 5, Hobart, Tasmania 7001. Dr Richard Donaghey, 80 Sawards Road, Myalla, Tasmania 7325. Wyn Jones, PO Box 60, Blackheath, New South Wales 2785. Sarah Lloyd, 999 Denmans Road, Birralee, Tasmania 7303. Dr Peter McQuillan, Centre for Environmental Studies, School of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 78, Hobart, Tasmania 7001. Jim Nelson, 68 Dynans Bridge Road, Weegena, Tasmania 7304. Rodney Walker, Native Fish Conservation, Inland Fisheries Service, PO Box 288, Moonah, Tasmania 7009. Photos: Trevor Waite, Bill Wakefield, Peter Brown, Dave Watts, Rob Blakers, Sally Bryant, Richard Barnes, Peter McQuillan, Nick Mooney and Richard Donaghey. Cover illustrations: Eastern pygmy possum (Dave Watts), green and golden frog (Peter Brown), orange-bellied parrot (Dave Watts) Design and desktop production: Fine Print, GPO Box 1676, Hobart, Tasmania 7001. Printing:

Funded by: The Federal Government’s Natural Heritage Trust Program and the King Island community.

ii Contents

Preface vii

Acknowledgments ix

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Location 1 Climate 1 Landforms 1 Geology 2 Pre-European vegetation 2 Early history and exploration 3 Settlement and development 3 Extinctions of birds on King Island 4 Extinctions of mammals on King Island 4 References 4

Chapter 2 Vegetation on King Island 5 King Island wet eucalypt forest 5 King Island dry eucalypt forest and woodland 7 Swamp forests 8 Coastal grasslands 9 King Island sedge-heath-scrub 10 Coastal heath and scrub 11 Muttonbird rookeries 11 Dry scrub 12 Wet scrub 12 Saltmarsh 13 Wetlands 13 Coastal shores 14 Improved pasture 14 Regenerating cleared land 14 Plantations and shelterbelts 15 References 15

iii Chapter 3 The aquatic fauna of King Island’s streams and wetlands 17 Introduction 17 The fauna 19 Identification of freshwater fish 28 Identification of macroinvertebrates 28 References 28

Chapter 4 Invertebrates on King Island 29 Introduction 29 Historical aspects 29 Immigrant insects 30 Invertebrates in pastures 30 Invertebrates in forests 31 Invertebrates in heathland 32 Invertebrates in sand dunes 32 Invertebrates on sandy coastline 33 Carcasses 33 Conservation status of the invertebrate fauna 34 Habitat requirements for key invertebrates 34 Management and restoration of forests for invertebrates and forest function 34 References 35 Recommended reading 35

Chapter 5 Biogeography and ecology of the vertebrate fauna of King Island 37 Freshwater fish of King Island 37 Amphibians: frogs 37 Reptiles: snakes and lizards 38 Birds 39 Mammals 40 References 42 Appendix 1 Vertebrate fauna of King Island 43

Chapter 6 Fauna of old growth eucalypt forests of King Island 47 Introduction 47 Features of old growth forests 47 The forest canopy 48 Bark 48 Limbs and branches 48 Understorey layers of trees, shrubs and tree ferns 49 Hollows and crevices 51 Logs and fallen branches 52 Ground layer litter and vegetation 53 References 5 iv Chapter 7 Ecology, conservation and management of birds and recovery of threatened species 55 Introduction 55 Birds as indicators 55 The bird indicator project on King Island 56 Numbers, status, population trends and habitat of King Island forest birds 56 Uncommon, rare and threatened birds on the surveys 57 Birds nesting in tree hollows and bank tunnels 63 Birds nesting in large trees 63 Understorey-nesting birds 63 Monitoring waterbirds and forest birds 64 General action to recover uncommon, rare and threatened birds on King Island 64 Recovery of locally extinct birds 65 Management of habitat for fauna with special emphasis on birds 65 General principles of reserve design 66 Ten sustainability guidelines for birds on farms 67 Guidelines for protecting and restoring landscape linkages 67 Revegetation and habitat restoration 67 Conclusion 68 References 69 Appendix 1 List of rare and threatened species and species of high conservation significance on King Island 70 Appendix 2 Action to recover rare and threatened species and species with high conservation significance 71

Chapter 8 Species accounts of King Island vertebrate fauna 75 Freshwater fish 75 Amphibians 83 Reptiles – snakes 86 – lizards 89 Birds 92 Mammals 120 References 123

v List of colour plates

Plate numbers End of chapter Page King Island vegetation 2.1 – 2.12 2 P1

Fish 3.1 – 3.8 3 P3

Invertebrates 4.1 – 4.16 4 P5

Frogs 5.1 – 5.7 5 P7

Reptiles 5.8 – 5.12 5 P8

Mammals 5.11 – 5.23 5 P9

Hole-nesting birds 6.1 – 6.8 6 P11

Nationally threatened bird species and endemic subspecies 7.1 – 7.7 7 P13

Tasmanian endemic common to uncommon forest birds 7.8 – 7.13 5 P14

Rare King Island land birds 8.1 – 8.8 8 P15

Uncommon King Island land birds 8.9 – 8.14 8 P16

Common King Island land birds 8.15 – 8.34 8 P17

Shorebirds, gulls and terns 8.35 –8.50 8 P20

Waterbirds of King Island 8.51 – 8.58 8 P23

vi Preface

he idea of a book for land managers on invertebrate and vertebrate fauna of Tasmania Twas conceived more than five years ago but languished through lack of a publisher. The King Island Natural Resource Management Group provided the opportunity and funding to turn a dream into reality at least for the fauna of King Island. This book provides information on the ecology and conservation management of invertebrate and vertebrate fauna of terrestrial and freshwater habitats of King Island. The book is a companion volume to The native vegetation of King Island, Bass Strait, the King Island Flora – a field guide and the Field guide to Tasmanian birds. We intended to write a book that served as a guide to fauna identification and management and distribute it to all land owners and managers of King Island and land management agencies so it had to be written in a readable style. Most of the chapters are written by scientists so it soon became apparent that with limited time and budget it was difficult to write both a field guide and a technical book to suit everyone. The main aims of the book are to synthesise published information and recent survey data on the fauna of King Island, to provide guidelines for conservation management of fauna, and to encourage land managers to identify vertebrate fauna and fill in the gaps on the distribution and abundance of fauna. Chapter 1, the Introduction, provides a brief summary of the island’s location, climate, geology, soils and land use history. Chapter 2 describes the main native vegetation communities and Chapter 3 describes streams and wetlands of King Island and their macroinvertebrates based on recent surveys of the freshwater systems. Chapter 4 describes the ecology of terrestrial invertebrates of pastures and various types of native vegetation, and highlights their habitat requirements and management. Chapter 5 summarises the ecology and biogeography of the vertebrate fauna: freshwater fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals. Chapter 6 highlights the role and habitat needs of the fauna of old growth eucalypt forests with a focus on birds and insects. Chapter 7 presents and interprets recent survey data on forest birds, identifies threatened and declining birds and their habitats, provides guidelines on habitat management for fauna and specifies action to recover threatened and declining species. Chapter 8 serves as a field guide to the vertebrates of King Island and gives accounts of all the species of freshwater fish, frogs, reptiles, mammals and most of the resident and regular visiting birds with cross-references to the plates. Plants have co-evolved with animals and together they form an interconnected web of life. The health of native vegetation depends on many different fauna. This book will be useful to

vii any land managers and advisors with a desire to discover King Island’s fauna and their habitat needs and manage native vegetation for fauna. The book doesn’t pretend to be a complete fauna guide but it does provide a foundation for present and future action to protect the biodiversity of King Island. There is an urgent need on King Island to continue fauna surveys and monitoring and to recover threatened and declining species, especially birds. Little is known of the invertebrates of King Island, so we hope that this book, especially the invertebrate chapter, references and websites, will stimulate King Islanders and others to collect, identify and document the invertebrates of King Island.

Richard Donaghey July 2003

viii Acknowledgments

he observations and publications of naturalists such as Dr Bob Green, Max McGarvie and Tothers provided the foundation for this fauna guide. We are indebted to the landholders of King Island for their interest, hospitality and access to their remnant vegetation for conducting biodiversity surveys. The future of King Island’s fauna is in their hands. Richard Donaghey enjoyed the company of Graeme Batey and Nigel Burgess in rediscovering scrubtits. The Bushcare program enabled Richard Donaghey and Richard Barnes to visit King Island many times for conservation extension. We thank the NRM Group, its chairman David Robertson, Eve Woolmore, Katie Brown and especially Russell Warman for his endless patience and perseverance in steering the fauna guide through a few obstacles. Richard Donaghey thanks Dr Bill Wakefield and the Nature Conservation Branch, DPIWE, especially Nick Fitzgerald, Josie Kelman, Alister Donnelly, Sally Bryant and Peter Brown for help in scanning and storing images and Carolyn Donaghey and Bek Mifsud for computing hints. Also thanks to Toni Venettacci, Environment Library, DPIWE and Irynej Skira, DPIWE for supplying references and gratefully acknowledges Graham Pizzey’s Field Guide and HANZAB in preparing species accounts of birds. Richard Barnes, Sarah Lloyd, Mark Holdsworth, Peter McQuillan, Max McGarvie and Chris Barnett provided helpful comments on earlier drafts. Eva Finzel’s proof-reading, editing and constructive comments greatly improved layout and consistency.

ix Chapter 1 Introduction

Sarah Lloyd

Location physiographic units: the plateau country; the plains; King Island is midway between Victoria and the swamps and lagoons; and the dune formations Tasmania in western Bass Strait. It is approximately (8). Barnes (2) gives a detailed summary of the 140 km both from Cape Otway on the coast of island’s landforms, geology and soils. The plateau is Victoria and Cape Grim on the north-west tip of mostly about 100 m above sea level and rises to Tasmania. The island is about 65 km long, 25 km Gentle Annie (168 m asl), the highest point on King from east to west and has an area of roughly 110,160 Island. The plateau occupies much of the central and ha (2). King Island and the far north-west of southern parts of the island. It is drained by many Tasmania form the King biogeographical region. streams and rivers, the largest of these being Sea Between King Island and Tasmania are various Elephant River flowing north, Fraser River flowing rocks and small islands such as Reid, Black Pyramid, east and Ettrick River flowing west. Apart from some Hunter, Barren and Three Hummock Island. Until cliff formations on the coast between Fraser Bluff approximately 11–12,000 years ago King Island was and City of Melbourne Bay, and a steep scarp that part of a landbridge between Tasmania and the extends inland from Fraser Bluff, the slopes of the Australian mainland. Although there is no evidence plateau are gradual. Because of the plateau, Yarra of permanent Aboriginal settlements at the time of and Grassy creeks are sharply incised for about 3.2 European discovery, there are scattered middens, km from the coast and Conglomerate and Barrier especially on the west coast. creeks for about 1.6 km. The western side of the plateau between Fitzmaurice Bay and Cape Whistler Climate is buried beneath a 3–4 km wide belt of dunes (10). The northern part of the island forms an King Island has a mild maritime climate. Average extensive flat to undulating plain with only a few annual rainfall ranges from 675 mm in the north to rises and hills, the highest being the prominent Mt about 1,050 mm in the south. Rain falls predomi- Counsel (86 m). Most of the plains are covered with nantly in winter and occurs on average 215 days wind-blown sand that may exceed 10 m in depth. per year. Frosts are rare. The prevailing westerly Young estuarine sediments of this plain are in places winds often reach 100 km per hour (2). covered by peaty soils of former shallow lakes and swamps such as Reedy Lake, Egg Lagoon and Landforms South-east Lagoon. Numerous lagoons, the largest of which is Lake Flannigan abut the sand hills (10). King Island has a low and undulating relief with Lagoons and marshes are a characteristic feature many creeks, streams and rivers. There are four main of the plains and are associated with the drainage

1 system of the island. The coastal dunes that fringe side at Lavinia Point. A bed of upper Silurian most of the island cause the total or partial sandstone extends across the island from the north blockage of streams, and the low lying areas in the bank of Ettrick River to the south of Fraser River. trough are characterised by swamps, marshes and Tertiary limestone is found in many parts of the lagoons. Water percolates through the dunes and island. The main outcrop is at the Blowhole four trickles over the sand to the sea. Artificial draining miles north of Naracoopa (7). has reclaimed many of the swamps in the north of There are several geological sites of national the island such as Egg Lagoon (10). The prevailing and state significance on the island. National signif- westerly and south-westerly winds have lead to the icance sites include Egg Lagoon, Boggy Creek tufa formation of a series of sand dunes that form a rim terraces, Iron Monarch Cave, and City of around much of King Island. There are two major Melbourne Bay foreshore. A site of state signifi- dune systems, the Old and New dunes (7). The cance is the fragile Wickham granite, the oldest New Dunes form an almost continuous rim around granite in Tasmania (730 million years old). the island and a 4 km wide belt that extends along Excavation for drainage of Egg Lagoon exposed a the entire west coast. They are mainly parabolic fossil of a giant marsupial. Lake Flannigan and dunes. The simple conical dunes like those that Collier Swamp (especially the latter, which has no can be seen inland from Currie are probably drainage) are significant because of their value to residual parabolic dunes. The New Dunes of the earth science, as unmodified wetlands, for their east coast are quartz sand, and the more ongoing natural processes and biological values widespread dunes are calcareous. Active blowouts (4). are the first stage in parabolic dune formation, At Seal Rocks, calcareous solution tubes however, intensive grazing and burning off on the ‘calcified forest’ have been exposed (4). dunes has led to more extensive blowouts (7). The Old Dunes can reach a height of 80 m in Pre-European vegetation places and occur sporadically around the island. They extend further inland than New Dunes. They The most comprehensive descriptions of the original are parabolic dunes that have been modified by vegetation of King Island were made by members of weathering over time (7). the Field Naturalist Club of Victoria who visited the island in November 1887, before irrevocable change Geology was done by settlers just one year later. According to one of the expedition’s participants, Baldwin Underlying the superficial deposits that cover much Spencer, they ‘had considerable difficulty in of the centre, south-east and south-west of the island traversing the island, owing to the fact that its is a folded metamorphic complex of Precambrian northern half was covered with dense scrub and its rock (rocks that include quartzites, slates and southern part with impenetrable forest’ (9). phyllites, various schists, granulites, porphyroids and In the Yellow Rock area a series of sand dunes conglomerates). Glacial and volcanic rocks occur in four parallel rows were covered with Spinifex between Grassy and Naracoopa (4). grass, and hills were covered with salt, oily and A long broad belt of granite runs from Admiral currant bushes, and in some areas extensive Bay to Whistler Point. The main mass of granite covering of ‘pigface’ (Disphyma crassifolium). begins on the western side of Disappointment Bay. The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria reported Slates occur at the small headland north of Pennys (3) that further inland from Yellow Rock are ‘hills Lagoon (7). which run down the centre of the island, gradually Predominant formations found throughout the increasing in height as they pass southward, until island are of granite and gneiss. In some areas they culminate in the south-east part in Mount these are covered with sand hills, but they come to Stanley’. ‘These hills are covered with scrub, often the surface on the west side of the island at Yellow extremely dense, and consisting principally of the Rock and near the Ettrick River, also forming reefs mountain ti-tree (Leptospermum scoparium), of that are submerged at high tide, and on the east various acacias, banksias, native currant’ and

2 boobyalla. ‘In part they are covered with forests of In 1798, Napoléon ordered an exploratory gum (esp. Eucalyptus globulus), and in the woods expedition of the South Seas. No expenses were to abound the native hazel (Pomaderris apetala), be spared and in 1800, Nicolas Baudin musk (Aster argophilis), sassafras (Atherosperma commanding the Géographe left Le Havre to lead moschatum), and in parts blackwood. Over large the largest scientific team ever to leave Europe for tracts fires have destroyed the larger trees, leaving the Pacific. When the accompanying vessel, the only their gaunt, charred trunks, which now give a Naturaliste, was forced to head for home due to weird appearance to the landscape’ (3). illness in the crew, Baudin purchased a schooner, Club members noted that in the far north of the the Casaurina, which, under the command of island the view north from Fern Hill was undulating Loius de Freycinet, headed to King Island, where it ground covered with scrub, tussock grass, fern, tea- spent several weeks around King, Hunter and tree and a few small gums. East of Fern Hill were Kangaroo islands (5). large clumps of swamp tea-tree and the higher In November 1887, 26 members of the Field ground was covered with white heath. Stackhousia Naturalist Club of Victoria explored King Island for and the orchid (Caladenia latifolia) was abundant 18 days. They were the first to traverse most of the and the ground was covered with ‘curious white island and list all the birds and plants they lichen as if it were snow-covered’. Inland from encountered (3). Boulder and Lavinia points the undulating land was covered with heath, bracken, tea-tree, banksia, Settlement and development prickly acacia and stunted gums (3). King Island was first leased for grazing in 1855, but Early history and exploration the presence of a native species of pea (Swainsonia lassertifolia), which caused fatal King Island was ‘discovered’ by Mr Reid in the blindness and madness in stock, meant that the schooner Martha in 1799, but it was not named until lease was given up after four years. In 1862 the 1801 when Captain Black, of the Harbinger, came lease of the island was again taken up, but no across it on his way through the straits and named grazing was attempted, instead the island was it after Governor King of New South Wales (1). sublet mainly to hunters (10). In December 1800 the Lady Nelson, on the same A third lease was attempted in 1869. Grazing voyage on which Port Philip was discovered, frequently occurred on the dunes of the west coast, visited King Island and surveyed its east coast. where Swainsonia had mostly been replaced by Lieutenant Murray included descriptions of some tussock grass (Poa sp.), melilot (Melilotus indica) birds and animals found on the island and gave an and spear grass (Bromus maximus). This lease also account of the now extinct King Island emu which proved unsuccessful, owing to sickness in the preceded that given by the French naturalist Péron stock. Known as coastal disease, it affected both by 11 months, yet Péron’s description of the emu sheep and cattle, mostly in Surprise Bay and is often regarded as the first (1). Yellow Rock River (10). Lieutenant Murray named the Bay of Seals (later In November 1887, when the Field Naturalists’ Sea Elephant Bay) after first coming ashore on the Club of Victoria visited the island, its only east side of the island where he saw large numbers inhabitants were the lighthouse keepers at Currie of these docile animals. He described seeing the Harbour and Cape Wickham, and a solitary King Island emu, seals, wombats and, on Elephant wallaby hunter (9). Rock, 6000–7000 seals. As soon as Murray’s In 1887 the island was opened for selection. In accounts of the seals and sea elephants on King 1888 Bowling took up land at Surprise Bay and Island were made known, sealers in Port Jackson another Bowling settled north of Currie Harbour. promptly visited the island. When the French Other settlers arrived and by 1901, the population visited the island just eight months later, the French reached 242. During this period of settlement naturalist Péron obtained his account of the emu almost all the grazing was done on the coastal that the sealers were utilising for food (1). dunes where the only pasture of any value existed.

3 When it was discovered that stock were cured of beaches were slaughtered by sealers, and the the coastal disease by simply removing them to species was exterminated from King Island by other areas of the island, King Island quickly got a early in the 19th century. reputation for fat stock production (10). Wombat (Vombatus ursinus) – in 1802 the log Since 1911, when land speculation increased to books of the Lady Nelson recorded the existence of include large areas of very poor country and the wombat on the island, but the Field Naturalists’ possibilities of the other forested areas being Club of Victoria failed to find any during their 1887 suitable for agriculture were investigated, there visit, suggesting that the animal died out some time was a steady increase in the population. Dairying before the beginning of the twentieth century (6). on the reclaimed swamps, sandy marsh and forest Tiger cat (Dasyurops maculatus) – common at country soon replaced fattening of the cattle the time of early settlement, the tiger cat was because of the deterioration of the coastal dunes wiped out as a direct result of persecution. Early which were mostly used as winter runs. Owing to settlers destroyed it at every opportunity as it killed their susceptibility to disease, sheep numbers their poultry and damaged the skins of game declined, to become a minor part of the agricul- animals by following snare lines and feeding on tural industry (10). the animals caught there. No animals have been seen on the island since 1923 (6). Extinctions of birds on King Island References (1) Alexander, W.B. (1921). Forgotten feathers. Notes The King Island emu (Dromaius ater) seems to have on the fauna of King Island from the logbooks of been the first extinction on the island as a direct the Lady Nelson. Emu 21, 318–319. result of human hunting. Commercial sealers, who (2) Barnes, R.W., Duncan, F. & Todd, C.S. (2002). The arrived in 1802, used trained dogs to hunt the bird Native Vegetation of King Island, Bass Strait. Nature for food. Its small size (1,365 mm tall) and weight Conservation Report 02/6. Nature Conservation Branch, Resource Management and Conservation, (up to 22.7 kg) compared to the mainland form (D. Department of Primary Industries, Water and novaehollandiae) led Baldwin Spencer to describe it Environment, Hobart. as a distinct species in 1906 (6). (3) Campbell, A.J. (1888). Field Naturalists’ Club of Grey Goshawk (Accipiter novaehollandiae) was Victoria. Expedition to King Island, November, recorded by the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria 1887. Official Report. The Victorian Naturalist 4, after their visit in 1887. Two birds, which were 128–164. (4) Dixon, Grant. (1994). A Preliminary Geoheritage killing young turkeys, were shot in 1912. There have Inventory of King Island, Tasmania. A Report for been no further reportings of this bird on the island the Parks and Wildlife Service, Hobart. (6). Glossy black-cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus (5) French Embassy web site. lathami) once occurred on the island but (6) Green, R.H. & McGarvie, A.M. (1971). The birds of disappeared about 1920 after extensive fires (6). King Island. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum, Gang-gang cockatoo (Callocephalon fimbriatum) 40, 1–42. (7) Jennings, J.N. (1959) The coastal geomorphology of was once plentiful when large areas of eucalypt King Island, Bass Strait, in relation to changes in the forest existed (6). Forty-spotted pardalote relative level of land and sea. Records of the Queen (Pardalotus quadragintus) was collected by the Victoria Museum, New Series No. 11. Field Naturalist Club of Victoria during their 1887 (8) Richley, L.R. (1984). Land Systems of Tasmania. visit, but there are no other records (6). Region 1. Tasmanian Department of Agriculture, Hobart. (9) Spencer, Baldwin & Kershaw, J.A. (1910). A Extinctions of mammals on Collection of sub-fossil bird and marsupial remains from King Island, Bass Strait. Memoirs of National King Island Museum Melbourne 3, 5–35. Southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) – (10) Stephens C.G. & Hosking, J.S. (1932). A soil survey hundreds of docile elephant seals on the north-east of King Island. CSIRO Bulletin 70.

4 Chapter 2 Vegetation on King Island

Richard W. Barnes

n King Island minor variation in the physical frequently exceeded 40 m in height and 2 m in Oenvironment, combined with the island’s diameter at breast height. A few large rotting long history of isolation, has resulted in a unique stumps on the island serve as a temporary island vegetation that lacks structural and species reminder of the now gone forest giants. There now diversity compared with that of the Tasmanian only remains on the island a relatively small mainland. number of eucalypt forest remnants. Wet forest The main driving forces that shape native remnants generally feature an understorey of tall vegetation are soil fertility and drainage, fire history wet forest species, tea-trees and paperbarks while and the degree of exposure to marine influences. the dry eucalypt forests occur on nutrient-poor European settlement wrought significant change to sandy soils near the coast. the island’s vegetation, which has shown The sand dunes that fringe the west and east remarkable resilience. Clearing and firing have coasts are referred to as the ‘dune system’ (3). reduced the extent of native vegetation, and some These support heath, shrub and woodlands in plant communities have possibly been eliminated areas sheltered from high salinity and strong winds. altogether or now exist only as remnant stands, Disregarding the influence of fire, vegetation especially forest communities. Native vegetation height is related to the strength of onshore winds, covers about 33.5% of the islands’ area, but at least so lee slopes and swales support the tallest 8% of this occurs in narrow bands and as small vegetation. The effects of salt-laden rain and remnants in the islands centre, south-east and offshore mist can extend inland to within 100 m of north (1). the high-tide mark (4). The once mighty King Island wet forests dominated by Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus King Island wet eucalypt forest globulus subsp. globulus) and Brooker’s gums (E. brookeriana) have been reduced to humbler Prior to European settlement, wet forest was scattered remnants through logging, fires and widespread on the fertile plateau country in the agricultural clearing. The straight-boled forest east, south, south-east and centre of the island (5). giants have gone, and it is likely that fire and King Island wet eucalypt forest is dominated by further disturbance would need to be excluded for either Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus hundreds of years for the forests to attain their subsp. globulus) or Brooker’s gum (E. former stature. Photographs taken in King Island’s brookeriana). White gum (E. viminalis subsp. pioneering years (2) and occasional downers viminalis) occurs as a subdominant tree in both (fallen trees) on the forest floor indicate that trees forest types, especially on the drier sandy ridges.

5 Tasmanian blue gum forest occurs on fertile well- (Aristotelia peduncularis), and cheery rice-flower drained soils, whereas Brooker’s gum forest occurs (Pimelea drupacea). White gum with a shrub layer on heavier (clay) poorly-drained soils. dominated by golden wood (Monotoca glauca), The species composition of the shrub and manuka (Leptospermum scoparium subsp. ground layer is variable and is related to soil scoparium), prickly moses (Acacia verticillata var. characteristics (e.g. soil depth, clay content, verticillata) and silver banksia (Banksia moisture availability, parent rock/material), fire marginata) occurs in small pockets throughout history (frequency and intensity), whether or not this wet forest. the area was cleared in the past, and if livestock Soft tree ferns (Dicksonia antarctica) and have had access to the forest. rough tree ferns (Cyathea australis) occur in the Land clearance is the single biggest threat to wettest forests and in riverine habitats where wet eucalypt forest on the island. Fragmentation moisture is abundant. Common filmy fern and the removal of scrub around wet forest further (Hymenophyllum cupressiforme) can often be seen threaten its viability. With the removal of adjacent dangling from the trunk of both tree fern species. scrub and heath, wet forest can be quickly The ground layer is generally sparse, particu- degraded from the effects of exposure and larly when the canopy and shrub layer is dense. changed microclimatic conditions. Stock grazing When light reaches the forest floor, sedges (cutting and/or native marsupial browsing can speedily grass, Gahnia grandis; tall sedge, Carex appressa) destroy fern, sedge and herb dominated under- and ferns (water-ferns, Blechnum species; bat’s storeys. Too frequent fires have eliminated the wing, Histiopteris incisa; ruddy ground fern, shrub layer in many wet forests, with some wet Hypolepis rugosula; bracken, Pteridium forest shrub species now being rare on the island esculentum) occur in dense clumps. Herbs are (e.g. musk, Olearia argophylla; mountain pepper, occasional on the forest floor and include Tasmannia lanceolata). Solomon’s seal (Drymophila cyanocarpa), ivy-leaf violet (Viola hederacea), small shade nettle Tasmanian blue gum wet forest (Plate 2.1) (Australina pusilla subsp. pusilla), blue bottle Wet forest dominated by Tasmanian blue gum daisy (Lagenophora stipitata) and hairy pennywort occurs on fertile, well-drained soils. Canopy trees (Hydrocotyle hirta). usually have open spreading upper branches and Scramblers and vines, such as climbing rarely exceed 30 m in height. Brooker’s gum occurs blueberry (Billardiera longiflora), twining silkpod in this forest type but it is less abundant than (Parsonsia brownii) and Australian clematis Tasmanian blue gum. White gum (E. viminalis (Clematis aristata), connect the forest floor to the subsp. viminalis) occasionally occurs on sandy canopies above. ridges and shallow soils. On very wet sites, Tasmanian blue gum wet Brooker’s gum wet forest (Plate 2.2) forest may have a dense shrub layer formed by Trees to 25 m tall dominate this forest. Brooker’s very tall paperbarks and tea-trees (Melaleuca gum is the dominant eucalypt species, with ericifolia, M. squarrosa and/or Leptospermum sporadic Tasmanian blue gums and white gums. scoparium). The shrub layer is usually even aged, Brooker’s gums have a very straight trunk with of the same height and has little or no regeneration spreading upper branches. They usually drop their of the shrubs underneath. lower branches with the resulting scar developing Older or less frequently burnt forests have a into a large hollow, but this process may take more dense shrub layer formed by broad leaf shrubs, than 100 years! Brooker’s gum wet forest generally including satinwood (Nematolepis squamea), occurs along drainage lines, creeks and in rough dogwood (Pomaderris apetala), blackwood ‘depressions’ in the landscape where water (Acacia melanoxylon), musk (Olearia argophylla), accumulates. Small patches of this forest type prickly currant bush (Coprosma quadrifida), usually also occur on the shallow sandy soils in the austral mulberry (Hedycarya angustifolia), island’s south-west. cheesewood (Pittosporum bicolor), heart berry Most Brooker’s gum wet forests are dominated

6 by trees of the same age, possibly having their King Island dry eucalypt forest ‘birth’ after the 1930s fire that burnt across much of and woodland (Plate 2.3) the island. There are usually fewer broad-leaf shrubs in Brooker’s gum wet forest compared to Dry eucalypt forest and woodland is dominated by Tasmanian blue gum-dominated wet forest, but white gum (Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis) most species are common to both. More common and Tasmanian blue gum (E. globulus subsp. on heavier clay soils is a dense shrub layer to 15 m globulus). Dry forest and woodland occurs on tall dominated by swamp paperbark (Melaleuca sandy well-drained soils mostly around the island’s ericifolia) and scented paperbark (M. squarrosa), coastline. The trees are often stunted, mallee-like whereas manuka (Leptospermum scoparium subsp. (multi-stemmed) and grow to about 8 to 16 m tall. scoparium) dominates the shrub layer on better They are especially stunted and mallee-like in drained sandy soils. Blackwood (Acacia areas that are frequently burnt or exposed to strong melanoxylon) and silver banksia (Banksia salt-laden winds. Wet soaks and areas with a deep marginata) are usually common in the shrub layer peaty soil that occur throughout the forest are often no matter what the soil type. Wet forest shrubs, dominated by stunted Brooker’s gum (E. such as rough dogwood (Pomaderris apetala), brookeriana) and Tasmanian blue gum rather than blueberry ash (Elaeocarpus reticulatus) and musk white gums. (Olearia argophylla), are often present but very This forest is relatively species rich, especially few in number. in areas that have not been frequently burnt nor Ferns, such as soft tree fern (Dicksonia stock grazed. The structure of the forest and antarctica) and rough tree fern (Cyathea woodland is complex, with two distinct shrub australis), tend to occur in the understorey of more layers. The tall shrub layer is often almost as tall as open forests that lack a dense swamp paperbark the canopy eucalypts and is dominated by species shrub layer. Areas along water courses and that tolerate low soil fertility. They include variable drainage lines are havens for large ferns such as sallow wattle (Acacia mucronata), golden wood rough tree fern (Cyathea australis), mother shield (Monotoca glauca), silver banksia (Banksia fern (Polystichum proliferum), soft water fern marginata), coast tea-tree (Leptospermum (Blechnum minus), king fern (Todea barbara), laevigatum), manuka (L. scoparium subsp. tender brake (Pteris tremula) and ground ferns scoparium), necklace she-oak (Allocasuarina (Hypolepis species). Small delicate ferns, such as monilifera) and coast wattle (Acacia longifolia finger fern (Grammitis billardierei), gipsy fern subsp. sophorae). The lower shrub layer often (Ctenopteris heterophylla) and shiny filmy fern contains heaths, small shrubs and sedges, such as (Hymenophyllum flabellatum) often grow along pink beard-heath (Leucopogon ericoides), prickly riverbanks, on rotting logs or on the trunk of some beauty (Pultenaea juniperina), stinking boronia of the larger ferns. Wet forest shrubs that like dark, (Boronia anemonifolia), common heath (Epacris moist conditions, such as the rare austral mulberry impressa), broom spurge (Amperea xiphoclada), (Hedycarya angustifolia), can be found growing cutting grass (Gahnia grandis), slender rice-flower with many of these ferns. (Pimelea linifolia subsp. linifolia), sticky daisy- Cutting grass (Gahnia grandis) and tall sedge bush (Olearia glutinosa) and twiggy daisy-bush (Carex appressa) are frequent exploiters of the (Olearia ramulosa). forest floor where canopy gaps in the crown allow Ground layer species, which are more abundant more light to reach the forest floor. These oppor- in canopy gaps and at the edge of scrub thickets, tunistic species are also common along forest include bracken (Pteridium esculentum), Tasman margins where light levels are also generally flax lily (Dianella tasmanica), tassel cord-rush higher. Most herb and scrambler species in this (Baloskion tetraphyllum), sand sword-sedge forest are common to Tasmanian blue gum (Lepidosperma concavum), slender twine-rush dominated wet forest on Kling Island (described (Leptocarpus tenax), showy parrot-pea (Dillwynia above). sericea), and spreading rope rush (Empodisma minus). This forest type, unlike wet forest, has a

7 high number of native grasses in the ground layer, blueberry ash (Elaeocarpus reticulatus) and the including common wallaby grass (Austrodanthonia ubiquitous manuka (Leptospermum scoparium). caespitosa), coastal tussock grass (Poa poiformis var. Australian clematis (Clematis aristata) and twining poiformis), weeping grass (Ehrharta stipoides) and silkpod (Parsonsia brownii) are intermittent Australian salt grass (Distichlis distichophylla). scramblers in the canopy, adding a sub-tropical Frequently burnt forests may have had their species- appearance to the forest. rich ground and shrub layers replaced with bracken Ferns are a very common, with soft tree fern and sand sword-sedge. (Dicksonia antarctica) and rough tree fern (Cyathea A colourful mosaic of small ferns, mosses and australis) forming a distinctive ground layer in some lichens sporadically occur in the small open areas areas, especially along river banks and creeks. Other throughout the forest. Lichens encrust the soil ferns, including hard water fern (Blechnum wattsii), surface whereas ferns, such as swamp selaginella fishbone water fern (Blechnum nudum), mother (Selaginella uliginosa), bushy clubmoss shield fern (Polystichum proliferum), tender brake (Lycopodium deuterodensum), maidenhair (Pteris tremula) and king fern (Todea barbara) form (Adiantum aethiopicum), narrow comb fern locally dense patches of green underneath canopy (Schizaea fistulosa) and necklace fern (Asplenium gaps, around forest margins and along water- flabellifolium), grow in moist areas, usually at the courses. Epiphytic ferns, such as common filmy fern base of tea-trees and paperbarks or around moss (Hymenophyllum cupressiforme), kangaroo fern clumps. (Microsorum pustulatum subsp. pustulatum) and Scrambling grasses, sedges and herbs, such as gipsy fern (Ctenopteris heterophylla), and hairy rice-grass (Ehrharta distichophylla), climbing bryophytes often drape tree fern and blackwood blueberry (Billardiera longiflora), downy dodder- trunks in a shroud of green. laurel (Cassytha pubescens), small-leaf clematis Relatively small areas of high light penetration (Clematis microphylla) and spreading rope-rush created by the fall or death of a canopy tree may be (Empodisma minus), add further complexity to the dominated by a myriad of wet forest herbs and forest as they twine through the shrubs and trees sedges, such as blue bottle daisy (Lagenophora reaching for sunlight. stipitata), ivy-leaf violet (Viola hederacea), hairy pennywort (Hydrocotyle hirta), small shade-nettle Swamp Forests (Australian pusilla subsp. pusilla), cutting grass (Gahnia grandis) and tall sedge (Carex appressa). Blackwood swamp forest (Plate 2.4) In the absence of ferns or wet forest herbs the This swamp forest is dominated by blackwood ground is generally covered by a thick layer of leaf (Acacia melanoxylon) growing to 25 m high, with litter from which the fruiting bodies of fungi appear some trees reaching 30 m tall. The dense crown is in autumn. formed by large spreading branches. Tall swamp Blackwood swamp forest is extremely restricted paperbarks (Melaleuca ericifolia) often grow in in its distribution and extent on the island due to association with the blackwood, and Tasmanian logging, clearing and firing. Blackwood swamp blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus) forest now occupies riverine habitats, such as and/or Brooker’s gum (E. brookeriana) are incised streams and south-east facing gullies, occasional emergent canopy trees to 30 m tall. where river sediment accumulation has enhanced Although the canopy is often very dense there soil fertility and high humidity excludes fire. On is often sufficient light penetration for a sparse the island this forest now only occurs in Pegarah number of tall shrubs to grow. These usually grow State Forest and along the Fraser and Sea Elephant between 1 m and 15 m tall and include rough Rivers and Bronzewing Creek near Naracoopa. dogwood (Pomaderris apetala), musk daisy-bush (Olearia argophylla), cherry rice-flower (Pimelea Swamp paperbark forest (Plate 2.5) drupacea), golden wood (Monotoca glauca), Forests dominated by swamp paperbark prickly currant-bush (Coprosma quadrifida), (Melaleuca ericifolia) occur on poorly drained and austral mulberry (Hedycarya angustifolia), heavy soils where fire frequency is low. The

8 canopy is closed and the understorey is sparse, paperbark forests occur as small remnants across because little light penetrates to the forest floor. most of the south-east interior of the island. Fallen trees and rotting logs on the ground may be Clearing and firing are threats to swamp common as over-mature trees collapse under their paperbark forest, as too are changes to surface and own weight or get blown over in strong winds. underground hydrology through land clearance or Associated canopy tree species include scented the construction of drains. A high water table and paperbark (Melaleuca squarrosa), manuka low fuel loads on the forest floor tends to inhibit (Leptospermum scoparium), blackwood (Acacia the spread of fires, except in extremely dry melanoxylon) and occasional emergent Brooker’s seasons. Fragmentation of swamp paperbark forest gums (Eucalyptus brookeriana). Very few tall in a highly agricultural landscape threatens this shrubs are present as the canopy lets little light forest type as it decreases the integrity of the forest through. The shrubs usually have large leaves and and native species diversity, especially among few upward spreading branches as they are ground-cover species (e.g. ferns, herbs and sheltered from high winds and strong sunlight. orchids). Shrub species present often include blueberry ash (Elaeocarpus reticulatus), rough dogwood Coastal grasslands (Plate 2.6) (Pomaderris apetala), austral mulberry (Hedycarya angustifolia) and prickly moses (Acacia verticillata Coastal grasslands are generally treeless and, as the var. verticillata). name suggests, are dominated by native grasses The forest’s ground layer is sparse and naturally and herbs. They occur on sand dunes, sand plains low in species diversity. Bare ground is common, behind dunes, flat rocky shores and wind exposed and rushes, sedges, ferns and wet forest herbs are cliffs. Grasslands may be dominated by one or the main colonisers of the forest floor. Wet soaks more of blue tussock grass (Poa poiformis var. are often occupied by dense clumps of tall sedge poiformis), spinifex (Spinifex sericeus), coast fescue (Carex appressa) and cutting grass (Gahnia (Austrofestuca littoralis) and coastal spear grass grandis). Hard water fern (Blechnum wattsii), (Austrostipa stipoides). Dune swales may be mother shield fern (Polystichum proliferum), scrub dominated by kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) nettle (Urtica incisa) and sword-sedges which is an unusual habitat for this species. (Lepidosperma species) may also be present. Blue tussock grassland is the most common and Orchids like nodding greenhood (Pterostylis widespread of the coastal grasslands and is often nutans) and small herbs, such as ivy-leaf violet the result of frequent burning of coastal heath and (Viola hederacea), blue bottle daisy (Lagenophora scrub. Spinifex is a sand-binding grass which forms stipitata) and hairy pennywort (Hydrocotyle hirta), large patches on dunes rich with calcium are occasionally abundant at the base of swamp carbonate. Coast fescue is another sand-binding paperbarks as these small areas are better drained. grass that forms grasslands along the drier parts of In small remnants or along the edges of larger the coast, often in combination with spinifex. patches of bare ground, exotic species, including Coastal spear grass tussock grassland occurs yorkshire fog grass (Holcus lanatus), cocksfoot occasionally on sand but more commonly on rocky (Dactylis glomeratus), cape weed (Arctotheca shores and cliffs close to the high water mark. calendula) and deadly nightshade (Solanum Herb and sedge diversity is usually high for all nigrum) are common. grassland types, with species including knobby Swamp paperbark forest has been extensively club-sedge (Isolepis nodosa), coast sword-sedge cleared from many swamps and lagoons, but an (Lepidosperma gladiatum), native pigface extensive tract still remains at the Nook Swamps, (Carpobrotus rossii), sea celery (Apium prostratum), where individual trees may reach 30 metres tall. pale woodrush (Luzula flaccida), angled lobelia Patches still occur around the margins of some (Lobelia anceps), poison pea (Swainsona lesserti- wetlands, such as Flannigans Lagoon, Bungaree ifolia), kidney weed (Dichondra repens), small Lagoon, Muddy Lagoon and the streams that flow poranthera (Poranthera microphylla), small St into and out of Nook Swamps. Short swamp John’s wort (Hypericum gramineum) and bracken

9 (Pteridium esculentum). Exotic grasses and herbs Sedgeland is dominated by sedges, lilies, (especially legumes) are often common in the grasses and small ferns less than 0.5 m in height. It island’s remaining coastal grasslands, including King is a very open community dominated by short Island trefoil (Melilotus indica) which was sown by purple-flag (Patersonia fragilis), emarginate early settlers to improve the fertility and carrying yellow-eye (Xyris marginata), tassel cord-rush capacity of the coastal country. (Baloskian tetraphyllum) and spreading rope-rush Some coastal grasslands have been man-made (Empodisma minus). The ground layer consists of by the clearing, burning and stock grazing of ferns, fern allies and herbs, including screw fern coastal scrub. The replacement of woody species (Lindsaea linearis), swamp selaginella (Selaginella which regenerate by rootstock or seed by uliginosa), sundews (Drosera species), hairy vegetative reproducers, such as tussock-forming mitrewort (Mitrasacme pilosa), tiny bladderwort grasses and bracken, is a response to frequent cool (Utricularia lateriflora) and occasionally some burning (6,7). In areas of very high fire frequency orchids. In wet soaks the ground is usually tussocks are usually scarce and the grassland turns carpeted in lichens, fungi and slime molds. into a bracken (Pteridium esculentum) dominated Heathlands are dominated by small to medium fernland. In less frequently burnt areas, and where sized shrubs of manuka (Leptospermum coastal grassland grades into scrub, there may scoparium), silver banksia (Banksia marginata) remain stunted mallee-like white gums (Eucalyptus and necklace she-oak (Allocasuarina monilifera), viminalis subsp. viminalis). generally to a height of 2 to 4 m. Mallee-form white Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria), a highly gums and Brooker’s gums occur in some areas, invasive and introduced grass, has been adding an open canopy to the heathland. extensively planted on unstable foredunes and Frequent heath species include pink beard- blow outs, many of which have been caused by heath (Leucopogon ericoides), prostrate guinea the above-mentioned firing and grazing regimes flower (Hibbertia prostrata), slender rice-flower (8). Marram grass often dominates the seaward (Pimelea linifolia), broom spurge (Amperea face of frontal dunes where it has displaced native xiphoclada), prickly beauty (Pultenaea grasses because of the ability of marram grass to juniperina), golden pea (Aotus ericoides), common invade, colonise and bind free sand. heath (Epacris impressa) and smooth parrot pea In the early days of European settlement coastal (Dillwynia glaberrima). Around the base of and grasslands were favoured for stock grazing. among the shrubs are sedges, lilies and grasses Records at that time of ‘grass covered hills’ in the such as Tasman flax lily (Dianella tasmanica), islands south and ‘hills covered with coarse grass, sand sword-sedge (Lepidosperma concavum), hairy bracken fern and scrub’ inland of the north-west rice grass (Ehrharta distichophylla), spreading coast suggest a once more widespread occurrence rope-rush and cutting grass (Gahnia grandis). In of native coastal grasslands (9). Most native coastal wet soaks scented paperbark (Melaleuca grasslands and herbfields now occur on the dune squarrosa), pink swamp heath (Sprengelia systems in the north-west of the island or on incarnata), bauera (Bauera rubioides) and headlands in the south and south-east. branching scale-rush (Sporadanthus tasmanicus) are frequent. Many of the ground layer species King Island sedge-heath-scrub common in sedgeland are absent in heathland due to the shading effect of the shrubs, although they (Plate 2.7) may persist where the canopy is open. King Island sedge-heath-scrub comprises three As the soil becomes drier, heaths appear in the types of vegetation (sedgeland, heathland and scrub and eventually these dominate in more open scrub) that occur in a mosaic across the landscape. areas. This is the heath component of this The form of the mosaic strongly relates to fire complex. Heathland species, such as pink beard history. If unburnt for two to three years sedgelands heath (Leucopogon ericoides), prickly beauty usually develop into heathland which may then turn (Pultenaea juniperina), slender rice grass (Pimelea into scrub after eight to 10 years without fire. linifolia), common heath (Epacris impressa) and

10 hairy rice grass (Ehrharta distichophylla) often Coastal scrub is dense vegetation that grows persist at these sites. between 3 and 8 m tall. The canopy of the scrub is Scrub is dominated by tall shrubs including dense, fairly even and closed, sometimes with manuka and/or scented paperbark along with sparse emergent eucalypts. It is usually dominated variable sallow wattle (Acacia mucronata), silver by wind and salt-tolerant species including grey banksia (Banksia marginata), necklace she-oak saltbush (Atriplex cinerea), silver banksia (Banksia (Allocasuarina monilifera), prickly moses (Acacia marginata), scented paperbark (Melaleuca verticillata var. verticillata) and golden wood squarrosa), coast beard-heath, manuka (Melaleuca (Monotoca glauca). The height of the scrub is ericifolia), coastal tea-tree (L. laevigatum), prickly variable, being related to the amount of time since moses (Acacia verticillata var. ovoidea), native the last fire, soil fertility and exposure to strong rosemary (Westringia brevifolia), thyme rice-flower winds. When the canopy is dense, heath species (Pimelea serpyllifolia) and tree broom-heath are absent, and spreading rope-rush (Empodisma (Monotoca elliptica). minus) intertwines among the stems of the canopy The ground layer is sometimes dominated by shrubs. Even under the most dense canopy can be mother shield fern (Polystichum proliferum) or a found mosses, fungi and lichen. somewhat taller layer, 1 to 1.5m tall, of tall sword Fire removes the canopy and ground litter of sedge (Lepidosperma elatius) and cutting grass scrub and encourages the establishment of ferns, (Gahnia grandis). At some sites the ground layer is sedges and other herbs. Bracken (Pteridium absent, leaving the ground bare except for leaf esculentum) is common on the driest sandy soils, litter and a few scattered mosses, lichens and fungi. and may dominate frequently burnt sites. Muttonbird rookeries Coastal heath and scrub (Plate 2.8) Muttonbird rookeries occur all around the island, Heath is dense vegetation dominated by plants particularly the northern, eastern and southern less than 2 metres tall with small, hard and coastline and on some offshore islands. Rookeries usually prickly leaves. Coastal heaths are are generally treeless, but some trees and shrubs colourful habitats as there is often twenty or may occur as isolated individuals. Occasionally more species in a relatively small area. Common rookeries extend into nearby forest or scrub. plants include heaths (Epacridaceae family), Plant coverage and the species present fluctuate daisies, bush peas (Pultenaea species), twiggy throughout the year. Outside the breeding season wax flower (Philotheca virgata) and lilac bells plant coverage can be almost 100% with only the (Tetratheca pilosa). Coastal heath may be a runs exposed or, on some rookeries, runs may be shrubbery of uniform height (generally less than covered by vegetation where the birds attain flight 1 m tall), or there may be scattered emergents on the rookery edge. Plant coverage decreases shrubs such as silver banksia, coast beard-heath during the breeding season as birds dig up the soil (Leucopogon parviflorus) or she-oaks to 3 m in to create and maintain burrows. This loss of plant height. The ground layer may be sparse bracken coverage is exacerbated by the exposed (Pteridium esculentum), orchids, sundews windswept location of rookeries. (Drosera species) and sand sword-sedge Blue tussock grass (Poa poiformis) is the most (Lepidosperma concavum). common species in muttonbird rookeries together There may be some invasion of trees on the with bower spinach (Tetragonia implexicoma) and inland edge of coastal heaths. Small thickets of coastal saltbush (Rhagodia candolleana subsp. eucalypts (mainly white gums) may occur on candolleana), which can form dense mats. Grey sheltered or well drained sites. These thickets often saltbush (Atriplex cinerea) may dominate some appear tapered for wind resistance, with small rookeries as may bracken (Pteridium esculentum) trees in the centre surrounded by tall then shorter and/or coast sword-sedge (Lepidosperma shrubs. Coastal heath may eventually be replaced gladiatum). Exotic grasses, herbs and woody by coastal scrub without fire. weeds such as cocksfoot (Dactylis glomeratus),

11 scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) and (Baloskion tetraphyllum), cutting grass (Gahnia boxthorn (Lycium ferocissimum), may be locally grandis) and branching scale-rush (Sporadanthus abundant within the rookery due to the high tasmanicus), are locally abundant in areas where incidence of soil disturbance caused by the birds trees have fallen over or wind damage has opened building and repairing burrows. The input of the crown. Herbs are also relatively abundant and nutrients into the somewhat naturally nutrient-poor commonly include hairy pennywort (Hydrocotyle soil via muttonbird droppings increases the hirta), kidney weed (Dichondra repens), likelihood of weed infestation and dominance. Solomon’s seal (Drymophila cyanocarpa), tall The combination of sandy soils, a coastal sundew (Drosera peltata subsp. auriculata) and environment and the presence of underground blue bottle daisy (Lagenifera stipitata). In areas of nests makes muttonbird rookeries fragile and a very dense canopy, there are no ground layer susceptible to damage from vehicles and stock. plants, and the soil is covered by a deep layer of Muttonbird rookeries are naturally susceptible to leaf litter. sand blows as the birds themselves are constantly disturbing the soil surface and exposing bare sand Wet scrub (Plate 2.9) to the wind. Wet scrub is an almost impenetrable thicket of Dry scrub trees, shrubs, heaths and sedges. The dense canopy, which rarely exceeds 8 m in height, is Dry scrub is rare, being restricted to well-drained usually dominated by tea-trees and paperbarks, calcium carbonate rich sandy soils. The dense and there is little opportunity for light to reach the shrub layer, to 8 m tall, is dominated by coast tea- ground. Swamp paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia) tree (Leptospermum laevigatum), scented and scented paperbark (M. squarrosa) dominate paperbark (Melaleuca squarrosa)and/or manuka on heavier clay soils, whereas manuka (Leptospermum scoparium). Mallee-like white (Leptospermum scoparium subsp. scoparium) gums and Brooker’s gums are occasional canopy dominates on better drained sandy soils. Other emergents. Along the coast, coast tea-tree is the canopy shrub species include variable sallow canopy dominant as it is highly tolerant of strong wattle (Acacia mucronata), dolly bush (Cassinia salt-laden winds. aculeata), golden wood (Monotoca glauca), silver Tall shrubs that also form the dense canopy banksia (Banksia marginata), necklace she-oak include variable sallow wattle (Acacia mucronata), (Allocasuarina monilifera) and prickly moses golden wood (Monotoca glauca), silver banksia (Acacia verticillata var. ovoidea). In tall and infre- (Banksia marginata), necklace she-oak quently burnt wet scrub the rare blueberry ash (Allocasuarina monilifera) and prickly moses (Elaeocarpus reticulatus) often grows as a straggly (Acacia verticillata var. ovoidea). Oddly, some shrub in association with the wet forest shrubs species more commonly found in wet eucalypt satinwood (Nematolepis squamea) and forest (e.g. satinwood, Nematolepis squamea; cheesewood (Pittosporum bicolor). stinkwood, Zieria arborescens; blackwood, Acacia The ground layer is usually sparse due to the melanoxylon) may also occur in dry scrub, dense nature of the canopy. However, bauera especially where the soil is relatively deep and (Bauera rubioides), cutting grass (Gahnia grandis) moist and fires infrequent. and fishbone water-fern (Blechnum nudum) are The lower shrub and ground layers are more exploiters of canopy gaps. Occasional wet forest species rich than wet scrub, possibly because of herbs are present, including Solomon’s seal the higher penetration of light through the canopy. (Drymophila cyanocarpa), blue bottle daisy In some situations dry scrub appears to be a late (Lagenifera stipitata), creeping raspwort developmental stage of long-unburnt dry heath. (Gonocarpus micranthus) and small shade nettle Ground layer species are more abundant and (Australina pusilla subsp. pusilla). Even under the diverse under gaps in the canopy and at the edge most dense tea-tree and paperbark canopy there of scrub thickets. Sedges, such as tassel cord-rush grow delicate coral lichens, clumps of moss,

12 colourful fungi, and an occasional screw fern sedge (Isolepis nodosa), common buttons (Cotula (Lindsaea linearis). australis), sea celery (Apium prostratum), angled lobelia (Lobelia alata), sea rocket (Cakile Saltmarsh (Plate 2.10) maritima) and creeping brookweed (Samolus repens). Saltmarsh dominates areas that are periodically Grass-dominated saltmarsh often grades into inundated by the sea and where subdued wave wet scrub or coastal grassland as soil salinity and action enables sediment to accumulate. On King waterlogging decreases. These areas provide Island, saltmarsh is restricted to the estuary and breeding and shelter habitat to the many animals lower reaches of the Sea Elephant and Yellow Rock that use the saltmarsh for foraging. rivers. Unlike other streams which discharge into the comparatively low-energy eastern coastline of Wetlands (Plate 2.11) King Island, Sea Elephant River has been deflected southwards by low parabolic dunes of the New Wetlands are areas covered by non-tidal, still water Dunes system (3). The shifting sands of the river for several months of the year or more. This mouth have caused a substantial back up of includes swamps, marshes, lagoons and the brackish water, enabling saltmarsh to occupy flats swampy, marshy or lagoonal edges of lakes. up to 5 km from the river mouth. The north- Wetlands are among the world’s most productive easterly deflection of the mouth of Yellow Rock environments. They are vital habitat and breeding River by large dunes to the west has also resulted grounds for many species, especially fish, in a low-energy estuary suited to the development waterbirds, frogs and a huge variety of inverte- of saltmarsh. brates. Plants and animals that live in wetlands are Near the mouth of each estuary, where the adapted to wet conditions for at least part of their inundating water is highly saline, saltmarshes are life cycle. Wetlands help to purify water by acting dominated by succulent herbs and shrubs to 80 cm as filters that trap sediment and nutrients, and they tall. Beaded glasswort (Sarcocornia quinqueflora) reduce erosion and provide protection from floods and shrubby glasswort (Sclerostegia arbuscula) are by absorbing and slowly releasing water. the two most abundant species and give the Wetlands on King Island generally occur around saltmarsh its typical ‘red tinge’. They form the only the edge of the island where the dunes meet the ‘canopy structure’ to saltmarsh and are ground- flatter inland areas. Deep, permanently inundated hugging as are most other plants. Highly salty areas wetlands support aquatic herblands of aquatic or also support numerous succulent ground layer floating herbs and sedges. Water-milfoil species such as shiny bog-sedge (Schoenus nitens), (Myriophyllum simulans) is widespread in shiny swamp-mat (Selliera radicans), matted freshwater bodies, whereas brackish water-milfoil water-starwort (Calltriche sonderi) and streaked (M. salsugineum) dominates brackish wetlands. arrowgrass (Triglochin striatum). In extremely salt Emergent plant species include tall spike-rush areas the ground is often ‘scalded’ and only algae (Eleocharis sphacelata) and jointed twig-rush is present on the soil surface. (Baumea arthrophylla), and floating species Where inflowing rivers and streams make the include pondweed (Potamogeton species), water- water less saline, tussock rushes, tussock sedges, ribbons (Triglochin species), yellow marsh-flower tussock grasses and non-succulent herbs are more (Villarsia reniformis), wrinklewort (Ruppia prominent. These ‘grassy’ areas, such as those that species), common duckweed (Lemna dispersa), fringe coastal lagoons and estuaries, are dominated and species of the algae Lamprothamnus. by salt tolerant coastal grasses including coastal Marginal herbfields occur in a narrow fringe spear grass (Austrostipa stipoides), Australian salt around wetlands and are dominated by herbs, grass (Distichlis distichophylla), prickly couch grasses and sedges. Plants are usually ground- (Zoysia macrantha) and sea rush (Juncus krausii hugging, less than 10 cm in height and species subsp. australiensis). Numerous herbs and sedges diversity is high, often reaching 15 or more species grow among the tussocks, such as knobby club- in 1 m2. Common herb and grass species include

13 mossy pennywort (Hydrocotyle muscosa), angled native pigface and beaded glaswort, with cushion lobelia (Lobelia anceps), shiny swamp-mat, bush (Leucophyta brownii) and sea box (Alyxia creeping brookweed (Samolus repens), prickly buxifolia) occurring intermittently. Lichens, notably couch (Zoysia macrantha), shiny bog-sedge orange crustose species and yellow foliose species, (Schoenus nitens) and spiny everlasting are conspicuous on bare rocks. (Ammobium calyceroides). Some larger sedges A little further from the shoreline, shrubs such may be present, such as bog-sedges (Schoenus as velvet correa (Correa backhouseana), sea box, species), strand sedge (Carex pumila), club-sedges boobyalla (Myoporum insulare), coast beard-heath (Isolepis species) and spreading rope-rush (Leucopogon parviflorus), coast everlasting, sticky (Empodisma minus). daisy bush (Olearia glutinosa), ice plant Wetlands that are frequently inundated and (Tetragonia implexicoma) and coastal saltbush have a deep peat soil may be dominated by sedges (Rhagodia candolleana subsp. candolleana) are and rushes. Plants are generally greater than 50 cm common and form an impenetrable tangle of in height (above water level) and many species of branches and trunks. Herbs, including wild rush (Juncus species), twig-rush (Baumea species), geranium (Pelargonium australe) and leafy sedge (Carex species) and spike-rush (Eleocharis peppercress (Lepidium foliosum), and grasses such species) may form a dense sward in and around as blue tussock grass (Poa poiformis) and knobby the wetland. There are very few or no shrubs, club rush (Isolepis nodosa) are common at ground wildflowers and herbs. level.

Coastal shores (Plate 2.12) Improved pasture

The coastal shore of King Island is a mixture of Pasture is a species and structurally poor habitat sweeping beaches, sand dunes and rocky composed of mainly exotic grasses, herbs and shorelines. Sand dune vegetation occurs on sand forbs. On occasion, there may be minor dunes in a narrow but variable coastal zone and, in occurrences of native grasses, including wallaby rare cases, on wind-blown dunes inland of rocky grass (Austrodanthonia species), spear grass shores. Desiccation by onshore salty winds and the (Austrostipa species) and bracken (Pteridium building and shaping of sand dunes by waves and esculentum). wind drives the shape and species composition of the vegetation. Regenerating cleared land Beaches and the mobile sands of ‘blow outs’ are often devoid of vegetation except for isolated Degraded pasture and land that is regenerating succulents, sand-binding introduced grasses back to some type of native vegetation can be seen (marram grass) and open native Spinifex grassland. across much of King Island, especially near the As the sand becomes more stable, plant diversity west coast where land clearance and pasture and density increases. Round-leafed pigface improvement has been less effective than in more (Disphyma crassifolium), sea parsley (Apium inland regions. prostratum), native pigface (Carpobrotus rossii) In some situations, especially on land that is and climbing saltbush (Einadia nutans subsp. marginal for agriculture, pasture may have been nutans) carpet the stable sands in greenery, left to revert back to scrub or heathland. As a whereas beaded glasswort (Sarcocornia quinque- general rule, once cattle have been removed and flora), grey saltbush (Atriplex cinerea) and pale fertiliser no longer applied, many native species goosefoot (Chenopodium glaucum) provide a start to re-establish on the light sandy soils along stunted canopy at the very front of the dune. the island’s coastline. Near-shore and rocky areas, which are subject Recolonisation of cleared land is usually by the to extreme salt spray and/or possible inundation invasion of native species, including grasses and by salt water, support low-growing salt-tolerant sedges such Juncus species (rushes) and knobby herbs and shrubs such as round-leafed pigface, club-rush (Isolepis nodosa). On King Island native

14 species that invade degraded pasture are coast first few years after being made. Species loss and wattle (Acacia longifolia subsp. sophorae), prickly degradation increase with a decrease in the width broom heath (Monotoca scoparia), coast beard- of the shelterbelt and in the presence of stock heath (Leucopogon australis) and coast tea-tree grazing. (Leptospermum laevigatum) in coastal situations, For more detailed information on King Island and manuka (Leptospermum scoparium subsp. vegetation, refer to The Native Vegetation of King scoparium), woolly tea-tree (L. lanigerum), Island, Bass Strait. (1) scented paperbark (Melaleuca squarrosa), swamp paperbark (M. ericifolia) and silver banksia References (Banksia marginata) more inland. Swamp (1) Barnes, R.W. Duncan, F. & Todd, C.S. (2002). The paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia) is a quick Native Vegetation of King Island, Bass Strait. Nature coloniser of degraded or unused pasture on heavy Conservation Report 02/6. Nature Conservation soils on the plateau, so long as rootstock still Branch, Resource Management and Conservation, persists in the soil. Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Hobart. (2) Hooper, R.H. (1973). The King Island Story. Peko- Plantations and shelterbelts Wallsend Ltd., Sydney. (3) Jennings, J.N. (1959). The coastal geomorphology Plantations of radiata pine (Pinus radiata), of King Island, Bass Strait, in relation to changes in Tasmanian blue gum (E. globulus subsp. globulus) the relative level of land and sea. Records of the and stringybark (E. obliqua) occur in Pegarah State Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston, N.S. No.11. Forest near Naracoopa. Small farm forestry sites (4) Ashton, D.H. & Webb, R.N. (1977). The ecology of granite outcrops at Wilson’s Promontory, Victoria. and ornamental plantings occur on some Australian Journal of Ecology 2, 269–296. properties, with some being up to 40 years old. (5) Brown, J.W. (1887). Report on King’s Island. Recently, shelterbelts have been established Unpublished report to the Parliament of Tasmania, across much of the central, southern and western Hobart. areas of the island. These are generally dominated (6) Kirkpatrick, J.B. (1973). The Vegetation of Sloping by swamp paperbark and are often relicts of the Island, Tasmania. The Victorian Naturalist 90, 313–319. original native vegetation that once widely (7) Purdie, R.W. (1977). Early stages of regeneration occurred on the island. Some plantings have after burning in dry sclerophyll vegetation. I. included mainland Tasmanian and mainland Regeneration of the understorey by vegetative Australian species as well as local species. means. Australian Journal of Botany 25, 21–34. Structurally, shelterbelts that have been planted (8) Richley, L.R. (1984). Land Systems of Tasmania are very open as they are not very wide. Exotic Region 1. Tasmanian Dept. of Agriculture, Hobart. (9) Campbell, A.J. (1888). Official report of an grasses and weeds usually dominate the ground expedition to King Island in November 1887, by the layer. Shelterbelts formed by the retention of native Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The Victorian vegetation are more species diverse, at least for the Naturalist 4, 128–164.

15 King Island vegetation

Plate 2.2 Brooker's gum wet forest Plate 2.1 Richard Barnes Tasmanian blue gum wet forest on King Island Richard Barnes

Plate 2.3 Dry eucalypt forest and woodland Plate 2.4 Richard Barnes Blackwood swamp forest Richard Barnes

Plate 2.6 Coastal grassland dominated by Plate 2.5 spinifex Swamp paperbark forest Richard Barnes Rob Blakers P1 Plate 2.8 Shrubby coastal heath Richard Barnes

Plate 2.7 King Island scrub Richard Barnes

Plate 2.9 Short paperbark wet scrub dominated Plate 2.10 by scented paperbark and manuka Saltmarsh Richard Barnes Allison Woolley

Plate 2.11 Wetlands Richard Barnes Plate 2.12 Coastal shore of west coast Richard Barnes

P2 Chapter 3 The aquatic fauna of King Island’s streams and wetlands

Peter E. Davies, Katie Brown, Rodney Walker, Laurie Cook

Introduction salinity in several streams, as well as in some King Island has a wide range of freshwater aquatic wetlands (2, K. Brown, unpublished data). environments including rivers and streams and Before European settlement, most of the ephemeral and permanent wetlands (ponds, streams on the island were swamp-channel swamps, lagoons). The fauna of these environ- complexes with shallow channels containing large ments is not well known, and the writing of this amounts of woody and other organic matter, often chapter required some new sampling to be done. overlying sands. They were heavily shaded, slow As a result we now know that the island has many flowing (except for those in the south-east), and species (more than 140) of aquatic macroinverte- many sections probably experienced seasonal brates, including burrowing crayfish, aquatic (summer) drops in dissolved oxygen levels due to insects, freshwater crabs and snails, as well as eight decomposition of organic material, during periods species of freshwater fish. of slow flow and higher temperatures. In some The island is highly seasonal in its rainfall, and, cases, surface waters in swamps and lagoons and as a consequence, most of the streams and rivers some stream sections were probably devoid of have very low or no flow during the summer and oxygen and contained hydrogen sulphide (rotten autumn months. Some sections have permanent egg gas). This can be seen today in places like water, especially near the coast or those associated Collier’s Swamp. Overall though, water quality was with springs or escarpments. probably better than today, and stream habitats The landscape of the island has changed were more uniform across the island. substantially since European settlement, and Despite these changes and the highly seasonal significant changes have occurred to its freshwater rainfall, the majority of streams and wetlands on habitats. Most of the catchments no longer have the island still manage to maintain a reasonably their original vegetation cover, and that, coupled diverse fauna, which in many cases is highly with intensive agriculture, has undoubtedly led to abundant. changes in stream flows and water quality. Changes to the bankside or riparian vegetation Streams have been significant, with many stream sections The physical form of King Island streams was and wetlands now having no or limited areas of studied recently (3) and this has revealed that: natural riparian vegetation (1), and with many of • rivers on the island are divided into five broad these areas being accessed by stock, with effects types, each with a characteristic form – rivers on bank erosion and water quality. There is on flat landscape surfaces, on escarpments on evidence of higher levels of turbidity, nutrients and the edge of these surfaces, in the dunefields of

17 the west and east coasts, and on the younger condition of wetlands is determined by: northern plains; • changes to (e.g. clearing) and management • these regions are not determined by geology or (e.g. burning) of surrounding vegetation; by climate (which is fairly uniform over the • changes to drainage, inflows and outflows; island), but rather by the long-term history of •management of levels through damming, changes from wind action and sea-level; and draining, levees or roads; • the presence of native riparian (bankside) • changes to water quality from local or upstream vegetation in good condition is a key factor in erosion, increased nutrient loads for pasture determining the form and stability of river development; and environments on King Island. • introduction of exotic species such as plants (e.g. Typha) and animals (e.g. trout).

Wetlands Many or all of these things have been There are many wetlands on the island, varying in experienced by the wetlands on the island. In size from small ponds and ephemeral swamps to addition, large numbers of farm dams represent large ‘lakes’ and estuarine shallows with new habitat created since settlement, especially permanent water. The island was typified by during the last 50 years. Examples of the wetlands having many swampy habitats when first settled, in different disturbance categories are shown in and the number and condition of these has Table 1. declined significantly over the last century. The

Table 1. Wetland experiencing different degrees of disturbance on King Island

Disturbance category Description Wetland examples

1Intact marginal vegetation, no sign of drainage, Lily and Swan Lagoons, immediate catchment still with substantial the Nook Swamps, vegetation cover. Colliers Swamp

2 Disturbed margin vegetation and/or some drainage, and/ Bertie Lagoon or immediate catchment with moderate degree of vegetation (vegetation burnt in 2001 fire) cover and/or some evidence of sediment input from local/ catchment erosion and/or water quality impacts.

3Heavily disturbed marginal vegetation or marginal Pearshape and Tathams vegetation absent,and/or wetland severely drained or Lagoons – limited marginal physically altered,and/or limited natural vegetation vegetation, heavy disturbance, cover in catchment;significant evidence of sediment sedimentation and water inputfrom local/catchment erosion and/or water. quality impacts. quality impacts

4No marginal vegetation (other than grasses or weeds), Bobs Lagoon – minimal marginal and/or completely altered physically and/or no natural vegetation. Fenced for a few years, vegetation in immediate catchment, and/or severe now a macrophyte dominated disturbance from erosion and/or other water quality wetland, receiving agricultural changes. runoff.

18 The Fauna and wetlands. Engaeus burrows are found around Fish (Plates 3.1–3.8) the margins of swamps and wetlands and along river banks. Geocharax is also found in these There are eight freshwater fish species on King habitats, but is also more widely distributed across Island, all of which are considered common to the field and heathy plains, often with very deep south-eastern Australian mainland and Tasmania. burrows. Both of these species are widespread and Six of these are native to the island and two occur in both northern Tasmania and Victoria. (brown trout and rainbow trout) have been Engaeus cunicularius is also found in north- introduced as recreational fishing species. The eastern Tasmania and Flinders Island. Both species native freshwater fish fauna consists of species that build ‘chimneys’ at the entrance to their burrows, have a marine dispersal stage or have a high and those of Geocharax can be quite a sight when tolerance to salt. The trout species have been scattered over paddocks (or even golf courses!). introduced for recreational fishing, and their effects on the native fauna is unknown, but probably Macroinvertebrates limited. There is a wide variety of macroinvertebrates in the It is unlikely that trout will establish significant streams and wetlands of the island. Macro- self-sustaining populations on the island. invertebrates are small invertebrates that are Considerable care must be taken in future translo- typically caught by net, visible to the naked eye, cations (stockings) from mainland Tasmania to and range in size from around 0.25 mm to 10 cm. ensure that redfin perch and mosquito-fish are not They include a variety of forms – aquatic insects, also accidentally translocated. These pest species molluscs, crustaceans, worms and many species. could establish major populations in the habitats They represent the core of animal diversity in on King Island and have a significant impact on the freshwater environments. In sampling conducted existing native fish and macroinvertebrate fauna. for this guide from 10 rivers or creeks and seven All of the native species except the southern wetlands in 2002, 140 different forms (or ‘taxa’) of pygmy perch (Nannoperca australis) spawn in macroinvertebrates were identified, many of these marine areas, and the resulting juveniles disperse being families or orders with many species yet to widely in estuaries and/or local coastal waters prior be identified or described. This represents between to re-entering freshwater. The southern pygmy 200 and 300 species of macroinvertebrates from perch is a land-locked species but has a high those waters alone. The species found are listed in tolerance to salt. Table 2. A recent survey conducted by the Inland Macroinvertebrate communities are strongly Fisheries Service revealed that most of the dependent on the type of habitat as well as the freshwater habitat on King Island is degraded. The condition of the stream or wetland. larger nature reserves (e.g. Lavinia) could sustain a diversity of fish species. The fish fauna in these Macroinvertebrates in the streams areas is probably close to that which occurred A wide variety of macroinvertebrates are found in throughout the island prior to European settlement. the streams, with their communities strongly More information on identification, natural related to the degree of human disturbance or history, range and status of individual fish species development in the catchment. on King Island is contained in the vertebrate Streams on the island can be classed as being in species accounts at the end of the book. good to moderate, moderate to poor, and poor to very poor condition. These three classes of streams Crayfish have distinct differences in their macroinvertebrate Two species of freshwater crayfish are known from community composition. King Island – Geocharax gracilis and Engaeus Streams which are considered to be in good to cunicularius. Both of these species are widespread moderate condition are: Seal River, Fraser River, on the island. They live in burrows, though G. Pass Creek, Sea Elephant River. Species with higher gracilis can also be seen in open water in streams abundances in these better condition streams are

19 as follows: lying in and moving through the channel, plus • The leptophlebiid mayfly Nousia sp. AV8. increased salinity. Increases in nutrient levels may • The stoneflies of the family Grypopyterygidae – occur but have little effect until light levels Dinotoperla serricaudata, Leptoperla varia, increase. Once riparian vegetation is opened up or Riekoperla triloba regalis, all of which are removed, increased light allows extensive growth ‘shredders’, feeding on organic material such as of aquatic plants (such as pondweed, watercress or twigs and leaves. Triglochin), mainly along the channel margins but • The leptocerid caddisflies Notalina spira which occasionally across the entire channel builds its case from leaves, Triplectides (downstream reaches of Yellow Rock River), which proximus which builds its cases from hollowed can take advantage of enhanced sediment and out twigs (often with a twig ‘rudder’) in reaches nutrient loads in cleared catchments. with dense Melaleuca or tea-tree riparian forest, Thus, catchment development causes a shift and Triplectidina nigricornis. from: • The conoesucid caddisfly Lingora aurata, with 1. well shaded, shallow, sometimes braided a sand grain case. channels containing large amounts of woody • The sphaerid bivalve or pea-shell, Pisidium material, twigs and leaves – with a fauna casertanum.. dominated by leptocerid caddis (which build • The freshwater false spider crab Amarinus cases from bark, twigs and leaves) and lacustris. grypopterygid stoneflies which ‘shred’ wood and leaf material as a food source; Streams currently considered as in moderate to to poor condition are: Seal River, Ettrick River, Grassy 2. open, deeper or more channelised sections River and Yarra Creek. Streams classified as in poor with less woody material (organic carbon), to very poor condition include Yellow Rock River, more silt and areas of aquatic plants, Porky’s Creek and Egg Lagoon Creek. Species that sometimes coupled with higher salinity – with increase in abundance as stream catchments are a fauna dominated by plant and slower flow developed and riparian zones are degraded or loving species like planorbid snails, cleared are: hydrophilid beetles, amphipods, isopods and • The amphipods (scud) Austrochiltonia ostracods. dalhousiensi and Austrochiltonia australis. • The freshwater isopod Heterias pusilla. Potamopyrgus antipodarum, an introduced • The planorbid snail Glyptophysa gibbosa. New Zealand hydrobiid snail (common to many • The seed shrimp or Ostracods, common to slow agricultural catchments in south-east Australia and flowing and silty or plant dominated habitats in Tasmania) was found to occur in all the streams King Island streams. sampled, with the exception of Seal and Fraser • The leptocerid caddis Symphitoneuria opposita, rivers. This suggests that these are the least associated with aquatic plants on unshaded disturbed rivers sampled on the island, since channel edges. infestation with P. antipodarum is generally • The native freshwater hydrobiid snails linked with multiple human disturbance. It was Phrantela and/or Beddomia (genera with particularly abundant in the highly degraded and potentially new species unique to the island), channelised Egg Lagoon Creek. This species is a which favour slower flowing, plant-dominated small, brown water snail with a relatively pointy backwaters. spire. It often has delicate teeth-like features on its shell, but these may be absent. The females of Much of this response is due to changes in the this species carry their embryos in a small pouch nutrient, sediment, salinity and light regime of the under the shell, a characteristic feature seen when streams. Catchment development tends to be a specimen is squeezed between the fingers. associated with increased channelisation of the Species in mid-channel habitats which indicate streams, along with large amounts of fine sediment low levels of catchment and riparian disturbance

20 are the stoneflies Leptoperla varia, Dinotoperla with all of its legs, in a frantic action. The adults serricaudata and Riekoperla triloba regalis (all of eat algae and water plant material. As a larva it is the family Grypopterygidae). These two species a predator on aquatic snails, which abound in the are much more abundant in less disturbed streams habitats it favours on King Island. The larvae have with intact riparian vegetation and low levels of symmetrical mandibles with three teeth. The catchment disturbance. They can be regarded as species is common in south-east Australia, and is ‘target species’ for stream rehabilitation on King capable of coping with its habitat drying up in Island, and are mainly associated with high levels summer. It usually stays put until near dry of organic debris (melaleuca and ti-tree leaves, conditions when it disperses by flying. The adults twigs and branches). D. serricaudata is more are strong fliers and can seek out other wet areas abundant in good condition edge habitats, while to colonise. R. triloba regalis is more abundant in channel The planorbid snail Glyptophysa gibbosa is a habitats of good condition streams. mid-sized snail (typically 0.5 to 1.5 cm long on These stoneflies have a winged adult stage and King Island) which occupies slow flowing areas an aquatic nymph stage which look similar, though or stream edges with lots of plants. It feeds on the latter have wing pads on their backs. Slow algae and plant material and organic detritus. It moving, drab (grey-brown) in colour and has a fairly plain spiral shell, brown to brown- frequently small (5–10 mm long), the nymphs can black in colour. Like many snails it is be readily found crawling on sticks or rocks in hermaphrodite and capable of self-fertilising. In good condition streams. They are easily distin- productive environments in south-east Australia it guished by the presence of two short ‘tails’ or cerci is capable of reproducing between one and three protruding from the tip of their abdomen, with a times every year and can have very high bunch of short tufts between them which are their population densities (up to several thousand per gills. When picked up (in water!) they often wag square metre). their tails to and fro in order to maintain their oxygen supply. As adults they are brown-grey, Macroinvertebrates of the wetlands often found crawling on bankside vegetation or From the survey of seven wetlands in 2002, 71 logs, with straight wings folded neatly over the taxa were recorded. In contrast to the streams, body and long antennae. They are poor fliers. each wetland on King Island has its own Adults of the Hydrophilid water scavenger distinctive faunal community, which seems to beetle Limnoxenus zelandicus and the planorbid bear little or no relationship with the condition of snail Glyptophysa gibbosa are indicative of high the wetlands. The species found in the seven levels of disturbance in King Island streams when wetlands surveyed are shown in Table 3. The found in abundance in stream edge habitats. The faunal community in these wetlands is strongly adults favour slow-moving water and are dependent on the aquatic vegetation, which are in herbivorous, feeding on aquatic plants. They are turn dependent on water regime and quality, and more abundant in streams that have little or no light conditions. riparian vegetation, often with abundant aquatic Differences in the fauna between the wetlands plants along the edges, or in streams where the are quite marked. For example, the amphipod (or majority of the upstream drainage has been scud) Austrochiltonia australis dominates in all channelised. These streams often have higher the wetlands surveyed except for Bobs Lagoon salinity levels. and Colliers Swamp in which it is either absent or Limnoxenus is an oval beetle, up to 1 cm long very scarce, and in Pearshape Lagoon where the as an adult. It looks black, but under strong light closely related Austrochiltonia dalhousiensis is actually bright green. It has large, silvery areas dominates. Chironomids (midges) are ubiquitous on its underside which are the air bubbles but are markedly dominant in Colliers Swamp, trapped on hairs that act as a bubble lung or reflecting the occurrence of stagnant conditions plastron. Unlike many diving beetles, it swims with low oxygen and hydrogen sulphide.

21 XXX X XX X X X XX X XX X X XXX XXXX XXXX XX X XX X X X X XX X X XX X XX XX XXXX XXXXXX X X XXXX XXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXX XXXXX River River River River Creek River River River Creek Creek XX X X X XX X X XX Edge Mid Wood Edge Mid Mid Edge Mid Edge Edge Mid Mid Mid Edge Mid Mid Edge Mid Edge sp. X X X X XX Stream: Stream: Seal Fraser Rock Yellow Pass Porky Ettrick Grassy Sea Elephant Yarra Egg Lagoon Habitat: sp. sp. X sp. sp. X X X X X X X XX XX tified tified X X n n ide ide ustrochiltonia dalhousiensis ustrochiltonia australis oonunga arataya australiensis aracalliope vicinus otamopyrgus antipodarum Amarinus lacustris Un Geocharax gracilis Heterias K P A A Un P Sphariium tasmanicum Daphnia Scapholerebris kingi Simocephalus lymnaea stagnalis Physa acuta Pisidium casertanum P Phrantela/Beddomia Ferrissia tasmanica Glyptophysa gibbosa osomatidae idae elitidae species blind Unidentified X X X X XX X X XX X n m astacidae acalliopidae me r ra r aniridae Pa Hy J Pa Pa Lymnaeidae Physidae Chydor Ancylidae Planorbidae > 50%, 25% or 10% of total abundance. Data from winter 2002 kick net samples (live picked) picked) winter 2002 kick net samples (live Data from total abundance. > 50%, 25% or 10% of mid channel and edge habitat from sopoda Phreatoicidae SyncaridaDecapoda Koonungidae Atyidae I Ostracoda CopepodaAmphipoda Ceinidae X X Platyhelminthes OligochaetaBivalvia Sphaeriidae X X X X XX XX X X X X X XX XX XX XX X able 2. represents on King Island. XXX, XX and X = taxon streams from recorded Macroinvertebrates ollusca Gastropoda Hydrobiidae Crustaceae Cladocera Daphniidae M Class Order Family Species T

22 X X X X X XX XX X X XX XX X XX XX XX XX X XX XXX XX X X XX XX X XX X X XX X X X X XXX XXX XXX X X X X X X XX River River River River Creek River River River Creek Creek XX XX XX X X X X X X X Edge Mid Wood Edge Mid Mid Edge Mid Edge Edge Mid Mid Mid Edge Mid Mid Edge Mid Edge Stream: Stream: Habitat: Seal Fraser Rock Yellow Pass Porky Ettrick Grassy Sea Elephant Yarra Egg Lagoon sp. AV8sp.AV7sp. X X XX X X X tified X n ide ustrolestes annulosus ustrolestes psyche eurynome graptocorixa ustrolestes analis eshna brevistyla ustrocerca tasmanica Sigara australis A A Sigara neboissi A A Micronecta annae tasmanica Un Anisops deani Anisops tasmaniensis Naucoris congrex Microvelia oceana Microvelia peramoena Microvelia dubia Kimminsoperla albomacula Nousia Nousia Nousia A Ischnura heterosticta tasmanica Ischnura aurora A Cardioperla incerta Leptoperla varia Dinotoperla serricaudata Dinotoperla opposita Illesoperla mayi triloba regalis Riekoperla idea X yphantidae idae dr idae ombido ygrobatidae X X X otonectidae otonemouridae eliidae ez Lestidae N Naucoridae V Coenagrionidae N Unid spiders Lycosid Pionid Hy ElyidaeH Tr X X X X X P Ox emiptera Corixiidae H Odonata Aeshnidae Ephemeroptera Leptophlebiidae Collembola Hypogasturidae X acarina Astigmatidae dr Insecta Plecoptera Gripopterygidae Class Order Family Species Hy

23 X X XX X X XX XXX XX X X X XX X XXX XX XX XXXXX X X XX XX XX X X X XX XX X XX XX XX X River River River River Creek River River River Creek Creek XX XX Edge Mid Wood Edge Mid Mid Edge Mid Edge Edge Mid Mid Mid Edge Mid Mid Edge Mid Edge Stream: Stream: Habitat: Seal Fraser Rock Yellow Pass Porky Ettrick Grassy Sea Elephant Yarra Egg Lagoon s sp. AV3 X sp. AV1 sp. X sp. AV2 sp. AV1 sp. X sp.delora? sp. triplectides dubius smicridea riplectides australis riplectidina nigricornis riaenodes riplectides proximus riplectides similis askiria asimia aschorema evansi aschorema anjilana zothecula Neoplea halei A T T A T T Condocerus paludosus Lectrides varians Notalina spira Notalina fulva Notalina Oecetis Symphitoneuria opposita T T Lingora aurata Costora T T T T Ptychbiosis Hellyethira simplex Ecnomus cygnitu Allodessus bistrigatus Antiporus femoralis Hyderodes shuckhardi Gibbidessus chipi Lancetes lanceolatus Liodessus amabilis Liodessus gemellus Megaporus hamatus Necterosoma penicillatus Necterosoma undecimlineatum Sternopriscus tasmanicus Sternopriscus maedfooti opsychidae obiosidae optilidae dr okiriidae asimiidae Hy K Leptoceridae Leptoceridae Conoesucidae T Hydr Hydr Ecnomidae optera Atriplectidae h ic emiptera Pleidae Tr H Coleoptera Dytiscidae Adult able 2 continued. Macroinvertebrates recorded from streams on King Island. streams from recorded able 2 continued. Macroinvertebrates also shown. species recorded otal number of T T Class Order Family Species

24 X X X X X X X XX X X X X X X XX XX X X X X XX River River River River Creek River River River Creek Creek X Edge Mid Wood Edge Mid Mid Edge Mid Edge Edge Mid Mid Mid Edge Mid Mid Edge Mid Edge Stream: Stream: Habitat: Seal Fraser Rock Yellow Pass Porky Ettrick Grassy Sea Elephant Yarra Egg Lagoon sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. X sp. sp. ustrolimnius ustrolimnius aranacaena Megaporus Lancetes lanceolatus Antiporus P Berosus Enochrus Limnoxenus zelandicus Hydrochus A Notriolus quadriplagiatus Simsonia leai Simsonia tasmanica Rhantus suturalis Berosus duplopunctatus Necterosoma Sternopriscus Berosus discolor Berosus majusculus zelandicus Limnoxenus Hyderodes shuckhardi Enochrus A Simsonia nominae X ypodinae X X X X X X X X X X X XX X n Larval hydrophilidae Hydrochidae larvae Elmid Scirtidae X X Hydrophilidae OrthocladiinaeTa X X X X DiamesinaeSimuliidaeTipulidaeDixidae Chaoboridae CeratopogonidaeCulicidaePodo X X XX XX X X X X X X X X X X X X X XX X X X XX X X X X X Elmid adults Elmid Diptera Chironominae X XX X X X X X XX X X X XX XX XX X X X X Coleoptera Larvae Dytiscidae Number of species observedNumber of 16 19 11 15 12 16 28 19 22 24 24 27 17 11 14 9 15 16 18 Class Order Family Species

25 X XX X XX X X XX X XX XXX XXX X XX XXX X XX X X X XX X X XX XX XX X X XX XX X XX X X XX X XXX XXXX XX XX XX XXX XX X X XX XX XX XX XX XXX XXXXXXXX X X XX X XX XX X X X Swamp Lagoon Lagoon Lagoon Lagoon Swamp Lagoon Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater etland: Colliers Berties Bobs Pearshape Lilly Nook Swan W Habitat: s sp. X X XX sp. X X spp. X X X spp. XX X spp. XX X X X sp. sp. XX X X X X X sp. Unid (too small) sp. Unid sp. AV7 tified corixiid nymphs corixiid tified X XX X n ide ustrolestes analis ustrochiltonia dalhousiensis ustrolestes annulosus ustrochiltonia australis ustrolestes psyche aracalliope vicinus oonunga otamopyrgus antipodarum Ischnura heterosticta tasmanica Nousia Nousia A A Amarinus lacustris A Copepod A P Heterias Geocharax gracilis Unidentified sightless species K Anisops deani Anisops tasmaniensis A Naucoris congrex Neoplea halei Ostracod Sigara neboissi Micronecta annae tasmanica Un Sigara australi Daphnia Chydorid P Glyptophysa gibbosa Physa acuta Sphariium tasmanicum Pisidium casertanum Scapholerebris kingi Simocephalus tified idae elitidae n yphantidae m acalliopidae astacidae ide dr ra r r otonectidae Un spiders Lycosid Lestidae Hy Pionid Pa Pa Pa Naucoridae Pleidae N Planorbidae Physidae Chydor acarina Elyidae dr able 3. Macroinvertebrates recorded from wetlands on King Island. XXX, XX and X = taxon represents represents on King Island. XXX, XX and X = taxon wetlands from recorded able 3. Macroinvertebrates emiptera Corixiidae urbellaria sopoda Janiridae T from picked) winter 2002 kick net samples (live Data from total abundance. > 50%, 25% or 10% of mid channel and edge habitats. Odonata Coenagrionidae Ephemeroptera Leptophlebiidae Amphipoda Ceinidae Decapoda Hymenosomatidae Hy Copepoda I Syncarida Koonungidae H Ostracoda Order/class Family Species Cladocera Daphniidae Gastropoda Hydrobiidae T Oligochaeta Bivalvia Sphaeriidae

26 X X X XXX XX X X X X X X XXXX X XX XX X XXXXX XX XX X XX XX X XX X X XX X XX X X X XXX Swamp Lagoon Lagoon Lagoon Lagoon Swamp Lagoon Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater Edge Midwater etland: Colliers Berties Bobs Pearshape Lilly Nook Swan Habitat: W sp. X sp. sp. X XX sp. sp. AV2 sp. sp. riplectidina nigricornis riplectides australis Gibbidessus chipi Lancetes lanceolatus Liodessus gemellus Hyderodes shuckhardi Allodessus bistrigatus Antiporus femoralis Berosus duplopunctatus zelandicus Limnoxenus Enochrus Megaporus hamatus Sternopriscus tasmanicus Sternopriscus maedfooti T Lancetes lanceolatus Berosus Megaporus Antiporus Sternopriscus Hyderodes shuckhardi Symphitoneuria opposita T Oecetis Notalina ominae n ypodinae X X X X X X XX X ult Hydrophilidae n otal 20 22 27 24 22 17 Number of species by habitat species by Number of T 7 15 16 15 13 17 18 20 14 15 12 9 14 Ad Larval hydrophilidae Orthocladiinae Ta Diamesinae X Larval Dytiscidae ChaoboridaeCeratopogonidaeCulicidaePodo X X XX X XX optera Leptoceridae h ic Coleoptera Dytiscidae Adult Diptera Chironominae XXX X X X XX X X X Order/class Family Species Tr

27 Identification of freshwater microscope and keys, many of which are listed in fish the Waterbug book. We recommend getting familiar with the main orders and families first The following sources are strongly recom-mended: before venturing further. •Allen, G.R., Midgley, S.H. & Allen M. (2002). Field Guide to the Freshwater Fishes of References Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Victoria. • Fulton, W. (1990). Tasmanian Freshwater (1) Barnes, R.W., Duncan, F. & Todd, C.S. (2002). The Native Vegetation of King Island, Bass Strait. Nature Fishes. Fauna of Tasmania Handbook No. 7. Conservation Report 02/6. Nature Conservation University of Tasmania, Hobart. Branch, Resource Management and Conservation, •McDowall, R.M. (1996). Freshwater Fishes of DPIWE, Hobart 2002. South-eastern Australia. Reed Books, (2) Bobbi, C., Read, M. & Berry, K. (1999). Technical Chatswood, New South Wales. Teport on a Water Quality Survey of King Island Rivers and Streams. Report Series WRA99/12. Identification of macro- DPIWE, Hobart 27 pp. (3) Jerie, K., Houshold, I. & Watt, E. (2000). Draft invertebrates Report on the Conservation and Management of The macroinvertebrates are too diverse and Rivers and Streams of King Island. DPIWE, numerous to be comprehensively covered here. A September 2000. handy guide to freshwater macroinvertebrates has been written by John Gooderham and Edward Acknowledgements Tsyrlin, ‘The Waterbug Book’ (CSIRO Publishing 2002). Identification of macroinvertebrates to Thanks to Dr Alistair Richardson, School of species level is often a specialist job, requiring a Zoology for advice on crayfish.

28 Fish

Plate 3.1 Plate 3.2 Short-finned eel Anguilla australis Climbing galaxias Galaxias brevipinnis Inland Fisheries Service J. Jackson

Plate 3.3 Plate 3.4 Spotted galaxias Galaxias truttaceus Southern Pygmy perch Nannoperca australis B. Mawbey R. Mawbey

Plate 3.5 Plate 3.6 Common galaxias Galaxias maculatus Brown trout Salmo trutta B. Mawbey Inland Fisheries Service

Plate 3.7 Plate 3.8 Freshwater flathead Pseudaphritis urvillii Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss B. Mawbey Inland Fisheries Service

P3 Chapter 4 Invertebrates on King Island

Peter McQuillan

Introduction (Plates 4.1–4.16) Historical aspects Several thousand species of invertebrates live on The earliest account of King Island’s insects is by King Island, representing the largest proportion of François Péron (1775–1810), the French zoologist the animal fauna. A few may be endemic to the on the Nicolas Baudin expedition which visited the island, but island populations of even widespread island in 1802 during a survey voyage to map the species are likely to be genetically different from southern Australian coast. In his journal he noted those on the mainland and hence are an important that on King Island (Bass Strait) the seashore was component of Australia’s biodiversity. Insects and covered with the corpses of sea elephants, and their relatives perform essential ecological services there are found Trox which devour the ligaments such as nutrient recycling, soil conditioning, and membranes of the older carrion (Péron & pollination and seed dispersal of flowering plants Freycinet 1824). Although Trox beetles remain and help regulate the numbers of other inverte- common on the island today, sadly the sea brates. elephant has been exterminated. To a large extent, the insect fauna resembles Remarkably, the insect fauna of adjacent north- that of the lowlands of north-western Tasmania. western Tasmania was documented in the early Indeed, King Island was attached to Tasmania as a nineteenth century by Wilhelm Erichson, a leading peninsula as recently as 12,000 years ago when sea German entomologist (Erichson 1842 translated by levels were much lower. Unlike for vertebrates, Fogg 1858). The Silesian shepherd Adolphus there have been limited studies of the island’s Schayer, an overseer of stock with the Van invertebrate fauna. Until further collections are Diemens Land Company, who lived and worked made, only a broad impression of this fauna can be around Stanley and Woolnorth from 1831 until gained from the few publications which mention 1843, collected many local invertebrates which he the island’s invertebrates, together with insights fowarded to zoologists in Berlin. Many of from the fauna of similar habitats in northern Tasmania’s most familiar insects were named by Tasmania. Erichson at this time. However, some others, such This chapter presents an overview of the land- as Schayer’s grasshopper, are now extremely rare based invertebrate fauna present in various habitats and threatened. and offers a few suggestions for management of Few biologists visited for the next half century, this very important component of the native animal but in November 1887 a contingent of members of life on the island. the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria spent time ashore and reported their findings the following year (2). This publication gives a valuable insight

29 into the habitats on King Island before widespread Many small insects exploit these dispersal settlement. Over a few days in December 1906, opportunities also, including some agricultural Arthur Lea, the Tasmanian Government pests. The cabbage moth (Plutella xylostella), Entomologist, with Mr A. Conlon from the various aphids and the Rutherglen bug (Nysius Department of Agriculture, surveyed the beetle vinitor), a nuisance in seed crops and gardens, are fauna in the vicinity of Currie. He reported on 278 typical examples. The worrisome bushfly (Musca species (7), mostly from coastal heaths, and vetustissima) does not survive the winter in the estimated that the total beetle fauna of the island southern half of Australia and reinvades from the would exceed 1,000 species. Some of these have subtropics each spring, some years in very large not been found anywhere else in the world and numbers. Newly arrived females flies place batches others have not been collected again. of eggs in the plentiful fresh cattle dung where the Since that time, knowledge of the invertebrate maggots grow quickly so that local breeding on the fauna has accumulated only slowly, although from island supplements the invaders. the 1950s a good understanding of the pests of local agriculture has emerged. Introduced pests Invertebrates in pastures have gradually arrived through human agency. The most common land snails on the island today are The large areas of improved pasture on King Island introduced pest species, however 14 native species have been gradually colonised by a variety of both were located in a recent survey by Bonham (1). native and introduced invertebrates. Compared to native grasslands, pastures are simpler in structure Immigrant insects and higher in nutrients but support fewer native species. Some insects dependent on native King Island is strategically located to intercept grasslands are among the most threatened in migrating insects from mainland Australia. Radar Australia due to the conversion of most of their studies at Stanley in the 1970s (3) demonstrated habitat to farmland. that large numbers of airborne insects routinely The root zone of pasture is enriched with move southwards across Bass Strait in the warmer organic matter from the annual root growth of the months. The unpredictable climate of much of grasses and clovers. On most farms there are insuf- Australia has resulted in many insect species being ficient earthworms to recycle this material and its opportunistic in their breeding cycles and highly accumulation favours a build up of cockchafer mobile in their search for favourable habitats, beetle larvae which thrive on the living and dead sometimes dispersing over much of the continent. root matter. These subterranean grubs are C- Regular immigrants to King Island include shaped, usually whitish and soft-bodied, with a several grasshoppers such as the Australian plague yellowish head capsule. Many native species are locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) and the subtropical involved, including species of the genera spur-throated locust (Nomadacris guttulosa), neither Diphucephala, Scitala, Sericesthis, Phyllotocus and of which are believed to breed on the island. Several Heteronyx (9). Populations occasionally reach pest non-resident butterflies are recorded, including the proportions, and their feeding may undermine the wanderer (Danaus plexippus), the lesser wanderer pasture, encouraging forest ravens to disrupt it (Danaus chrysippus) and the caper white (Belenois further as they forage for the grubs. The beetle java). The latter species breeds in very large stage is usually active at night dispersing and numbers on caper bushes (Capparis spp.) in inland seeking egg-laying sites, but the shiny green adults Australia and often migrates to the south and east of the scarab beetle Diphucephala occasionally coasts of the continent in late spring. swarm on white flowers or even white items Insects are likely to be borne on warm north- hanging on washing lines! They have also been westerly winds associated with blocking high reported defoliating raspberry canes in gardens. pressure systems over the Tasman Sea. This points Several native dung beetles have adapted to the to a likely origin of western New South Wales and excrement of farm animals, although they are Victoria or eastern South Australia for these insects. relatively inefficient recyclers of farm animal dung.

30 In spring and autumn, Onthophagus australis is Invertebrates in forests quickly attracted to fresh droppings, and females dig vertical tunnels beneath a pat, provision it with The tall forests of Tasmanian blue gum are now a ball of dung and lay an egg on it. The developing very depleted, so it is impossible to be sure of the larva eats the dung ball and emerges to the surface detail of their original invertebrate fauna. Studies in as a beetle after about two months. Europe have shown that insects associated with A variety of other insects eat the green parts of ancient trees are increasingly threatened, and the the pasture. Most troublesome is the pasture situation is likely to be similar in Australia. Large cockchafer, Aphodius tasmaniae, a native beetle trees support many species. Eucalyptus roots are whose larvae live in vertical tunnels in the soil from eaten by the underground larvae of large ghost which they emerge on moist nights to feed on moths Abantiades which emerge to fly on damp clovers and grass. They cut off a few stems at a evenings in late summer. The foliage is attacked by time and sometimes return them to the tunnel to beetle, wasp and moth larvae, and infestations of eat later. Population densities can exceed a sap-sucking lerps can stress trees when water is hundred per square metre, and the resulting scarce. Among the more common beetles are centimetre-long adults may swarm to house lights chrysomelid leaf beetles of the genera Paropsis, on warm evenings in mid to late summer. Chrysophtharta and Cryptocephalus. At least 250 Less common but often conspicuous is the species of moths are likely to depend on eucalypt caterpillar of the oxycanus moth (Oxycanus foliage for sustaining their caterpillars. The woody antipoda) which can reach 10 cm in length. It lives trunks and branches are bored by the larvae of in deeper tunnels in the soil and also emerges at many beetles, especially longicorn beetles (family night to feed. They are sometimes found living in Cerambycidae). Among the most spectacular on hollowed-out potatoes. The large grey moth flies in the island is Enneaphyllus aeneipennis, the male of May. which has long finger-like projections on each A native grasshopper and a cricket have segment of its long antennae. become especially common since the expansion of An interesting collection of invertebrates lives pastures. The so-called wingless grasshopper under the bark of large eucalypts. Many of these Phaulacridium vittatum usually exists in mixed are predators which search the tree at night for populations of winged and wingless individuals. food, helping reduce the numbers of defoliating Eggs are laid in autumn in well drained soil, often insects. Huntsman spiders (Delena cancerides) and in bare patches of pasture. The tiny blackish gnaphosid spiders have flattened body shapes hoppers emerge in November and grow quickly which suit their lifestyle. Small colourful carabids through the summer, favouring pasture with a of the tribe Lebiini are fast moving beetles good content of clover and flatweeds. They may commonly found here. Large trees usually support invade gardens in search of food as the pasture vigorous ant colonies at their base which rely dries out over summer. The nocturnal black field heavily on the sugary secretions of sap-sucking cricket, Teleogryllus commodus, is a glossy, fast insects to which the ants trail daily. moving winged insect which matures in autumn. It The large logs which slowly accumulate in prefers heavy clay soils which crack in summer these forests are a key resource for many plants and thrives on germinating seeds. A much smaller and animals. They release nutrients to the cricket, Bobilla sp., is sometimes abundant in environment slowly, while providing moisture and damp overgrown pasture. Damp pastures are often protection for many decades as they decay. infested by the introduced conical snail Cochlicella. Wattle trees (Acacia spp.) are important Pasture insects sometimes become pests components of forests as resources for inverte- because their natural predators and parasites brates. They have a distinctive fauna quite different cannot maintain themselves in the modified from that of eucalypts. The white satin moths (two environment. An exception is the small wolf spider species of Thalaina) are among moths which eat Venatrix which is one of the most abundant the nutritious foliage. predators in pastures in spring and summer.

31 Invertebrates in heathland from birds. A small sap-sucking psyllid (Boreioglycaspis melaleucae) can stunt growth and The heathlands of King Island are rich in plant reduce seed set. The melaleuca flower weevil species and therefore support many varieties of (Haplonyx sp.) eats flower buds, mature flowers, insects. and immature seed capsules, while the melaleuca The jack jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula) is gall-fly (Fergusonina sp.) causes leaf and flower widespread but probably most abundant in buds to distort. heathland on sandy soils. This aggressive species is Heathlands are rich in nectar sources for much among the most primitive of living ants. Colony of the year. The profuse flowers of Melaleuca are sizes are modest, from a few dozen to a few visited by a wide range of insects seeking nectar hundred ants, and their social structure is and pollen. The soldier beetle Chauliognathus rudimentary. Workers are solitary hunters in pulchellus is sometimes present in enormous daylight and seek insects and honeydew for food. numbers, along with nectar scarabs (Phyllotocus Small black ants establish large colonies on free spp.) and the bright green Diphucephala draining soils. Some of these, including species of smaragdula. Many native bees visit Melaleuca also. the genus Anonochomyrma, range widely for food The diverse insect fauna of heathlands supports and can also be important dispersers of seeds. many spiders. The common large circular-web Heathlands support unusual species of spiders are members of the cosmopolitan genus grasshoppers and crickets. At least ten species of Araneus. A distinctive relative is the enamelled grasshoppers occur, including the unusual reed-like spiny spider Austracantha minax. The leaf-curling Psednura pedestris. The sluggish stick-like cricket spider Phonognatha graeffei spins a low web but Zaprochilus australis eats flowers and nectar at often incorporates a twisted leaf at the centre in night. Also nocturnal is the robust flightless ground which to hide. cricket Kinemania ambulans which hides by day in However, many of the heathland spiders do not shallow excavations beneath rocks or logs. After spin conspicuous webs. Among the largest (up to rain, root-feeding mole crickets (Gryllotalpa) may be 2 cm long) are badge spiders (Neosparassus heard trilling in their galleries a centimetre or two species) that are fawn or green on top, with below ground. distinctive colour combinations of black, white or Many species of moths inhabit the heathlands, orange under the abdomen (the ‘badge’) and although most are small in size and active at night. banded front legs. Small colourful flower spiders So-called mallee moths (family Oecophoridae) are (Diaea species) ambush flies at blooms, wolf small but often brightly coloured in various shades spiders actively patrol the ground for prey at night, of red, yellow and grey. Their caterpillars usually and compact jumping spiders (family Salticidae) eat dead leaves which they bind together with silk are widespread on vegetation. Several species of to form a secure retreat. There is a number of day- Myrmachne closely resemble ants. Fast moving, flying moths likely to be seen. Flying weakly close colourful zodariid spiders, which are specialist to the ground, or visiting flowers, is the metallic hunters of ants, are often seen zig-zagging along green forester moth Pollanisus viridipulverulentis. pathways on sunny days. Larger and more active is the whistling moth Hecatesia, the black and orange males of which fly Invertebrates in sand dunes rapidly around tree tops, emitting a high-pitched whirring sound, especially in the late afternoon. Its Coastal dunes are special environments which have caterpillars feed on strangling dodder Cassytha. a characteristic suite of invertebrates. Fresh water is The foliage of paperbark Melaleuca is eaten by usually scarce, and foredunes, in particular, are a the larvae of the defoliating sawfly Lophyrotoma desert-like environment. It is not surprising, analis, along with the larvae of pyralid moths therefore, that many of the insects found here are Macalla spp. The latter construct and live inside closely related to those found in the arid zone of ramifying silken tubes coated with their dung pellets mainland Australia. A good example is the large among the stems. This presumably protects them black carabid beetle Scaraphites rotundipennis. This

32 robust flightless predator, the size of a 50 cent piece, nymphs and black, smelly cydnid bugs. is an accomplished burrower which excavates deep The single species of scorpion in Tasmania, tunnels in the sand in search of root-feeding Cercophonius squama, is widespread and especially cockchafer grubs (8). The larvae of the large scarab abundant on well-drained soils near the coast. It is beetle Pimelopus nothus, males of which have a a nocturnal hunter of small slow invertebrates which short horn on their head, live deep in the sand it grasps with its pincers and subdues with its sting. where they feed on the roots of native grasses. Daylight hours are spent immobile in a retreat under The nocturnal dung beetle Onthophagus pronus bark, leaf litter, woody debris or stones. Females is a distinctive glossy black species in which the engage in maternal care of their young, and a dozen male has a long prong-like horn projecting forwards or so small whitish juveniles may sometimes be seen from the thorax. Although widespread on sandy crowded onto the back of their parent. This soils, it is especially numerous in coastal dunes and inoffensive species commonly wanders indoors, is particularly attracted to the dung of wombats. especially after wet weather in autumn, but humans Darkling beetles of the family Tenebrionidae are are rarely stung. In any case, the discomfort is common in dunes also. On the seaward side, the temporary and comparable to a bee sting for most yellowish hemispherical Sphargeris phycoides is victims. common at night along the high tide mark, apparently grazing on microscopic algae. Among Invertebrates on sandy coastline the litter under dune shrubs live shiny black Adelium beetles and the matte, coarsely sculptured Organic material deposited on the beach by storms Celibe coatatus. and tides is a major source of nutrients to the island. Several conspicuous wasps inhabit the coastal Stranded kelp and other algae, together with dunes. The large black and yellow banded Thynnus microscopic single-celled diatoms, feed a surprising zonatus is sometimes mistaken for a European diversity of invertebrates, which in turn are eaten by wasp. Thynnus has wingless females which, after predators including spiders and shore birds. At mating, burrow in search of cockchafer grubs on night, pale-coloured amphipods, a jumping which their larvae feed. The robust black, grey and crustacean, emerge from the sand and forage white banded bembicid wasp Bembix furcata, between the tides. slightly bigger than a honeybee, is often observed Decaying kelp generates vast numbers of stocking its angled tunnels with paralysed blowflies kelpflies (family Coelopidae) whose maggots as food for its larvae. The burrow is carefully transform the alga into a bacteria-rich soup which covered over with fresh sand and the juveniles left they consume. Several species of darkling beetles to their fate. Bembix visits flowers for nectar, live under stranded kelp and seaweed and breed including the blooms of Solanum. A related wasp is there. Phycosecis is another small beetle which is the slender orange and black Ammophila which has associated with algae. Many of the beach inverte- a similar biology but stocks its nest with caterpillars, brates are sand-coloured and difficult to see, especially cutworm larvae. including a relatively large wolf spider. The moth fauna of sand dunes is poorly studied. Several native cutworms in the genus Carcasses Proteuxoa are known, most of which have caterpillars dependent on native grass. The same Roadkilled mammals are attractive to a wide variety foodplant is eaten by the woolly caterpillars of the of insects eager to capitalise on the food bonanza anthelid moth, Pterolocera, the females of which such a carcass represents. An orderly succession of cannot fly. The nutritious foliage of coastal wattles insects colonises the carcass as it decomposes. is eaten by the caterpillars of various moths such as Several native brown blowflies, notably Calliphora Praxis, Chlorocoma, Anthela and Acyphas. At stygia and Calliphora hilli, arrive and deposit eggs night, large flightless spiny weevils Leptopius and live larvae respectively, within an hour or so of ascend the shrubs to feed. The roots of dune plants death. Less common are the native bluebottle are attacked by various insects including cicada (Calliphora augur) and the introduced greenbottle

33 (Lucilia sericata). Native dung beetles, especially Habitat requirements for key Onthophagus posticus, are attracted to the semi- invertebrates digested gut contents of grazing mammals, and insect predators of fly larvae, such as metallic blue Dead wood, both standing and on the ground, is an histerid beetles (Saprinus) and assorted rove beetles important resource for native insects which use it as (family Staphylinidae), arrive within a few days as food, as a breeding site and as protection from the maggot population explodes. The red-headed predators and the elements. Dead wood is usually devil’s coach horse beetle, Creophilus erythro- colonised by fungi which increase its nutritive value cephalus, is an example of the latter. Perhaps a to insects. Native bees are an important group of week later, as drying proceeds, specialist skin insects which use holes and crevices in dead wood beetles, including the coarsely granular trogid beetle as nesting sites. Trox australasiae, the hide beetle Dermestes Unfortunately, scavenging for firewood and maculatus and black and yellowish embossed frequent hazard-reduction burning can locally silphid beetle Ptomaphila lachrymose, assemble to deplete this habitat. Dead wood accumulates in the feed and breed under the remains. environment as trees die of old age and from infrequent severe storm events which cause the Conservation status of the collapse of living trees. Leaf litter which accumulates beneath trees and invertebrate fauna shrubs is another important habitat. This mulch King Island is one of the least studied parts of concentrates nutrients and moisture as well as Australia in terms of its invertebrate fauna. Even providing shelter and food for invertebrates. Birds today, it is not possible to estimate accurately how can often be seen foraging for insects in the litter. many species occur on the island. There is an urgent Frequent fires can have a serious impact on the need to document the fauna as an aid to future insects which live in leaf litter. Although hazard planning and to monitor changes in the fauna. reduction fires have a place in protecting life and It is probable that several insects have become property, they should be used sparingly and locally extinct since European involvement with the targeted carefully. island. The King Island emu and the southern elephant seal almost certainly supported parasitic species which have disappeared with their hosts. Management and restoration of The same is probably true for the invertebrates forests for invertebrates intimately associated with locally extinct hosts such and forest function as the gang-gang cockatoo and spotted-tailed quoll. Extensive clearing for farmland has probably Island ecosystems are usually more at risk from the eliminated some local insect species, but detrimental impacts of introduced species. Careful information is lacking. attention to quarantine will be needed to keep Nevertheless, the size of most invertebrates European wasps, bumblebees, Argentine ants and means that their home ranges are quite small and other environmental pests from establishing on King populations can often survive in quite small patches Island. It is almost impossible to eradicate insect of habitat. Small scraps of remnant bush that might pests once they establish. be only of marginal value as bird habitat for It is wise to maintain some benchmark sites in example, may have value for preserving native different native vegetation types where natural insects. processes can proceed without interference. This The southern hairy red snail, listed as Rare and means that only natural disturbance events are Vulnerable under the Threatened Species Protection allowed, such as fires from lightning strike and Act, was rediscovered in wet forest near the east natural blow down of trees. Curbs on human inter- coast in 1996 (1). ference might include banning of firewood collection, no soil extraction, and care to avoid the introduction of weeds and other pests. Vehicular

34 access should be discouraged as the biological soil Tasmania 3: 298–238. [English translation of crust needs to be preserved and erosion avoided. Erichson, 1842.] (6) Hardy, R.J. (1974). The biology and pest status of Such benchmark sites serve as refuges for native Oxycanus fuscomaculatus Walker (Lepidoptera: species as well as references to inform restoration Hepialidae) in Tasmania. Journal of the Australian of sites elsewhere. A few stretches of coastline Entomological Society 31: 317–328. should be allowed to have kelp accumulate and (7) Lea, A.M. (1908). The Coleoptera of King Island, Bass decay naturally. Strait. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 20: Careful management of vegetation will favour 143–207. (8) McQuillan, P.B. (1983). Observations on Scaraphites survival of a diverse invertebrate fauna. Marram rotundipennis (Dejean) (Coleoptera: Carabidae) a grass should not be further encouraged, because it pest of golf courses on Flinders Island. Australian out-competes native plants and it supports very Entomological Magazine 10: 41–44. few native animals. Avoid weed invasion which (9) McQuillan, P.B. (1985). The identification of root- follows from overgrazing and nutrient enrichment. feeding cockchafer larvae (Coleoptera: Infestations of some weeds changes the soil Scarabaeidae) found in pastures in Tasmania. Australian Journal of Zoology 33: 509–546. environment to the disadvantage of native inverte- (10) Péron, F. & Freycinet, L. (1807–1816). Voyages de brates. découvertes aux Terres Australes, exécuté par ordre Care should be taken to avoid feral bee de sa majesté l’empereur et roi, sur les corvettes le colonies establishing in areas of native bush. Géographe, le Naturaliste, et la goelette le Casuarina, European honeybees readily monopolise the pendant les années 1800, 1801, 1802, 1803 et 1804; nectar sources aimed at native pollinators which publié par décret impérial, sous le ministere de M. de Champagny, et rédigé par M.F. Péron, naturaliste de are not competitive in the presence of the larger l’expedition...Paris, Imprimerie Imperiale. and more aggressive honeybee.

Acknowlegements Recommended reading A number of books and articles which deal with I am grateful to Kevin Bonham for information from Australian invertebrates more widely, are useful for his field trips to King Island, and to Owen Seeman identifying at least some of the King Island fauna. for checking the DPIWE insect collection for King Island records. Insects (General) • CSIRO. (1991). The Insects of Australia. Vols 1 & References 2, 2nd edition. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. (1) Bonham, K. (1997). Native land snails of King Island • Hadlinton, P.W. & Johnston, J.A. (1982). An and the Hunter Group. Tasmanian Naturalist 119: Introduction to Australian Insects. NSW 10–22. University Press, Kensington. (2) Campbell, A.J. (1888). Expedition to King Island, • Healy, A. and Smithers, C. (1983). Australian November, 1887. Official Report. Victorian Naturalist 4(9): 129–164. Insects in Colour. Reed, Sydney. (3) Drake, V.A, Helm, K.F, Readshaw, J.L, & Reid, D.G. • New, T.R. (1996). Name that insect. A guide to (1981). Insect migration across Bass Strait during the insects of south-eastern Australia. Oxford spring: a radar study. Bulletin of Entomological University Press, Melbourne. Research 71: 449–466. • Semmens, T.D., McQuillan, P.B. & Hayhurst, G. (4) Erichson, W.F. (1842). Beitrag zur Insecten-Fauna (1982). Catalogue of the Insects of Tasmania. von Vandiemensland, mit besonderer Department of Primary Industry, Hobart. Berücksichtigung der geographischen Verbreitung •A list of the official common names of insects is der Insekten. Archiv für Naturgeschichte 8(11): available at: CSIRO and AFFA 2003. Australian 83–291 Insect Common Names. AICN version 1.31. (5) Fogg, S.S. (1859). Contribution to the insect fauna of http://www.ento.csiro.au/aicn/ Van Diemen’s Land, (now Tasmania), with particular •Ecowatch has introductory information about reference to the geographical distribution of insects. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Australian insects and their use in environmental

35 monitoring: http://www.ento.csiro.au/Ecowatch/ Beetles •A number of books and articles which deal with •Hawkeswood, T. (1987). Beetles of Australia. Australian invertebrates more widely are useful Angus & Robertson, Sydney. for identifying at least some of the King Island • Lawrence, J.F. & Britton, E.B. (1994). Australian fauna. Beetles. Melbourne University Press, Carlton. • Matthews, E.G. (1980–2002). Guide to the Caddis-flies Genera of Beetles of South Australia. Special • Neboiss, A. (1981). Tasmanian Caddis-flies. Education Bulletin series. South Australian Fauna of Tasmania Handbook No. 4. University Museum, Adelaide. of Tasmania, Hobart. • Moore, B.P. (1980). A guide to the beetles of southeastern Australia. Australian Entomological Butterflies Press, Greenwich. ISBN 0 909451 07 9. • Common, I.F.B. & Waterhouse, D.F. (1972). Butterflies of Australia. Angus and Robertson, Land snails Sydney. •Smith, B.J. & Kershaw, R.C. (1981). Tasmanian •Couper, P. & M. (1992). Flying Colours. Common Land and Freshwater Molluscs. Fauna of caterpillars, butterflies and moths of south- Tasmania Handbook No. 5. Fauna of Tasmania eastern Australia. NSW University Press, Committee, University of Tasmania, Hobart. Kensington. • McQuillan, P.B. (1994). Butterflies of Tasmania. Spiders Tasmanian Field Naturalists Club, Hobart. • Brunet, B. (1996). Spider Watch: A Guide to • An excellent illustrated guide to South Australian Australian Spiders. New Holland. ISBN: 1 876334 butterflies by Roger Grund, but much 49 5. information relevant to Tasmania: http://users. •Hickman, V.V. (1967). Some Common chariot.net.au/~rgrund/ Tasmanian Spiders. Tasmanian Museum and Art • On-line information about Victorian butterflies is Gallery, Hobart. available at: http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/ • Main, B.Y. (1984). Spiders. Collins, Sydney. bioinformatics/butter/ • Mascord, R. (1983). Australian Spiders in Colour. Reed, Sydney. Moths • An informative website for Australian spiders is: • Common, I.F.B. (1990). Moths of Australia. http://www.austmus.gov.au/factsheets/#spiders Melbourne University Press, Carlton. •Australian Museum website on spiders and their • McQuillan, P.B. & Forrest, J.A. (1985). A guide to relatives: http://www.amonline.net.au/inverte- the Common Moths of the Adelaide Region. South brates/ara/ Australian Museum, Adelaide. •Victorian spiders: http://www.museum.vic.gov. • An illustrated guide to Australian caterpillars. au/spiders/ http://www-staff.mcs.uts.edu.au/~don/larvae/ • Australian wolf spiders: http://www.alphalink. larvae.html com.au/~framenau/Lycosidae/ Ants Centipedes • Anderson, A.N. (1991). The Ants of Southern • Mesibov, R. (1986). A Guide to Tasmanian Australia. A guide to the Bassian Fauna. CSIRO, Centipedes. The author, Zeehan. ISBN 0 9592968 East Melbourne. 1 6. • S.O. Shattuck & N.J. Barnett 2001. Australian Ants Online: http://www.ento.csiro.au/science/ants/ Pasture insects default.htm Provides an overview and guide to • McQuillan, P.B. & Ireson, J.B. (1987). Tasmanian identifying the ants of Australia. Pasture Pests – identification and control. Government Printer, Hobart. 44 pp. Grasshoppers and crickets • Rentz, D. (1996). Grasshopper Country: the abundant orthopteroid insects of Australia. UNSW Press, Sydney.

36 Invertebrates

Plate 4.1 Plate 4.2 The golden stag beetle Lamprima aurata is The small moth Macrobathra has caterpillars common in summer and breeds in dead wood. which tie the terminal leaves of wattles Peter McQuillan (Acacia) on coastal dunes. Peter McQuillan

Plate 4.3 Plate 4.4 The stag beetle Syndesus cornutus is active at The oecophorid moth Thema chlorochyta is night and also breeds in dead wood. typical of many small moths with caterpillars Peter McQuillan feeding on fallen dead eucalypt leaves. Peter McQuillan

Plate 4.5 Plate 4.6 The male dung beetle Onthophagus pronus has The tea-tree seed capsule moth Bathrotoma a distinctive forward-directed prong used in hollows the seed capsules of Melaleuca. rivalry with other males. Peter McQuillan Peter McQuillan

Plate 4.47 Plate 4.88 The Banksia jewel beetle Cyria imperialis bores The green geometrid moth Chlorocoma in the stems of banksias. cadmaria feeds on tea tree Leptospermum as a Peter McQuillan caterpillar. Peter McQuillan P5 Invertebrates

Plate 4.9 Plate 4.10 The sand dune carabid beetle Scaraphites The anthelid moth Pterolocera has a flightless rotundipennis is a predator of large scarab female and is dependant on grasses. beetle larvae. Peter McQuillan Peter McQuillan

Plate 4.11 Plate 4.12 The pasture scarab Aphodius tasmaniae is a The caterpillar of Danima banksiae feeds common pest of sown pasture in the larva exposed on Banksia and Hakea shrubs. stage. Peter McQuillan Peter McQuillan

Plate 4.13 Plate 4.14 The red-headed cockchafer Adoryphorus The trogid beetle Trox australasiae breeds couloni feeds on roots as a larva and can be a under carcasses. pest in pastures. Peter McQuillan Peter McQuillan

1 23

Plate 4.15 Plate 4.16 Cockchafer larvae common in pastures. The ant Rhyfidoponera is common on sandy 1. Adoryphorus couloni 2. Sericesthis sp. soils and disperses the seeds of many native 3. Aphodius tasmaniae Peter McQuillan plants. Peter McQuillan

P6 Chapter 5 Biogeography and ecology of the vertebrate fauna of King Island

Richard Donaghey, Jim Nelson, Rodney Walker and Wyn Jones

he Bass Strait land bridge disappeared about farming, bringing the water table closer to the T11,000 years ago, leaving Tasmania and King surface. Island geographically separated from continental All of the native species except the southern Australia. Continental islands like King and Flinders pygmy perch are catadromous in nature, meaning have fewer species than nearby Tasmania and they spawn in marine areas, and the resulting Victoria. juveniles have a dispersal stage prior to re-entering freshwater. The southern pygmy perch is Freshwater fish of King Island considered a land-locked species but, like the other native fish found on the island, it has a high (Plates 5.1–5.7) tolerance to salt. All eight species of freshwater fish The King Island fish fauna presently consists of eight currently found on King Island are considered freshwater fish species. The six native species common to south-eastern Australian mainland and occurring on the island are short-finned eel Tasmania. It is not clear if King Island populations (Anguilla australis), climbing galaxias (Galaxias are confined to the island itself or if there is brevipinnis), spotted galaxias (Galaxias truttaceus), exchange of individuals throughout the south- common jollytail (Galaxias maculatus), southern eastern Australian area. pygmy perch (Nannoperca australis) and freshwater A recent survey conducted by Tasmanian flathead (Pseudaphritis). Another native species, Inland Fisheries Service revealed that most of the Australian grayling (Prototroctes maraena), has only freshwater habitat on King Island is degraded. This been recorded once on the island but not during is primarily due to farming practices, channeli- recent surveys, so is a vagrant or is locally extinct. sation of the wetlands and the use of phosphate The other two species, brown trout (Salmo trutta) based sprays. In the larger nature reserves a and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), have diversity of fish species was located, and the water been introduced as recreational fishing species (3, 4). quality was considered good. These areas are The native freshwater fish fauna on King Island buffered from the effects of farming practices and generally consists of species that have a marine as a result resemble what the fish fauna may have dispersal stage to their lifecycle or, in the case of been like prior to European settlement. southern pygmy perch, have a high tolerance to salt. Brackish water environments dominate the Amphibians: frogs (Plates 5.1–5.7) freshwater habitat of King Island. This high salinity environment is partly due to the low elevation of the Frogs are the only order of amphibians living in island and the fact that large areas were cleared for Australia. Four families occur naturally, whereas

37 one introduced toad represents the only member One group, the tree frogs and the common froglet, of the true toad family. There are about 150 species have non-foamy egg masses placed in water and of frogs in Australia. Eleven species inhabit aquatic larvae. The smooth froglet has non-foamy mainland Tasmania, including three endemics. Six egg masses placed on land and aquatic larvae. Its species occur on King Island. relatively large eggs laid on land are later flooded The six frogs found on King Island are two tree with water, and the larvae then develop. The third frogs, the green and golden frog (Litoria group, the two species of marsh frogs, have foamy raniformis) and brown tree frog (Litoria ewingi); egg masses placed in water and aquatic larvae (15). two marsh frogs, eastern banjo frog The breeding seasons of the six King Island (Limnodynastes dumerili) and striped marsh frog frogs fall into three groups. The common froglet (Lymnodynastes peroni) and two froglets, the and brown tree frog breed all year, the smooth common or brown froglet (Crinia signifera) and froglet breeds in summer–autumn, and the green smooth froglet (Geocrinia laevis). All these frogs and golden frog and striped marsh frog breed in are found in far north-west Tasmania. Eleven spring–summer (15). Only male frogs call, and species of frogs occur both in adjacent west and their calls are most obvious during their mating central Victoria and in Tasmania. King Island and seasons when they generally call near or in water. Flinders Island each have six species of frogs, of Often there is a chorus of several species by late which four are common to both islands. Thus, the spring, but each species can be identified by its eight species common to Victoria and Tasmania are own distinctive call. found on either King or Flinders Island (14). The two species of frogs found on Flinders but not King Reptiles: snakes and lizards Island are spotted marsh frog (Lymnodynastes tasmaniensis) and southern toadlet (Pseudophryne (Plates 5.8–5.12) semimarmorata). Interestingly, the range of both The reptiles of King Island include three snakes and these frogs is restricted to the eastern half of six lizards. While the Australian continent might be Tasmania. The striped marsh frog and smooth termed ‘a land of reptiles’ in terms of numbers and froglet are the two frog species found on King but diversity, the Tasmanian mainland and the islands not Flinders Island. Both, the striped marsh frog around it are not exactly a paradise for reptiles. and smooth froglet are more common in the north- Reptiles are often referred to as being ‘cold west than north-east Tasmania. Thus, the blooded’, but are more properly called ectotherms, difference in frog distribution on the large Bass which means they have to obtain their body heat Strait islands reflects their current distribution in from the environment rather than maintaining a relation to present climate and past climate when constant heat within the body as is the case with the land bridge occurred (16). endotherms, such as mammals and birds. Obviously, The six species of frogs on King Island are regulating body heat from the environment to a level basically the same group of frogs found in the far of optimum functioning (between 25 and 35°C) is north-west of Tasmania, although one of the marsh easier in a warm climate. Species adapted to cool frogs, the eastern banjo frog or pobblebonk, differs climates have developed special strategies, and some at a sub species level. Curiously, the endemic of the efficiencies of these strategies make our reptile Tasmanian froglet (Crinia tasmaniensis) occurs in fauna particularly interesting. the far north-west and throughout Tasmania but The three snakes found on King Island are the not the Bass Strait islands. It has been suggested same three as on the Tasmanian mainland. The six that the Tasmanian froglet evolved from stock lizard species on King Island, compared to the ancestral to the common or brown froglet when Tasmanian mainland’s 18, are the same six that are Tasmania was geographically isolated before the commonly found in north-west Tasmania. The fact last glacial but did not migrate across the land that there are around three additional lizards in the bridge to King Island (15). general north-west area that have not been The life histories of the six species of King recorded on King Island may either mean that they Island frogs separate into three distinct groups. have yet to be recorded, or, more probably, they

38 do not occur. These are the mountain dragon habitats in Tasmania are coastal heath, grassy (Tympanocryptis diemensis) the she-oak skink woodlands, dry and wet eucalypt forests, swamp (Cyclodomorphus casuarinae) and the delicate forests, rainforest, alpine and moorland vegetation skink (Lampropholis delicata). The delicate skink and freshwater systems. King Island is flatter and would be the most likely to have been overlooked, lacks the diverse rainforest, alpine and moorland as the other two are very distinctive lizards. habitats of western Tasmania and the diverse However, its distribution in the north-west is eucalypt forests of east and south-east Tasmania. tenuously recorded so far. Specialist moorland birds such as ground parrot, Part of the strategy for reptiles living in cold striated fieldwren and southern emu-wren are climates is to give birth to fully developed young. absent from King Island but present in Rocky Cape All three snakes and all but three of the 18 National Park, north-west Tasmania. Cool Tasmanian lizards give birth to live young. On King temperate rainforest dominated by myrtle–beech is Island, the eastern three-lined skink (Basiana absent from King Island. Interestingly, two duperreyi) is the only reptile that lays eggs. Only specialists of this habitat, the pink robin and one of the reptiles on King Island, the Tasmanian scrubtit, appear to favour paperbark swamps on tree skink, is endemic, meaning it is found only in King Island. In north-central Tasmania both species Tasmania (12, 17, 18). inhabit tall wet eucalypt forests with tree fern gullies. Breeding birds that are more common in Birds (Plates 6.1–8.58) the drier woodlands and forests of eastern half of Tasmania but absent from King Island are: musk Birds are a conspicuous and strong component of lorikeet, eastern rosella, masked owl, tawny the King Island fauna. Tasmania has a distinct but frogmouth, Australian owlet-nightjar, scarlet robin, impoverished avifauna compared to continental spotted quail-thrush, grey butcherbird and grey Victoria (1). Excluding habitats absent from currawong. English names of birds follow Christidis Tasmania, Victoria has 176 breeding bird species and Boles (2). whereas 104 species of freshwater and land birds King Island is rich in endemic bird species and (59% of Victoria’s total) regularly breed in has 10 of Tasmania’s 12 endemic resident breeding Tasmania (19). By comparison, Green (24) birds. These are green rosella, Tasmanian estimated that of the 104 species of freshwater and scrubwren, scrubtit, Tasmanian thornbill, yellow land birds breeding in Tasmania, 60 species wattlebird, yellow-throated honeyeater, strong- regularly breed on King Island. This total includes billed honeyeater, black-headed honeyeater, dusky about 14 freshwater birds, 13 non-passerine land robin and black currawong (6). King Island once birds, 34 passerine land birds but excludes all had another Tasmanian endemic bird, the forty- exotic introduced birds. King Island has 86 species spotted pardalote, but it became locally extinct, of land and freshwater birds that are breeding presumably early in the 20th century. The residents or regular migrants and visitors, 12 remaining endemic, the flightless Tasmanian species of breeding or resident marine birds and native-hen, is absent from the Bass Strait islands. shorebirds, 35 species of land and freshwater birds Two endangered species, the orange-bellied parrot that are irregular migrants and visitors, vagrants and swift parrot, are passage migrants to King and accidentals, 14 species of migratory shorebirds Island but breed in Tasmania. and irregular gulls and terns, 24 species of resident The period of isolation provided ample time for and visitor marine birds and 11 species of the evolution of endemic species and endemic introduced non-Australian birds (see Appendix 1). subspecies (19). The endemic King Island emu The King Island total of 182 bird species compares became extinct in the early 19th century. King to 212 species for Tasmania. The number of bird Island lost four other species, grey goshawk, glossy species breeding regularly on an island correlates black-cockatoo, gang-gang cockatoo and forty- with the size of an island and its habitat diversity. spotted pardalote as a result of extensive clearing Tasmania’s large offshore islands have far fewer of forests and extensive fires. Five subspecies only habitats than Tasmania. The predominant bird occur on King Island. These endemic subspecies

39 are the race archibaldi of the brown thornbill (21, range. The Tasmanian scrubwren is common in the 8), the race brownii of the green rosella (20), race ground layer and understorey layers. Populations of kingi of the yellow wattlebird, race kingi of the the large endemic yellow wattlebird and green dusky robin and race colei of the black currawong rosella are recovering from extensive clearing of (21, 8, 9). Tasmanian endemic subspecies of brown native forests. Foliage gleaning specialists such as falcon, brown quail, southern boobook, grey the endemic black-headed honeyeater and two fantail, little grassbird, superb fairy-wren and species of pardalotes that favour white gum are crescent honeyeater are present on King Island uncommon to rare. Other King Island birds that are (22). The subspecies xanthanotus of the yellow- uncommon to rare and may be declining include tailed black-cockatoo occurs in South Australia, common bronzewing, yellow-tailed black- western Victoria and Tasmania (7). Birds from cockatoo, southern boobook, tawny-crowned Tasmania and the Bass Strait islands may constitute honeyeater, pink robin, satin flycatcher and little a separate subspecies since they differ from grassbird. mainland birds in that females are larger than King Island is home to a few special mainland males and males have significantly wider bills than Australian species that are scarce in Tasmania. The mainland males (7). nankeen night heron breeds on the island but not Some Tasmanian and King Island birds exhibit on the Tasmanian mainland. The range of the behavioural and ecological adaptations compared to golden-headed cisticola has contracted on King their mainland relatives. Forest birds that are Island, and it now breeds in sedgeland in lower specialist bark and trunk foragers include the three Sea Elephant River but not on the Tasmanian endemic species scrubtit, strong-billed honeyeater mainland. The dusky moorhen is a breeding and yellow-throated honeyeater, and the grey resident on King Island but is slowly expanding its shrike-thrush (13, 8). The strong-billed honeyeater range in Tasmania. Stubble quail, nankeen kestrel, spends a large proportion of its time foraging on buff-banded rail and barn owl are more common bark of branches and trunks searching for inverte- on King Island than in Tasmania. The status of the brates. It uses its strong bill to probe into cracks and yellow-faced honeyeater and tawny-crowned prise apart strips of bark. Similarly the grey shrike- honeyeater on King Island requires further study. thrush in Tasmania spends more time foraging on bark and trunks than birds on the mainland (13). In Mammals (Plates 5.11–5.23) Tasmania the brown thornbill forages more on branches and trunks and in the canopy than birds The mammals of King Island are an impoverished on the mainland (13). Tasmania and King Island subset of those on mainland Tasmania and include lack the specialised trunk-feeding treecreepers, some Tasmanian endemic species and subspecies. sittella and crested shrike-tit of southern Victoria. Of the 35 native mammal species in Tasmania, 17 This suggests that in the absence of these species occur on the islands of Bass Strait. On King Island the strong-billed honeyeater has exploited this 14 terrestrial species have been recorded since vacant niche and other species such as yellow- settlement (c. 1880). The southern elephant seal throated honeyeater, scrubtit, grey shrike-thrush and (Mirounga leonina) was exterminated from King brown thornbill have expanded their niches and Island early in the 19th century (Plate 5.11). adapted to bark and trunk foraging (13). Two terrestrial species became locally extinct On King Island the Tasmanian endemics are a on King Island by the early 20th century. These distinctive element of the forests. The bark foraging were the largest herbivore, common wombat strong-billed honeyeater and yellow-throated (Vombatus ursinus), which may have been in low honeyeater are widespread and common in many numbers and on the decline in 1887, and the habitats. The dusky robin is the most widespread largest marsupial carnivore, the spotted-tailed quoll and common robin. The abundant and widespread (Dasyurus maculatus), last seen in 1923 (Plate Tasmanian thornbill has expanded its niche and 5.14). Neither the spotted-tailed quoll nor the occupies wet and dry habitats, whereas the brown wombat are extinct on the Tasmanian mainland thornbill is critically endangered (5) with a restricted (6).

40 Fossil records from the last interglacial period of indicate it is more common. It occurs in more open the Pleistocene include modern wombats, habitat such as patches of dry eucalypt forests, kangaroos and wallabies. The larger kangaroos did woodlands and heathland. Their population is not survive on any of the Bass Strait islands in the probably significantly less than the pre-settlement post-glacial period since there were insufficient levels, and this is related to habitat loss and grasslands to support a breeding population which fragmentation. eat large quantities of grass. The native mammals currently present on King The 12 terrestrial native mammal species that Island are the survivors of recent geographic still occur on King Island are two monotremes isolation and post-settlement clearance of forest (platypus and echidna), one dasyurid (swamp and conversion to pastures. Consequently, the antechinus), three possums, three macropods (red- grazing native herbivores, the red-necked or necked or Bennetts wallaby, Tasmanian Bennetts wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus), pademelon and long-nosed potoroo), at least two Tasmanian pademelon and brush-tail possum resident bats and one native rat. Mammals absent (Trichosurus vulpecula) are now very common to from King Island but present on Flinders Island are common over most of the island. The brush-tail common wombat, southern brown bandicoot possum shows no inclination to be arboreal (tree (Isoodon obesulus), white-footed dunnart dwelling) like those on the Australian mainland. (Sminthopsis leucopus), new holland mouse The less common ring-tail possum (Pseudocheirus (Pseudomys novaehollandiae), water rat peregrinus) and the rare eastern pygmy possum (Hydromys chrysogaster) and two bats, little forest (Cercartetus nanus) are the only true arboreal eptesicus (Eptesicus vulturnus) and chocolate mammals on King Island (10, 23). wattled bat (Chalinolobus morio) (10, 11, 23). Native mammals that appear to be rare with There are five species and 14 subspecies of very restricted distributions on King Island are terrestrial mammals (56%) endemic to Tasmania swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus), eastern (22). On King Island there is one endemic species, pygmy possum, long-nosed potoroo (Potorous Tasmanian pademelon (Thylogale billardierii), and tridactylus) and the bats, the lesser long-eared bat eight endemic sub-species, or 69% of the (Nyctophilus geoffroyi) and Gould’s wattled bat mammalian fauna. Tasmanian platypus is (Nyctophilus gouldi). All these mammals appear to genetically distinct from mainland populations, and be more sensitive to habitat loss and fragmentation King Island platypus is more closely related to and hence are vulnerable to local extinction. These platypus in Victoria than Tasmania despite the mammals have special habitat needs. The eastern geographic history (Shiro Akiyama). pygmy possum and the two bat species require The platypus is uncommon throughout the island hollows and cracks in trees as roosts and den sites but more common in the streams and rivers flowing as well as nearby native forests and scrub for to the east. It favours wet forest habitats with foraging. Swamp antechinus and long-nosed undisturbed banks for burrows. King Island platypus potoroo may require large forest remnants for their has lost genetic variability, and may be suffering survival. Protected areas such as Lavinia State genetic/population bottleneck due to long-term Reserve and large, less secure areas of native isolation and relatively small population size (Shiro vegetation, like Pegarah State Forest and many Akiyama). Its survival depends on further protection forest remnants on private land may be vital for of streams, ponds and riparian vegetation. Stream their survival. banks need protection from erosion and disturbance Three bat species have been recorded from by farm livestock and agricultural operations. King Island. One species, the grey-headed flying- Vegetation corridors need to be protected, fox (Pteropus poliocephalus), is a visitor from maintained and restored along streams and water mainland Australia. The other two bat species, bodies, serving the needs of both platypus and those lesser long-eared bat and Gould’s wattled bat, of other native mammals and birds. appear to be rare, but this may be an artefact of Survey records for the echidna (Tachyglossus inadequate surveys. It is highly unlikely that the aculeatus) suggest it is rare, but local observations time-consuming bat survey methods, particularly

41 harp traps and mist nets, have been used on the Chats. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. island. There are still many suitable roost trees on (9) Higgins, P.J. & Peter, J.M. (2002). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. the island either in native bush remnants or Volume 6: Pardalotes to Shrike-thrushes. Oxford scattered throughout the agricultural landscape. University Press, Melbourne. Neither of the latter two bat species is considered (10) Hope, J.H. (1965). Mammals of the Bass Strait endangered on mainland Tasmania. However, as it Islands. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria is unlikely that they would fly from either mainland 79, 163–195. Australia or Tasmania, the King Island populations (11) Hope, J.H. (1974). The biogeography of the mammals of the islands of Bass Strait. In W.D. could be considered vulnerable in the absence of Williams (ed). Biogeography and Ecology in detailed survey data. It is not impossible that Tasmania (pp. 397–415). Dr W. Junk, The Hague. intensive bat surveys may discover species not yet (12) Hutchinson, M., Swain, R. & Driessen, M. (2001). recorded on King Island. Snakes and Lizards of Tasmania. Fauna of The water rat (Hydromys chrysogaster) is present Tasmania Handbook No. 9. University of Tasmania, in Tasmania and on other islands of the Bass Strait Hobart. (13) Keast, A. (1968). Competitive interactions and the including Three Hummock Island. It is a very evolution of ecological niches as illustrated by the adaptable species inhabiting still and flowing Australian honeyeater genus Melithreptus freshwater bodies. The water rat is an agile swimmer (Meliphagidae). Evolution 22, 762–784. in salt water and is common along coastlines where (14) Littlejohn, M.J. & Martin, A.A. (1965). The vertebrate it feeds on shell fish, small crabs, fish and other fauna of the Bass Strait Islands: 1. The Amphibia of invertebrates. There seems no reason why it should Flinders and King Islands. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 79, 247–256. not be present on King Island, but it is not (15) Littlejohn, M.J. & Martin, A.A. (1974). The Amphibia mentioned in any of the accounts (23). of Tasmania. In. W.D. Williams (ed). Biogeography and Ecology in Tasmania (pp. 251–289). Dr W. Junk, References The Hague. (16) Martin, A.A. & Littlejohn, M.J. (1982). Tasmanian (1) Abbott, A. (1965). Birds of Bass Strait. Evolution and Amphibians. Fauna of Tasmania Handbook No. 6. ecology of the avifaunas of some Bass Strait Islands University of Tasmania, Hobart. and comparisons with those of Tasmania and (17) Rawlinson, P. (1965). The vertebrate fauna of the Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria Bass Strait Islands: 2. The Reptilia of Flinders and 79, 197–223. King Island. Proceedings of the Royal Society of (2) Christidis, L., & Boles, W.E. (1994). The Taxonomy Victoria 79, 211–223. and Species of Birds of Australia and its Territories. (18) Rawlinson, P. (1974). Biogeography and ecology of Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union Monograph the reptiles of Tasmania and the Bass Strait area. In 2. RAOU, Melbourne. W.D. Williams (ed). Biogeography and Ecology in (3) Frankenberg, R.S. (1965). The vertebrate fauna of the Tasmania (pp. 291–338). Dr W. Junk, The Hague. Bass Strait Islands: 3. The Galaxiid fishes of Flinders (19) Ridpath, M.G. & Moreau, R.E. (1966). The birds of and King Islands. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania: ecology and evolution. Ibis 108, 348–393. Victoria 79, 225–228. (20) Schodde, R. & Mason, I.J. (1977). Aves (Columbidae (4) Fulton, W. (1990). Tasmanian Freshwater Fishes. to Coraciidae). In W.W.K. Houston & A. Wells (eds). Fauna of Tasmania Handbook No. 7. University of Zoological Catalogue of Australia. Volume 37.2. Tasmania: Hobart. CSIRO, Melbourne. (5) Garnett, S.T. & Crowley, G.M. (2001). The Action (21) Schodde, R. & Mason, I. (1999). The Directory of Plan for Australian Birds 2000. Environment Australian Birds: Passerines. CSIRO, Canberra. Australia, Canberra. (22) Smith, S.J. (1990). Checklist of the Vertebrate Animals (6) Green, R.H., & McGarvie, A.M. (1971). The birds of of Tasmania. Tasmanian Government, Hobart. King Island. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum (23) Taylor, R.J. (1991). Fauna Conservation in 40, 1–42. Production Forests in Tasmania. Forestry (7) Higgins, P. (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Commission Tasmania, Hobart. Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4: Parrots to (24) Thomas, D.G. (1974). Some problems associated Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. with the avifauna. In W.D. Williams (ed). (8) Higgins, P.J., Peter, J. M. & Steele, W.K. (2001). Biogeography and Ecology in Tasmania (pp. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and 339–365). Dr W. Junk, The Hague. Antarctic Birds. Volume 5: Tyrant-flycatchers to

42 Appendix 1. Vertebrate fauna of King Island

Freshwater fish musk duck Biziura lobata black swan Cygnus atratus short-finned eel Anguilla australis Cape Barron goose Cereopsis novaehollandiae climbing galaxias Galaxias brevipinnis Australian shelduck Tadorna tadornoides jollytail Galaxias maculatus Australian wood duck Chenonetta jubata spotted galaxias Galaxias truttaceus Pacific black duck Anas superciliosa Tasmanian smelt Retropinna tasmanica Australasian shoveler Anas rhynchotis pygmy perch Nannoperca australis grey teal Anas gracilis sandy, or freshwater flathead Pseudaphritis urvillii chestnut teal Anas castanea hoary-headed grebe Poliocephalus poliocephalus little pied cormorant Phalacrocorax melanoleucos Amphibians great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo white-faced heron Egretta novaehollandiae cattle egret Ardea ibis brown tree frog Litoria ewingii nankeen night heron Nycticorax caledonicus green and golden frog Litoria raniformis Australasian bittern Botaurus poiciloptilus smooth froglet Geocrinia laevis white-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster eastern banjo frog Limnodynastes dumerili swamp harrier Circus approximans striped marsh frog Limnodynastes peronii brown goshawk Accipter fasciatus common froglet Crinia signifera brown falcon Falco berigora nankeen kestrel Falco cenchroides buff-banded rail Gallirallus philippensis Reptiles Lewin’s rail Rallus pectoralis spotless crake Porzana tabuensis White’s skink Egernia whitii purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio blotched bluetongue Tiliqua nigrolutea dusky moorhen Gallinula tenebrosa southern grass skink Pseudomoia Eurasian coot Fulica atra entrecasteauxii painted button-quail Turnix varia metallic skink Niveoscinus metallicus Latham’s snipe Gallinago hardwickii Tasmanian tree skink Niveoscinus pretiosus black-fronted dotterel Elseyornis melanops eastern three-lined skink Bassiana duperreyi banded lapwing Vanellus tricolor white-lipped snake Drysdalia coronoides masked lapwing Vanellus miles tiger snake Notechis ater common bronzewing Phaps chalcoptera lowland copperhead Austrelaps superbus brush bronzewing Phaps elegans yellow-tailed black-cockatoo Calyptorhynchus funereus sulphur-crested cockatoo Cacatua galerita Birds green rosella Platycercus caledonicus Extinct land birds swift parrot Lathamus discolor blue-winged parrot Neophema chrysotoma King Island emu Dromaius ater orange-bellied parrot Neophema chrysogaster grey goshawk Accipter novaehollandiae pallid cuckoo Cuculus pallidus glossy black-cockatoo Calyptorhynchus lathami fan-tailed cuckoo Cacomantis flabelliformis gang-gang cockatoo Callocephalon fimbriatum Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo Chrysococcyx basalis forty-spotted pardalote Pardalotus quadragintus shining bronze-cuckoo Chrysococcyx lucidus southern boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae white-throated needletail Hirundapus caudacutus Extant land and freshwater native birds – breeding residents or regular migrants and visitors Passerines Non passerines

superb fairy-wren Malurus cyaneus stubble quail Coturnix pectoralis spotted pardalote Pardalotus punctatus brown quail Coturnix ypsilophora striated pardalote Pardalotus striatus king quail Coturnix chinensis Tasmanian scrubwren Sericornis humilis blue-billed duck Oxyura australis scrubtit Acanthornis magnus

43 Appendix 1 continued

brown thornbill Acanthiza pusilla Irregular migrants and visitors, vagrants and Tasmanian thornbill Acanthiza ewingii accidental land and freshwater birds yellow wattlebird Anthochaera paradoxa yellow-throated honeyeater Lichenostomus flavicollis pink-eared duck Malacorhynchus strong-billed honeyeater Melithreptus validirostris membranaceus black-headed honeyeater Melithreptus affinis hardhead Aythya australis crescent honeyeater Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera Australasian grebe Tachybaptus New Holland honeyeater Phylidonyris novaehollandiae novaehollandiae great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus tawny-crowned honeyeater Phylidonyris melanops pied cormorant Phalacrocorax varius white-fronted chat Epthianura albifrons little black cormorant Phalacrocorax sulcirostris flame robin Petroica phoenicea little egret Egretta garzetta pink robin Petroica rodinogaster white-necked heron Ardea pacifica dusky robin Melanodryas vittata great egret Ardea alba olive whistler Pachycephala olivacea Australian white ibis Threskiornis molucca golden whistler Pachycephala pectoralis straw-necked ibis Threskiornis spinicollis grey shrike-thrush Colluricincla harmonica royal spoonbill Phatalea regia satin flycatcher Myiagra cyanoleuca yellow-billed spoonbill Phatalea flavipes grey fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa black-shouldered kite Elanus axillaris black-faced cuckoo-shrike Coracina novaehollandiae whistling kite Haliastur sphenurus dusky woodswallow Artamus cyanopterus collared sparrowhawk Accipter cirrhocephalus Australian magpie Gymnorhina tibicen wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax black currawong Strepera fuliginosa Australian hobby Falco longipennis forest raven Corvus tasmanicus peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus little raven Corvus mellori black-tailed native-hen Gallinula ventralis Richard’s pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae red-kneed dotterel Erythrogonys cinctus welcome swallow Hirundo neoxena galah Cacatua roseicapilla tree martin Hirundo nigricans little corella Cacatua sanguinea little grassbird Megalurus gramineus rainbow lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus golden-headed cisticola Cisticola exilis musk lorikeet Glossopsitta concinna silvereye Zosterops lateralis barn owl Tyto alba Bassian thrush Zoothera lunulata fork-tailed swift Apus pacificus sacred kingfisher Todiramphus sanctus yellow-rumped thornbill Acanthiza chrysorrhoa Some breeding or resident marine birds and yellow-faced honeyeater Lichenostomus chrysops shorebirds eastern spinebill Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris little penguin Eudyptes minor rufous whistler Pachycephala rufiventris short-tailed shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca black-faced cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscescens willie wagtail Rhipidura leucophrys pied oystercatcher Haematopus longirostris white-winged triller Lalage sueurii sooty oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus white-breasted woodswallow Artamus leucorynchus red-capped plover Charadrius ruficapillus masked woodswallow Artamus personatus hooded plover Thinornis rubricollis white-browed woodswallow Artamus superciliosus Pacific gull Larus pacificus silver gull Larus novaehollandiae caspian tern Sterna caspia Regular and irregular migratory shorebirds and crested tern Sterna bergii irregular gulls and terns fairy tern Sterna nereis bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica eastern curlew Numenius madagascariensis common greenshank Tringa nebularia common sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos

44 grey-tailed tattler Heteroscelus brevipes Resident introduced non-Australian land birds ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres red-necked stint Calidris ruficollis common pheasant Phasianus colchicus sharp-tailed sandpiper Calidris acuminata Indian peafowl Pavo cristatus curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo Pacific golden plover Pluvialis fulva California quail Callipepla californica double-banded plover Charadrius bicinctus spotted turtle-dove Streptopelia chinensis lesser (Mongolian) sand plover Charadrius mongolus skylark Alauda arvensis kelp gull Larus dominicanus house sparrow Passer domesticus Arctic tern Sterna paradisea European greenfinch Carduelis chloris European goldfinch Carduelis carduelis common blackbird Turdus merula Resident and visitor marine birds common starling Sturnus vulgaris rockhopper penguin Eudyptes chrysocome Fiordland penguin Eudyptes pachyrhynchus Mammals common diving-petrel Pelecanoides urinatrix Extinct land and marine mammals southern giant-petrel Macronectes giganteus Antarctic (silver-grey) petrel Thalassoica antarctica cape petrel Daption capense spotted-tailed quoll Dasyurus maculatus Kerguelen petrel Lugensa brevirostris common wombat Vombatus ursinus great-winged petrel Pterodroma macroptera southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina white-headed petrel Pterodroma lessonii blue petrel Halobaena caerulea Extant land mammals Salvin’s prion Pachyptila salvini Antarctic prion Pachyptila desolata slender-billed prion Pachyptila belcheri platytpus Ornithorhynchus anatinus fairy prion Pachyptila turtur echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus grey petrel Procellaria cinerea swamp antechinus Antechinus minimus fluttering shearwater Puffinus gavia common ringtail possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus wandering albatross Diomedea exulans brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula black-browed albatross Diomedea melanophris eastern pygmy possum Cercartetus nanus shy albatross Diomedea cauta long-nosed potoroo Potorous tridactylus grey-headed albatross Diomedea chrysostoma red-necked or Bennett’s wallaby Macropus rufogriseus yellow-nosed albatross Diomedea chlororhynchos Tasmanian pademelon Thylogale billardierii sooty albatross Diomedea fusca grey-headed flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus white-faced storm-petrel Pelagodroma marina lesser long-eared bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi Australasian gannet Morus serrator Gould’s wattled bat Nyctophilus gouldi house mouse Mus musculus swamp rat Rattus lutreolus black rat Rattus rattus house cat Felis catus

45 Frogs

Plate 5.4 Eastern banjo frog Limnodynastes dumerili Peter Brown Plate 5.1 Brown tree frog Litoria ewingii Peter Brown

Plate 5.5 Striped marsh frog Limnodynastes peronii Peter Brown

Plate 5.2 Green and golden frog Litoria raniformis Peter Brown

Plate 5.6 Common froglet Crinia signifera Peter Brown

Plate 5.3 Plate 5.7 Smooth froglet Geocrinia laevis Smooth froglet Geocrinia laevis Peter Brown (underside) Peter Brown

P7 Reptiles

Plate 5.8 Plate 5.9 Tiger snake Notechis ater Lowland copperhead Austrelaps superbus Mike Thomas Bill Wakefield

Plate 5.10 Plate 5.11 White-lipped snake Drysdalia coronoides Blotched bluetongue Tiliqua nigrolutea Bill Wakefield ????????

Plate 5.12 White’s skink Egernia whitii Sally Bryant

P8 Mammals

Plate 5.11 Plate 5.14 Southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina Spotted-tailed quoll Dasyurus maculatus Sally Bryant Sally Bryant

Plate 5.16 Plate 5.15 Echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus Sally Bryant Platytpus Ornithorhynchus anatinus Nick Mooney

Plate 5.17 Plate 5.18 Gould’s wattled bat Nyctophilus gouldi Swamp antechinus Antechinus minimus ??????? Dave Watts

P9 Mammals

Plate 5.20 Common ringtail possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus Dave Watts

Plate 5.19 Eastern pygmy possum Cercartetus nanus Dave Watts

Plate 5.21 Long-nosed potoroo Potorous tridactylus Sally Bryant

Plate 5.22 Red-necked or Bennett’s wallaby Macropus rufogriseus Richard Donaghey

Plate 5.23 Swamp rat Rattus lutreolus ???????

P10 Chapter 6 Fauna of old growth eucalypt forests of King Island

Richard Donaghey and Peter McQuillan

Introduction cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus lathami), are now Old growth eucalypt forests are very rich in biodi- locally extinct on King Island. Today the yellow- versity and provide a home for many fauna, fungi, tailed black-cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus funereus) and micro-organisms that depend on forests for and sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) their survival and reproduction. Fauna is a are threatened with local extinction. Large old logs collective term for all vertebrate animals with on the floor of old growth eucalypt forests provide backbones (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians den sites for mammals such as the predatory and fish) and invertebrate animals without dasyurid, the spotted-tailed quoll (Dasyurus backbones such as crayfish, centipedes, millipedes, maculatus). This quoll survived on King Island snails, spiders and a multitude of insect groups until early in the 20th century but is now locally (e.g. bugs, beetles, moths, butterflies, ants, bees extinct. and wasps). Fauna has co-evolved with flora, and together they interact to form an interdependent Features of old growth forests web of life. Plants need fauna for pollination, seed dispersal and nutrient cycling. Plants supply fauna Very large, old eucalypt trees that live for 300–400 with food, shelter from predators, sites for years dominate old growth forests. With good soils depositing eggs, hollows and crevices for nest, den and high rainfall eucalypts grow fast and tall. The and roost sites, nesting material and protection forest canopy is dominated by eucalypt foliage, from the weather. Fauna that need hollows and and a complex understorey of shrubs develops crevices are dependent on old growth forests. beneath the canopy. Old growth eucalypt forests The precious few remaining large old are characterised by elements that contribute to Tasmanian blue gums (Eucalyptus globulus subsp. structural diversity. These structural attributes of globulus) on King Island today are testament to the old growth forests are: giant old growth eucalypt forests that once covered 1. horizontal and vertical tiers provided by large, much of the island 200 years ago. Much of the tall old eucalypts; eucalypt forests were cleared for agriculture and 2. large, dead stags (standing dead trees) repeatedly burnt by fires following human resulting from fires, disease, natural ageing settlement. At the turn of the 19th century King and tree death; Island’s tall wet eucalypt forests were home to four 3. large logs on the forest floor and in streams; large cockatoos that used large hollows for nesting. 4. hollows and crevices that develop in old trees; Two of these, the gang-gang cockatoo 5. litter on the ground (10). (Callocephalon fimbriatum) and glossy black-

47 Each of these structural elements is character- bark forager that forages in small groups and flies istic of old growth eucalypt forests and provides from tree to tree and between remnant bush habitat for distinctive fauna. patches searching for insect prey. Noisy flocks of strong-billed honeyeaters forage on the trunks and The forest canopy branches of eucalypts, paperbarks and tea-trees and use their bills to probe under and prise off The canopy, branches and trunks of mature and old bark to search for and capture arthropod prey. The growth eucalypts play a pivotal role in plant-animal yellow-throated honeyeater (Lichenostomus interactions and provide essential resources to fauna. flavicollis) and grey shrike-thrush (Colluricincla Leaves use the sun’s energy to produce high-energy harmonica) also specialise in bark foraging on sugars through photosynthesis. Leaves store sugars trunks and branches. and minerals, and these provide food to a vast array The yellow-tailed black-cockatoo forages on of leaf-eating insects such as beetles and their larvae, the trunks and branches of standing live and dead caterpillars of moths and sap-sucking insects. These eucalypts and wattles. It searches for wood-boring insects are highly sought by insect predators, insect larvae of longicorn beetles and cossid moths parasites and spiders. Insectivorous birds in turn that tunnel beneath the bark and in galleries in the search the foliage, twigs and branches for a wood. The yellow-tailed black-cockatoo uses its multitude of arthropod prey. The flowering strong bill to excavate into the tree, remove strips eucalypts have co-evolved with insect pollinators. of bark and woodchips and extract the larvae. It Eucalypt flowers provide a rich source of nectar and also forages for wood-boring insect larvae in fallen pollen that attract insects and nectar-feeding birds. branches and logs on the ground. This behaviour Insects such as beetles and nectar-feeding birds is also common in the cool temperate rainforests of transfer pollen from flower to flower. Australia’s western Tasmania. largest honeyeater, the yellow wattlebird (Anthochaera paradoxa), feeds on blue gum flowers Limbs and branches and assists with pollination. Many birds forage in the canopy and glean the foliage and flowers for insects. Large, old eucalypts more than 100 years of age These include habitat specialists such as spotted have a range of very large sturdy limbs and pardalote (Pardalotus punctatus), striated pardalote branches and finer live and dead branches, twigs (P. striatus), black-headed honeyeater (Melithreptus and foliage that provide large raptors and small affinis) and green rosella (Platycercus caledonicus) birds with a vast number of potential nest sites. but also others like golden whistler (Pachycephala The majestic white-bellied sea-eagle (Haliaeetus pectoralis), crescent honeyeater (Phylidonyris leucogaster) is the largest avian predator on King pyrrhoptera), New Holland honeyeater (P. novae- Island and is at the top of the food chain. Adult hollandiae) and two species of cuckoos that all sea-eagles are dark grey and white with a body favour wet eucalypt forests. length of 75–85 cm. The white-bellied sea-eagle is carnivorous and preys on birds, reptiles, fish, Bark mammals, crustaceans and carrion (9). On King Island their prey includes blotched blue-tongue Bark is a special substrate for insects and spiders lizard (R. Donaghey) and probably waterfowl, that hide under bark to escape from birds turkey and peafowl. The huge nest of sticks of the searching for prey. All King Island eucalypt sea-eagle measures on average 2 m wide by 1 m species, but especially Tasmanian blue gum deep and so needs good support. On King Island (Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus) and white the sea-eagles nest is often built 10–20 m up on a gum (Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis), have large limb against the trunk of a large, tall blue loose bark that peels off in ribbons and sheets in gum often well inland in wet forest. summer–autumn. Arthropods that hide under bark The small satin flycatcher (Myiagra cyanoleuca) include scorpions, spiders, bugs, beetles and their is another bird that depends on mature and old larvae. The strong-billed honeyeater is a specialist growth eucalypt trees for nesting. It is a trans-Bass

48 Strait migrant that heralds its arrival on King Island forest and woodland birds need understorey in late October-early November with guttural vegetation for nesting (2). On King Island up to 12 buzzy calls and high-pitched whistles. This restless species build nests in understorey plants of bird perches in the upper tree strata, quivers its tail eucalypt forests ranging in size from the brush and sallies in the air after insects. The satin bronzewing (Phaps elegans) to the diminutive flycatcher builds its cup-shaped nest of bark and endemic Tasmanian thornbill. All four endemic spider web on a horizontal fork of a dead branch honeyeaters nest in the understorey layers usually high up in a large, old eucalypt. It favours including the foliage and branches of eucalypt mature and old growth eucalypt forest. It is saplings. The nest of the rare to uncommon black- uncommon to rare, locally threatened on King headed honeyeater is usually well concealed in Island and occurs at Pegarah State Forest. eucalypt foliage. The strong-billed honeyeater Fibrous bark from eucalypts, sticks, twigs, usually builds its nest in eucalypt trees and saplings leaves, rootlets and spider webs are resources in a but also in dogwood, tea-tree and fronds of tree eucalypt forest used by birds to build their nests. ferns (7, R. Donaghey). The yellow-throated Green moss and lichens are used as exterior honeyeater and crescent honeyeater usually place decorations and camouflage on nests of robins, their nests low in dense understorey shrubs, sedges silvereye (Zosterops lateralis), Bassian thrush and ferns. Both species of whistlers, olive and (Zoothera lunulata) and Tasmanian thornbill golden, nest in understorey. The olive whistler (Acanthiza ewingii). inhabitats dense understorey thickets. The golden Emergent eucalypt trees are an important whistler forages in all levels of vegetation, component of old growth forests, but beneath the including canopy of tall eucalypts, but nests in canopy are the ground layer and understorey trees dense understorey. and shrubs that make up layers of vegetation. The The foliage and sapwood of understorey wattle variety of understorey trees is generally similar in trees (Acacia spp.) are richer in nutrients than old growth and younger forests. Depending on eucalypts and typically support larger numbers of disturbance history such as fire, understorey trees insects which are available to predators including in older forests are usually taller and less dense birds. The flowers of wattles produce large amounts with more spreading branches. Some shrubs and of pollen, collectively over many months, and this is ground layer plants may only occur in older utilized by native bees and flies as a food source. forests. Wattles (Acacia spp.) and dogwood Wattle seed is often eaten by weevils (Melanterius (Pomaderris apetala) predominate in the wetter spp.) before it leaves the seed pod. Shed seeds are gullies and play an important role in recycling further dispersed by ants which are attracted to the nutrients. Sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum) oil-rich, fleshy body attached to the seed. Many occurs sparingly in some sheltered tree fern gullies. understorey shrubs have specialised pollinators. Austral mulberry (Hedycarya angustifolia) is a Native peas use certain native bees which are common understorey tree along streams in the attracted to their bilaterally symmetrical flowers. south-east. It reaches its southern limit on King Soldier beetles (Chauliognathus lugubris) and Island and is found nowhere else in Tasmania. nectar scarabs (Phyllotocus spp.) are very active flower visitors to many white-flowered species. Understorey layers of trees, Tall, old tree ferns are a characteristic feature in gullies of old growth eucalypt forests. Tree ferns shrubs and tree ferns are an ancient lineage, and individuals can live for Understorey trees and shrubs provide fauna with a hundreds of years. The soft tree fern (Dicksonia range of food such as nectar, flowers, fruit, seeds, antarctica) is common on King Island and forms leaves, invertebrates, manna and lerp (a sugary clumps in wet gullies and as understorey plants in substance secreted by sap-sucking insects). wet forests. The far less common rough tree fern Understorey plants are used by birds for shelter (Cyathea australis)usually occurs on drier, upper and as nest sites so are critical for their survival and slopes of wet forests. In spring a flush of new reproduction. About one third of Tasmania’s 60 fronds unfurl from the crown of soft tree ferns.

49 Fallen leaf litter and moisture deposit in the drates, including sugars, which are eaten by the crowns. Birds like the grey shrike-thrush and larvae of beetles such as cerambycids, buprestids Bassian thrush build well-concealed nests in the and others. These channelise the outer sapwood, crown of tree ferns. Green moss on the external promoting further drying out of the wood and walls of the Bassian thrush’s nest blend in with tree encouraging the entry of fungi, important for accel- fern foliage. In the absence of tree-hollows, brush- erating decay. Nutrients are returned to the forest tail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) often rest by floor in the form of faeces excreted from the day in the crown of tree ferns. tunnels. After one to several years, and having Ferns are invested with toxic chemicals which transformed the internal architecture of the dead help prevent their leaves being eaten. However, a tree, the larvae attain the adult beetle stage and few highly specialised insects have overcome these leave in search of other moribund trees to infest. defenses and are found exclusively on ferns. The The exterior openings to these larval channels caterpillars of certain geometrid moths (Idiodes are attractive to a range of other insects seeking spp.) can be seen grazing fronds at night with shelter, as well as their predators, including impunity. Some insects which feed on poisonous spiders. An important group which exploit this plants store toxins in their body which make them space are native bees which are essential for distasteful to birds. successfully pollinating the native flora. Most Trunks of tree ferns provide a substrate for Australian bees are solitary, with each female many epiphytic ferns, mosses and for germinating rearing her young independently, unlike the highly trees such as cheesewood (Pittosporum bicolor). social European honeybee. An abandoned beetle Fruit-eating birds such as silvereye eat the sticky tunnel provides an ideal nursery, and female bees red seeds of cheesewood, which are passed pack balls of harvested pollen into them into which through their gut and deposited on trunks of tree they lay eggs. In the absence of dead trees some ferns. The ageing brown fronds of tree ferns droop bees may use insect-riddled fence posts, but up to toward the trunks and provide many potential nest 15 species may use a single standing tree. sites for small brown birds that build dome-shaped As rotting progresses into the heartwood, other nests of bark. Tasmanian thornbill forage for insects colonise the tree. The low nutrient content insects on tree fern fronds and use fibre from of this wood is enhanced by the action of certain trunks of tree ferns as nest material. Tasmanian fungi, and many insects which appear to eat dead thornbill, scrubtit (Acanthornis magnus) and wood, in fact survive on a mixture of wood fibre Tasmanian scrubwren (Sericornis humilis) place and fungi. More than 150 species of beetles on their dome-shaped nests among decaying fronds of King Island depend on fungus-infested dead wood tree ferns and epiphytic ferns against or near for their nutrition. trunks of tree ferns. This structural weakening of the tree eventually leads to its collapse during a windstorm, and Standing dead and dying trees contact with the soil initiates a whole raft of Standing, rotting dead trees are great value for changes. The soil inoculates the wood with new wildlife and provide a source of food for wood- types of fungi and moisture is less limiting. Plant boring insects such as beetles, beetle larvae and roots may invade the wood, further accelerating caterpillars of moths. Adult ladybird beetles the recycling of its nutrients. A host of flightless overwinter under the rotting bark of standing dead beetles, unable to exploit the standing stag, make trees, then disperse widely in early spring. Cracks good use of the fallen log. Tenebrionid beetles and crevices in these trees provide homes for (Saragus, Adelium and other genera) and elaterid mammals such as bats, birds, reptiles and frogs. beetles breed in the moist space between the soil When large trees are killed by fire, disease or and the log, with their larvae developing on the old age, there is a succession of changes in the organic matter as scavengers. The soil-log interface wood quality which is reflected in the insects is the site of much fungal and insect activity, and which exploit the dead tree for food and living logs should not be rolled over unnecessarily space. The sapwood is initially rich in carbohy- because the moist microclimate is easily destroyed.

50 Hollows and crevices and cossid moths from standing and fallen wattles and eucalypts. It takes seeds of native Acacia, Hollows and crevices are extremely important for Allocasuarina, Banksia and Hakea and the some birds and mammals as nest, den and roost introduced Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) (6). sites. Hollows form through a combination of During the breeding season it may forage far from factors such as damage and decay from insects, the nest. In autumn–winter it forages widely in fungi, fire, wind and water. Hollows usually flocks of up to 50 birds on King Island. develop in eucalypts older than 100 years but The yellow-tailed black-cockatoo has a high sometimes form in younger trees under stress from adult lifespan and a low reproductive rate. The disease, fire damage and lack of water. Hollow King Island population may be stable or declining formation is associated with several tree character- and limited by a shortage of suitable hollows. This istics, particularly age of the tree, tree diameter and population needs to be monitored and its status tree health. A positive relationship exists between determined. If the population is low or declining a tree’s diameter and its age, the number of then a community project needs to be developed hollows and size of hollows. In forests with larger to protect all large old eucalypts with suitable trees there is a higher proportion of trees with hollows and to erect nest-boxes. hollows and more hollows in individual trees. Another King Island bird that needs hollows for Older trees develop larger hollows suitable for nesting is the endemic subspecies of the green larger animals such as cockatoos and owls. rosella (Platycercus caledonicus brownii), now Hollows suitable for vertebrate fauna generally are recognised as nationally threatened (3). The not present in eucalypts less than 120 years of age. population declined after extensive clearing of Studies conducted on mainland Australia show that native vegetation for agriculture and subsequent hollows for larger animals take more than 200 loss of hollows (5). The green rosella favours wet years to develop (4). The lack of arboreal termites eucalypt forest with a leafy canopy and dense in Tasmania, including King Island, means that understorey. Throughout the year the green rosella hollows are often slower to develop. is mainly arboreal and forages at all levels from the ground to canopy. It feeds on seeds, fruit, flowers Hollow-dependent birds (Plates 6.1–6.7) and buds. Seeds are taken from the fruits of The dependence of fauna on old growth eucalypt eucalypts, wattles, sedges and tea-trees. forest on King Island is illustrated here by four The green rosella is widely distributed species of hollow-nesting birds a cockatoo, a throughout King Island, and recent bird surveys parrot, an owl and a pardalote. The yellow-tailed suggest that it is recovering on the island. The black-cockatoo is a large black cockatoo with a population may be limited by lack of suitable nest- body length of 55–65 cm (6). It is the last surviving hollows. It breeds in hollows in a trunk, limb or black cockatoo on King Island. Numbers of this spout of living and dead trees, mostly eucalypts. cockatoo have declined since human settlement as Suitable hollows occur in large trees 6–20 m above a result of habitat destruction and loss of hollows ground and have entrance holes 5–20 cm in for nesting. Nesting yellow-tailed black-cockatoo diameter and a nest chamber considered to be 50 need a very large, deep hollow in a trunk, spout or by 15 cm (6). On King Island the green rosella has stump of a large mature or old eucalypt, either live nested in abandoned buildings at Grassy and even or dead. Most hollows are 1–3 m deep, 30–40 cm in low forks of trees with an overhead leafy cover. in diameter and in tree trunks 10–20 m above This behaviour suggests that nest-hollows are in ground. These hollows are mostly in eucalypts short supply and the population may benefit from more than 200 years of age. Nest trees generally erection of starling-proof nest-boxes. are spaced 50–150 m apart (6). The cockatoo The southern boobook (Ninox novaeseelandiae roosts in tall, mostly densely foliaged trees. leucopsis) is a small, spotted endemic subspecies of The yellow-tailed black-cockatoo forages in owl that is a breeding resident on King Island. It is trees and shrubs for seeds and invertebrates. It uncommon to rare and locally threatened on King extracts wood-boring larvae of longicorn beetles Island. The southern boobook is a top nocturnal

51 predator that is important for forest health and hollows form in the main trunk, spouts and limbs function. It forages at night in forests, woodlands of large eucalypts more than 100 years old (8). The and in more open sites at the forest-pasture edge. reasons for the rarity of the striated pardalote on It feeds on invertebrates such as beetles and moths King Island are unclear. The underlying causes (6) attracted to lights around homesteads. By night may be a combination of factors such as insuffi- it often perches on fence posts, stumps and cient old growth forest with suitable hollows for buildings and hunts prey such as frogs, lizards, nesting and a scarcity of white gum for foraging, small birds and mammals, particularly mice and but population parameters such as mortality, repro- rats. It depends on hollows for nesting and duction, recruitment and dispersal are unknown. roosting and is affected adversely by loss of old growth, hollow-bearing trees. Logs and fallen branches The southern boobook is territorial during the breeding season. Suitable nest-hollows typically Large logs and fallen branches on the forest floor occur in living or dead old eucalypts more than 150 and in streams are a special feature of old growth years old. Hollows may be in vertical trunks, eucalypt forests. The continual death of trees spouts or limbs. Hollows are 50–250 cm deep and through ageing, disease, insect attack and damage 20–30 cm in diameter (6). Southern boobook roost from wind and fire contributes to large woody by day in hollows, in dense foliage of trees, in debris accumulating on the forest floor. Storms and barns, sheds and in the dark, sheltered cover of the strong winds snap off branches and sometimes rootball of fallen trees (R. Donaghey). These obser- tree-crowns and these crash through to the forest vations suggest a shortage of suitable hollows for floor. All the woody debris is slowly decomposed roosting and breeding. Thus the southern boobook and recycled by myriads of fungi, bacteria and on King Island should benefit from the erection of invertebrates. Nutrients are recycled to soil for use nest-boxes and platforms. by plants. King Island once had three species of small, Rotting logs carpeted with moss, fungi and forest pardalotes that specialise in gleaning insects lichens are an ideal nursery bed for germinating from eucalypt foliage. The nationally endangered moisture-loving trees such as sassafras and can forty spotted pardalote (Pardalotus quadragintus) give rise to a row of trees in the forest. This veneer is now locally extinct on King Island but still of tiny plants is colonized by an astounding array survives on Flinders Island. The remaining two of tiny invertebrates such as mites (oribatids, species, the spotted pardalote and striated erythraeids), springtails (smithurids, entomo- pardalote, forage in all three eucalypt species but bryids), small beetles (weevils, pselaphid and especially white gum (Eucalyptus viminalis), scydmaenid beetles) and insect larvae, especially where they feed on sugary lerp secreted by psyllid flies, all arranged in a complex foodweb. Fungi sap-sucking insects. Both pardalote species are decompose logs, fallen branches and litter, and uncommon to rare on King Island. The resident recycle nutrients. Fungi provide nutritious food for spotted pardalote (Pardalotus punctatus) many animals including small mammals. In excavates a tunnel in stream and earthbanks for autumn, many native fungi that are symbiotic with nesting. The rare, migratory striated pardalote eucalypt roots produce fruiting bodies (toadstools Pardalotus striatus is a small, insectivorous forest and truffles) which are eaten by insects and dweller that depends more on tree-hollows for potoroos, resulting in the dispersal of their spores nesting. In north coastal Tasmania in shrubby to new localities. These fungi serve to enhance the coastal white gum the striated pardalote nests in growth rates of eucalypts and fruit generously after loose colonies (R. Donaghey) and excavates a fires, thereby promoting the re-establishment of tunnel in sandy soils like the spotted pardalote. gum trees. Logs on the ground and over streams Similar nesting behaviour may occur on King also provide a pathway for mammals such as Island but has not been reported. possums. The striated pardalote requires small hollows Crevices, ledges and hollows in stumps, stags, with a small entrance size of 3–6 cm. These uprooted trees and logs on the ground are used by

52 birds, mammals, lizards, frogs and invertebrates for these forests is critical in helping resist invasion by shelter, roosting and nesting. Cavity-nesting birds introduced pest species such as conical snails and include dusky robin (Melanodryas vittata), flame slaters. robin (Petroica phoenicea), Bassian thrush and grey shrike-thrush. References (1) Bonham, K.J. (1997). Native land snails of King Ground layer litter and Island and the Hunter Group. Tasmanian Naturalist xx, 15–24. vegetation (2) Donaghey, R. & McKay, K. (1996). The Benefits of The ground layer of an old growth eucalypt forest Sustaining Biological Diversity on the Farm. is characterised by a deep litter composed of bark, Proceedings of the TCT – TFGA Nature Conservation Conference, August 1993. Tasmanian Conservation fallen leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. Ground Trust and Tasmanian Farmers and Graziers layer ferns such as Blechnum water-ferns and Association, Launceston. mother shield fern (Polystichum proliferum)are (3) Garnett, S.T. & Crowley, G.M. (2000). The Action abundant. The ground layer, forest soils and Plan for Australian Birds 2000. Environment decaying litter are home to an abundant array of Australia, Canberra. invertebrates such as molluscs, amphipods, (4) Gibbons, P. & Lindenmayer, D. (2002). Tree Hollows and Wildlife Conservation. CSIRO Publishing, centipedes, millipedes, earthworms and insects, Collingwood. particularly beetles and ants. These arthropods (5) Green, R.H. & McGarvie, A.M. (1971). The birds of provide food for ground foraging birds particularly King Island. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum Bassian thrush, that probes the soil for worms, 40, 1–42. Tasmanian scrubwren and robins. The dusky robin (6) Higgins, P. (1999). Handbook of Australian, New and flame robin frequent the forest edge and more Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4: Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. open areas in the forest. Robins sit quietly on low (7) Higgins, P., Peter, J.M. & Steele, W.K. (2002). perches scanning the ground, then flutter to the Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and ground and pounce on insects. Brush bronzewing Antarctic Birds. Volume 5: Tyrant-flycatchers to forage on the ground searching for seeds of wattles Chats. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. and tea-tree. Ground layer of litter, ferns and (8) Higgins, P. & Peter, J.M. (2002). Handbook of sedges provides nest sites for two endemics, the Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 6: Pardalotes to Shrike-thrushes. Oxford Tasmanian thornbill and Tasmanian scrubwren that University Press, Melbourne. nest on or near the ground. Nests of the Tasmanian (9) Marchant, S. & Higgins, P.J. (1993). Handbook of scubwren are parasitised by the fan-tailed cuckoo Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. (Cacomantis flabelliformis) that appears to favour Volume 2: Raptors to Lapwings. Oxford University larger forest remnants and is uncommon on King Press, Melbourne. Island. Old growth wet forests support many of the (10) Scotts, D.J. (1991). Old-growth forests: their ecological characteristics and value to forest- 14 species of native snails on King Island. The rare dependent vertebrate fauna of south-east Australia. and vulnerable southern hairy red snail was redis- In D. Lunney (ed). Conservation of Australia’s covered in wet forest near the east coast in 1996 Forest Fauna (pp. 147–159). The Royal Zoological (1). The unusual semi-snail Helicarion is another Society of New South Wales, Sydney. denizen of wet forests. A complex ground layer in

53 Hole-nesting forest birds

Plate 6.3 Plate 6.1 Lerp – sugary substance Forty-spotted pardalote secreted by Psyllid sap- Pardalotus quadragintus Plate 6.2 sucking insects Sally Bryant Yellow-tailed black-cockatoo Trevor Waite Calyptorhynchus funereus Donald Trounson

Plate 6.4 Plate 6.5 Plate 6.6 Southern boobook Flame robin (male) Flame robin (female) Ninox novaeseelandiae Petroica phoenicea Petroica phoenicea Trevor Waite Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

Plate 6.7 Plate 6.8 Spotted pardalote Pardalotus punctatus Striated pardalote Pardalotus striatus Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

P11 Chapter 7 Ecology, conservation and management of birds and recovery of threatened species

Richard Donaghey and Sarah Lloyd

Introduction Birds as indicators At the turn of the 21st century the King Island The presence of some fauna may be a good landscape is a mosaic of predominantly agricultural indication of habitat quality, ecosystem function land with about 30% remnant native vegetation. and environmental health. Birds are excellent Much of the original vegetation is gone. Less than 5% indicators of biodiversity, ecosystem health and of the original Tasmanian blue gum forest and tall sustainability because some species are highly paperbark swamp forest remains today as mature sensitive to environmental changes such as forest. Vegetation clearance and destruction of pesticides, habitat fragmentation and climate habitat is the greatest cause of the loss and decline change. Birds are good indicator species in agricul- of species. In the last 100 years King Island has lost tural landscapes since they are a conspicuous five bird species, including the unique King Island feature of farms, and some species are very emu and two black cockatoo species, gang-gang sensitive to habitat loss and fragmentation (2, 20, cockatoo and glossy black-cockatoo. Bob Green and 21). The presence of predators high up the food Max McGarvie (10) documented the birds of King chain and their prey is a very good measure of Island nearly 40 years ago. Since that time there has ecosystem function and sustainability. Diurnal birds been regeneration of native vegetation in the agricul- of prey, such as eagles, hawks and nocturnal owls tural landscape resulting in regrowth scrub, are high up the food chain. In the forests of NSW eucalypts and paperbark in shelterbelts along fences and Victoria, the presence of large forest owls, and along streams and rivers. Green and McGarvie powerful owl (Ninox strenua) and sooty owl (Tyto considered quite a few forest birds uncommon to tenebricosa), that prey on glider possums, is a good rare in the 1960s. Apart from the Field Atlas from indicator of forest health (19). Smaller birds lower 1977 to 1981 (4) there have been no quantitative down the food chain can also be good indicators of surveys of King Island birds. Bird populations landscape health. The ground-foraging hooded change in response to changes in habitat. robin (Melanodryas cucullata), a close relative of Predictably, some species have declined as a result Tasmania’s endemic dusky robin, inhabits of vegetation clearance, conversion of land to woodlands and is highly sensitive to the fragmen- agriculture and severe bushfires. Most of the extinct tation, reduction and degradation of habitat (6, 7, species and many of those facing the greatest threats 24). In woodlands in the ACT and NSW the hooded to extinction today are those that are dependent on robin was found only in woodland remnants elements of old growth forests. Some species have greater than 100 ha in size and in very good benefited from vegetation clearance and others are condition. The species most sensitive to a recovering as regrowth vegetation matures. parameter or threat was regarded as a focal species

55 (15, 22, 24) for that parameter or threat. Hence the honeyeater and a decrease in other species, notably hooded robin was regarded as a focal species for cuckoos. The total number of species recorded at the both remnant area and condition. Another ground 21 sites during both spring and autumn was 69 foraging robin, eastern yellow robin (Eopsaltria species, 59 native species and 10 introduced species. australis), was absent from isolated remnants and The total of 69 species included non-forest birds was a candidate focal species for isolation (24). such as waterbirds, lapwings and birds of open space and grasslands such as white-fronted chat, The bird indicator project on common skylark, Richard’s pipit and welcome swallow. The following analysis is restricted to 49 King Island forest and woodland birds including the Australian The Natural Heritage Trust project ‘Biodiversity shelduck and Australian wood duck that breed in Indicators for Sustainable Land Management’ sought tree-hollows in forest. Numbers, status and habitat to determine which forest birds are good indicator species for protecting, managing and restoring native vegetation and which species are uncommon to rare. Identifying a few or several indicator species sensitive to habitat area, condition and isolation provides land managers with information and guidelines for sustainable land management. Bird indicator species also enable land managers to monitor the health of properties, catchments and the landscape and to make more informative decisions about landscape restoration and revegetation. Fieldwork was conducted on King Island in spring 2001 and autumn 2002. Sarah Lloyd recorded the numbers of bird species on transects at 21 sites on King Island. The sites represented remnants mostly less than 10 ha in size up to 1200 ha at Pegarah State Forest (Figure 1). For each site, vegetation was described and habitat quantified and scored using Tasforhab This is a method developed by Tasmanian PWS, now the Nature Conservation Branch, to quantify habitat structure by the height and percentage cover of the vegetation layers and ground litter. The bird surveys were conducted in mornings in the last third of October and again in March/April (16). Numbers, status, population trends and habitat of King Island forest birds During both the spring and autumn surveys, birds were recorded on the forest and woodland transects, at the forest edges, flying overhead and off the transects. The autumn surveys included an influx of some migratory species such as silvereye, a marked increase in some resident species such as spotted pardalote, yellow-throated honeyeater and crescent Figure 1. Bird survey sites

56 requirements of the 49 forest and woodland birds are insect-eaters. Insectivorous forest birds are recorded in spring and autumn are presented in natural predators of insects that defoliate eucalypts Table 1. The spring survey was conducted during the and are vital for maintaining the health of forests, last third of October when species present were most woodlands and shelterbelts. likely breeding birds. Spring is the season when most Vegetation layers that make up the forest birds tend to be more visible and vocal. Spring is also structure are the canopy, understorey trees and the season when there is peak demand for forest shrubs and ground layer vegetation. These layers resources such as food, nest sites and nest material. provide birds with habitat for foraging, perching For these reasons the determination of common, and nesting. Old and mature eucalypts provide uncommon and rare birds was based on the nest sites for large birds such as white-bellied sea- frequencies of birds in spring. eagle, other raptors, and small birds such as satin flycatcher. Common birds that nest in large trees Twenty most common forest bird species are forest raven, Australian magpie and black- on the surveys headed honeyeater. Hollows develop in mature The twenty most common breeding birds of forests and old eucalypts and are used for nesting by and woodlands in spring in decreasing order of parrots, cockatoos, pardalotes and owls. Among abundance were: the 20 most common birds the only native bird that Tasmanian thornbill, superb fairy-wren, grey nests in tree-hollows is the fairly common endemic fantail, forest raven, grey shrike-thrush, Tasmanian green rosella. The introduced common starling scrubwren, strong-billed honeyeater, Australian nests in tree-hollows and competes with native magpie, yellow-throated honeyeater, New Holland fauna for hollows. honeyeater, golden whistler, black-headed Understorey is essential for many small, insectiv- honeyeater, European goldfinch, common starling, orous birds and provides them with food, foraging, green rosella, olive whistler, crescent honeyeater, roosting and nest sites and shelter from enemies. dusky robin, common blackbird and silvereye Thirteen native birds and two introduced birds (Table 1). require understorey for nesting (Table 2). The black- Of these 20 species, 17 species are native, three headed honeyeater also nests in understorey trees. are introduced and only one, the silvereye, is Most of these understorey birds build nests in shrubs migratory. Nineteen of these common birds and ground layer vegetation usually less than 2 m occurred on more than 50% of the survey sites. above ground. The presence in spring of birds like These common to fairly common birds are mostly Tasmanian scrubwren, yellow-throated honeyeater, habitat generalists in that they occupy both wet crescent honeyeater and olive whistler is usually a and dry vegetation such as wet and dry eucalypt good indication that the habitat has suitable, dense forests and woodlands. However, the Australian low understorey required by these species for magpie prefers open woodland with short nesting. The dusky robin builds a nest in forks of grassland and pastures for foraging and needs trees shrubs and trees but also nests in tree-cavities if they for nesting and roosting. The three common are available. Three understorey-nesting species, relatively large birds are the forest raven (52–54 grey shrike-thrush and the endemic strong-billed cm), Australian magpie (38–44 cm) and green and yellow-throated honeyeater, are trunk-bark rosella (32–38 cm). The rest of the common birds specialists that forage for invertebrates on and under are mostly small, ranging in size from 10 cm bark on trunks and branches of trees. In summary, (Tasmanian thornbill) to 20 cm in length (grey most of the common birds are small in size, habitat shrike-thrush). generalists, insect-eaters and nest in understorey. The 20 most common birds were grouped into guilds according to their nest site, diet and foraging Uncommon, rare and behaviour (Table 2). The composition of bird guilds may give an indication of forest function and threatened birds on the surveys forest resources that may be limiting bird Less than 14 individuals of each of the remaining 29 populations. Fifteen (75%) of the common birds species of forest birds were recorded in spring on

57 Table 1. Birds of forest and woodland transects on King Island

Spring Autumn Total Habitat Status Trend Sites Freq Sites Freq Freq Vegetation Nest site

Australian shelduck 3 3 3 CIW,P,WDF H Australian wood duck 1 3 1 2 5 CIW,P,WDF H Pacific black duck 5 9 1 2 11 CSW,P,SF H,G chestnut teal 1 2 1 4 6 CSW,P,SF H,G white-bellied sea-eagle 1 1 1 1 2 ESCS,WEF,PSF LT brown goshawk 2 2 2 RSWEF LT brown falcon 1 1 3 4 5 FC S WDF,KIS,P LT nankeen kestrel 1 1 2 2 3 RSG,P,CS H,C,ON painted button-quail p R U CS G brush bronzewing 2 2 3 5 7 FC S WDF,CIS,WS UST yellow-tailed black-cockatoo 1 1 1 3 4 RDWEF,CS,KIS H sulphur-crested cockatoo 1 1 1 RDWEF,P H green rosella (E) 12 29 8 22 51 FC,V D(R) WEF,DEFW H pallid cuckoo 8 8 8 USDEFW,G BP fan-tailed cuckoo 7 10 10 UDWEF BP Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo 4 5 5 USCS,DEFW BP shining bronze-cuckoo 9 11 11 USWEF,WS BP superb fairy-wren 20 72 19 89 161 CSWDF,CS,KIS,G G,US spotted pardalote 4 8 15 32 40 U D(R) WEF,DEFW,CS BT striated pardalote 6 12 1 2 14 RDWEF H Tasmanian scrubwren (E) 19 42 20 73 115 CSWEF,SF,WS,CIS G,US brown thornbill 1 2 2 CE D WS G,US Tasmanian thornbill (E) 21 84 20 102 186 CSWDF,WS,CS,SF G,US yellow-rumped thornbill 1 1 1 RUG,CS,DEFW UST yellow wattlebird (E) 6 7 11 17 24 U,V D(S) WEF,DEFW,KIS LT yellow-throated honeyeater (E) 16 33 9 71 104 CSWDF,CS,SF,KIS US strong-billed honeyeater (E) 15 40 13 54 94 CSWEF,PSF,WS UST black-headed honeyeater (E) 14 31 17 34 65 FC D(R) WEF,DEFW,WS UT,LT crescent honeyeater 8 24 13 38 62 FC S WDF,KIS,CS US New Holland honeyeater 12 33 13 70 103 CSWDF,CS,KIS,WS US eastern spinebill* 1 1 1 NR U WEF,DEFW UST flame robin 6 6 6 8 14 RDWEF,DEFW,CS H,R,T,US dusky robin (E) 14 20 14 33 53 FC S WDF,CIS,WS H,UST olive whistler 15 27 7 10 37 FC S WEF,CS,WS,SF US golden whistler 17 32 17 30 62 FC D(R) WDF,WS,SF UST grey shrike-thrush 20 43 20 50 93 CSWDF,CS,SF,WS H,UST satin flycatcher 2 3 3 RDWEF LT grey fantail 17 67 20 82 149 CSWDF,WS,CIS UST black-faced cuckoo-shrike 4 4 5 9 13 RUWEF LT dusky woodswallow 1 1 1 RUWEF,DEFW H,LT Australian magpie 12 35 7 15 50 CIG,P,DEFW LT black currawong (E) 1 1 1 1 2 R,V D SF,CS,WDF LT forest raven 16 54 17 38 92 CISF,CS,WDF LT European greenfinch 1 5 5 RUCSUST European goldfinch 17 30 14 26 56 CSWDF,CS UST silvereye 10 14 17 78 92 CSWDF,CIS,WS UST Bassian thrush 4 5 5 6 11 UDWEF,PSF,WS H,UST common blackbird 14 16 8 9 25 FC S WDF,SF,WS,CS UST common starling 11 30 8 14 44 CIWDF,P H

58 Key to symbols used in Table 1

Column Column titles Symbol Definition titles Symbol Definition

* seen by Martin Finzel SF swamp forest (E) Endemic PSF paperbark swamp forest pplatelets CS coastal heath and scrub WS wet scrub Status C common KIS King Island scrub FC fairly common CIS coastal and inland scrub Uuncommon Ggrassland Rrare P pasture and paddocks Eendangered W wetland V vulnerable NR naturally rare Nest site Hhollow Gground Trend Iincreasing LT large tree S stable ON other nests Ddeclining C cliff ledge D(R) recovering after past decline USTunderstorey shrub and tree D(S) stable after past decline US understorey shrub U unknown UT understorey tree Habitat Rrock ledge vegetation WEF wet eucalypt forest BP brood parasite DEFW dry eucalypt forest and woodland BT bank tunnel WDF wet and dry forest the 21 survey sites. Although these species were breeder; the black-faced cuckoo-shrike was uncommon to rare on the surveys not all of them recorded at five sites during late October so may are uncommon to rare throughout King Island. The have been breeding. four species of ducks are common on wetlands and Ten of the 12 Tasmanian endemic birds occur dams. The brown falcon is fairly common on farms on King Island. There is no geographical variation with paddocks and scattered trees and bush. The in the populations of endemic yellow-throated brush bronzewing is more common in King Island honeyeater, strong-billed honeyeater and black- scrub and coastal heath and scrub. Uncommon headed honeyeater from Tasmania and King Island regular breeding species on King Island are the (12). The Tasmanian scrubwren (Sericornis spotted pardalote, yellow wattlebird and Bassian humilis) is treated as a separate species, and thrush. Birds high up on the food chain, like eagles tregellasi from King Island is recognised as a and other raptors, occupy large home ranges and separate subspecies but the taxonomy is unsettled naturally occur at low densities. Other large birds (13). The remaining six endemic birds on King such as cockatoos also have large home ranges and Island are recognised as endemic subspecies based occur at low densities. Some small birds such as on their measurements, genetics and morphology eastern spinebill were naturally rare in the past and (12, 13). The conservation status of the King Island are still very rare. Others like the King Island brown subspecies of the dusky robin (Melanodryas vittata thornbill were much more common a century ago kingi) is Least Concern (8), and the King Island but now are critically endangered. Some recent subspecies rufifrons of the Tasmanian thornbill is arrivals, recorded during the last 20–30 years, are the also not threatened. According to IUCN Australian shelduck, Australian wood duck, brown (International Union for Conservation of Nature) goshawk and yellow-rumped thornbill. Many criteria, the King Island endemic subspecies of migratory species are fairly common during green rosella, scrubtit, yellow wattlebird and black migration but are scarce during the breeding season. currawong are all threatened. The conservation The dusky woodswallow may not be a regular status of the scrubtit is Critically Endangered and

59 Table 2. Guilds of twenty most common forest birds of King Island in relation to nest site, diet and foraging

Native birds nesting in tree-hollows Common name Number Percent

Ground/foliage foraging parrot green rosella 1 5%

Native birds nesting in large trees

Ground-foraging omnivore forest raven 1 Ground-foraging insectivore Australian magpie 1 15% Foliage-gleaning insectivore black-headed honeyeater 1

Native birds nesting in understorey trees and shrubs

Trunk/bark foraging insectivores strong-billed honeyeater yellow-throated honeyeater 3 grey shrike-thrush Foliage-gleaning insectivores Tasmanian thornbill golden whistler olive whistler 4 silvereye Ground-foraging insectivores superb fairy-wren Tasmanian scrubwren 3 65% dusky robin Aerial insectivore grey fantail 1 Nectarivores New Holland honeyeater crescent honeyeater 2

Introduced birds nesting in tree-hollows

Ground-foraging insectivore common starling 1 5%

Introduced birds nesting in understorey trees and shrubs

Ground-foraging insectivore common blackbird 1 10% Ground/foliage foraging seed-eater European goldfinch 1

the green rosella, yellow wattlebird and black painted button-quail, brown thornbill, yellow- currawong are Vulnerable and face a high risk of rumped thornbill and eastern spinebill. The extinction (8). The endemic subspecies archibaldi presence of painted button-quail was detected of the King Island brown thornbill is Critically from circular depressions or ‘platelets’ on the Endangered (8). ground. Eight species were classified as For the spring surveys 21 species were uncommon to rare on the spring surveys (Table 1), categorised as rare on the basis that either five or these were: Pacific black duck, pallid cuckoo, fan- less individuals were seen or the species was seen tailed cuckoo, Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo, spotted at fewer than four sites (Table 1). Rare species pardalote, striated pardalote, yellow wattlebird included brown goshawk, nankeen kestrel, and flame robin. Four species of forest birds not

60 detected on any surveys were: nankeen night was first reported during the Field Atlas, but since heron, southern boobook, scrubtit and pink robin. then the population has expanded rapidly. Twelve species of forest and woodland birds on Some King Island forest birds have undergone King Island were considered rare and five species a population decline and range contraction as a threatened (see status column of Table 1). This result of loss of habitat through clearance and high number of rare and threatened species of bushfires, and other factors. These include the forest birds on King Island raises the following yellow-tailed black-cockatoo, sulphur-crested questions. cockatoo, green rosella, southern boobook, 1. Are the survey sites representative of other scrubtit, brown thornbill, yellow wattlebird, flame sites on King Island and is rarity an accurate robin, pink robin, black currawong and Bassian assessment of their status on King Island? thrush. Others like the King Island brown 2. Have the rare species undergone a population thornbill were much more common a century ago decline or range contraction or both? but now are critically endangered. 3. Are some species naturally rare? Some birds that suffered a population decline 4. What ecological factors are associated with following land clearance for agriculture have rarity? recovered in the last 40–50 years as regrowth paperbark, scrub and eucalypts are maturing. Birds with a large body size such as eagles Green and McGarvie identified birds that were and other raptors are naturally rare because they depleted by loss of forest and were uncommon to have small population sizes, large home ranges rare in the 1960s. Four of these species that are and occur at low densities. Large forest birds that recovering are green rosella, spotted pardalote, are rare on King Island are white-bellied sea- black-headed honeyeater and golden whistler. eagle, brown goshawk, yellow-tailed The most abundant forest birds during the spring black-cockatoo, sulphur-crested cockatoo and 2001 surveys were Tasmanian thornbill, superb nankeen night heron. Two endemic birds that are fairy-wren, grey fantail, Tasmanian scrubwren and uncommon or rare are yellow wattlebird and grey shrike-thrush. These species were present at black currawong. nearly all sites in both small and large remnants. Some birds were probably naturally rare in the This suggests these abundant birds are more past and are still very rare. The eastern spinebill tolerant of habitat fragmentation and reduction in was collected by the Field Naturalists Club of remnant size and are more resilient to habitat Victoria in 1887, and Campbell recorded it around alteration. homestead gardens in 1903. Green and McGarvie Uncommon to rare forest birds are more considered it either very rare or extinct by 1970. sensitive to habitat changes in the landscape. To One was reported during the Field Atlas understand responses of birds to habitat change it (1977–1981) and one was seen in December 2001. may be instructive to see if uncommon and rare Other birds are rare now because apparently birds have specialist habitat requirements that they are recent arrivals and have not yet colonised could limit populations. Identifying ecological much of the island. Some recent arrivals first factors underlying population declines should recorded during the last 20–30 years are: provide insights into developing guidelines for Australian shelduck, Australian wood duck, habitat management and species recovery. brown goshawk and yellow-rumped thornbill. Grouping birds into guilds according to how they The brown goshawk was first recorded during the use habitat for nesting and foraging helps to Field Atlas (1977–1981) and since then has been document species specificity to habitat. reported more frequently. The yellow-rumped In Table 3 the uncommon, rare and threatened thornbill was not recorded by Green and birds were grouped into guilds of habitat McGarvie or during the Field Atlas. It was first parameters such as nest site, diet and foraging reported by M. Holdsworth in 1977 (14) and seen behaviour. Scarcity and availability of suitable by S. Lloyd in March 2002. Green and McGarvie nest sites may be an important factor limiting bird did not report the Australian shelduck in 1970. It populations so birds were sorted first into nest

61 Table 3. Guilds of uncommon, rare and threatened native King Island birds breeding in forest in relation to nest site, diet and foraging

Birds of eucalypt forests, blackwood and paperbark swamp forests and tea-tree scrub

Native birds nesting in tree-hollows and bank tunnels Common name Number Percent

Bark searching insectivore and seed-eating cockatoo yellow-tailed black-cockatoo Ground-foraging seed-eating cockatoo sulphur-crested cockatoo Foliage-gleaning insectivorous pardalotes striated pardalote spotted pardalote 7 24.1% Carnivorous and insectivorous owl southern boobook Grazing duck Australian shelduck Grazing duck Australian wood duck

Native birds nesting in large trees

Carnivorous raptors white-bellied sea-eagle brown goshawk brown falcon Ground-foraging omnivore black currawong 8 27.6% Nectarivorous large honeyeater yellow wattlebird Aerial insectivores satin flycatcher dusky woodswallow Foliage-gleaning insectivore black-faced cuckoo-shrike

Native birds nesting in understorey trees and shrubs

Trunk/foliage foraging insectivore scrubtit Foliage-gleaning insectivore brown thornbill Ground-foraging insectivores Bassian thrush pink robin 8 27.6% flame robin yellow-rumped thornbill Nectarivorous small honeyeater eastern spinebill Ground-foraging seed-eater brush bronzewing Ground-nesting seed-eater painted button-quail 1 3.5% Insectivorous brood parasites pallid cuckoo fan-tailed cuckoo Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo 4 13.8% shining bronze-cuckoo

Native birds nesting in colonies

Nocturnal foraging heron nankeen night heron 1 3.5%

62 site guilds. Most of the uncommon to rare birds the foliage of eucalypts, especially white gum and are in three categories of nest sites: tree-hollows, Brooker’s gum. They feed on lerp, a sugar coating large trees and understorey trees and shrubs. secreted by psyllid insects, and invertebrates gleaned from eucalypt leaves. The spotted Birds nesting in tree hollows pardalote is uncommon to rare, so planting of white gum should benefit the recovery of both and bank tunnels species. Suitable tree hollows for fauna occur in old growth eucalypt forests and in old trees and stags still Birds nesting in large trees standing after clearance and burning. Since much of the old and mature blue gum forest on King Eight species of uncommon, rare and threatened Island was cleared and burnt, there is likely to be forest birds use large trees for nesting (Table 3). At intense competition for scarce tree-hollows. Forest the top of the food chain is the large, predatory birds such as cockatoos, parrots, owls and white-bellied sea-eagle. The huge stick nest of this pardalotes depend on hollows for nesting and eagle needs to be supported by the branches and roosting. Three of the five extinct King Island birds, trunks of large trees, particularly blue gums. Other glossy black-cockatoo, gang-gang cockatoo and carnivorous raptors, the brown goshawk and forty-spotted pardalote, used hollows for nesting. brown falcon, build their nests in both mature and Fifteen species of native birds on King Island use old trees. Two Vulnerable species, the yellow forest trees with hollows for nesting. Five of these wattlebird and black currawong, probably nest in species, yellow-tailed black-cockatoo, sulphur- both regrowth and mature trees. Two migratory crested cockatoo, southern boobook, barn owl and species, the satin flycatcher and dusky striated pardalote, are rare on King Island. The woodswallow, use mature and old trees for endemic subspecies of green rosella is Vulnerable, nesting. The rare satin flycatcher favours mature so nest-boxes should help its recovery (Tables and old growth wet blue gum forest for breeding. 1–3). Large, deep hollows required by cockatoos It mostly builds its nest on horizontal dead may take 150 to 200 years to develop whereas branches, often high up in eucalypts. The dusky small hollows used by striated pardalote may take woodswallow constructs a nest in shallow hollows 100 years or less to form. Ducks are another group and in upright and horizontal forks in trunks and of birds that use hollows. Recent colonists like branches of tall trees. Another migratory species, Australian shelduck and Australian wood duck the black-faced cuckoo-shrike, is also a habitat regularly nest in tree-hollows and may reduce the specialist that needs large trees for breeding. It availability of hollows for rare forest birds. Pacific builds its shallow nest usually high up in the black duck and chestnut teal use hollows too but horizontal forks of eucalypts. also nest on the ground. Shallow hollows or cavities on tree trunks and logs and hollows in tree Understorey-nesting birds stumps as well as other sites are used by flame robin, dusky robin, grey shrike-thrush, dusky Seven species of uncommon, rare and threatened woodswallow and Bassian thrush. Thus hollows species and the brush bronzewing nest in are an extremely important resource for many understorey trees and shrubs (Table 3). Two nesting birds. If there are too few hollows then a species, the pink robin and the critically nest-box project targeted at specific rare species endangered scrubtit, are habitat specialists that should benefit their recovery. favour tall paperbark swamp forest but also inhabit One species of pardalote, the rare migratory tree fern gullies in blue gum forest. The striated pardalote, usually builds a nest in small uncommon Bassian thrush is another habitat hollows in blue gum but also nests in buildings. specialist that breeds in paperbark swamp forest The resident spotted pardalote excavates a tunnel and moist tree fern gullies with lots of fallen in the banks of streams, hillsides and earth banks branches, logs and litter on the ground. It forages such as roadside cuttings. Both species forage in on the ground for worms and other invertebrates.

63 Ground-foraging birds and ground-nesting birds Conduct annual counts of forest birds at each tend to be more sensitive to landscape and habitat site along fixed 100 m transects each spring, using change. This guild also includes the critically the 20 minute 2 ha methodology of Birds Australia. endangered brown thornbill, two rare breeding Search each site for difficult-to-detect birds such as robins and the ground-nesting painted button-quail brown goshawk, cuckoos, brown thornbill, scrubtit (Table 3). Although the brush bronzewing was rare and Bassian thrush. on the survey sites, it is probably much more common in scrub, heath and tea-tree habitats. General action to recover Four species of cuckoos, the brood parasites, occur on King Island. All four species, pallid and uncommon, rare and threatened fan-tailed cuckoo and Horsfield’s and shining birds of King Island bronze-cuckoo, are migratory and breed on King Island. The pallid cuckoo inhabits woodland. 1. Obtain funding for at least one full-time Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo frequents coastal heath Project Officer to coordinate the recovery of and scrub and the fan-tailed cuckoo and shining rare and threatened birds of King Island. bronze-cuckoo favour wet eucalypt forest. These 2. Develop and coordinate an integrated action latter three species all parasitise nests of hosts such plan for King Island with cooperation from as the fairy-wren, scrubwren and thornbills that DPIWE, KINRM Group, Birds Australia, property nest low in understorey. managers and any other interested parties. 3. Engage the King Island community in imple- Monitoring waterbirds and menting the recovery plans. 4. Determine and monitor distribution, forest birds abundance and population size of each Monitoring waterbirds, grassland birds and forest species in breeding and non-breeding birds on farms and in reserves over time gives a seasons. good indication of land sustainability. Ongoing 5. Identify critical habitat for each species on bird counts for the Atlas of Australian Birds public and private land. provide useful data on bird abundance and distri- 6. Protect critical habitat from clearance and bution. Annual bird counts conducted over several wildfire. years and decades at fixed sites provide data on 7. Develop a fire prevention and management population trends in response to changes in the strategy for critical habitat. landscape. A standard methodology used by Birds 8. Protect and manage specific habitat elements Australia and the Nature Conservation Branch, such as large trees, understorey, nest sites and DPIWE, can be applied to King Island. food trees. Annual counts of waterbirds can be conducted 9. Identify and protect trees with hollows. at several freshwater lagoons and swamps 10. Determine and manage the impact of hollow- throughout the island during spring to monitor use by common starling, brush-tail possum breeding waterbirds and/or in autumn–winter to and other fauna. monitor non-breeding birds. 11. Encourage private landowners to maintain and Ideally, breeding forest and woodland birds can restore connectivity through vegetation be monitored at fixed sites each year. Select linkages across property boundaries. replicates of vegetation sites to represent five major 12. Provide economic incentives to landowners to plant communities on King Island. These forest protect and manage habitat through covenants types are King Island wet eucalypt forest, King and stewardship agreements. Island dry eucalypt forest and woodland, swamp 13. Place a moratorium on further land clearing paperbark forest, King Island sedge-heath-scrub until the use of that land by rare and and wet scrub. Select at least one replicate site for threatened species has been determined. each plant community, and for these 10 sites set up a fixed transect within the interior of each site.

64 Recovery of locally 2. Another important management priority for extinct birds biodiversity conservation is to connect native Throughout Australia, scientists and rural vegetation remnants with landscape linkages. communities are working together to recover These linkages could be native vegetation that landscapes and threatened species and, in some provides additional habitat or corridors, clumps instances, reintroducing species to areas where of vegetation and even isolated trees that they have become regionally extinct. For example, facilitate faunal movement from one patch to the vulnerable numbat (Myrmecobius fascatus) has another. Landscape linkages can be crown land been successfully reintroduced into Yookamurra or private land. Council can play a vital role by Sanctuary in the South Australian mallee from developing incentives and partnerships with south-western Western Australia. Colonies of the private landowners. endangered black-eared miner (Manorina 3. Maintain and enhance habitat diversity on flavigula) have been translocated successfully from properties and within catchments. Habitat the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve in the South diversity is a major determinant of bird species Australian Murray Mallee to the Murray-Sunset diversity. Habitat diversity primarily refers here National Park in north-western Victoria. to different plant communities with a range of The King Island emu is extinct, but four bird vegetation age and structure. species and three mammal species that have 4. Maintain a range of tree ages both within become locally extinct from King Island still patches and within plant communities. For survive elsewhere. It may be desirable and inspira- example, an uneven aged wet eucalypt forest tional to reintroduce one or more of these species with old and mature trees with hollows and to King Island. One of the most appropriate young regrowth trees is very good habitat for candidate species for reintroduction is the forest birds. Natural disturbances such as endangered forty-spotted pardalote (Pardalotus windstorms and fire create gaps in a forest and quadragintus) (Plate 6.2). The range of this species natural regeneration then produces younger has contracted to south-east Tasmania with core eucalypts. On its own a uniform regrowth populations on Maria and Bruny Islands. The eucalypt forest does not provide habitat for establishment of a colony of forty-spotted fauna dependent on old growth elements such pardalote on King Island would reduce the risk of as hollows and large old trees. However, extinction. This species is a habitat specialist that regrowth eucalypts provide habitat for requires white gum for foraging and tree-hollows understorey birds and in more than 100 years for nesting (5, 8, 13). A recovery program based on will provide hollows for hollow-nesting birds. planting of white gum communities would also 5. Retain all old, large eucalypts, especially those benefit the recovery of striated pardalote, spotted with tree-hollows. Tree-hollows provide homes pardalote and black-headed honeyeater. for insectivorous bats, possums and birds such as parrots, cockatoos, owls and pardalotes. Management of habitat for Suitable hollows take 100–200 years to form. Eucalypts can live for 300–400 years, so old fauna with special emphasis trees with hollows are essentially irreplaceable. on birds 6. Retain all regrowth, mature and old Tasmanian blue gum, white gum and Brooker’s gum. 1. First priority is to retain and, if necessary, Eucalypts increase bird species diversity. Any increase the size of native vegetation mature eucalypt trees older than 100 years remnants, particularly riparian vegetation and provide birds with greater foraging and nesting forest patches. Manage native vegetation sites. Raptors and satin flycatcher depend on primarily to protect biodiversity, soils and mature and old eucalypts for nest sites. Mature water. Creating a network of native vegetation and old white gum trees are important food enhances the integrity and function of the trees for birds that forage in foliage and plant communities and their wildlife. specialise on feeding on psyllid insects and lerp

65 (sugar coating produced by sap-sucking sea-eagle, orange-bellied parrot, scrubtit and insects). Birds that feed on lerp are the brown thornbill and frogs such as the green endangered swift parrot, spotted pardalote, and golden frog. striated pardalote and the endemic black- 18. Identify those fauna species that are habitat headed honeyeater. Mature and old Tasmanian specialists. blue gum and Brooker’s gum are important 19. Develop guidelines for management of habitat foraging trees for three bark specialists, the grey for other fauna such as hollow-dependent shrike-thrush and two endemic honeyeaters, mammals and invertebrates. the strong-billed honeyeater and yellow- throated honeyeater. General principles of 7. Leave standing dead trees unless they pose a hazard to people. Standing dead trees provide reserve design homes for mammals, birds, reptiles and for Reserve size many insects such as over-wintering ladybird Advantages of large reserves beetles. •Greater species richness 8. Leave fallen dead trees to rot on the forest floor. •Greater habitat diversity Rotting logs provide a substrate for •Greater resilience and ecological integrity decomposers (fungi and insects) and a nursery •Maintenance of ecological processes and bed for seedling plants. function 9. Maintain and restore layers of understorey •Preserves more viable populations trees, shrubs and ground layer vegetation. •Greater protection of fauna higher up the food Understorey is essential foraging and nesting chain habitat for many small and medium-sized birds. Nearly half of King Island’s forest and Reserve shape woodland birds nest in understorey. 10. Leave fallen branches, logs, leaf and bark litter Advantages of round and square shapes compared on the ground as foraging and nest sites for to linear shapes birds, lizards, invertebrates and other fauna. • Lower perimeter to area ratio. 11. Enhance and restore local canopy eucalypts • Edge effects minimised. and understorey vegetation especially to areas • Decreased disturbance from increased wind, undergoing extensive rehabilitation. temperature and light. 12. Maintain and restore native vegetation along • Decreased risk of fire. streams and around dams. Aquatic vegetation • Decreased risk of predation. such as sedges in and around wetlands creates habitat for insects, frogs, reptiles and birds. Reserve connectivity 13. Control feral cats. 14. Foster responsible cat ownership. • Isolated habitat patches lose more species over 15. Eradicate or control environmental weeds. time. Eradicate blackberry before it becomes too • Isolated habitat patches are a greater barrier to invasive. Control weeds in the bush such as animal dispersal and reduce population mirror bush, asparagus fern and others. recruitment. 16. Identify requirements of bird species with •A cluster of patches provides greater dispersal, regard to vegetation type, diet, habitat structure movement and recruitment of animals among (large old trees, trees with hollows, understorey patches. trees and shrubs and ground layer vegetation for foraging and nesting) and plant species. See Some criteria for high priorities Tables 1–3. for reserves 17. Identify the critical habitat and requirements for • Large patch in good condition. endangered bird species such as white-bellied •More poorly reserved plant communities.

66 •Greater richness of biodiversity. 10. The number of bird species increases with age •Greater number of rare and threatened species of the site. Learn to identify birds and monitor and communities. birds in existing remnants and revegetation • Old growth vegetation and greater structural sites every few years. complexity. •Little or no disturbance. Guidelines for protecting and • Lower incidence of weeds and feral animals. •Greater proximity and connectivity to other restoring landscape linkages (3) vegetation patches. 1. Connect existing native vegetation patches and riparian strips with linkages of local native Conservation priorities for vegetation preferably 50–100 m in width. Wide King Island fauna corridors provide greater habitat for animals. The greatest priority is to link the biggest The highest priority for forest conservation is remnants to make one larger habitat patch. Pegarah State Forest. It is the largest remaining forest Connecting riparian vegetation is also a high remnant and fulfils the above criteria. It is the only priority. Even clusters of paddock trees can patch of forest on King Island that has the full function as ‘stepping stones’ for some fauna. compliment of breeding forest birds. 2. Increase the area of more isolated native vegetation remnants through natural regener- Ten sustainability guidelines for ation or revegetation. 3. Maintain and restore vegetation linkages along birds on farms (1) streams and rivers and up and along ridges. (Adapted from Birds Australia Guidelines) 4. Farm productivity can be improved by planting 1. Aim to protect and restore native vegetation on perennial crops and trees for timber in a buffer at least 30% of the farm. zone around native vegetation remnants. Buffer 2. Protect and revegetate with local tree and zones minimise edge effects by reducing understorey plant species. disturbance and providing better wind 3. Large sites have more bird species than smaller protection. sites. Try to protect and restore sites to greater 5. Enhance the ecological function and habitat than 2 hectares, preferably 5–10 hectares, in value of remnants and linkages by improving size. vegetation structure and diversity. 4. The wider the windbreak or shelter, the more 6. Improve the biodiversity value and function of species of forest and woodland birds. remnants and linkages by providing specific 5. Connect patches of native vegetation with habitat for threatened fauna and indicator habitat strips at least 50 m wide or create species. Examples include erecting nest-boxes habitat clumps as ‘stepping stones’. for hollow-dependent fauna, growing specific 6. Maintain and restore vegetation structure such plants to provide food, shelter and nest sites for as a canopy of local eucalypts and understorey fauna. White gum is a food tree for pardalotes layers of trees, shrubs, ferns, sedges and and honeyeaters. grasses. 7. Monitor fauna in remnants and linkages. 7. Retain large, old trees, particularly those with hollows. Maintain a range of tree ages. Revegetation and habitat 8. Leave fallen branches, logs, rocks and leaf and bark litter as shelter for fauna and as foraging restoration and nest sites for birds The principal land use on King Island is agriculture. 9. Maintain and restore native vegetation around This rural landscape is a mosaic of grazing land with water. Create vegetation around dams and scattered remnant native vegetation. Most of the wetlands as habitat for frogs, reptiles and original native forest is gone and the remaining waterbirds patches are much reduced in size, fragmented and

67 isolated. The agricultural ecosystem that replaced breeding in revegetation sites. The first colonisers to the native vegetation is simplified in terms of feed and nest in low understorey include superb numbers of plant and animal species, vegetation fairy-wren, Tasmanian thornbill and grey fantail. In structure and function. Natural ecosystems play an 10–20 years, as the eucalypts and wattles assert their important role in processes such as soil formation dominance, other common birds will use the and protection, water production and purification, habitat. These could include yellow-throated climate control and maintaining biodiversity (the honeyeater, strong-billed honeyeater, golden variety of nature). Today it is recognised that whistler, grey shrike-thrush, silvereye, Tasmanian protecting natural land and freshwater systems and scrubwren and green rosella, and with a bit of luck maintaining biodiversity is fundamental to some of the rarer ones. The type of birds colonising sustainable agriculture (1). revegetated sites depends on several factors, partic- The continuing presence of birds on farms and ularly size of the patch, diversity of canopy and in the rural landscape depends on private conser- understorey plant species used in revegetation, and vation of habitat and its connection to other habitat distance to nearest habitat source from which on private and public land. Ideally farmers should surplus birds can be recruited. After the breeding set aside areas of habitat greater than 5–10 ha with season young birds disperse from their birth site and linkages to other habitat. On many farms revege- move through the landscape searching for a mate tation can be used to enlarge existing remnants, and a vacant site to occupy. Where birds settle connect patches of native vegetation and enhance primarily depends on the habitat available and remnants in poor condition. Revegetating the farm whether they can establish a space and acquire a with native eucalypts and understorey plants brings mate. many ecological and economic benefits. These include livestock and crop shelter, timber products Conclusion such as firewood, fence posts and sawlogs, native pest controllers, better water quantity and quality, It is very encouraging that many King Island farmers and less soil erosion. have protected their riparian and forest vegetation Birds are part of an interconnected web of with help from the Natural Heritage Trust devolved nature and play an important role in keeping grants. This demonstrates that many King Island landscapes healthy. Birds perform services for farmers have a great capacity and willingness to farmers and they do it for free. Birds benefit farmers recover landscapes and manage their properties by controlling insect pests in pastures, crops and sustainably. Some birds are recovering, but far too shelterbelts. Some well-known examples of many are still rare and threatened. Farmers are beneficial birds that prey on insects in pastures and interested in nature, particularly birds, and crops are the migratory cattle egret and the resident undoubtedly some farmers will take up the Australian magpie and masked lapwing (spur- challenge of helping them recover. There are many winged plover). Raptors (birds of prey) such as fine examples of rural communities and government swamp harrier, eagles, falcons and owls prey on working together. Successful recovery projects agricultural pests such as mice, rats and rabbits. provide hope and inspiration and many of these are Forest and woodland birds are vital for maintaining highly relevant to King Island. Some of these the health of forests, woodlands and shelterbelts. A recovery projects are for the following threatened variety of leaf-eating beetles, caterpillars and the birds: the orange-bellied parrot, the glossy black- larvae of sawfly wasps defoliate eucalypts. Bush cockatoo on Kangaroo Island, the red-tailed birds are natural predators of leaf-feeding insects black-cockatoo in south-east Australia and Carnaby’s and eat about 50–70% of the insects in patches of black-cockatoo in south-west Western Australia (8, eucalypts. 18). Funding for a project officer will provide the One important benefit of protecting and necessary impetus and enthusiasm for the recovery restoring habitat is to reduce the decline in farm of King Island’s rare and threatened fauna and birds and recover rare and threatened species. In species with high conservation significance. less than five years birds will be using and even

68 Appendix 1. List of rare and threatened species and species of high conservation significance on King Island

Frogs

Vulnerable green and golden frog

Birds

Critically endangered High conservation significance on King Island orange-bellied parrot painted button-quail brown thornbill yellow-tailed black-cockatoo scrubtit southern boobook striated pardalote Endangered flame robin white-bellied sea-eagle pink robin Vulnerable satin flycatcher Australasian bittern Recent rare arrivals green rosella brown goshawk yellow wattlebird yellow-rumped thornbill black currawong Uncommon to rare on King Island Naturally rare in Tasmania fan-tailed cuckoo nankeen night heron spotted pardalote nankeen kestrel black-faced cuckoo-shrike golden-headed cisticola dusky woodswallow Naturally rare on King Island Bassian thrush eastern spinebill

See Appendix 2 for action plans to recover many of these species.

69 Appendix 2. Action to recover rare and threatened species and species with high conservation significance

Species critically endangered Yellow wattlebird Refer to APAB pp. 490–91. Orange-bellied parrot Additional threat Reference 8, Action Plan for Australian Birds (APAB) pp. 342–344 and reference 5, Tasmania’s Threatened Fauna Assess impact of further clearing of King Island scrub Handbook (TTFH) pp. 250–253. and tea-tree on the wattlebird population.

Brown thornbill Further action Refer to APAB pp. 479–480 and TTFH pp. 254–255. • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance, population size and trend from Atlas data. Scrubtit • Determine habitat use and foraging ecology. Refer to APAB pp. 456–457. •Protect and manage habitat. Further action Black currawong •Protect the Nook Swamp from bushfire. Refer to APAB pp. 578–79. •Manage the Nook Swamp as critical habitat for scrubtit and pink robin. Further action • Determine the distribution, abundance and • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance, population size of scrubtit in the Nook Swamp. population size and trend from Atlas data. • Determine use of habitat use by scrubtit. •Monitor population in winter to determine winter • Search for new sub-populations of scrubtit in tall habitat and present population size. paperbark swamp forest in Bungaree Lagoon but •Monitor population in spring–summer to determine particularly in Collier Swamp and the Red Hut Point density of breeding pairs and breeding habitat. area. • If new population found, determine their abundance and secure and manage the land they occupy. Recovery action for hollow-nesting birds and birds of high conservation significance Vulnerable Yellow-tailed black-cockatoo Australasian bittern • Consider adopting the yellow-tailed black-cockatoo as logo for recovery of King Island birds. Refer to APAB pp. 182–83 and 643. •Train community volunteers in determining age and Green rosella sex of cockatoos in the field. Refer to APAB pp. 321–322. • Involve the King Island community in annual counts and recovery plan. Further action • Develop a technique to monitor birds in non- breeding and breeding seasons. • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance, population size and trend from Atlas data. • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance and population size in winter–spring from a coordinated • Determine use of hollows and extent of competition count throughout the island. for hollows by other fauna and the introduced common starling. • Determine population trends from Atlas data. •Erect starling-proof nest-boxes for the rosella and • Determine age of population from annual counts. monitor and manage usage. • Determine density of breeding pairs. •Monitor nesting success of the rosella in natural •Identify seasonal foraging habitat and food plants. hollows, other sites and nest-boxes. •Identify and protect critical breeding habitat, nest •Identify and protect rosella nest trees and hollows. trees and nest-hollows.

70 • Determine if population limited by shortage of nest- Pink robin hollows and competition for hollows by other fauna such as brush-tail possum. The rare pink robin coexists with the scrubtit in tall paperbark swamp forest and tree fern gullies of wet •Erect nest-boxes at appropriate sites (9, 20). eucalypt forest. •Monitor and manage usage of nest-boxes. • Conduct recovery action in conjunction with that of •Monitor nesting success. scrubtit. •Train community volunteers to identify both sexes of Southern boobook pink robin. •Train community volunteers and landowners in • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance and identification of owls by sight and sound. population size. • Determine population trend from Atlas data. • Determine number and density of breeding pairs in • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance and the Nook Swamp and Pegarah forest. population size from owl calls during breeding • Search for and determine numbers of breeding pink season. robin in paperbark forest at Collier Swamp and Red •Identify and protect owl roost and nest sites. Hut Point area. •Erect platforms and nest-boxes at sites that lack •Protect breeding habitat. adequate hollows (9). Satin flycatcher •Monitor and manage usage of nest-boxes. • Study prey from owl pellets. •Train community volunteers in identification of both sexes of the satin flycatcher. •Monitor nesting success. • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance and Striated pardalote population size during migration. •Train landowners and community volunteers in • Determine and monitor distribution and density of identification of pardalotes by sight and sound. breeding pairs in mid to late spring. • Determine population trend from Atlas data. •Identify and protect old growth Tasmanian blue gum forest on public land (Pegarah forest) and private • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance and land. population size during the breeding season. •Identify and protect critical breeding habitat on public and private land. Action for recovery of King Island birds naturally rare in Tasmania •Identify and protect nest trees and hollows. •Protect all mature white gum woodland and Tasmanian blue gum forest. Nankeen night heron • Search for new breeding territories. •Verify whether nesting colony at Pass River is active •Erect nest-boxes for pardalotes at sites that lack during spring breeding seasons. adequate hollows (9). • With the cooperation of landowners, search for and •Monitor and manage usage of nest-boxes. locate new nesting colonies in paperbark swamp forest, wet tea-tree and eucalypt forest in the Nook Flame robin Swamp and Sea Elephant catchment. • Determine population trend from Atlas data. •Protect habitat of breeding colonies from wildfire • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance and and stock. population size during spring and autumn migration. •Protect nesting colonies on private land through • Determine location and density of breeding pairs in covenants and management agreements. mid-spring. • Minimise human disturbance around nesting colonies. •Identify and protect breeding habitat. • Determine number of nesting pairs in colony, and •Identify and protect hollows in trees, stumps and nesting and fledgling success. logs. •Assess impact of potential predators, such as forest raven, on eggs and young.

71 Appendix 2 continued

Golden-headed cisticola hollows as nest sites. The Bassian thrush is •Protect known breeding habitat from wildfire along beautifully marked, easily recognisable and has an Lower Sea Elephant River. ethereal, flutelike song. It is vulnerable to • Determine and monitor distribution, abundance and predation by feral cats and to competition for food population size from summer counts. and space from the introduced common blackbird. • Determine population trend from Atlas data. For all these reasons it is a good indicator species • Locate new breeding habitat and protect from for property managers to watch out for. clearance and wildfire through education and economic incentives. Bassian thrush Conservation action for property managers: Action for protection and recovery of sensitive • Learn to identify this species by sight and sound. indicator birds • Record date of sightings and habitat occupied. •Protect and manage breeding habitat, particularly Birds sensitive to habitat alteration can serve as mature paperbark swamp forest and wet eucalypt good indicators of a healthy landscape and forest with lots of litter, logs and fallen branches on sustainable land management. The Bassian thrush the forest floor. is an uncommon habitat specialist that prefers • Connect riparian vegetation and forested patches larger forest patches and is sensitive to habitat across properties and catchments. fragmentation and degradation. It forages on the • Restore vegetated linkages to allow for population dispersal and recruitment. ground for invertebrates and selects shallow • Control feral cats.

72 (13) Higgins, P.J. & Peter, J.M. (2002). Handbook of References Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. (1) Barrett, G.W. (2000). Birds on Farms: Ecological Volume 6: Pardalotes to Shrike-thrushes. Oxford management for agricultural sustainability. University Press, Melbourne. Wingspan 10: Supplement. (14) Holdsworth, M. (1997). Winter observations of the (2) Barrett, G.W., Ford, H.A. & Recher, H.F. (1994). birds of King Island. Tasmanian Bird Report 26: Conservation of woodland birds in a fragmented 29–37. rural landscape. Pacific Conservation Biology 1: (15) Lambeck, R.J. (1997). Focal species: a multi-species 245–256. umbrella for nature conservation. Conservation (3) Bennett, A.F. (1999). Linkages in the landscape. The Biology 11: 849–856. role of corridors and connectivity in wildlife conser- (16) Lloyd, S. (2002). Biodiversity indicators for vation. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, sustainable land management. Natural Heritage UK. Trust Project Report, December 2002. Published by (4) Blakers, M., Davies, S.J.J.F. & Reilly, P.N. (1984). The the author. Atlas of Australian Birds. Royal Australasian (17) Marchant, S. & Higgins, P.J. (1993). Handbook of Ornithologists Union. Melbourne University Press, Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Melbourne. Volume 2: Raptors to Lapwings. Oxford University (5) Bryant, S.L. & Jackson, J. (1999). Tasmania’s Press, Melbourne. Threatened Fauna Handbook: what, where and (18) McMahon, L. (2003). Carnaby’s Black-Cockatoos. how to protect Tasmania’s threatened animals. Return of the Rainbird. Wingspan 13(1): 14–17. Threatened Species Unit, Parks and Wildlife (19) Milledge, D.R., Palmer, C.L. & Nelson, J.L. (1991). Service, Hobart. Barometers of Change: the distribution of large (6) Freudenberger, D. (1999). Guidelines for owls and gliders in Mountain Ash forests of the enhancing grassy woodlands for the vegetation Victorian Central Highlands and their potential as investment project. A report commissioned by management indicators. In D. Lunney (ed). Greening Australia, ACT. Wildlife and Ecology, Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna. (pp. CSIRO, Canberra. 53–65). The Royal Zoological Society of New South (7) Freudenberger, D. (2000). Conservation of biodi- Wales, Sydney. versity in grazed landscapes: some patchy (20) Pedler, L. (1996). Artificial nest hollows for Black- principles. pp. 154–161 in Conservation and Cockatoos. Eclectus 1: 13. Production in Grassy Landscapes Conference, (21) Reid, J.R.W. (1999). Threatened and declining birds 19–21 August 1999, Clare, SA. Barlow, T. & in the New South Wales sheep-wheat belt: Diagnosis, Thorburn, R. (eds) Environment Australia, Canberra characteristics and management. Consultancy (8) Garnett, S.T. & Crowley, G.M. (2001). The Action report to NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. Plan for Australian Birds 2000. Environment CSIRO Wildlife and Ecology, Canberra. Australia, Canberra. (22) Saunders, D.A., Hobbs, R.J. & Margules, C.R. (1991). (9) Grant, J. (1997). The Nestbox Book. Gould League of Biological consequencies of ecosystem fragmen- Victoria, Melbourne. tation: a review. Conservation Biology 5: 18–32. (10) Green, R.H. & McGarvie, A.M. (1971). The birds of (23) Watson, J., Freudenberger, D. & Paull, D. (2001). An King Island. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum assessment of the focal-species approach for 40, 1–42. conserving birds in variegated landscapes in south- (11) Higgins, P. (1999). Handbook of Australian, New eastern Australia. Conservation Biology 15: Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4: Parrots to 1364–1373. Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. (24) Watson, J., Watson, A., Paull, D. & Freudenberger, (12) Higgins, P.J., Peter, J.M. & Steele, W.K. (2001). D. (2003). Woodland fragmentation is causing the Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and decline of species and functional groups of birds in Antarctic Birds. Volume 5: Tyrant-flycatchers to southeastern Australia. Pacific Conservation Chats. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Biology 8: 261–270.

73 Nationally threatened bird species and endemic subspecies

Plate 7.1 Plate 7.3 Brown thornbill Acanthiza pusilla Orange-bellied parrot Neophema chrysogaster Trevor Waite Dave Watts

Plate 7.3 Plate 7.4 Plate 7.5 Black currawong Swift parrot Lathamus discolor Green rosella Strepera fuliginosa (passage migrant) Dave Watts Platycercus caledonicus Rob Blakers Trevor Waite

Plate 7.6 Plate 7.7 Scrubtit Acanthornis magnus Yellow wattlebird Anthochaera paradoxa Dave Watts Trevor Waite

P13 Tasmanian endemic common to uncommon forest birds

Plate 7.8 Plate 7.9 Tasmanian scrubwren Sericornis humilis Strong-billed honeyeater Melithreptus validirostris Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

Plate 7.10 Plate 7.11 Tasmanian thornbill Acanthiza ewingii Black-headed honeyeater Melithreptus affinis Jim Napier Trevor Waite

Plate 7.12 Yellow-throated honeyeater Lichenostomus flavicollis Trevor Waite Plate 7.13 Dusky robin Melanodryas vittata P14 Trevor Waite Chapter 8 Species accounts of King Island vertebrate fauna

Rodney Walker (fish), Jim Nelson (frogs and reptiles), Richard Donaghey (mammals and 83 bird species), Sarah Lloyd (10 bird species)

Freshwater fish

Fish terms (2) are continuous, forming one inseparable fin Adipose fin – small dorsal fin nearest the tail with containing no spines. Pelvic fins are absent, but no rays or spines. small ovate pectoral fins are present just behind small vertical gill openings. The skin is slimy with Anal fin – unpaired fin on ventral surface between small indistinct scales deeply embedded. The the vent and tail. species has a large mouth extending to below the Dorsal fin – rayed fin on upper surface. eyes, with nostrils that are long and protrude Origin – (of fins) the anterior-most (head) point of above the upper lip. the fin. Colour: Short-finned eels are a uniform colour but Pectoral fin – paired fins just behind or below gill can vary from olive-green through brown to black openings. on the dorsal side with a lighter greyish white Pelvic fins – paired fins on ventral surface. ventral surface. Mature migratory adults often have a very dark dorsal surface with an easily distin- Refer to glossary in ‘Tasmanian Freshwater guishable silver belly. The juvenile glass-eel stage Fishes – pp. 15-18 (2) for further terms and is transparent and unpigmented on arrival into diagrams. freshwater, but soon develop a uniform brown- black colouration. Short-finned eel Preferred habitat: Found in freshwater lakes, swamps, rivers and streams, preferring still water Anguilla australis Plate 3.1 that is often turbid. Often associated with deep Other name: Silver eel, which refers to the pools that contain areas of cover, such as weed colouration of the migratory adults. beds and/or woody debris. The spawning run, the Size: Generally, males are smaller than females. final stage of the life cycle, is spent in oceanic Females can reach lengths of over 1100 mm and waters. weigh upwards of 3 kg, however, more commonly Natural history: The glass eel stage is about they are around 50 cm and 0.5 kg. 60 mm in length when they migrate from the sea Description: An elongate and cylindrical/tubular into estuaries during March to November. Once in native fish species. Its dorsal, anal and caudal fins brackish or freshwater, they develop pigmentation

75 and enter the elver stage of their lifecycle. The with an almost tubular trunk. As with all the elvers then penetrate into the upper reaches of galaxiid species an adipose fin and body scales are waterways. Eels can take between 15 to 30 years to absent. Its head is dorsally flattened, containing a mature. When mature, they then migrate large mouth with the lower jaw distinctly shorter downstream to the sea to spawn and die. It is than the upper. Its mouth reaches well below the thought that spawning occurs at great depth in the eyes and large lateral canine teeth are present. The Coral Sea. Larval eels, known as leptocephali fins are thick and fleshy particularly at their base (because of their willow leaf shape) are carried with the anal fin origin behind the dorsal fin origin. back from the spawning grounds via the ocean Both pelvic and pectoral fins are large and round. currents, and the lifecycle begins over again. A distinctive dark blotch immediately above the King Island range: Short-finned eels are native to pectoral fin base is evident. Tasmania, King and Flinders Islands as well as Colour: Highly variable pattern of markings, from south-eastern mainland Australia and New bold bands to irregular patches and blotches. The Zealand. Due to the ability of the species to general colour is greyish brown to dark olive, penetrate into all reaches of swamps and streams it darker on the back and becoming lighter on the is able to move across moist ground. The species sides and belly. The stomach area is usually a dull is widespread in the majority of freshwater habitats silvery olive. Gold iridescence is often apparent on on the island. King Island supports a commercial the back and sides in bright sunlight. fishery for the short-finned eels and periodic Preferred habitat: The climbing galaxias is a restocking of the species occurs using elvers secretive and solitary species that prefers clear harvested from mainland Tasmanian waters. flowing streams with rocky substrates. Can also be King Island conservation status: The short- found landlocked in some lake systems across its finned eel remains abundant across its entire range, range. Often found in the upper reaches of streams although numbers may have declined due to above natural barriers to other fish species but can commercial fishing of both the feeding and be found down to sea level in streams that do not migratory stages. contain introduced species such as trout. Swims Utility: As a recreational angling species it near the bottom, usually near the cover of rocks provides good sport as it is considered a hard and logs. fighting fish. It is also enjoyed as a food by some. Natural history: This species has both landlocked It is easily caught on rod and line and will readily and riverine populations. In riverine populations, take most bait. A recreational angling licence is spawning takes place in autumn. The exact site is required. It also is caught in unbaited fyke nets by unknown, however eggs have been found among commercial fishers. litter of the forest floor beyond the normal limits of Special management: The species is managed for stream flow, presumably spawned there during both its commercial value and its recreational times of flood. The eggs can number from several angling qualities. The species is abundant and hundred to many thousand (up to 23,000 have widespread throughout its entire range and as a been reported). The newly hatched larvae are result requires no special management considera- thought to be swept downstream where there is a tions. marine stage of about five to six months before the juvenile fish return to freshwater in spring as part Climbing galaxias of the whitebait runs. Landlocked populations breed in spring, and schools of juvenile fish are Galaxias brevipinnis Plate 3.2 seen in lake margins during late summer. Other names: Known as koaro in New Zealand. The climbing galaxias is an aggressive upstream Size: Reaches 280 mm in length, but more migrant. It is well known for its ability to climb commonly ranges from 150–170 mm. moist surfaces of waterfalls and other barriers and Description: This native species is the largest of can penetrate the upper limits of stream systems. It the Australian galaxiids. It has an elongate body adheres to damp rock surfaces with its fleshy

76 pectoral and pelvic fins and wriggles upwards directly below the dorsal fin origin. The tail is using lizard-like movements. slightly forked. King Island range: In surveys conducted on King Colour: Colouration of this species is variable, Island in 2001, the species was recorded in only depending on habitat. Regular small spots with one location, above the gauging weir in the Ettrick surrounding lighter halos are evident, but the River. Past surveys have, however, recorded the number and pattern of these spots is variable. climbing galaxias in the Yellow Rock River. General body colour is brownish to deep olive, Possibly still occurs in the larger streams on King paling to brownish grey on the sides and silvery on Island, although in low numbers. the belly. Fins are generally brown to olive with King Island conservation status: Given the the dorsal, anal and caudal fins appearing golden limited distribution of the species on the island, to bright orange in colour with a dark outer both historically and in recent surveys, it appears edging. A distinctive diagonal dark stripe is always that the climbing galaxias is restricted to pockets of present passing back downwards through the eyes, suitable habitat in a small number of streams. The and two blue-black blotches are present above the distribution has almost certainly been reduced pectoral fins origin. Juveniles have a barred pattern following the historical clearing of forests on King rather than spots. Island and the channelisation of streams. Preferred habitat: Commonly associated with Utility: The species forms part of the annual plants, rocks and logs on the margins of streams whitebait migration. A recreational whitebait and lake systems. It is most common at lower fishery does not currently exist on King Island, as elevations often remaining near the coast. the biomass of fish is small. However, if habitats Natural history: The species has both riverine could be restored and the annual migration and landlocked populations, each with a different nurtured, a whitebait fishery could be considered breeding time. The riverine populations breed in in future. This species also adds to the native biodi- autumn–winter, with the exact location unknown. versity of fish on King Island, and its aesthetic The resulting larvae are washed out to the coast value is also of importance. where they return some months later as part of the Special management: There are no special whitebait run. Landlocked populations spawn management guidelines in place for the King among aquatic vegetation during spring. The larvae Island population. Its range and abundance is are found around the lake margins throughout limited, but this can only be improved by restoring summer. The eggs are approximately 1.3 mm in stream riparian zones, water quality and instream diameter and number between 1,000 and 16,000 in habitat. adult females. The spotted galaxias is a carnivorous species, feeding opportunistically on a wide range Spotted galaxias of terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates. Galaxias truttaceus Plate 3.3 King Island range: During surveys conducted on King Island in 2001, the species was recorded in Other name: Mountain trout, spotted mountain one location only, below the gauging weir in the trout or mountain minnow. Ettrick River. Past surveys have, however, recorded Size: A large galaxiid that can reach sizes over 200 the spotted galaxias in the Grassy River. It is mm, but more commonly 120–140 mm. possible the species still occurs in the larger Description: The spotted galaxias is a stout- streams on King Island, although in low numbers. bodied native fish with a deep belly, large head King Island conservation status: Given the and mouth. As with all the galaxiid species an limited distribution of the species on the island, adipose fin and body scales are absent. The jaws both historically and in recent surveys, it appears are of equal length and the mouth reaches back to that the spotted galaxias is restricted to pockets of the front of its eyes with no lateral canine teeth suitable habitat in a small number of streams. The present. The fins are large, with the anal and dorsal distribution has almost certainly been reduced fins distinctly rounded and the anal fin origin

77 following the historical clearing of forests on King Preferred habitat: The species appears to prefer Island and the channelisation of streams. clear, moderate- to fast-flowing rivers and streams, Utility: The species forms part of the annual often in the upper reaches of catchments. Typically whitebait migration. A recreational whitebait found in gravel-bottom pools. Often seen in fishery does not currently exist on King Island, as schools below barriers to upstream movement, the biomass of fish is small. However, if habitats such as weirs, waterfalls or log jams. could be restored and the annual migration Natural history: The Australian grayling is a shy nurtured, a whitebait fishery could be considered species that flees when disturbed. It spawns in in future. This species also adds to the native biodi- autumn, probably during the months of April and versity of fish on King Island, and its aesthetic May, but spawning requirements are unknown. value is also of importance. Males mature sexually at one year of age and the Special management: There are no special females in their second year. They are thought to management guidelines in place for the King commonly live for about three years, however Island population. Its range and abundance is specimens estimated at five years of age have been limited, but this can only be improved by restoring recorded. On hatching, the larvae are about stream riparian zones, water quality and instream 4.5 mm long and are phototropic; this means they habitat. are attracted to the sunlight and are washed downstream as a result. The larvae then have a Australian grayling marine stage and return to the rivers in spring Prototroctes maraena when they are about six months old. The Australian grayling is an opportunistic Other names: Cucumber herring or cucumber omnivore, feeding on a mixed diet of algae and mullet. both aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates. Its Size: The species has been reported to reach a intestine has a double loop, which is rare in maximum size of about 300 mm, however, they are salmoniform species. This almost certainly allows more commonly 170–180 mm in length. additional time for the digestion of algae and the Description: A slender elongate native species absorption of plant material. that is laterally flattened. It has a small head with a King Island range: During surveys conducted on bluntly rounded snout and large eyes. It has a King Island in 2001, the species was not recorded. small-based dorsal fin on the middle of its back Historical survey information has recorded it only originating just behind the level of the pelvic fins. once, below the gauging weir in the Ettrick River. A small adipose fin is present and the tail fin is King Island conservation status: Australian deeply forked. A weak, horny abdominal keel can grayling abundance has declined across its entire be felt in front of the anal vent. The species also range (south-eastern mainland Australia and has a distinctive cucumber odour when caught, a coastal Tasmania). The reasons for this decline are characteristic it shares with a closely related family unclear. A second grayling species in New Zealand member, the Tasmanian smelt. The body is covered has also declined and is now thought to be extinct. in cycloid scales of moderate size, which are easily On King Island the fact that the species has only dislodged when handled. ever been recorded once, suggests that it is either Colour: The Australian grayling is generally dark an occasional wayward migrant swept by the green to grey along the back, silvery along the marine currents during its larval stage, or it may sides with a white belly. Colouration can vary have vanished from the island altogether. slightly depending on maturity. A dark mid-lateral Utility: The Australian grayling was once a very streak is usually present and effectively divides the popular angling species, especially before numbers pigmentation pattern of the back and sides. The began to decline. Its numbers are such now that it fins are grey in colour, but can be almost is protected in all Australian waters. This species transparent along the outer edges. also adds to the native biodiversity of fish on King

78 Island (if still present) and its aesthetic value is also larvae remain at sea for about four to five months of importance. and return to freshwater as a major part of the Special management: The Australian grayling is whitebait run in spring. The freshwater stage of the fully protected under state and commonwealth lifecycle inhabits the lower reaches of coastal threatened species legislation and the Tasmanian streams and can also form landlocked populations Inland Fisheries Act 1995. It is prohibited to take in farm dams and coastal lagoons. Fish usually or disturb the species. However, there has been mature at one year of age but some can take as little public education and enforcement to support long as three years to reach sexual maturity. The the legislation. It should be considered that this common galaxias is a carnivorous species, feeding species still exists on King Island. Any activities opportunistically on a wide range of terrestrial and involving the use or manipulation of suitable aquatic invertebrates. habitat should consider the impacts that these King Island range: The common jollytail is actions may have on this and other species. widespread on King Island. It can be found throughout Lavinia State Reserve and all of its Common jollytail associated waterways, including Nook Swamp, Egg Galaxias maculatus Plate 3.5 Lagoon Creek and the myriad of drains that run into this area. All of the swamps and coastal Other names: Known as inanga in New Zealand, lagoons in the south of the island, including Big and as puyen in Chile and Argentina. Also often Lake, Shearing Shed Lagoon, Denbys Lagoon, referred to as the common galaxias or spotted Colliers Swamp and Woodland Lagoon also appear minnow. to contain the common jollytail. In addition, the Size: May reach 190 mm, but more commonly less majority of coastal streams, rivers and drains as than 100 mm. well as any lagoons that are periodically connected Description: The common jollytail is a slender- to coastal drainages may also contain populations. bodied native galaxiid, with a small head that is King Island conservation status: The species is bluntly pointed and containing large eyes. The considered as very common on the island. This is mouth is small, reaching back to the front of the due to its tolerance of salinity and periodic eyes with equal length jaws that lack canine teeth. increases in nutrient load. Its abundance does not The fins are thin and membranous with dorsal and appear to be in a state of decline. anal fins rounded and set posteriorly. The tail is Utility: The species forms part of the annual distinctively forked. whitebait migration. A recreational whitebait Colour: Translucent olive-green on the back and fishery does not currently exist on King Island, as upper sides, with a variable combination of small the biomass of fish is small. However, if habitats dark bars and spots on the sides. The belly, gill could be restored and the annual migration covers and eyes are distinctive silver, and a nurtured, a whitebait fishery could be considered greenish sheen is usually apparent above a silver in future. This species also adds to the native biodi- belly. versity of fish on King Island, and its aesthetic Preferred habitat: Found in a wide variety of value is also of importance. habitats, but most common in gently flowing Special management: There are no special waters of streams, rivers and in lakes at lower management guidelines in place for the King elevations. It has an amazing tolerance to salinity, Island population. Its range and abundance appear being capable of surviving salinities of 49 parts per to be healthy and stable, therefore no special thousand (seawater is about 35 ppt). management is required. Natural history: Adult fish migrate downstream in autumn and breed in estuarine marshes. Eggs are Southern pygmy perch deposited on marginal vegetation during spring Nannoperca australis Plate 3.4 tides and hatch on the next, or a subsequent, Size: Largest specimen known is 85 mm, but spring tide, and the larvae are taken to sea. The normally only grows to 65 mm total length.

79 Description: The southern pygmy perch is a Utility: The southern pygmy perch is thought to small-scaled native fish that is laterally compressed. play an important role in mosquito control in Its body depth is variable but is usually more than drains, dams and waterways across its range. It also 30% of the fish length. It has a small mouth that adds to the native biodiversity of fish on King extends back to just below the eye and does not Island, and its aesthetic value is also of importance. contain canine teeth. Its dorsal fin is deeply In the past it has been utilised as an attractive notched, with the entire anterior portion containing aquarium species, but a permit to posses spines. The lateral line is divided into two distinct freshwater fish is required from the Tasmanian portions, and the body is covered in small ctenoid Inland Fisheries Service. scales. Special management: There are no special Colour: Colouration is highly variable, depending management guidelines in place for the King on water clarity and geographical range. The base Island population. Its range and population status colour varies from pale cream to brownish green appear to be healthy and stable and therefore on the top and fading to white or silver on the requires no special management. belly. Irregular dark brown blotches are often evident along the sides of the fish, interspersed Freshwater flathead with hints of red that are more obvious in males. Pseudaphritis urvilli Plate 3.7 The fins are clear or dusky in appearance, with Other names: The species is known as a tupong breeding males developing darkened fins with in Victoria, but also is commonly known as a reddish tinges during the breeding season. flathead, sand trout, marble fish, sandy, congolli Preferred habitat: The species inhabits vegetated and roach in other locations. margins of streams, billabongs, drains, dams and Size: Attains lengths of 340 mm, but mostly about swamps, in still or gently flowing water. 100–150 mm. Natural history: The species is thought to be a Description: A native species. The freshwater protracted or multiple spawner, breeding between flathead is an elongate and cylindrical fish, distin- September and January. Several hundred eggs that guishable by the flattened head, pointed snout and hatch in around three days are randomly scattered eyes positioned near the top of the head. The on aquatic vegetation. Females grow larger than lower jaw is longer than the upper, and both jaws males, although the males grow faster in the first are lined with bands of small teeth. First dorsal fin few years of life. Most fish in a population are origin is well behind the head, second dorsal fin is either one or two years old, although fish can live long and low. Anal fin origin is below the last rays for more than five years. Both sexes mature in their of the first dorsal fin and resembles the second first year and the males become highly territorial dorsal fin in shape and length. Head and body are during the breeding season. Their diet consists of covered with moderate-sized ctenoid scales. small crustaceans, insects and their own larvae. Colour: The species is variable in colour King Island range: The southern pygmy perch is depending on the substrate of the area it inhabits. widespread on King Island. During surveys Usually whitish overall, dusky-green to reddish- conducted in 2001 the species was recorded brown dorsally, with an irregular series of dark throughout Lavinia State Reserve and Nook brown blotches on the sides. Undersurface white Swamp. It was also located in several small water to yellow. Its fins are transparent, except for faint bodies that drain into Lake Flannigan, although not spotting on the tail and dorsal fins. in the lake itself. It is possible that this species is in Preferred habitat: A bottom-dwelling species of Lake Flannigan, although if a report of trout within brackish estuaries, but also inhabiting slow-flowing the lake is correct, it may have been removed freshwater systems, sometimes many kilometres through predation. inland from the coast. Usually found around logs, King Island conservation status: The species is aquatic plants, leaf litter and undercut banks. considered to be common on the island and does not appear to be in a state of decline.

80 Natural history: The freshwater flathead is appear smaller with increased body growth. Its tail equally at home in either fresh or salt water. The is slightly forked, if at all. spawning site is unknown but it does not appear Colour: Colouration of the brown trout is highly to be in freshwater. Juveniles are most abundant in variable depending on habitat and life history. Sea- the lower reaches of rivers during spring and run specimens are silvery and somewhat olive on summer, whereas larger specimens are generally the back, with indistinct dark spots on the sides. more common upstream. It is likely that the Lake fish also tend to be silvery in general colour freshwater flathead lives to at least five years of but the spots on the sides of the fish can vary from age. Its diet consists of insect larvae, worms, small red to brown-black. River fish are often much crustaceans and other fish. darker than lake or sea-run specimens and are King Island range: Found in the lower reaches of usually more distinctly marked, often with darker all the main rivers on King Island. It has also been spots above the lateral line and bright red or pale found in several of the small coastal creek systems brown spots surrounded by halos below the lateral that contain permanent water. Recent surveys in line. 2001 did not locate this species in the Nook Preferred habitat: This species is one of Swamp area of King Island, although this habitat Australia’s most well-adapted freshwater fish intro- appears to be suitable. ductions. It can and does survive in a wide range King Island conservation status: The species is of habitats from small streams to brackish marshes considered to be common on the island and does and freshwater lake systems. Prefers deep cool and not appear to be in a state of decline. well-oxygenated water with cover from avian Utility: Although excellent eating, this species is predators (i.e. weed beds, overhanging vegetation, usually too small to be utilised as a table fish. It is undercut banks etc.) and easy access to feeding usually only caught by recreational anglers and is areas. of no commercial importance. It adds to the native Natural history: This species is native to Europe, biodiversity of fish on King Island, and its aesthetic from Iceland and Scandinavia, south to Spain and value is also of importance. Northern Africa, and eastwards to the Black and Special management: There are no special Caspian Seas. It was introduced into Australia in management guidelines in place for the King the 1860s and has spread by a combination of Island population. Its range and population status stocking and migration and now forms self- appear to be healthy and stable and therefore sustaining populations in many areas in southern requires no special management. and eastern Australia. Brown trout spawn in autumn and winter Brown trout (April–August) in rivers and streams with gravel Salmo trutta Plate 3.6 substrates. Spawning fish often migrate upstream into feeder streams and tributaries with gravel beds Other names: Often called sea trout or but may spawn locally in a river or on a lake shore Englishman. if gravel is present and there is sufficient water Size: Can reach at least 1,400 mm (fork length) and movement to oxygenate the eggs. The eggs take weigh more than 20 kg, is known to reach at least several weeks to develop depending on water 900 mm and 14 kg in Australia. temperature. The young larvae (alevins) remain in Description: An introduced species. The the gravel for some time after hatching until they salmonidae family is characterised by a dorsal fin absorb their yolk sack. After emerging from the high on the back and further forward than the gravel beds (redds) they begin feeding and form pelvic fins, an adipose fin, small scales, a lateral shoals in slow-flowing water or around lake line and axillary processes on the pelvic fins. margins. Brown trout are generally a thick-bodied fish with Brown trout are predatory in nature and feed a big head and a mouth that extends back below on a wide variety of animals – aquatic crustaceans, the eyes. Eyes are moderately large although they

81 molluscs, insects and small fishes, as well as the sides. Often a rosy pink stripe is evident along terrestrial organisms that fall into the water. the sides and on the gill covers. River fish and King Island range: Since 1995 the Inland those on spawning migrations are more distinctly Fisheries Service has stocked brown trout into marked, with the pink stripe appearing intense, several waterbodies on King Island. Waters often-deep crimson in colour. Spots on the sides include; Lake Wickham, Penny’s Lagoon and Cask are bolder and more conspicuous. Lake. It is possible that brown trout exist outside Preferred habitat: This species prefers lakes, but these lakes from illegal introductions and/or also inhabits streams in cool (10–22°C), well- escapees forming small populations within oxygenated water typically over gravel bottoms. streams. Recent surveys in 2001 did not locate this Natural history: Life history is similar to that of species in any streams. However, previous records brown trout. This species does have a wider show the species exists in several areas. temperature tolerance than brown trout, but King Island conservation status: This species is appears to be much better adapted to lakes than introduced to King Island and stocked into several river systems. Rainbow trout spawn later than lakes as a recreational fish species. It has no brown trout, during winter to early spring (August– conservation status, but size and bag limits exist for October). The eggs are smaller and faster the taking of the species and an angling licence is developing than brown trout. Brown and rainbow required. trout often coexist together, although brown trout Utility: Brown trout are a very popular recreational usually dominate. angling species and are managed solely for this King Island range: The species has been purpose. recorded in several lake systems on King Island, Special management: An angling licence is although stockings by the Inland Fisheries Service required to take this species and minimum size and have not occurred since 1995. An illegal hatchery bag limits apply. carrying rainbow trout was discovered on King Island in early 2000. It is unclear if fry and Rainbow trout fingerlings from this hatchery were used to illegally stock farm dams or lake systems of the island. Oncorhynchus mykiss Plate 3.8 King Island conservation status: The species Other names: Often known as a steelhead. has been introduced to King Island and stocked Size: Maximum size of about 1,120 mm and >20 kg into several lakes as a recreational fish species. It in weight, although in Australia they have been has no conservation status, however size and bag recorded at 780 mm in length and weighing 8 kg. limits exist for the taking of this species and a Description: An introduced species. Resembles licence is required in order to fish. brown trout in most features, but rather deeper Utility: Rainbow trout are a very popular recre- bodied and more laterally compressed. ational angling species and are managed solely for Colour: Colouration of the rainbow trout is this purpose. variable depending on habitat and life history. Lake Special management: An angling licence is fish are predominantly silvery, with dark olive to required to take this species and minimum size and steely-blue backs and many small dark spots on bag limits apply.

82 Amphibians

All King Island frogs can be identified by their calls peak breeding time in spring. The eggs are unmis- alone, and for this purpose an available audio tape takable, and can easily be seen in grape-like is useful. clusters clinging to stems of vegetation below the Handling frogs for identification purposes can surface of the water. be detrimental to the animals and should only be Habitat and range: The brown tree frog can be carried out with care and for good reasons. The found almost everywhere on King Island where mucus covering the skin of frogs is very important there is habitat. When not breeding it can be found to their health, and any handling should be kept to some distance from water, where it usually shelters a minimum and only done with wet hands. under rocks and logs during the day. This is a frog Holding frogs by their back legs for identification that loves gardens and will usually breed in a purposes reduces the contact area while effectively provided frog pond that does not contain fish. It immobilising them. The mucus on the skin of tree can be found during the day in damp places in frogs in particular will irritate lips and eyes, so if vegetation or hiding in shelter, waiting for its frogs are handled for any reason, care should be evening role of eating insects. taken to wash the hands afterwards. This secretion is also toxic to other frogs that might be put in the Green and golden frog same container with tree frogs. Litoria raniformis Plate 5.2 The following descriptions point out key Identification: The green and golden frog is a identifying features, which together with habitat large, mostly green frog that can reach around 90 preferences and mating calls, should be useful for mm. The colour can range from green to brown on attaching names to local frog species. its back, with scattered brown or golden blotches. The lower sides of the frog are very warty, and the Brown tree frog belly is white and granular. Being a tree frog Litoria ewingi Plate 5.1 (although it is not much of a climber), the ends of Identification: The brown tree frog is a small, the fingers and toes have discs for climbing. The brown climbing frog with good leaping abilities. It males have dark nuptial pads in their inner fingers, is usually less than 45 mm in length, and, like all acting a little like Velcro for hanging onto slippery tree frogs, it has round discs on the ends of its females. fingers and toes used for climbing. This is the little Mating call and breeding: This frog is a summer frog that climbs windows at night catching insects breeder, and usually does not show itself until the and calls in gardens at the first hint of rain, usually weather begins to warm up in late spring and early at night. It is usually dark or light brown in colour summer. It is a basking frog that likes to sit in the (occasionally greenish) with a black stripe running sun, usually near the edge of water, or on floating from its nose through its eyes. Inside its thighs it vegetation. Its breeding call is not usually heard has a bright yellow to orange patch of skin, and its until the nights begin to warm up, and then it begins toes are well webbed. Its belly skin is granular and its growling call which sounds something like white. Males have dark grey-brownish throats ‘Crawk, crawk, crawk, craaaawwk’. Once heard, it is during the breeding season. unmistakable and is one of the great sounds of a Mating call and breeding: The male’s call is a summer night. The males call from the water, and repetitive one that is almost a trill, and sounds like the eggs are laid in a mat that sinks to the bottom of ‘creee, cree-cree-cree’ with the first note usually the the pond. Tadpoles develop quickly in warm longest. It may call practically anytime of year, weather to a large size, often around 80 mm, and especially when there are good rains. Breeding can metamorphose by late summer into frogs about occurs any time the conditions are good, with a 25 mm or more. Later hatching of tadpoles can

83 overwinter and metamorphose the next season, quite variable in colour, ranging from a uniform although this probably is not the normal strategy. dark brown to a patchy dark and light brown. It Habitat, range and behaviour: This large frog usually has at least a partial lighter coloured stripe usually prefers farm dams and has been shown to down its back, although with the subspecies which eat a variety of food including tadpoles, frogs, is found on King Island and in south-western small fish, lizards and even small snakes. Anything Victoria, this dorsal stripe is poorly developed or that moves and that it can get in its mouth is fair absent. Also with the King Island subspecies the game. Captive animals for research have been fed belly skin is dark grey with white dots all over, on mice which they unceremoniously stuff into whereas the Tasmanian mainland sub species has their mouths using their hands. a much lighter belly either off-white or light grey with brown spotting. Conservation status: The green and golden frog is listed as Vulnerable under the Tasmanian Threatened This frog is robust looking and often is Species Act 1995. It has shown a worrying decline on mistaken for a toad. Its habit of digging itself into the Tasmanian mainland, and has disappeared from loose soil with its back feet, and then popping up a number of areas, including the midlands and the to surprise unsuspecting gardeners also leads to north-west, and has declined in several areas such as this mistaken identity. Australia has no true toads the Tamar Valley. The reason for this decline is except the introduced cane toad. However, toads unknown, and why it has disappeared entirely from are simply a family of frogs, and a number of frogs the north-west, which should be frog heaven for this have similarities to toads. Males that are breeding species, is a total mystery. have dark nuptial pads on the inner fingers, and breeding females have fleshy flanges on the The anecdotal evidence is that this frog is in second and third fingers. decline on King Island for unknown reasons. One contributing factor could be the population Mating call and breeding: The common name expansion of the introduced magpies and possibly pobblebonk comes from the call of this frog. the increasing numbers of forest ravens. These However, each male frog only calls bonk as a actively foraging birds would make short work of single note call. The males are very competitive daytime active frogs that prefer open areas for callers, and as soon as one calls, the others try to basking and which often move during the day outdo it resulting in a pobble bonk sound when through paddocks to and from dams. Also, the new three frogs call. Eggs are laid in spring and metamorphlings have been recorded moving across summer, and the distinctive egg masses are seen as paddocks away from water en-masse late in summer white floating froth, which, on close examination, to find winter shelter, presumably then providing contains many black and white eggs. The eggs sink easy pickings for birds. Observations of such after floating a few days. The tadpoles can develop predation would be valuable, and should be quickly in warmer, usually shallower waters, but documented and made available to Natural have also been observed to take anything up to Resource Managers and the DPIWE Conservation two years to develop in deeper waters in colder Branch. The current range of this frog on King Tasmanian conditions. The older tadpoles get very Island is uncertain. large and are usually quite dark. They can often be seen in deep dams coming to the top and rolling Eastern banjo frog over into a dive. Large green and golden tadpoles will also do this, but they are green-metallic Limnodynastes dumerili Plate 5.4 looking, while banjo tadpoles look mostly black. Identification: The banjo frog is often called the Habitat and range: This frog likes dams, fire dams pobble-bonk, a name which describes its and permanent marsh areas. It is occasionally found distinctive call. This frog can reach nearly tennis breeding in temporary water where the tadpoles ball size (about 70 mm). It might also be said to have to metamorphose quickly. It is probably generally have a tennis ball shape. It is squat, has widespread on King Island, but distribution records no webbing between the fingers or toes and has a are sketchy. distinctive oval gland on its back leg. It can be

84 Striped marsh frog in appearance. It rarely exceeds 25 mm in size, but Limnodynastes peroni Plate 5.5 it may be smooth or warty, patterned or plain, a uniform brown or a combination of colours. Identification: The striped or Peron’s marsh frog However, its belly skin is always white with black is similar in size (about 70 mm) to its relative the blotches, and has a granular texture. Breeding males banjo frog, but on closer examination it is a more have dark throats, while females have white throats. streamlined looking frog with a pattern of stripes There is no webbing or discs on a common froglet’s usually discernible on its back. It has a sharper fingers or toes, and it almost always has a small nose and smooth, white belly skin. It lacks the mustard coloured spot on the tip of its tailbone, banjo frog’s gland on the back leg, and does not which is not described in the literature but which have any webbing between its fingers and toes. can usually be used as an easy diagnostic feature. Males do not have nuptial pads on their fingers, Because of its otherwise confusing appearance, this but instead are distinguished by having very frog has thus been dubbed the ‘yellow-spotted bum muscular looking arms compared to females. frog’ when teaching children to identify frogs, and Mating call and breeding: The striped marsh frog they never forget that one! call is heard from concealed areas in the water as Mating call and breeding: The common froglet a soft ‘smuck’, and sounds similar to a finger breeds from early in late winter to spring in popping out of a cheek. It breeds in late spring, Tasmania and continues breeding whenever often a little later than the first banjo frogs breed. conditions are right. The call is a ‘crick, crick, crick, Like the banjo tadpoles, development can be …’ repeated at short intervals and endlessly. variable according to conditions and water Multiply this by many hundreds at a good dam in temperature, but probably they would metamor- early spring, and it becomes a serious presence phose within a year. The frothy, typical marsh frog interspersed with brown tree frogs trilling over the egg masses differ from the banjo frog’s in that the top at a higher note and volume. The eggs are laid eggs lack any pigment and are totally white. They as singles in shallow water and sink to the bottom. are often laid under overhanging vegetation if it is The dark little tadpoles scuttle along the bottom available. and metamorphose in a few weeks into little meta- Habitat and range: This frog likes areas of morphlings of less than a centimetre. Occasionally, permanent water, often quite close to the coast. hundreds of small tadpoles can be seen in what are The striped marsh frog is only found along the little more than quickly drying puddles, and the north coast of the Tasmanian mainland, and mostly race is on to try to metamorphose before the water in the north-west. It is common on King Island dries up. The warm water speeds the process, but near the coast at Currie, and is recorded from often they lose the race, and unless a rain comes various sites near the west coast, but more or a kind child collects them and moves them to complete distribution information for King Island better conditions, they are doomed. would be interesting. Occurrence is widespread on Habitat and range: These little froglets are very the Australian mainland, all the way from South common on King Island and might be expected Australia to northern Queensland but its presence almost anywhere there is water. They particularly in Tasmania is little more than a toehold. Because like sags and other vegetation around the edges of of its scarcity, it has been proposed that it be listed ponds and dams. When not breeding, the common on the Threatened Species List for Tasmania. Small, froglet can often be found under rocks and logs completely isolated populations of species can be some distance from water. treated as though they were separate species under the threatened species strategy. Smooth froglet Common or brown froglet Geocrinia laevis Plates 5.3 & 5.7 Crinia signifera Plate 5.6 Identification: The smooth froglet is a very interesting little frog which can reach about 30 mm Identification: This very common small frog is a in size. It is plump looking, grey or brown on its particularly interesting one in its endless variability

85 back with occasional reddish markings, and difficult to find when they are calling, because they sometimes with lighter brown bands running down conceal themselves well. The habitat and the time each side of the back. Its underside is much more of year are additional clues to the call sound when dramatic, with smooth light coloured skin that is trying to determine whether it might be a smooth boldly marbled with dark brown, whereas the froglet. This froglet is probably widespread on groin area is usually coloured red or at least pink, King Island occurring wherever there are suitable with the undersides of the legs and arms often conditions. pinkish. There is no mistaking this frog once you turn it over! Conservation of frogs Mating call and breeding: The smooth froglet’s Frogs have been showing worrying declines and call is a ‘cra-a-a-ak’ sound similar to the brown extinctions around the world. Because they have froglet, but drawn out more, somewhat like occupied the planet for a very long time, it should running your thumb along a harsh comb. The ring alarm bells when they start to disappear. They breeding season occurs in late summer and are increasingly being seen as indicator species autumn. Large eggs of about 6 mm are laid in which may provide us with early warnings when clumps of up to 150 eggs. These are laid on land things in the environment are going wrong. They in areas that are going to be inundated later with play a very important role in the planet’s biodi- water. Usually the male calls from small pockets in versity by providing food for many animals and by the soil in the midst of vegetation, and the female controlling the populations of many invertebrates, comes and lays the eggs in this spot. The tadpoles particularly insects. develop within the egg itself, and once the area is Responsible land managers can look after their flooded they hatch out of the egg and develop like frog populations by protecting habitat and by other tadpoles. Metamorphosis to frogs takes place responsible chemical use. Even supposedly safer during late spring and summer at which time the chemicals such as Roundup have been shown to frogs are around 10 mm. kill tadpoles, through a surfactant included in the Habitat and range: Sometimes, especially on the chemical leaching from paddocks into wetlands. A west coast of mainland Tasmania, the males call new formulation called Bio-Roundup is designed from under rocks where the soil is wet and will to be frog-friendly. Any use of chemicals around stay saturated for winter and spring. The frogs are wetlands should be carried out only with the most often found in or near open forest. Areas near greatest of caution, and good advice should be the edge of permanent water which will rise during sought concerning both product and application. winter are also favoured. The males can be very

Reptiles – snakes

Tiger snake Typically, a tiger snake might be black with yellow bands on its sides thus giving it the ‘tiger’ Notechis ater Plate 5.8 common name. The tiger snake is the only one of Identification: The tiger snake is our largest snake our three snakes that has banding, of whatever in Tasmania, with individuals quite often reaching colour combination. However, sometimes the snake 1.5 m long. Some of the giant Mt Chappell Island can be totally black, or brown, or greenish or sub species are closer to 2 m long. But the many several other colours, and may not have any of the stories of the one that was as long as the tractor, or identifying light and dark bands. The other with a head on one side of the road while the tail identifying features for a tiger snake that might was on the other are the stuff of tall tales rather separate it from a copperhead are the large head than reality. with prominent eyes, and the glossy scales. In

86 comparison, a copperhead has matt looking scales systems for injecting venom, and what may have and a small head. One problem with the glossy/matt seemed like a momentary scratch can be a full bite. choice is that when snakes are getting close to The antivenom works for all our Tasmanian shedding their skins, the scales loose their gloss, and species, so it is not important to know which snake sometimes a clue to this condition is that the eye caused the bite. Very few people now die in lenses can be seen to be cloudy to opaque. Snakes Australia from snakebite because of the good can be virtually blind at this time, but their main treatment available. sense organ, their tongue, is still working fine. Behaviour and natural history: Mating usually Lowland copperhead occurs in late summer into autumn, at which time Austrelaps superbus Plate 5.9 a number of snakes are usually seen dead on the Identification: The lowland copperhead is a large roads. A very high percentage of these will be snake capable of growing well over 1 m in length. males out searching for females. Males can be The largest specimens might approach 1.5 m, but identified by the lack of immediate taper below the generally the older snakes seem to get fatter rather vent where their sexual organs are packed, and by than longer. They typically are a matt black colour larger sized heads in the older snakes. Females’ on their back with a cream coloured belly, and tails taper immediately from their vent. They give often with an orange to red stripe down their side, live birth and a typical litter is probably around 30, but also without. They can, alternatively, be a matt born during summer. orange-brown colour on their back, and then a The tiger snake is a commonly encountered dark coloured band across the neck will usually be Tasmanian snake that has gathered a reputation for present, with the top of the head also dark fierceness, based mostly on tall tales and phobic coloured. The head is narrow and the lip scales are fantasy. Certainly, this snake has a tendency to barred white. stand its ground, especially when surprised Behaviour and natural history: Copperheads are suddenly or when people try to move it off with active both day and night and also at fairly low various threats. It can put on a display of flattening temperatures. They are good swimmers and catch the upper portion of its body in cobra fashion, and tadpoles under water. Mating takes place in occasionally will make threatening strike actions autumn, and males can sometimes be found accompanied by coughing-like expulsions of air. It twisted together carrying out wrestling matches for is quite capable of biting at this stage if it fails to the prize of a female. Litters are around 20 and are drive the perceived enemy away. The species has born in late summer to autumn. possibly learned by long experience not to turn its This is a different tempered snake than the tiger back on humans, finding that it is better to make snake, as it tends to use its muscular body for us back off first before it makes a hasty escape – dramatic flight rather than put on threat displays. which it will do given the chance. They often curl up partly hidden in grass to digest Potential danger: Make no mistake, the tiger their morning meal of frogs, and are usually less snake is a seriously dangerous snake, with a highly than alert to the clumsy approach of humans. Then toxic venom that requires immediate medical at close quarters they may suddenly shoot out of treatment. But stories of its aggression are greatly the grass with great thrashings of their bodies as exaggerated and imagined, and they do not reflect they take flight, quite oblivious to the heart the reality of this generally timid animal that will do stopping moments they cause. what it can to avoid encounters with people. Threat displays are unusual, and when they do The bite of a tiger snake is a serious matter, occur they usually consist of false striking, clumsily requiring immediate treatment in the form of a carried out with a closed mouth. However, each proper pressure bandage, immobilisation until an snake is an individual, and generalisations about ambulance arrives, hospitalisation to determine if behaviour may not apply. venom has been injected, and possible treatment A local resident snake will often stretch out or with antivenom. Tiger snakes have good delivery curl up to digest its meal in the same place each

87 day, and this provides a good opportunity to get white stripe, making it stand out. Also, young used to viewing a snake and learning to accept copperheads are much stockier looking snakes their presence. There really isn’t much choice than white-lipped ones which tend to be almost because snakes will always come around to exploit worm-like when they are small. a food source, so it is better to learn to know and Behaviour and natural history: White-lipped respect the areas where the local residents bask, females give live birth to up to about 10 young in and leave them to carry out their important natural summer. They mate in autumn. It is a very shy role. snake, making it extremely unlikely for a person to Habitat and range: Copperheads are hugely fond be bitten without serious provocation. The most of frogs and can most often be found lurking about common sighting of the snake is during its fast frog habitat. However, they can be found in a wide retreat as humans approach. This snake feeds variety of habitats and are very common on King exclusively on lizards and consequently may Island. potentially be found almost anywhere you might Potential danger: Copperheads are easy snakes to find lizards. step on, and several related instances suggest that It is quite prepared to bite humans if carelessly even when stepped on they are unlikely to bite. handled. For instance, a surveyor tells that he felt a tapping Habitat and range: White-lipped snakes are on his pant leg and looked down to see the poor recorded on King Island, but being discreet little shoe-pinned copperhead rapping on his leg with snakes the distribution information is sketchy. its mouth closed. Copperheads have small fangs, a They tend to like cool, moist habitats and are rarely poor delivery system and are possibly responsible found near human inhabited areas. It often takes for a number of what hospitals term ‘dry bites’. keen eyes to spot them in their habitat. There are few recorded deaths from known Occasionally it is possible to surprise one basking, copperhead bites, but they are nevertheless snakes often coiled on bushy vegetation, which they dive with seriously dangerous venom. Their venom is into immediately if disturbed. similar to that of the tiger snake, and the same Potential danger: The small size of the snake, the antivenom is used, the same first-aid procedures small quantities of venom needed to kill lizards are necessary for bites. and the small fangs are probably important factors in considering this snake not to be dangerous. Its White-lipped snake small fangs can penetrate bare skin areas and Drysdalia coronoides Plate 5.10 cause a reaction usually similar to a bee sting. Identification: The white lipped snake is a small, However, it is important to note that more people slender snake usually of light shades of grey-green probably die each year of allergic reactions to bee, or grey-brown on its back. The belly of the snake wasp or ant stings in Australia than of snake bites, can be a lighter shade of the back, or, in younger and so all venomous bites should be treated with snakes, can often be pink to orange or yellow. The caution. The white-lipped snake is in the same white stripe along the upper lip scales edged on family as Tasmania’s other two snakes, and top with black gives this snake its common name, presumably has a similar working venom. and its unmistakable identification. It is commonly called the whip snake in Tasmania, but this Conservation of snakes common name more appropriately refers to a Most people would be surprised to know how group of Australian snakes. Thus, white-lipped many snakes are discreetly living near them. Under snake is a more preferred common name that fairly recent legislation they became protected avoids confusion. animals, so if one takes up residence in an Small copperheads might be confused with unacceptable spot, a trained remover of snakes white-lipped snakes, because copperheads have should be brought in. Killing snakes is illegal white scales on their upper lip. But only the white- except as a last resort; it is also often dangerous lipped snake has black along the upper edge of the and rarely necessary.

88 Snakes often visit gardens, preying on mice and lizards to choose from on King Island, there are frogs, and their presence is rarely observed. probably only two or three that might be However, the use of bird netting to protect berries confusing, and close observation will usually sort often reveals their presence in the worst way when these. Care must be taken when catching and they get hopelessly tangled in the netting. It takes handling lizards so as to avoid causing the tail to quite a bit of patience and nerve to cut them loose, break off. This is a survival mechanism which often and this whole scenario is best avoided by making detracts a predator, but once broken the sure that any netting is stretched tight so that replacement growth is cartilage which cannot be snakes are not easily caught in it, or, if they are, broken from that point again. Smaller lizards can they do not become tangled. be held by the head with the thumb over the eyes Lizards can be difficult to identify to species level. applying light pressure which causes the animal to Often fairly discreet scale characteristics are used hold still and not struggle while identifying which are beyond the purposes here. With only six features.

Reptiles – lizards

Blotched bluetongue various plants and almost anything they can catch, Tiliqua nigrolutea Plate 5.11 including nestling and fledgling birds that might fall out of the nests. Description: The blotched bluetongue lizard is familiar and unmistakable to most people as the The adage is not true that if you have largest lizard in Tasmania and on King Island. Most bluetongues in your garden you won’t have bluetongues seen are probably under 350 mm total snakes, because both copperheads and tiger length, but occasionally larger ones can reach snakes like eating young bluetongues. Bluetongues around 450 mm total length. The bluetongue is a mate in spring, and females are thought to only large member of the skink family, but, unlike most breed every second or third year. There are often skinks, it does not shed its tail. It is ground around 12 offspring in a litter that are live born in dwelling and daytime active. late summer to late autumn. New young bluetongues sometimes do not even get to find As the common name suggests, this lizard has a food before they need to find shelter for the winter. bluetongue which is usually noticeable when the animal is disturbed and opens its mouth widely in Habitat and range: The blotched bluetongue can a threat display while also hissing. The body has be found in a variety of habitats from coastal to dark brown to black blotchy markings over lighter montane. It usually inhabits warmer areas of the usually greenish to bluish-brown pigment. Some Tasmanian mainland, is found on Bass Strait islands animals have orange on the head and speckled on and also in suitable habitat in the south-eastern the body. Bluetongues are stout looking with part of mainland Australia. Practically every part of tapering thick tails. Males are shorter in the body, Australia has a species of bluetongue lizard, and stockier in the shoulders and with broader heads they make distinctive and delightful contributions than females. Females are longer in the body to a rich reptile fauna. They are great for eating between the front and back legs. Older animals are snails in the garden and can further be lured there easier to sex than younger ones. by strawberries which they love. Behaviour and natural history: Bluetongues are capable of biting which can cause bruising and White’s skink possibly breaking of the skin. Any bites should be Egernia whitii Plate 5.12 disinfected, as these lizards sometimes eat carrion Description: White’s skink is a medium sized and can carry nasty bacteria. Their diet is wide burrowing lizard with a rather striking appearance. ranging and includes snails, berries, flowers, It has a brown stripe down the middle of its back

89 with similar width black stripes on each side of level just above the eye and the lower one starting this. The black stripes each contain single rows of on a level just below the eye. white dots running down the back. The lighter Behaviour and natural history: Although brownish grey sides of the animal (occasionally relatively common, this skink is rather more almost chocolate brown) contain black spots with secretive than some of the other common skinks. white dots in them. Adults can reach around 200 During the summer breeding season the males of mm in total length, with females sleeker and longer the southern grass skink take on an orange to red than the stouter males. breeding colour on the underside of their body and Behaviour and natural history: White’s skinks extending along part of the lower white stripes on are usually found in rocky situations in a variety of their sides near their front legs. Adult females are habitats. They often excavate the entrance to their larger than the males and do not take on this burrows under a rock, and they can be seen colouring. Live young are born during the summer, basking close to this entrance and surveying their and average litters are reported to be four or five territory. They are quick to dart down this entrance and up to eight on King Island. when startled. If that escape cannot be reached, Habitat and range: The southern grass skink is they usually have other escape holes into their found mainly in the warmer areas of the mainland burrow system or a well-known rock crevice. The of Tasmania and on the Bass Strait islands. It is also burrow system can be home to a family unit, with found in the south-eastern part of the mainland of the male, the female and a juvenile or two Australia. As the common name ‘grass skink’ defending the territory and living together in suggests, these lizards like open habitats where apparent tolerance. grasses and sedges occur and can also be in grassy They mate in spring, and one to four live young woodlands. They do not tend to expose themselves are born in mid summer. These skinks rarely stray very much and keep well hidden in the ground too far from their burrow systems, and they tend to cover. They can be confused with the eastern three- live in colonies with traditional territories. White’s lined skink which may occupy similar habitat. skink is distinctive and, with close observation, it is unlikely to be easily confused with other lizards. Three-lined skink Habitat and range: This lizard can be found in Bassiana duperreyi coastal heath, grasslands, dry forests and open Description: The three-lined skink is a moderate woodlands, usually in rocky situations. It is relatively sized skink reaching around 160 mm in total common on the mainland of Tasmania, especially in length. The common name comes from several warmer areas, and is quite common on the Bass prominent lines, but how these might add up to Strait islands. It is the only member of the genus ‘three-lined’ can be a mystery. Each side has a Egernia in Tasmania, and it is also found in the black, thick stripe, bordered above and below by south-eastern part of the Australian mainland. On the white lines, running through the eyes and along mainland of Australia this genus contains a number the sides. The back is a brown colour. On close of spectacular lizards including the land mullet. examination there is a black line that runs down the middle of the back, and usually two, often Southern grass skink fainter black lines, that run down each side of the Pseudomoia entrecasteauxii back next to the upper white lines, thus making Description: The southern grass skink is a three fairly discreet black lines. But what about the moderate sized skink of around 125 mm total prominent white lines – two on each side? The length. King Island specimens are often longer. easiest identification of this skink is the thick black This lizard is widespread and shows certain stripe on its side bordered above and below by differences in appearance according to location. white lines, and this combination at least adds up The King Island individuals tend to have five dark to an immediate three, if you only count one stripes down the length of their backs and two side… white stripes along their sides, one starting on a

90 Behaviour and natural history: The three-lined comparison. Mating occurs in autumn and spring, skink is a long and narrow skink with a long tail and live young are born during the summer with and short legs. It is not a climbing skink and is litter sizes around four. particularly adapted to grasslands, heathlands, or Habitat and range: The metallic skink is open woodlands. Breeding males have pink to red Tasmanian’s most widespread reptile, and is found throats during the early summer mating season. from the coast to alpine areas. They are found on Females lay five to 10 eggs during early December most off-shore islands around Tasmania. They also under rocks or other cover. Communal nesting has occur on mainland Australia in central southern also been recorded. The eggs hatch about four or Victoria. Metallic skinks can be found in most five weeks after laying. habitats and are often locally abundant around Habitat and range: This skink is considerably human habitation. more common in the eastern half of the Tasmanian mainland, especially in warmer areas of Tasmanian tree skink heathlands, grasslands and open woodlands. It is Niveoscincus pretiosus found on the islands around Tasmania and also in Description: The Tasmanian tree skink is a the south-east of mainland Australia. It is relatively moderate sized skink and can reach around common in the heathlands along the south-east 140 mm in total length. It is flat in the body and coast of King Island. It prefers warmer conditions head and has well developed long legs. The colour as might be expected from an egg-laying lizard. on its back is greyish to light or dark brown that is well speckled with light and dark flecks. A well- Metallic skink developed black line usually runs down the middle Niveoscincus metallicus of its back. The upper side is black or dark brown- Description: The metallic skink is a medium-sized edged above and below with narrow white lines. skink usually reaching around 150 mm total length. This dark side stripe often contains scattered small, It can vary considerably in appearance according white spots, and the stripe may taper at the back to geographic location, ranging from plain light to leg into a line that continues down the tail. The dark brown with a metallic sheen on its back, to a belly and under surface is normally grey or whitish more usual lighter or darker flecking on a brown with small scales. Sometimes the underside of the background colour. A black line may or may not rear legs and the surrounding area will be coloured be present down the middle of the back, and orange or reddish. various other dark and light lines on the back and Behaviour and natural history: This species is a sides may be present to some degree or absent. strong climber, and its flat body allows it to exploit Such confusing variability in appearance often narrow spaces, hunting its invertebrate food in means looking closer at a specimen in the hand so rocks, logs and trees. It also likes to make its way that the under surface of the lizard can be seen. into houses and is often seen cleaning up the flies, The entire underside is often a salmon-pink to other insects or spiders in window areas. Its orange in adults. Sometimes it is merely whitish or attraction to sweet spills in the kitchen such as jam some shade of off-white, and then it is necessary to suggest it might supplement its diet in the wild look at the belly scales, which are considerably with the odd berry. larger than the Tasmanian tree skink – the most Habitat and range: The Tasmanian tree skink can confusing other species. be found in practically any habitat, from trees to Behaviour and natural history: The metallic rocks to weatherboards, where it can exploit its skink has shorter legs than the Tasmanian tree climbing abilities. It has even been recorded from skink, and does not like to climb very much other coastal rock platforms on King Island and from tiny than to reach basking areas such as rocks. It is a islets with hardly any vegetation. slightly more robust looking animal than the tree The Tasmanian tree skink is the only Tasmanian skink, with a thicker head. These two species often endemic reptile known from King Island. It is also occur together, thus giving good opportunities for known as the ‘pretty skink’, which is an admirable

91 name but does not help identify its climbing ability. Reptiles have been here much longer than Perhaps the ‘Tasmanian pretty tree skink’ would do humans, and possibly will be here after we have nicely. departed the scene. Probably the main conservation measures we need to consider are to respect Conservation of lizards the environment which is theirs as well as ours. Lizards are both aesthetically pleasing and useful They tend to live in micro-habitats, and one of the to have around us. They eat numerous inverte- best ways to encourage them is to leave rocks and brates, thus helping keep pest species under woody debris is areas where they live. Our control; in turn they also contribute to the food obsession with tidiness in getting rid of dead trees chain for other animals. Their antics, if watched or picking up dead wood, for instance, can easily closely, provide delightful observations into the be demonstrated to deplete the local biodiversity. world of nature, and the study of their adaptations A simple inventory of all the things that live in and and roles give us insights into the complexity of under dead wood reveals this to be fantastic micro- biodiversity. habitat, and it is this level of the food chain that drives much of the rest of our rich biodiversity.

Birds

Accounts of bird species were compiled for: Speculum: iridescent green patch on duck’s wings. 1. almost all land and freshwater native species that are breeding residents or regular migrants Stubble quail and visitors; and 2. some breeding or resident marine birds and Coturnix pectoralis shorebirds on King Island. Length: Male 16–20 cm. Female 17–20 cm. The sequence of species and English names Identification: Large plump quail similar to brown follows Christidis and Boles (1). quail. Female: brown; white eyebrow and crown stripe; cream short triangular streaks on shoulders, Management: Conducting annual counts of back and underbody. Male: diagnostic orange-buff waterbirds and land birds is basic research that face and throat, centre of breast black with bold underpins the conservation and management of triangular white streaks. Distinct two-note whistle. species. For further information on a methodology Habits: Singly, pairs, groups. Forages on ground for monitoring waterbirds and forest birds see for seeds. When disturbed quickly runs into cover chapter 7. or flushes with whirring wings. Definitions: Habitat: Grasslands, cereal crops, drier rank margins of wetlands. Prefers habitat with diverse Cere: bare area at base of upper bill containing the herbs and grasses and cover not too dense. nostrils in Cape Barron goose and goshawks. Nests in scrape on ground in grass and crops. Coveys: groups Range and status: Rare on King Island, possibly Eclipse plumage: dull plumage acquired after the occurs more in north half of island. Not positively breeding season by many male ducks and fairy- recorded recently. Numbers possibly declining. wrens. Current status unknown. Formerly common on Lores: area between the eyes and base of bill. Australian mainland, now rare. Manna: white, sugary sap exuded from wounded Special management: Monitor populations and branches of trees. determine current distribution, abundance and Morph: distinctive colour plumage within a conservation status. Determine critical habitat. species. Threats: Feral cats, ravens and farm machinery.

92 Brown quail Habits: Pairs, small flocks. Congregates in large Coturnix ypsilophora Plate 8.58 winter flocks of up to 100 birds. Secretive, feeds in open, deep water on aquatic vegetation and Other names: Swamp, Tasmanian or Tasmanian insects. Obtains most food by diving and some swamp quail. gleaned from water surface and aquatic vegetation. Length: 17–22 cm. Habitat: Prefers large, permanent freshwater Identification: A large, plump dark quail. lagoons with deep, open water and dense aquatic Diagnostic plain face with dusky ear-spot; vegetation in and around the wetlands. upperbody brown with fine white streaks. Disperses in breeding season. Underbody brown with wavy black barring. Eye Nests in rushes and reeds usually over water. yellow. Range and status: Widespread on lagoons in In flight similar to stubble quail – wings north and south. At times abundant in the north on produce whirring sound, whereas brown quail Lake Flannigan. Occasional breeding resident on wings produce whistling and metallic noise. King Island and regular visitor in autumn–winter. Distinctive voice. Uncommon to rare on Tasmanian mainland. Habits: Single, pairs. Forages mostly on ground in Special management: Monitor populations to tall grass and cereals for seeds, also insects and determine annual distribution, abundance, conser- worms. When flushed, bursts from cover with vation status and breeding status. whistling and metallic sounds of wings. Individuals fly and glide in different directions and dive into Protect significant wetlands from degradation by cover. More active at dawn and dusk. stock. Habitat: Grasslands, cereal crops, margins of swamps. Musk duck Biziura lobata Nests in scrape in ground in dense, low vegetation of grasses, rushes, shrubs. Other names: Diver, steamer, lobed duck. Range and status: Restricted range. Rare on King Length: Male 66 cm. Female 55 cm. Island, possibly irregular visitor. Not recorded on Identification: A large, dark blackish-brown King Island since 1971 but recorded recently from diving duck with short wings; broad, triangular Three Hummock Island. shaped black bill and long stiff tail. Sexes differ. Special management: Conduct surveys in spring Male: leathery grey-black flap hanging below bill and summer to determine presence, distribution, and musky odour when breeding. Similar smaller abundance and status. female lacks distinct lobe under bill. Habits: Singles, pairs, small to large flocks. Sits low Blue-billed duck in water with tail erect or flat. Mostly dives to feed Oxyura australis Plate 8.51 on aquatic invertebrates. Displaying males expand bill-lobe, fan stiff-tail, rotate in water, kick, splash Other name: Stiff-tailed duck. and emit shrill whistles. Length: 37–44 cm. Habitat: Prefers large, well-vegetated waterbodies Identification: A small diving duck with large with permanent deep freshwater. round head, short neck, prominent concave bill Nests in dense, tall aquatic vegetation, usually and stiff tail held erect or flat. Sits low in water with over water. sloping back. Range and status: Widespread on larger, deep Breeding male a striking rich chestnut with lagoons, particularly throughout western King black head and bright blue bill. Breeding female Island. Occasional breeding resident. Regular and and non-breeding male brownish-grey finely sedentary. barred buff-ochre. Similar species: Larger musk duck, hardhead and Eurasian coot.

93 Special management: Monitor populations for Special management: Monitor population and abundance and breeding. Protect large, deep determine distribution, abundance and conser- lagoons from stock. vation status.

Black swan Australian shelduck Cygnus atratus Tadorna tadornoides Plate 8.53 Length: 110–140 cm. Wingspan 160–200 cm. Other names: Chestnut-breasted shelduck, Identification: Very large, black swan with red mountain duck. bill. In flight neck outstretched and white wings Length: Male 59–72 cm. Female 56–58 cm. prominent. Wingspan 94–130 cm. Habits: Pairs, small groups to large flocks. Breeding Identification: A large, boldly coloured duck with pairs territorial and sedentary. Feeds on aquatic black head, orange breast and white forewing. vegetation below water by up-ending or from water Sexes similar but female has conspicuous white surface. Grazes on pastures. Congregates in flocks around eye and base of bill. Strong flight with during non-breeding season. black head, orange collar and prominent large Habitat: Freshwater lagoons, estuaries, swamps, white forewing and underwing. ponds, farm dams, flooded pastures. Habits: Pairs, family groups in breeding season Nests in reeds and rushes on land or islands in and larger flocks in non-breeding season. Grazes lakes. on land on grasses, pastures and crops. Range and status: Widespread over island on Habitat: Freshwater lagoons, farm dams, estuaries, lagoons, estuaries and farm dams. Very common to pastures, crops, shallow-flooded pastures. abundant breeding resident. Nests preferably in tree-hollows in living and Special management: Some management action dead trees, stumps, but also on ground among may be necessary to reduce grazing intensity on grasses and under shrubs. pastures. Range and status: Widespread. Rare in 1960s. Population has expanded in last 40 years. Now a Cape Barren goose fairly common breeding resident. On mainland Cereopsis novaehollandiae Tasmania population probably expanding along north-west coast and hinterland. Length: 75–91 cm. Special management: Monitor population and Identification: Unmistakable large, ash-grey determine current distribution, changes in goose with large green-yellow cere at base of bill; population size and status. Retain and protect trees dark-grey spots on wing coverts; wing tips and tail with hollows. black. Legs pink and feet black. Habits: Pairs, small flocks. On land grazes on Australian wood duck native and pasture grasses, legumes and cereal Chenonetta jubata crops. Swims in water. Other names: Maned duck, maned goose. Habitat: Grasslands, lagoons and margins. Introduced to Hunter and Three Hummock islands. Length: 47–48 cm. Breeds on Three Hummock Island. Identification: Medium-sized pale grey duck with Nests in winter on or near ground in tussock grass brown head and two black bands along back. and low shrubs. Sexes differ. Adult breeding male: brown head with short black mane on back of neck; breast grey with Range and status: Goslings introduced to King fine black barring; black lower back, tail, belly and Island in 1972. Pairs resident near some lagoons. undertail. Non-breeding male pale brown like Not known if breeds. Uncommon resident. female. Adult female distinguished by pale brown head, two white stripes above and below eye,

94 brown underparts with white speckles, white (not other animals. Construct and vegetate islands in black) belly and undertail. In flight distinctive farm dams for nesting waterfowl. white inner trailing wing (secondaries). Habits: Pairs, small flocks. Forages in shallow Australasian shoveler water. Mostly grazes on land in grasslands, pastures Anas rhynchotis Plate 8.58 and crops. Loafs on bare banks of farm dams. Other names: Blue-winged or southern shoveler. Settles on water when disturbed. Length: 45–55 cm. Habitat: Farm dams with nearby pastures and Identification: A short-necked duck with massive, crops, freshwater lagoons and coastal bays. dark, spatulate, forward-sloping bill as long as Nests in tree-hollows, usually live in or near head. Sexes differ. Adult breeding male: blue-grey water. Not known if nests on ground on King head; yellow eye; powder-blue shoulder; lower Island. underbody bright chestnut with white flank-mark; Range and status: Not recorded on King Island in legs and feet orange. Adult female brown, mottled 1960s and 1970s. In mainland Tasmania a rare darker; pale eye-ring and shoulder powder-blue visitor before 1972 when first recorded breeding. like male. In flight prominent powder-blue Now common in Tasmania. Currently widespread shoulder and green speculum. Similar species: and a common breeding resident on King Island. chestnut teal. Special management: Monitor population size to Habits: Singles, pairs, small groups. Swims low in determine distribution and abundance. Determine water. Takes off from water. Swift flight. Dabble nest-sites and whether competing with other and swim on water surface with submerged bill hollow-nesting native birds. filtering animal food. Loafs on logs and branches in and around wetlands. Pacific black duck Habitat: Larger lagoons with open water, swamps, Anas superciliosa freshwater wetlands with densely vegetated Other names: Wild duck, black or brown duck. margins, farm dams, estuaries. Length: 47–60 cm. Nests on ground in grassy paddocks, usually Identification: Large, dark brown dabbling duck among shrub and herb cover. with distinct black stripes on head. Whistling flight Range and status: Widely distributed on lagoons, with conspicuous white underwing and green and especially on western side of island. purple speculum edged black. Uncommon breeding resident. Habits: Pairs, small and large flocks. Feeds on Special management: Monitor population in seeds and invertebrates by up-ending in shallow winter and spring to determine distribution, water. Grazes on land on seeds and leaves. Rises abundance and conservation status. strongly out of water. Loafs on logs and branches Manage and restore vegetative cover around in and out of water. wetlands and protect wetlands from stock. Habitat: Freshwater lagoons, farm dams, swamps, marshes, creeks, rivers, estuaries, pastures, Grey teal mudflats, beaches and drainage ditches. Anas gracilis Nests in tree-hollows and on ground in dense Length: 42–44 cm. cover. Identification: Small grey duck easily confused Range and status: Widespread. Common regular with female and eclipse male chestnut teal. Both breeding resident. sexes of grey teal best distinguished by much Special management: Maintain and/or restore low whiter chin and upper throat whereas those of vegetative cover around margins and away from female chestnut teal are brown. Male grey teal wetlands. Erect nest-boxes over water. Monitor use recognised from female chestnut teal by behaviour of nest-boxes and tree-hollows by waterfowl and and calls.

95 Habits: Pairs, small groups to large flocks. Forages Identification: Small, dumpy greyish-brown for seeds and animal food by up-ending in water diving waterbird. Breeding adult: head (crown, and strips seeds from vegetation while swimming. face and neck) black with diagnostic silver white Nomadic and dispersive. Numbers fluctuate. streaks. Adult non-breeding (winter) plumage lacks Habitat: Freshwater wetlands (lagoons, swamps), prominent head streaks and closely resembles estuaries, farm dams. winter plumage of Australasian grebe (Tachybaptus novae hollandiae). Similar species: Nests in tree-hollows but also on ground under in winter Australasian grebe distinguished from shrub cover. hoary-headed grebe by smaller size, line separating Range and status: Widely distributed. Uncommon dark crown from white face passes through eye in regular visitor. Not known to breed on King Island. Australasian grebe but below eye in hoary-headed Special management: None required other than grebe (hhg), yellow eye (brown in hhg) and flanks protection of wetlands. and neck rufous-brown (brown in hhg). Adult breeding Australasian grebe has diagnostic black Chestnut teal head and neck with chestnut stripe on side of Anas castanea neck, yellow facial patch between eye and base of Other names: Chestnut-breasted or green-headed lower bill, chestnut flanks and a trilling call. teal. Habits: Pairs, small and large groups. Swims on Length: Male 40–50 cm. Female 35–45 cm. water. Fluffs rear of body. Dives for small aquatic food. Dives and flies short distance when Identification: Similar in size to grey teal but disturbed. smaller than Pacific black duck. Sexes differ. Adult breeding male: bottle-green head and neck; breast Habitat: Large and small freshwater lagoons, and belly rich chestnut; white flank mark; black swamps, farm dams and brackish waterbodies. undertail. Male eclipse like dark female. Adult Nests over water on a floating vegetative platform. female brown, similar to grey teal but crown a Range and status: Hoary-headed grebe is a darker brown, face and throat fawn-buff with dark common breeding resident throughout King Island. streaks. Australasian grebe was first reported as a vagrant Habits: Mostly pairs, small groups. Larger groups on King Island in 1972 and first recorded in in winter. Feeds on seeds and small invertebrates Tasmania in the 1960s. It is expanding its range in by dabbling, pecking at water surface and stripping north-west Tasmania. seeds from plants. Loafs on bare areas, mudflats Special management: Monitor population and and on logs and branches at margins of wetlands. record sightings of Australasian grebe. Habitat: Freshwater lagoons and coastal swamps, brackish estuaries and bays, saltmarsh, creeks, Little penguin rivers, farm dams. Eudyptula minor Nests in tree-hollows or on ground on island Other names: Fairy or little blue penguin. wetlands and well-vegetated margins of wetlands. Length: 40–45 cm (males slightly larger). Range and Status: Widespread on inland wetlands Identification: Black to blue-grey above, white and along coast. Common breeding resident. below. Bill black. Feet: flesh white to pinkish, soles Special management: Conduct waterfowl surveys black. and monitor population size. Habits: Singles or parties at sea. Dives and swims underwater. Feeds on small fish. Circles around Hoary-headed grebe shoals of fish then charges and catches and Poliocephalus poliocephalus Plate 8.57 swallows prey underwater. Moves to and from Other names: Dabchick, hoary-headed dabchick. breeding colonies in darkness. Length: 29–30 cm. Habitat: Oceans, bays; around jetties and piers. Roosts throughout year in old burrows and nest-sites.

96 Nests in rabbit-like burrows in single pairs or Habits: Singles to breeding and roosting colonies. large colonies, mostly on islands. Forages in marine and inland freshwater wetlands Range and status: Abundant in Bass Strait. and dams. Swims and dives for freshwater crayfish Common on King Island. and fish. Rests in trees, often dead trees, near water. Special management: Monitor colonies on King Island to determine population trends. Locate and Habitat: Inland coastal waters, lagoons, swamps, protect colonies and burrows, especially during the estuaries and farm dams. breeding season. Nests in trees in breeding colonies. A colony at a small lagoon near Boulder Point held about 50 Short-tailed shearwater pairs in 1971–72. Puffinus tenuirostris Range and status: Widespread. A common Other names: Tasmanian muttonbird, slender- breeding resident. billed shearwater, Bass Strait or Tasmanian Special management: Determine size and shearwater. location of existing breeding colonies. Length: 40–45 cm. Identification: Dark smoky brown with paler Black-faced cormorant throat and silky gloss on underwing. Tail short, Phalacrocorax fuscescens Plate 8.35 rounded. In flight, black toes extended just past tail Other names: Shag, white-breasted cormorant. tip. Length: 60–70 cm. Habits: Very large flocks fly offshore in undulating Identification: White-breasted marine cormorant. streams; rests on surface of water in large rafts, Black flank mark. Black of crown reaches to eye. only approaching nesting area after dark. Little pied cormorant similar but lacks black flank. Habitat: Nests in burrows in the ground. Habits: Singles to occasionally large flocks. Flies Range and status: Common in Bass Strait. straight with rapid shallow wingbeats, close to Undertakes extensive migration, overwinters in water. Feeds on fish and squid caught during subarctic waters of the Bering Sea. Nineteen sustained underwater dives. colonies around King Island, particularly in the Habitat: Offshore rocky islands, buoys, isolated north, east and south, estimated to contain about jetties, breakwaters. 548,000 burrows (11). Nests among rocks. Special management: Protect breeding colonies Range and status: Common. and burrows. Monitor size of colonies and changes Special management: Identify and protect in vegetation in rookeries. breeding colonies. Monitor size of breeding Little pied cormorant colonies. Phalacrocorax melanoleucos Great cormorant Other names: Little black-and-white cormorant or Phalacrocorax carbo shag. Other names: Black, big or large black cormorant Length: 55–65 cm. or shag. Identification: Small cormorant, white below and Length: 80–85 cm. black above, with diagnostic white eyebrow from Identification: Black cormorant distinguished bill over eye in adults, not immatures, and lack of from little black cormorant by larger size. Breeding black flank-mark. Similar species: irregular adult plumage with diagnostic yellow throat pouch, pied cormorant is larger (66–80 cm) with longer whitish facial patch, black crest on nape and a bill, yellow spot in front of eye and prominent white oval thigh patch. black flank-patch.

97 Habits: Mostly solitary. Perches in dead trees and Habitat: Pastures, particularly improved pastures, on rocks often with wings extended to dry. Dives grasslands, swamps, freshwater wetlands and for fish and crustaceans. Flight strong. estuaries. Habitat: Coasts, bays, estuaries, rivers, lagoons, Range and status: Colonised northern Australia in swamps, farm dams. 1940s and expanded south. Regular autumn–winter Nests in trees in colonies. Breeding not non-breeding migrant to Tasmania and King Island. recorded on King Island. Special management: Monitor population size. Range and status: Widespread in inland and coastal waters. Common regular resident or visitor. Nankeen night heron Special management: Monitor population size Nycticorax caledonicus and determine distribution and abundance. Other name: Rufous night heron. Length: 55–65 cm. White-faced heron Identification: Stocky heron with rich rufous Ardea novaehollandiae Plate 8.52 upperbody, black crown, white underbody and Other name: Blue crane. yellow legs. Length: 66–68 cm. Wingspan 106 cm. Habits: Roosts by day in densely foliaged trees, Identification: Medium-sized blue-grey heron including exotic conifers such as Cupressus with white face and upper throat and yellow legs. macrocarpa. Moves out at dusk but sometimes Breeding birds have plumes on back and breast. flies during the day. Nocturnal feeder on frogs and Similar species: white-necked heron, much larger, crustaceans. with white head and neck. Habitat: Swamp paperbark forest. A small colony Habits: Solitary, pairs. Small to large groups in breeds or used to breed in swamp paperbark trees autumn–winter. Forages for frogs. at Pass River, the Nook Swamp and Sea Elephant area. Habitat: Inland and coastal freshwater, brackish and saline waters including estuaries, coastal rocky Builds nest of sticks in swamp paperbark. shores, bays, freshwater lagoons, swamps, farm Range and status: Restricted range on King Island, dams and pastures. uncommon breeding resident. Locally threatened. Nests in forks of branches of tall eucalypts and King Island is southern-most breeding colony in paperbark. Australia. Breeds in spring. Adults leave colony after breeding and migrate to Victoria. Range and status: Widespread inland and along coast. Common breeding resident. Special management: Monitor size and reproductive success of colonies at Pass River and/or the Special management: Monitor population. Nook Swamp and Sea Elephant area. Protect Cattle egret breeding colonies and paperbark habitat from fire and cattle. Monitor loss of eggs and young by Ardea ibis potential predators such as forest raven. Length: 70 cm. Identification: Sociable, small white egret with Australasian bittern yellow bill and eye. Adults in breeding plumage Botaurus poiciloptilus have buff-orange head, neck and breast. Similar Other name: Brown bittern. species: intermediate egret. Length: 66–76 cm. Habits: Forages in small parties and large flocks of Identification: Large, stocky, thick-necked heron. hundreds among cattle, particularly dairy cattle. Upperbody mottled and streaked dark brown, buff Feeds on insects, earthworms and other inverte- and black. Eye orange-brown or yellow. Similar brates disturbed by grazing cattle and on ticks and species: Juvenile nankeen night heron is smaller, other ectoparasites of cattle. paler below, more densely streaked with

98 prominent white spots on wing (and perches in Builds large stick nest, in large forks of blue trees). gum and swamp paperbark, well inland or near Habits: Mostly solitary. Very secretive with cryptic coast. plumage. Stealthily forages for frogs, fish and Range and status: Widespread around coast and crustaceans in shallow water with body almost inland rivers. About seven breeding pairs and 10 horizontal and neck extended. When alarmed may known nests on King Island. High conservation ‘freeze’ with bill pointing straight up. Sometimes status. flies by day with slow wing beats, neck hunched Special management: Totally protected. Protect and green legs trailing beyond tail. In spring and all nests and forest habitat around each nest. summer birds utter resonant load booming calls. Minimise disturbance around nests. Each year Habitat: Large freshwater swamps with extensive monitor number breeding pairs, nesting success mats of tall dense reeds and rushes. and number of young fledged per nest. Nests on a platform in tall reeds and rushes. Range and status: Range has contracted. Once Swamp harrier more common. Rare in the Nook Swamp in the Circus approximans Plate 8.17 1960s. Unknown status but probably locally Length: 50–60 cm. Wingspan 120–145 cm. Female threatened. larger. Special management: Conduct surveys in Identification: Large, brown hawk with white swamps in late spring–summer to detect voice and rump, upswept long wings, long tail and yellow presence of bitterns. Protect and manage these legs. Adult: distinct dark brown facial disc; wetlands from drainage and fire. underbody whitish with buff streaks, mostly on breast and upper belly. Older birds of both sexes are White-bellied sea-eagle greyer. Older male: upper wings grey and tail silver- Haliaeetus leucogaster Plate 8.15 grey. Older females more grey in wings and tail but females more brown upperbody and more rufous Other name: White-breasted sea-eagle. underbody than male. Juvenile: rich dark brown Length: 75–85 cm. Wingspan 180–220 cm. Female body; tail and upper tail-coverts rich brownish- larger. orange; tail with dark grey-brown bands. Juveniles Identification: Sexes similar. Very large white and acquire white upper tail-coverts in first winter. grey eagle. Adult: Head and underbody white; Habits: Singles, territorial breeding pairs, family back, wings grey; wedge-shaped tail white with groups. Glides and soars usually low over basal half black; black wing-tips. Juvenile: Dark paddocks and marshes with head pointing down brown body; buff head; grey-white tail with searching for prey. Flight buoyant with wings held diagnostic dark brown sub-terminal band. in a broad ‘V’. Sits on posts, tall rushes and on Immature: Similar to juvenile but tail buff-grey with ground. Scavenges and preys on small mammals no band. (mice, rats, rabbits), adult and young waterbirds, Habits: Singles, pairs, family parties. Soars and fish, frogs, reptiles and large insects. glides on broad, upswept wings. Perches, often for Habitat: Swamps, grasslands, paddocks, farm long periods, on branches of live and dead trees dams, freshwater lagoons, saltmarsh, estuaries. near lagoons, rivers and estuaries; and on rocks Builds large nest of sticks, grass and reeds on and in trees along the coast. Patrols coastline over ground in swamps, in tall pasture grass and rushes. water. Preys on fish, lizards, waterbirds, seabirds and small mammals such as rats. May steal prey Range and status: Widespread over farmlands, from other raptors and seabirds. grasslands and lagoons. A common trans-Bass Strait migrant. Breeds on King Island Habitat: Coastal shores, bays, beaches, estuaries, saltmarsh; freshwater rivers and wetlands, farm Special management: Minimise human dams, coastal scrub, wet blue gum forests, disturbance around nest area to prevent desertion paperbark swamp forest. of eggs or young. When mowing paddocks with

99 nests, leave 20–30 m buffer of tall grass around Range and status: Widespread. Common each nest. breeding resident. Special management: Retain large trees for Brown goshawk nesting. Accipiter fasciatus Plate 8.9 Length: 40–50 cm. Wingspan 70–100 cm. Female Nankeen kestrel larger. Falco cenchroides Identification: Adult is greyish above with rufous Length: 30–35 cm. Wingspan 80 cm. Female larger. hind collar, rufous below with fine white bands Identification: Pale rufous upperbody and whitish and a long, rounded tail. Immature: head, throat below with black streak down from eye. Male: and upper breast brown, streaked white; rest of head and tail grey. Female: head and tail rufous. underbody whitish with broad, rufous-brown bars. Habits: Singles, pairs. Perches on telegraph poles, In flight barring of underbody, tail and underwing fence posts, dead trees. Hovers over paddocks and is prominent. Similar species: collared sparrow- grasslands. hawk is smaller with a square tail. Habitat: More common over grasslands and Habits: Mostly solitary, pairs. Swift flight through paddocks. trees, along shelterbelts and between patches. New Nests in tree-hollows and cavities, ledges or Holland honeyeater alarm calls alert observer to buildings and old nests of raptors or ravens. presence of raptors such as goshawks. Soars high with broad wings with tail slightly fanned. Forages Range and status: Widely distributed, particularly beneath forest canopy for small birds. in west half of island. Rather rare resident breeding species. Uncommon regular visitor to King Island. Habitat: Eucalypt forests and regrowth, particularly wet forests. Also homestead gardens. Buff-banded rail Nests in mature and old eucalypt trees. Gallirallus philippensis Range and status: Restricted range and rare on Length: 28–33 cm. King Island. Not recorded prior to 1981. Recorded by Max McGarvie in 1982. Nested in Loorana area Identification: Medium-sized rail with prominent in 1984. white eyebrow and broad rich stripe from bill through eye to nape; grey throat and undertail; Brown falcon underparts with fine black and white bands and cinnamon-buff band across breast. Similar species: Falco berigora Plate 8.16 Lewin’s rail. Length: 40–50 cm. Wingspan 120 cm. Female Habits: Mostly singles. Secretive in dense cover. larger. Flicks tail up when alert. Flies at night. Identification: Several morphs. Medium-sized Habitat: Sedgy swamps, marshes, edges of raptor, mostly dark brown upperbody and whitish lagoons, creeks, drainage ditches. below with fine brown streaks; whitish-buff cheek with dark brown moustachial stripe. Nests on ground or above water in or under tussocks of grass, sedges and rushes. Habits: Mostly singles, pairs. Perches upright on fence posts, in trees and overhead wires. Flight Range and status: Observed in the Nook Swamp, swift with wings swept back. Soars, glides and Lavinia State Reserve and nearby Councillor Island. dives. Cackles in flight. Current status unknown. Not known if sedentary or a regular or irregular visitor. Habitat: Open dry forests and woodlands, farmlands with copses and rows of shelter, Special management: Conduct wetland surveys grasslands, heathy-woodlands, King Island scrub. in spring and report sightings of rail species. Builds nest in large, mature and old trees. Renovates old nests of other raptors and ravens.

100 Lewin’s rail Uncommon and sedentary. Breeding requires Rallus pectoralis Plate 8.56 confirmation. Possibly locally threatened. Length: 21–37 cm. Special management: Conduct breeding bird surveys of wetlands to determine current distri- Identification: Medium-sized rail with diagnostic bution and status. long, pink, dark tipped bill; rufous crown and nape; streaked back and forehead; finer and less extensive black and white barring on breast, belly Purple swamphen and undertail; wings dark brown mostly spotted Porphyrio porphyrio white. Distinct voice. Other name: Bald coot. Similar species: buff-breasted rail, spotless Length: 44–48 cm. crake. Identification: Large, unmistakable waterbird with Habits: Singles, pairs. Secretive in dense cover in massive red bill and frontal shield; deep indigo- shallow and permanent water and along ditches, blue head, neck and underbody; flicks tail up fence lines and shelterbelts. Forages on ground exposing white undertail; red legs. and in shallow water for molluscs, earthworms, Habits: Mostly pairs, small groups in breeding crustaceans and insects. season. May form winter flocks of 50 birds. Forages Habitat: Paperbark and blackwood swamps, mainly on aquatic vegetation in swamps and on marshes, lagoon edges, creeks, saltmarsh and pasture grass. Also eats seeds, fruit, insects, frogs, shelter along fences and drainage ditches. lizards, fish, young birds, eggs and small mammals. Nests near or over water in clumps of tussocks, Habitat: Aquatic vegetation in and around sedges and reeds. freshwater swamps, marshes and lagoons, Range and status: Widespread but more common pastures, vegetated margins of farm dams and in Nook Swamp. Uncommon breeding resident. drainage ditches. Conservation status unknown, perhaps declining. Nests in reeds and rushes in and around Special management: Monitor wetlands, wetlands. especially the Nook Swamp, in spring to determine Range and status: Widespread. Common density of singing males. Fence off critical wetlands breeding resident. Numbers probably increasing. from stock. Eliminate feral cats. Special management: Monitor population size.

Spotless crake Dusky moorhen Porzana tabuensis Plate 8.54 Gallinula tenebrosa Plate 8.55 Length: 17–21 cm. Length: 35–40 cm. Identification: Brown wings and back; grey head Identification: Medium-sized slaty-black waterhen and underbody; undertail barred black and white; with diagnostic bright red bill tipped yellow, red red eye; red legs. frontal shield and undertail-coverts white with Habits: Mostly singles. Very secretive. Forages in black central band. fresh or brackish water of marshes, swamps, Habits: Pairs, small groups. Swim with neck up lagoons and saltmarsh. When flushed flies short and head jerked forward. Forages in water and on distance with legs dangling. land for leaves, seeds, fruit, molluscs, insects and Habitat: Freshwater marshes, swamps, lagoons spiders. When feeding, gleans food from water with dense vegetation, and saltmarsh. surface and tips up body to take food under water. Nests on ground or over water in clumps of Aggressive. rushes, sedges and tussocks. Habitat: Open water and well-vegetated freshwater Range and status: Previously widespread, lagoons, swamps, creeks and farm dams. possibly more restricted. Recently recorded from Nests on ground and above water in reeds and saltmarsh at Sea Elephant River estuary. rushes in and around wetlands.

101 Range and status: Widespread from Lavinia State Habitat: Coastal tea-tree, wattle and eucalypt Reserve south to Pearshape Lagoon. Fairly heath and scrub with much ground litter, fallen common breeding resident. Population stable or dead branches and grassy tufts. increasing. First recorded on King Island in 1960s. Nests on ground in grassy tea-tree heath among First recorded in 1976 on Tasmanian mainland litter, fallen branches and herbs. where range in north-west is expanding slowly. Range and status: Present in coastal heath in and Special management: Protect wetland habitat. south of Lavinia State Reserve. Rare and sedentary breeding resident. Possibly locally threatened. Eurasian coot Special management: Monitor population to Fulica atra determine abundance, critical habitat and conser- Length: 35–39 cm. vation status. Identification: Medium-sized slate-black waterbird with diagnostic white bill and frontal Latham’s snipe shield; lobbed feet. Gallinago hardwickii Habits: Pairs, family groups, larger flocks. Eats Other name: Japanese snipe. plant food on land but mostly dives for it in open Length: 29–33 cm. Wingspan 50–54 cm. water inshore and well off-shore. Identification: Medium-sized wader with long, Habitat: Large fresh or brackish lagoons, swamps straight bill (twice as long as head), short broad, and farm dams with open water and submerged pointed wings, long tail and short legs. Sexes aquatic vegetation. similar. Crown black-brown with narrow buff Nests in rushes and clumps of vegetation in median stripe; pale eyebrow; black stripe through open water, fringes of wetlands and on ground at eye. Back, wings blackish with bold buff ‘V’ marks, edges. two longitudinal buff stripes on both sides of Range and status: Widespread on larger wetlands upperbody and rufous-brown barring on wings. such as Lake Flannigan and Pearshape and Throat, breast light brown to buff with dark Tathams lagoons. A common breeding resident but streaks; lower breast and belly white; flanks and numbers fluctuate. May not breed every year. underwing white with dark barring. Habits: Singles, pairs, small groups. When Painted button-quail disturbed, explode from cover with fast zigzagging Turnix varia flight, utter short, sharp ‘shak’ note and drop to ground. Forage in edges of wetlands and probe in Length: Male 17–19 cm. Female 18–23 cm. soft soil for seeds and invertebrates (earthworms, Identification: Large button-quail similar in size to spiders and insects). brown quail. Sexes differ in size and plumage. Habitat: Vegetation fringing permanent and Larger, brighter female has diagnostic bright ephemeral freshwater wetlands, swamps, damp chestnut shoulder-patch. Both sexes have vegetation at edges of creeks, pools, drainage underbody grey with buff-white spots, back and ditches, farm dams and shady edges of forests. wings brownish-grey streaked and speckled black and white, eyebrow white and eye red. Presence Range and status: Widespread. Fairly regular detected by scrapes on ground. summer, non-breeding migrant from Japan. Habits: Singles, pairs, small groups. Forages for Special management: Protect and manage seeds and fruit on ground. Scratches and scrapes wetland habitat. Maintain vegetative cover around leaf litter, making circular depressions or platelets. edges of wetlands. Protect wetlands from stock. Flushes with low, fast flight. When disturbed, freezes or runs fast through vegetation. Voice of female a low booming, often at night.

102 Waders Sooty oystercatcher Palearctic waders or shorebirds migrate long Haematopus fuliginosus Plate 8.42 distances across the globe each year. From as far Other names: Black oystercatcher, redbill, black south as Hobart these remarkable birds fly up to redbill. 12,000 km to within the Arctic Circle along the Length: 40–52 cm. route known as the East Asian-Australasian Flyway. From their breeding grounds in the Northern Identification: Large all-black wader with red bill Hemisphere they fly south each Austral spring to and dull pink legs. Large, bare, fleshy eye-ring. spend the summer in Australia before returning Habits: Like pied oystercatcher, but usually each Austral autumn to the Northern Hemisphere. solitary, in pairs or small autumn and winter flocks. A number of these birds can be seen on King Habitat: Favours rockier habitat than pied oyster- Island during their time in Australia. Bar-tailed catcher. godwit (Limosa lapponica) (Plate 8.36), eastern Nests on rocky shores among shingles and shell curlew (Numenius madagascariensis) and fragments. common greenshank (Tringa nebularia) (Plate Range and status: Less common than pied oyster- 8.37) can be seen feeding on the mudflats at Sea catcher. Sedentary. Elephant River and large numbers of ruddy Special management: Protect nest-sites on turnstone (Arenaria interpres) (Plate 8.38) and beaches from off-road vehicles and dogs. red-necked stint (Calidris ruficollis) (Plate 8.40) can be found foraging among the seaweed along Red-capped plover the rocky shores on the west of the island. Charadrius ruficapillus Plate 8.41 One migratory wader, the double-banded plover (Charadrius bicinctus) (Plate 4.48), is the Other name: Red-capped dotterel. only wader to breed in New Zealand and winter in Length: 14–16 cm. southern Australia, including King Island. Identification: Male: white forehead; crown and nape rusty red with black margins; black mark Pied oystercatcher from nape to eye and on upperbreast. Female: Haematopus longirostris Plate 8.39 head and nape sandier, markings less distinct. Other name: Redbill. Immature: paler with scaly patterns on upperparts. Length: 42–51 cm. Habits: Singles, pairs. Runs along edge of water, bobs head. Joins other small waders in autumn. Identification: Large black and white wader. Black with white belly and rump. Straight scarlet Habitat: Sandy and shelly beaches, margins of bill and red legs. saline or freshwater wetlands and lakes, inland or coastal. Habits: Singles, pairs, and autumn and winter flocks. Nest is a scrape in the sand, just above high tide level. Habitat: Sandy, shellgrit or pebble beaches; sandspits and sandbars; tidal mudflats and Range and status: Often seen where suitable estuaries. Occasionally seen on rocky shores, habitat occurs. Sedentary, nomadic. grassy paddocks, golf courses and parks. Management: Protect nesting beaches from off- Nests on ground on exposed sandy beach. road vehicles and dogs. Range and status: Common where suitable Black-fronted dotterel habitat occurs. Sedentary and dispersive. Elseyornis melanops Plate 8.49 Special management: Protect nest-sites on beaches from off-road vehicles and dogs. Other name: Black-fronted plover. Length: 16–18 cm.

103 Identification: A small plover with diagnostic Banded lapwing white eyebrow over a black eye-stripe that joins Y- Vanellus tricolor Plate 8.44 shaped black band on white underbody; red Other names: Black-breasted or banded plover. eye-ring; red bill tipped black. In flight, note Length: 25–29 cm. chestnut shoulder-bars, white wing-bar and black tail with white edges and tip. Distinctive tinkling Identification: Medium-sized lapwing much calls in flight. smaller than masked lapwing. Diagnostic black sides of neck extending into broad black U-shaped Habits: Mostly singles, pairs. Forages in gravel, breast-band on white underbody and black cap with sand or mud for seeds, worms, snails, crustaceans, bold white line through eye to nape. Hind neck, insects. Horizontal stance; bobs head, runs swiftly. back and tail grey-brown. Yellow eye-ring and red Habitat: Bare gravel and muddy margins of wattles above base of yellow bill. In flight, wings freshwater lagoons, farm dams, estuarine creek black with bold white wing-bar and white rump and flats, shingle beaches, temporary inundated tail with black sub-terminal band. Distinct three-note paddocks. voice higher than masked lapwing. Nests on ground usually near water on sand, Habits: Breeding pairs, forms small flocks of up to gravel or pebbles. 30 or more birds in autumn–winter. Forages on Range and status: Widespread, particularly in north ground in open paddocks for seeds, snails, worms, of island and along west coast. Uncommon insects and spiders. Upright stance. Wary and alert. breeding resident. Population apparently increasing. Habitat: Short grass and bare paddocks, crops Special management: Monitor population in with bare ground, airfields, herbfields and dry breeding season to determine distribution and grasslands with sparse vegetation. number of breeding pairs. Nesting birds vulnerable Nests in depression on ground in dry to disturbance from humans, vehicles and grasslands, pastures and crops. predation from feral cats. Range and status: Locally common in drier north- Hooded plover west of island, particularly north of Currie toward Egg Lagoon. Locally common breeding resident. Thinornis rubricollis Plate 8.43 Not threatened. Other name: Hooded dotterel. Special management: Monitor population to Length: 19–23 cm. determine distribution and abundance. Protect Identification: Small plover of ocean beaches. nests from stock, farm machinery and vehicles. Black head and throat with white rear ‘collar’. Immature has less distinctive markings. Masked lapwing Habits: Pairs or family parties, often at water’s Vanellus miles Plate 8.50 edge. Other names: Spur-winged plover, masked Habitat: Sandy beaches, occasionally tidal plover. mudflats. Does not tolerate human disturbance. Length: 30–37 cm. Nest a scrape in the sand a few meters above Identification: Large, noisy familiar bird. Black high tide line. crown and nape extending into black collar around Range and status: Declining due to disturbance of side of breast. Grey-brown upperbody and white habitat, especially during breeding season. below. Diagnostic bright yellow wattles, yellow Conservation status on King Island: Nationally eye-ring and bill; long sharp wing-spurs. In flight, Vulnerable. note black wings and tail and white rump. Management: Protect nesting beaches especially Habits: Pairs, families in breeding season, small to during breeding season. large flocks of up to 200 birds in autumn–winter. Forages on ground for snails, worms, millipedes, centipedes and insects on pastures, grasslands,

104 beaches and mudflats. Wary and alert. Upright Tail short, white and slightly forked. stance. Aggressive and noisy. Dives and screams at Habits: Solitary or pairs. Patrols rivers, beaches intruders to protect eggs and young. and reservoirs. Hovers before plunging to take fish. Habitat: Margins of wetlands, farm dams, Habitats: Coasts, offshore waters, beaches, estuaries, beaches, airfields, grassy roadside verges, mudflats, estuaries, rivers, sometimes inland. grassy and bare paddocks, river flats, lawns and Nests in scrape among seaweed, grass and sticks. golf courses. Range and status: Seldom numerous. Nests on ground in improved pastures, margins Special management: Monitor population size. of swamps and lagoons and grassy airfields. Protect nesting beaches especially during the Range and status: Widespread on island. Very breeding season. common sedentary breeding resident. Crested tern Pacific gull Sterna bergii Larus pacificus Plate 8.45 Length: 44–48 cm. Other name: Mollyhawk Identification: Large, common, black-capped tern Length: 50-67 cm. Wingspan 1.3-1.6 m. with long, straw-yellow bill and black legs. Long Identification: A large gull with massive yellow wings and forked tail. Breeding: white forehead bill tipped red. Sexes alike but male larger. Head separates black shaggy crest and bill. Upperparts and underbody white; back black; wings black deep silver-grey. with broad white trailing edge; tail white with Habits: Singles or flocks. Cruises along shoreline black sub-terminal band; legs yellow. Juvenile dark before plunging to catch fish. brown with glossy black bill. Year 2 immature Habitats: Coasts, beaches, bays, rivers, swamps, mottled brown with paler rump. Year 4 immature lakes, larger rivers. like adult but head mottled grey. Similar kelp gull is smaller with all-white tail and smaller bill with Nests in scrape in sand, earth or on rock. red spot on lower bill tip only. Range and status: Abundant, sedentary, dispersive. Habits: Singles, pairs, small groups. Flies over Large colony on southern coast of King Island. coastal beaches and waters; follows fishing boats. Feeds on molluscs, fish, birds and carrion. Drops Fairy tern molluscs on rocks. Sterna nereis Plate 8.47 Habitat: Coasts, bays, estuaries, beaches and Length: 21–25 cm. coastal farmland. Identification: Small tern similar to and difficult to Nests on ground in small, loose colonies on off- tell from little tern, especially immatures. See shore Christmas, New Year and Councillor islands. Pizzey & Knight (12). Range and status: Common around coast and Habits: Solitary or small to large flocks. islands of King Island. Trend of breeding Habitats: Coastal waters, bays, inlets, saline or population unknown. brackish lakes. Special management: Monitor distribution and Nests in small colonies on elevated exposed abundance of breeding pairs to determine if sandy beaches. population stable, increasing or declining. Range and status: Known to breed on King Caspian tern Island. Conservation status on King Island: Listed as Sterna caspia Plate 8.46 Rare (Tasmania’s Threatened Species Protection Act Length: 48–54 cm. 1995). Identification: Largest tern with black-capped Management: Protect beaches, especially during head and bright red bill. Long wings, darker at tips. the breeding season.

105 Common bronzewing Yellow-tailed black-cockatoo Phaps chalcoptera Plate 8.1 Calyptorhynchus funereus Plate 6.1 Length: 32–36 cm. Length: 55–65 cm. Identification: A large pink-grey pigeon with Identification: Unmistakable, large black distinct scaly wings and metallic bronze-green cockatoo with large yellow panel in long tail and wing coverts. Male: cream forehead and purple- yellow ear patch. Male: bill blackish and eye-ring brown crown and nape. Female has grey forehead reddish-pink. Female: bill whitish, eye-ring grey and is duller. and brighter yellow ear-patch. Similar species: smaller brush bronzewing is Habits: Pairs, family trios, flocks of up to 50 or distinguished from common bronzewing by rich more in autumn–winter. Forages at all levels of chestnut throat, nape, back and shoulders and far vegetation from ground to tree canopy. Feeds on less bronze-green on wings. seeds and extracts wood-boring insect larvae by Habits: Singles, pairs. Forages on ground under ripping open branches and trunks of trees. Flies wattles and tea-tree for seeds. Bursts from ground with slow flapping flight. Twists and glides through with clatter of wings. trees exposing yellow tail panel. Habitat: Dry eucalypt forest, grassy scrubby edges Habitat: Dry and wet eucalypt forest, King Island of swamp paperbark, King Island scrub and scrub, coastal heath, exotic conifer plantations and perhaps coastal heath. shelter. Extracts seeds of Allocasuarina and Banksia in scrub and heath and seeds from cones Nests in shrubs and small to tall trees, usually in of Pinus radiata. understorey. Nests in large, deep, often vertical, hollows in Range and status: Possibly very restricted range. trunks of large, old trees. Two observed at Pass River in March 2001. A rather rare breeding resident. Range and status: Widespread. Uncommon breeding resident. High conservation status. King Special management: Record and report locations Island population may be declining. of sightings. Identify and protect critical habitat. Special management: Monitor size, age and sex Brush bronzewing of population in autumn–winter. Erect nest-boxes. Phaps elegans Plate 8.18 Green rosella Length: 28–31 cm. Platycercus caledonicus brownii Plate 7.5 Identification: Diagnostic rich chestnut throat, Length: 32–38 cm. nape and shoulder patch; and two metallic bronze- green bands on plain olive-brown wings. Identification: A blue-cheeked rosella with red Underbody blue-grey. Male: yellow-buff forehead forehead; yellow head and underparts; dark green and grey crown. Female: duller with grey forehead. back with black mottling; shoulder, leading edge of Similar species: common bronzewing. wing and tail blue. Male: brighter yellow. Female: greener, duller. Habits: Singles, pairs. Feeds on seeds on ground in dense scrub, roadside and forest edges and Habits: Pairs, autumn–winter flocks. Forages for clearings. seeds, flowers, fruit at all levels from ground to canopy of tall eucalypts. Strong, fast flight. Habitat: Paperbark, dry and wet eucalypt forest, King Island scrub and coastal heath. Habitat: Dry and wet eucalypt forests, King Island Nests in shrubs and small trees in dense scrub, shelterbelts, homestead gardens. understorey. Nests in tree-hollows. In absence of tree- Range and status: Widespread. A common hollows nests in disused buildings and concealed breeding resident. forks of tree trunks. Range and status: Occurs throughout King Island, particularly in forests in centre, south-east and

106 south. Uncommon 40 years ago but now more south-eastern South Australia. Returns to Tasmania common breeding resident. The King Island in mid-October. subspecies is Vulnerable (3). Habitat: On migration stopover on King Island Special management: Monitor population size. forages in extensive saltmarsh and rushes in and Protect, manage and restore eucalypt forest to near Sea Elephant River estuary, Lavinia State provide present and future tree-hollows and Reserve. Feeds on seeds of sea-rocket and seeds of cavities. Erect nest-boxes. pastures and weeds. Range and status: Breeding range contracted to Blue-winged parrot coastal south-west Tasmania. Critically endangered. Neophema chrysotoma Plate 8.14 Numbered thousands in 19th century. Today total Length: 20–23 cm. population in the wild estimated at less than 200 birds. Identification: A small, olive-green parrot with yellow facial mask and blue band between eyes; Special management on King Island: Monitor distinctive broad cobalt blue shoulder patch and population, taking care to identify from similar wing edge; yellow lower breast and belly. Female blue-winged parrot and report sightings to orange- duller. Tinkling call. Similar species: orange-bellied bellied parrot recovery team. parrot distinguished by grass-green upperbody Protect critical feeding habitat on King Island rather than olive-green; far less blue on shoulder; such as coastal saltmarsh and fringing eucalypts by orange belly patch and distinct buzzy voice. excluding fire, weeds, livestock and vehicles. Habits: Singles, pairs, small flocks. Forages on ground for seeds in crops, pastures, grasslands. Pallid cuckoo Rises from ground quickly when disturbed. Often Cuculus pallidus perches on fence-lines. Length: 28–33 cm. Habitat: Grassy edges of eucalypt forests, scrub Identification: A large grey cuckoo with long tail and coastal heath, saltmarsh, crops, crop residue, and prominent white notchings on outer and inner pastures, airfields and golf-courses. tail. Nests in tree-hollows. Habits: Singles, pairs. Flight undulating with long, Range and status: Widespread in spring and pointed wings. In spring calls with rising notes autumn. A common trans-Bass Strait migrant. from exposed branches and overhead wires. Regularly stops over on King Island but not known Habitat: Preferably dry eucalypt forest but also wet to breed. forest, King Island scrub, coastal heath and grasslands, farmlands and homestead gardens. Orange-bellied parrot Parasitises cup-shaped nests of honeyeaters, Neophema chrysogaster Plate 7.3 flycatchers and woodswallows. Length: 20–22 cm. Range and status: Widely distributed. A regular Identification: A vivid, grass-green parrot with and common trans-Bass Strait passage migrant. blue forehead-band between eyes; blue leading Some birds breed on King Island edge of wing; orange patch on yellow belly. Female duller. ‘Buzz’ alarm call. Similar species: Fan-tailed cuckoo Take care to distinguish from more abundant blue- Cacomantis flabelliformis Plate 8.11 winged parrot in migration flocks. Length: 25–27 cm. Habits: Singles, pairs, small parties and flocks. Identification: Slaty-grey upperbody; throat and Feeds on ground. Migrates in autumn from breast pale rufous; grey undertail feathers notched breeding grounds in south-west Tasmania along white. west coast to King Island arriving about mid-late Habits: Mostly singly. Calls a downward trill, often May. Winters from coastal southern Victoria to from high perches. Undulating flight.

107 Habitat: Breeds in wet eucalypt forest. Visits Range and status: Widespread, particularly in the paperbark forest, scrub, homestead gardens. south. Regular, common trans-Bass Strait passage Parasitises dome-shaped nests of scrubwrens, migrant. Breeds on King Island. thornbills and fairy-wren. Range and status: Widespread. Common, regular Southern boobook trans-Bass Strait migrant. Ninox novaeseelandiae Plate 6.4 Uncommon breeding resident. Other names: Mopoke or morepork. Length: 25–36 cm. Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo Identification: A small, yellow-eyed brown owl Chrysococcyx basilis with white spots on wings and underbody; dark Length: 15–17 cm. brown eye-patches. Identification: Bronze-green upperbody; Habits: Singly, pairs, families. By day roosts in underbody whitish with brown bars; white belly tree-hollows, barns, sheds, in dense foliage of trees patch where bars incomplete. Diagnostic dark ear- and tree ferns and even in cavities of the root ball patch bordered by white bar. of large, fallen trees. At night sits on fence posts Similar species: bronze-green shining bronze- and exposed branches. Pounces on prey such as cuckoo has complete barring below and lacks small mammals, particularly mice and rats, birds, white eyebrow and dark ear. frogs and flying insects like moths. Habits: Mostly singly. Calls and sits motionless Habitat: Dry and wet eucalypt forests with hollow- from elevated perches. Swift flight. bearing trees, blackwood and paperbark forests and homestead gardens. Habitat: Favours coastal heath, coastal eucalypt and scrub. Nests in tree-hollows. Parasitises dome-shaped nests of fairy-wrens, Range and status: Widespread, particularly in thornbills and cup-shaped nests of robins and chats. south and Sea Elephant catchment. Uncommon to rare breeding resident. Locally threatened. Range and status: Distributed along coast, partic- Population possibly limited by shortage of suitable ularly east coast from Lavinia State Reserve south tree-hollows. High conservation status. past Naracoopa. Regular, common trans-Bass Strait passage migrant. Some birds breed on King Island. Special management: Monitor population size. Protect mature and old eucalypts with hollows and Shining bronze-cuckoo regrowth eucalypt forest to provide future hollow- bearing trees. Erect nest-boxes and platforms. Chrysococcyx lucidus Plate 8.19 Length: 16–18 cm. Superb fairy-wren Identification: Bronze-green upperbody with Malurus cyaneus cyaneus Plates 8.21 & 8.22 brown head; underparts white with complete Other names: Blue wren, Jenny wren, superb brown bars. Similar to Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo. blue wren. Voice very different. Length: 13–14 cm. Habits: Mostly singly. More conspicuous in spring, singing from exposed or concealed dead twigs and Identification: Only small blue bird with upright branches. Flight swift. tail. Sexes differ. Adult male: sky blue cap, cheek patch and upper back; blue-black throat, breast, Habitat: Eucalypt forest, particularly wet forest, lores, nape and back; dark blue tail; grey-white paperbark and blackwood forest, King Island scrub belly. Female: soft brown upperbody and white and homestead gardens. below; tail brown; red-brown lores and eye-ring. In Parasitises dome-shaped nests of scrubwren, autumn, blue males moult into an eclipse brown thornbills, fairy-wren and cup-shaped nests of plumage with blue tail, but some males retain adult silvereye and honeyeaters. blue plumage over-winter.

108 beaches and mudflats. Wary and alert. Upright Tail short, white and slightly forked. stance. Aggressive and noisy. Dives and screams at Habits: Solitary or pairs. Patrols rivers, beaches intruders to protect eggs and young. and reservoirs. Hovers before plunging to take fish. Habitat: Margins of wetlands, farm dams, Habitats: Coasts, offshore waters, beaches, estuaries, beaches, airfields, grassy roadside verges, mudflats, estuaries, rivers, sometimes inland. grassy and bare paddocks, river flats, lawns and Nests in scrape among seaweed, grass and sticks. golf courses. Range and status: Seldom numerous. Nests on ground in improved pastures, margins Special management: Monitor population size. of swamps and lagoons and grassy airfields. Protect nesting beaches especially during the Range and status: Widespread on island. Very breeding season. common sedentary breeding resident. Crested tern Pacific gull Sterna bergii Larus pacificus Plate 8.45 Length: 44–48 cm. Other name: Mollyhawk Identification: Large, common, black-capped tern Length: 50-67 cm. Wingspan 1.3-1.6 m. with long, straw-yellow bill and black legs. Long Identification: A large gull with massive yellow wings and forked tail. Breeding: white forehead bill tipped red. Sexes alike but male larger. Head separates black shaggy crest and bill. Upperparts and underbody white; back black; wings black deep silver-grey. with broad white trailing edge; tail white with Habits: Singles or flocks. Cruises along shoreline black sub-terminal band; legs yellow. Juvenile dark before plunging to catch fish. brown with glossy black bill. Year 2 immature Habitats: Coasts, beaches, bays, rivers, swamps, mottled brown with paler rump. Year 4 immature lakes, larger rivers. like adult but head mottled grey. Similar kelp gull is smaller with all-white tail and smaller bill with Nests in scrape in sand, earth or on rock. red spot on lower bill tip only. Range and status: Abundant, sedentary, dispersive. Habits: Singles, pairs, small groups. Flies over Large colony on southern coast of King Island. coastal beaches and waters; follows fishing boats. Feeds on molluscs, fish, birds and carrion. Drops Fairy tern molluscs on rocks. Sterna nereis Plate 8.47 Habitat: Coasts, bays, estuaries, beaches and Length: 21–25 cm. coastal farmland. Identification: Small tern similar to and difficult to Nests on ground in small, loose colonies on off- tell from little tern, especially immatures. See shore Christmas, New Year and Councillor islands. Pizzey (12). Range and status: Common around coast and Habits: Solitary or small to large flocks. islands of King Island. Trend of breeding Habitats: Coastal waters, bays, inlets, saline or population unknown. brackish lakes. Special management: Monitor distribution and Nests in small colonies on elevated exposed abundance of breeding pairs to determine if sandy beaches. population stable, increasing or declining. Range and status: Known to breed on King Caspian tern Island. Conservation status on King Island: Listed as Sterna caspia Plate 8.46 Rare (Tasmania’s Threatened Species Protection Act Length: 48–54 cm. 1995). Identification: Largest tern with black-capped Management: Protect beaches, especially during head and bright red bill. Long wings, darker at tips. the breeding season.

105 Habitat: Ground layer vegetation of ferns, sedges 2001, before and after the bushfires that burnt and shrubs of eucalypt forests and woodlands, much of Lavinia State Reserve in 2000. Searches in swamp paperbark forests, riparian vegetation, 2001 failed to find any scrubtit in the swamp sedge-heath-scrub complex. paperbark of Pass River and in the tree fern gullies Builds well-concealed, dome-shaped nest on of mature blue gum forest at Pegarah. Population ground or very close to ground. almost certainly in decline and now critically endangered (3). Population estimated at less than Range and status: Widespread. A common 200 on basis of suitable habitat but this may be an endemic breeding resident. over-estimate. Special management: Continue to fence off and Special management: First priority is to recognise protect linear riparian vegetation in particular but that the Nook Swamp is critical habitat for scrubtit also rectangular patches of native vegetation. and protect this tall swamp paperbark forest from Maintain and enhance ground layer vegetation and wildfire. Another priority is to monitor scrubtits at logs and litter on the ground. the Nook Swamp to determine population size, Scrubtit distribution and habitat. Extensive searches for scrubtit need to be conducted at localities where Acanthornis magnus greenianus Plate 7.6 scrubtit was recorded in the recent past such as Other name: Tasmanian scrubtit. Pass River, Yellow Rock, Pegarah State Forest and Length: 11–12 cm. at potential sites such as Bungaree Swamp in the Identification: Sexes alike. A small brown bird north-west and particularly at Colliers Swamp and with prominent cream throat and breast; buff Red Hut Point area in the south. flanks; grey cheeks; cream eye; two white wing- bars at bend of wing. Similar species: Distinguished Brown thornbill from Tasmanian scrubwren by slender body, Acanthiza pusilla archibaldi Plate 7.1 diagnostic cream throat and breast, grey cheeks Other name: King Island brown thornbill. and foraging behaviour. Length: 10 cm. Habits: Pairs, small groups. Ascends tree-trunks Identification: Sexes alike. Olive-brown and branches like a treecreeper. Forages for inver- upperbody with diagnostic olive-buff flanks; tebrates on tree trunks and among foliage of greyish undertail and bold blackish streaks on grey swamp paperbark, shrubs and ferns at all levels of throat and breast. Red eye. vegetation from the ground to the canopy of Similar species: Common Tasmanian thornbill swamp paperbark forest. has white flanks and undertail. Builds dome-shaped nest in fronds of tree ferns Habits: Singles, pairs. Actively forages for insects and epiphytic ferns and in dense shrubs usually in ground layer vegetation, understorey shrubs and 1–3 m above ground. small trees. Habitat: Favours tall paperbark swamp forests Habitat: Drier wet scrub and eucalypt woodland with denser understorey of young paperbark and with Leptospermum scoparium at Pegarah State ferns. Inhabits tree fern gullies in wet eucalypt Forest, open farmland at Loorana. forest. Probably nests on ground or in low understorey Range and status: Probably formerly more vegetation like the brown thornbill on the widespread prior to habitat destruction of tall blue Tasmanian mainland. gum forest by clearance and bushfires. Range probably contracted further in recent decades. Range and status: Very restricted range. Recorded Recorded in the 1960s in swamp paperbark and in Pegarah State Forest in 1968 and at Loorana in wet eucalypt forest at the Nook Swamp, Pass River, 1971. Thought to be extinct but recently one bird Yellow Rock and Pegarah State Forest. seen in 2001–02 at Pegarah State Forest. Rediscovered in the extensive swamp paperbark Conservation status: Critically Endangered (3). forest of the Nook Swamp in 1998–99 and again in

110 Special management: Continue to search for birds agriculture, especially in the first half of the 20th at Pegarah State Forest and nearby to confirm century. Probably more widespread in the last 40 presence and attempt to determine population size. years of the 20th century as a result of maturation of regrowth eucalypts and protection of native Tasmanian thornbill vegetation. Population recovery threatened by Acanthiza ewingii rufifrons Plate 7.10 projected clearance of scrub and heath and uncon- trolled wildfires. Length: 10 cm. Uncommon breeding resident and endemic Identification: Sexes alike. An active small brown subspecies. bird; brown upperbody and greyish below with brown breast streaks. In good light prominent, Conservation status Vulnerable on basis of diagnostic snow-white undertail coverts that fluff out population size and habitat occupied (3). from sides of tail and white flanks. Similar species: Special management: Monitor population size Tasmanian scrubwren, scrubtit, brown thornbill. and distribution. Protect and enlarge remnant bush, Habits: Pairs, small parties. Forages for inverte- especially eucalypt forests and woodlands. brates in foliage of swamp paperbark, understorey trees and shrubs, tree fern fronds and ferns. Yellow-throated honeyeater Habitat: Eucalypt forest and woodlands; Lichenostomus flavicollis Plate 7.12 blackwood and paperbark swamp forests; and Length: 20 cm. scrub, sedgeland and heathland communities. Identification: Sexes similar. Distinctive bright Builds a dome-shaped nest on and near the yellow throat; grey-blackish head and rest of ground in dense ground layer and understorey underbody; olive-green back and tail. vegetation. Habits: Mostly singly, pairs, family parties. Forages Range and status: Widely distributed throughout for invertebrates and manna on and under bark of the island in most dry and wet vegetation. trunks and branches and in foliage. Very common endemic breeding resident. Habitat: Tasmanian blue gum forests and Conservation secure. Not threatened. woodlands; blackwood and paperbark swamp forests; scrub and heathland, particularly scrub Yellow wattlebird with sparse emergent eucalypts and dominated by Anthochaera paradoxa kingi Plate 7.7 Leptospermum lanigerum on wetter sites and Length: 37–45 cm. Leptospermum scoparium on drier sites; homestead and urban gardens. Identification: Australia’s largest honeyeater. Greyish with prominent dark streaks on Nests low in dense understorey shrubs, trees underbody; diagnostic long, pendulous yellow- and ground layer vegetation. orange wattles, bright yellow belly and long tail, Range and status: Widespread. A common tipped white. endemic breeding resident. Habits: Singles, pairs, flocks. Harsh voice. Forages Special management: Monitor distribution and for mostly nectar but also fruit and invertebrates in abundance. Protect, maintain and restore eucalypt eucalypt forests, scrub and heathlands. forests and woodlands with dense understorey Habitat: King Island blue gum forests and shrubs, particularly tea-tree (Leptospermum spp.). woodlands with white gum and Brooker’s gum; King Island scrub and heath with banksia; Strong-billed honeyeater homestead and urban gardens. Melithreptus validirostris Plate 7.9 Nests in forks of trees and tall shrubs. Length: 16–17 cm. Range and status: Widespread, particularly in the Identification: Only Tasmanian honeyeater with east and south. Uncommon by the 1960s following black head and distinctive blue eye crescent extensive wildfires and clearance of forests for extending into white nape band. Throat white with

111 black chin strip; rest of underparts greyish; back, Restore white gum in appropriate soils and plant wing, tail olive-brown. Immature: Yellow-orange communities. bill, legs and nape. Similar species: black-headed honeyeater. Crescent honeyeater Habits: Pairs, family groups. Bark specialist. Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera Plates 8.23 & 8.24 Searches for invertebrates at all levels of vegetation Length: 15–16 cm. on and under bark of trunks and branches of Identification: Sexes differ. Male: dark grey with eucalypts in particular, but also swamp paperbark diagnostic broad, black broken crescent on whitish and tea-tree. breast; broad yellow panel on wings and tail. Habitat: Wet and dry eucalypt forests but also Female and immature: browner with less distinct paperbark swamp forest and tea-tree. crescent. Nests in foliage of subcanopy and understorey Habits: Singles, pairs, small groups. Forages for trees and tall shrubs. nectar, particularly from flowers of epacrids, and Range and status: Widespread in remaining insects in low vegetation and in foliage of eucalypt forest and swamp forest, particularly in eucalypts. Dispersive in autumn–winter. the east, centre and south of the island. A common Habitat: Heathy eucalypt woodland, wet eucalypt breeding resident. forest, paperbark swamp forest, King Island scrub, Special management: Protect all remaining wet tea-tree scrub, coastal heath and scrub, rural eucalypt and swamp forest, particularly mature and and urban gardens. old growth forest. Regenerate and restore local Nests in dense low understorey. eucalypts. Range and status: Widespread. Common in Black-headed honeyeater Lavinia State Reserve, Sea Elephant catchment, Pegarah State Forest and coastal heath south of Melithreptus affinis Plate 7.11 Naracoopa around to Seal River. Common Other name: Blackcap. breeding resident. Length: 12.5–14.5 cm. Special management: Protect and manage a Identification: A small honeyeater with diagnostic diverse range of eucalypt, scrub and heath all black head and throat and small whitish vegetation. crescent over eye. Similar species: larger strong- billed honeyeater has white nape band; black chin New Holland honeyeater and white throat. Phylidonyris novaehollandiae Plate 8.20 Habits: Pairs, small groups. Forages for inverte- Other name: Yellow-winged honeyeater. brates and lerp in foliage of eucalypts, especially Length: 17–18 cm. white gum and wattles. Identification: Sexes alike. Boldly streaked black Habitat: Dry and wet eucalypt forest, particularly and white honeyeater with white iris and forest and heathy woodland with white gum. prominent yellow panel on wings. Nests in foliage, often high in eucalypt canopy. Habits: Singles, pairs, family groups. Aggressively Range and status: Patchy distribution in eucalypt defends territory and nectar-bearing shrubs, forest with white gum, Brooker’s gum and especially from smaller nectar-feeding birds such Tasmanian blue gum south of Reekara. Considered as crescent honeyeater and eastern spinebill. rare 30–40 years ago but population recovering. Forages for nectar in flowers of shrubs and Uncommon endemic breeding resident. eucalypts. Sallies in air for insects. Special management: Monitor population size. Habitat: Dry and wet eucalypt forest, paperbark Protect and manage all mature and old growth swamp forest, King Island scrub, coastal heath and eucalypt forest, especially white gum forest. scrub, wet tea-tree scrub, rural and urban parks and gardens.

112 Nests in dense shrubs of understorey in native rufous patch; rest of underbody rufous-buff; mantle vegetation and in garden shrubs. chestnut; wings grey; tail black, white edges Range and status: Widespread. Common prominent in flight. Female: similar but with grey breeding resident. crown. Special management: None required. Reduce Habits: Singles, pairs. Actively forages for nectar. numbers of territorial New Holland honeyeater in Inserts bill into flowers with long floral tube. gardens by not planting exotic flowering shrubs, Hovers at flowers. Dispersive in autumn–winter. particularly nectar-rich Grevillea. These shrubs Habitat: Wet and dry eucalypt forests, coastal provide New Holland honeyeaters with a defendible heath and scrub with epacrids and Banksia, year-round source of food. Planting of Correa and homestead and urban gardens. May visit gardens in epacrids provides nectar for smaller honeyeaters. summer–autumn to feed on flowers of exotic shrubs such as fuchsia spp., sage (Salvia spp), Tawny-crowned honeyeater lion’s ear (Leonotis leonurus) and native shrubs Phylidonyris melanops Plate 8.3 such as Correa spp. Length: 15–17 cm. Nests in understorey shrubs and small trees. Identification: A pale brown and white Range and status: Considered very rare or absent honeyeater with distinctive creamy-buff crown and from King Island about 30 years ago. Recently black mask extending from bill through eye down sighted in central-east. Current status rare but more sides of breast. Similar species: crescent information needed. honeyeater. Special management: Keep a watch out for this Habits: Singles, pairs. Perches atop bushes and species, report and record all sightings. In rural and during breeding season flies up and gives flutelike urban gardens provide food shrubs by planting liquid notes. Forages for nectar and insects. Correa and Epacris spp. Habitat: Low coastal heath. White-fronted chat Nests in low heathy bushes. Epthianura albifrons Plates 8.25 & 8.26 Range and status: Last recorded from coastal Length: 11–13 cm. heath near Lake Martha Lavinia more than 30 years ago. Presence not confirmed despite searches in Identification: Sexes differ. Male: diagnostic white Lavinia State Reserve in last five years. Current forehead, face and underparts separated by black status uncertain but must be rare or possibly locally breast band that extends to nape and hind crown; extinct given severity of wildfires in Lavinia State back and wings grey. Female: grey-brown Reserve in recent years. Tasmanian subspecies upperbody and duller breast band. occurs on King Island. Habits: Pairs, parties. Forages on ground for inver- Special management: Conduct extensive tebrates and seeds. Perches on top of bushes, wire searches in breeding season in Lavinia State fences and posts. Reserve heath to determine distribution, Habitat: Coastal grassland, coastal heath and abundance and habitat needs. Determine an scrub, saltmarsh, freshwater and brackish wetlands appropriate fire management strategy to provide and estuaries with grassy/sedgy edges, regener- suitable successional stages of heath. ating cleared land with rushes and low shrubs and coastal shores. Eastern spinebill Nests low in shrubs and tussocks. Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris Plate 8.5 Range and status: Widespread along coast, partic- Length: 15–16 cm. ularly in north-east, north, west and south coasts. Identification: A small honeyeater with a long, Common breeding resident. fine decurved bill. Sexes differ slightly. Male: black Special management: Protect and manage coastal crown and sides of breast; throat white with central vegetation, saltmarsh and wetlands.

113 Flame robin Habitat: Tall paperbark swamp forest and mature Petroica phoenicea Plates 6.5 & 6.6 wet blue gum forest with tree fern gullies. Nests in understorey trees and shrubs. Length: 12.5–14 cm. Range and status: Current range restricted to the Identification: Sexes differ. Male: only red- Nook Swamp and mature wet forest at Pegarah breasted robin on King Island. Sooty-grey State Forest. A rare breeding resident. High conser- upperbody with small white forehead patch and vation status on King Island. white wing-bar; flame orange underparts from throat to belly. Female and immature: pale brown Special management: Monitor population at the Nook Swamp. Protect Nook Swamp paperbarks upperbody and buff-white wingbar; pale grey- and the Pegarah wet Tasmanian blue gum forest brown underbody; white outer-tail feathers. from fire. Search for pink robin particularly in Habits: Singles, pairs, small groups. Forages for remaining swamp forest in Collier Swamp–Red Hut insects by pouncing from a perch to ground. Point area and Bungaree Swamp. Perches on branches, posts, wire fences, stumps and tops of herbs, bushes and boulders. Dusky robin Habitat: Breeds in coastal scrub, heathy woodland Melanodryas vittata kingi Plate 7.13 and stream-banks in wet eucalypt forest. On Length: 16–17 cm. migration, particularly in autumn–winter, inhabits open paddocks, pastures, regenerating cleared Identification: Endemic brown robin larger than land, eucalypt forest and woodland and coastal other all brown robins in Tasmania. Sexes alike. olive-brown above; grey-brown underbody; paler heath. whitish throat and eyebrow; dark line through eye; Nests in cavities of dead and live trees, tree- white wing-bar; outer tail edged buff-white. Similar forks, cavities in fallen tree-trunks and roots, species: female and immature golden whistler stream-banks, rock slabs, sheds. greyish upperbody with whiter throat. Range and status: Widespread, especially on Habits: Singles, pairs, family parties. Perches migration. Uncommon breeding and visiting trans- quietly on stumps, fence posts and branches. Flies Bass Strait migrant. Less common than earlier to ground to snatch invertebrates. decades. Population in decline in south-east Habitat: Wet and dry eucalypt forests, paperbark Australia. swamp forests and forest edges, King Island scrub, Special management: Monitor population size on heath and tea-tree scrub and urban and homestead migration and in breeding season. Determine gardens. distribution, habitat and density of breeding pairs. Nests low in cavities in trees and stumps, in Protect and manage breeding habitat. forks of understorey trees and shrubs and in artificial sites around human settlement. Pink robin Range and status: Widespread. Common endemic Petroica rodinogaster Plates 8.2 & 8.4 subspecies breeding resident. Conservation status Length: 11.5–13 cm. Least Concern (3). Identification: Sexes differ. Male: sooty-black Special management: Protect habitat. Maintain upperbody and upper breast; breast, belly rose- tree-cavities and stumps as nesting sites. pink. No white in wing and tail. Female: differs from female flame robin by olive-brown Olive whistler upperbody; warm tan wing-mark and no white on Pachycephala olivacea Plate 8.27 outer tail. Length: 20–22 cm. Habits: Singles, pairs. Sits quietly and pounces to Identification: Male: a large whistler with grey ground to seize invertebrates. Also forages in head, olive-brown back; whitish throat; underbody foliage. Disperses in autumn–winter to scrub ochre-buff; bill black. Female: more greyish throat fringing the Nook Swamp. and browner bill.

114 Habits: Singles, pairs. Cryptic in dense understorey Grey shrike-thrush vegetation. Distinctive loud whistle. Forages for Colluricincla harmonica Plate 8.28 invertebrates on ground and in dense low foliage. Other names: Duke Wellington, Jo Whitty. Hops along ground. Length: 15–17 cm. Habitat: Paperbark swamp forest and eucalypt forest with dense understorey and ground layer Identification: Both sexes have grey head and vegetation, King Island scrub, heath and tea-tree underbody; back olive-brown. Male: bill all black. scrub. Female: lower bill grey-pink; pale blackish streaks on throat and upper breast. Immature: rufous Nests low in dense understorey shrubs, sedges eyebrow and profuse streaking on throat, breast and ferns. and belly. Range and status: Widespread. Common Habits: Singles, pairs. Forages for invertebrates breeding resident. and skinks on bark of trunks and branches, logs Special management: Protect a diverse range of and on ground. Noisily prises off loose bark when habitats. Maintain microhabitats with dense searching for insects. Undulating flight. understorey and ground layer vegetation. Habitat: Eucalypt forest, paperbark swamp forest, Golden whistler King Island heath-scrub, King Island wet scrub, rural and urban gardens. Pachycephala pectoralis Plates 8.29 & 8.30 Nests in understorey shrubs and trees, tree- Length: 16.5–18.5 cm. hollows and cavities, stumps, crown of tree ferns. Identification: Sexes differ. Male: black head and Range and status: Widespread. Common breast band separates white throat from rich golden- breeding resident. yellow underbody and nape collar; tail grey. Female and immature: grey-brown upperbody; whitish Special management: Protect and manage old, throat and greyish underbody. Similar species: mature and regrowth eucalypt forest and female-plumaged birds differ from dusky robin by paperbark swamp forest. Maintain and enhance slimmer body, greyer plumage and different voice dense understorey shrubs and trees as nesting and foraging behaviour. habitat. Habits: Singles, pairs. Forages for invertebrates on foliage at all levels of vegetation from the eucalypt Satin flycatcher canopy to low understorey. Snatches prey from Myiagra cyanoleuca Plates 8.7 & 8.8 foliage and twigs by flutter flight. Adults sedentary Length: 15–17 cm. but range further in autumn–winter. Immatures Identification: Sexes differ. Male: uniform glossy disperse in autumn–winter. blue-black with white lower breast and belly. Habitat: Favour wet and dry eucalypt forest with Female: blue-grey upperbody with rich orange-buff dense understorey shrubs but also occur in throat and upper breast; rest of underbody white. paperbark swamp forest, King Island scrub and Habits: Singles, pairs. Actively forages for insects rural and urban gardens. in upper level of forest trees. Sallies in air after Nests in dense understorey shrubs and small flying insects. Quivers tail rapidly. Distinctive trees. voice. Range and status: Widespread but patchy range Habitat: Mature and old growth eucalypt forest, in eucalypt forests in east and south. Considered especially wet blue gum forest. uncommon in 1960s. By 2000 a fairly common breeding resident. Nests on horizontal dead branches often high up in mature eucalypts. Special management: Monitor distribution and abundance of population. Protect old, mature and Range and status: Considered locally common in regrowth eucalypt forest. Maintain and enhance 1960s but not recorded breeding on King Island. dense understorey shrubs as nesting habitat. Current range restricted to Pegarah State Forest and mature Tasmanian blue gum forest near Reekara. A

115 rare trans-Bass Strait migrant. Resident during late Habits: Singles, pairs, small parties, small flocks on spring–summer months but breeding requires migration. Undulating flight. Immediately on confirmation. High conservation status. perching, alternately refolds each wing up and Special management: Monitor population in late down. Sits on high exposed branches. Forages for spring to determine distribution and abundance invertebrates mostly in foliage, sometimes on and breeding status. Protect all mature and old ground. growth eucalypt forest, especially wet Tasmanian Habitat: Mostly wet and dry eucalypt forest, blue gum forest. Satin flycatcher depends on old especially old and mature forest but also coastal and mature eucalypts for nest-sites and foraging. scrub and heath, King Island scrub and rural and urban gardens. Grey fantail Nests high on horizontal forks of old and Rhipidura fuliginosa Plate 8.31 mature eucalypts. Length: 14–17 cm. Range and status: Widespread. A common and Identification: Sexes alike. Dark grey with white regular trans-Bass Strait migrant. Breeding not eyebrow; small white mark behind eye; white confirmed on King Island wing-coverts; long, dark grey, fan-shaped tail with Special management: Monitor population in white tips and outer-tail. Sooty-grey breast band spring–summer to determine if any breeding bordered by white throat and creamy-buff breast occurs. Protect, maintain and manage all old and and belly. mature eucalypt forest. Habits: Singles, pairs, family parties. Very active aerial acrobat. Forages in foliage at all levels with Dusky woodswallow tail fanned. Tumbles, loops and sallies in air after Artamus cyanopterus Plate 8.12 flying insects. Length: 17–18 cm. Habitat: Occurs in all habitat types. Wet and dry Identification: Sexes alike. Smoky-brown with eucalypt forest, paperbark and blackwood swamp bluish-grey bill; grey wings with distinctive long forest, King Island scrub and heath, coastal scrub white streak on leading edge of wing; tail black and heath, regrowth forest, regenerating cleared tipped white. land, rural and urban parks and gardens. One of Habits: Pairs, parties, small flocks. Soars in flight first bird species to colonise regenerating and giving ‘chirp-chirrup’ notes. Sits on posts, stumps restored land. and exposed branches; wags tail and darts out to Usually nests low in understorey shrubs and catch flying insects. small trees but sometimes nests high in canopy. Habitat: More open dry and wet eucalypt forest, Range and status: Widespread. Very common King Island scrub, coastal heath and scrub. breeding resident and trans-Bass Strait migrant. In north-west Tasmania nests in loose aggrega- Some birds are sedentary all year and some over- tions. Builds nest in tree-cavities and upright and winter on mainland Australia. horizontal forks in trunks and branches of tall Special management: Maintain understorey eucalypts. shrubs in bush remnants as nesting habitat. Range and status: Widespread. A common, regular trans-Bass Strait migrant. One record of Black-faced cuckoo-shrike breeding on King Island. Coracina novaehollandiae Plate 8.10 Special management: Monitor population and Other names: Summerbird, shufflewing, grey jay. determine breeding status. Protect and manage Length: 30–36 cm. eucalypt forest. Identification: Light blue-grey with black face and throat; underbody white-light grey; tail tipped white.

116 Australian magpie ground in pastures and forests. Forages on Gymnorhina tibicen hypoleuca Plate 8.32 branches and in foliage. Distinctive voice. Other name: White-backed magpie. Habitat: Wet and dry eucalypt forest and woodland, paperbark and blackwood swamp Length: 38–44 cm. forest, coastal heath and scrub, beaches, pastures, Identification: Familiar black and white bird with homestead gardens. pointed, whitish black-tipped bill. Adult male: Builds large stick nest in forks of paperbark, black with pure white ‘back’ from nape to basal blackwood and eucalypt trees. half of tail and white patch on wing. Female: nape white and back mottled grey. Adult eye red-brown. Range and status: Widespread but patchily Immature: like female but duller and underbody distributed. Range has contracted in recent mottled black-grey; eye black. Distinctive rich, decades. King Island population is an endemic carolling voice sang as duet. subspecies. Considered locally common in 1960s with winter flocks of 150. Population in decline. An Habits: Flight swift and direct. Forms small, uncommon to rare breeding resident. Conservation sedentary breeding groups and larger groups of status Vulnerable (3). non-breeding birds. Perches on posts and high on tree-branches and overhead wires. Forages on Special management: Monitor population in ground and probes in soil for invertebrates (beetle winter to determine population size and winter and moth larvae). habitat. Monitor population in spring–summer to determine density of breeding pairs and breeding Habitat: Open farmland, parkland and woodland habitat and location. Study breeding ecology of with scattered native and exotic trees for perching, forest raven and interactions with black currawong roosting and nesting. Grassy surrounds of airfield, where they coexist. golf course and homestead gardens. Benefited greatly from clearing of forest. Forest raven Corvus tasmanicus Builds nest in forks of branches of exotic and Other names: Tasmanian raven or crow. native trees (eucalypts, paperbark, tea-tree). Length: 52–54 cm. Range and status: Widespread in open, grassy areas all over the island. Introduced from Victoria Identification: Large, black bird with massive bill, about 1901. Numbers increased greatly following short tail and white iris. Voice a slow and far- clearing. Now very common to abundant, carrying bass ‘karr…karr…karr’, final note sedentary breeding resident. Forms autumn–winter sometimes drawn out and descending. flocks of up to 60 birds. Habits: Singles, pairs, family groups. Forms small Special management: Australian magpie benefits to large winter flocks of up to 100 birds. farmers by controlling pasture pests such as Omnivorous. Forages on ground for invertebrates, cockchafer and corbie larvae and adults. Maintain reptiles and frogs. Scavenges on roadkill carcasses trees, especially eucalypt trees for roosting and of wallabies and other animals. nesting. Habitat: Farmland, wet and dry eucalypt forest, blackwood and paperbark swamp forest, King Black currawong Island scrub, coastal scrub and heath, saltmarsh, Strepera fuliginosa colei Plate 7.3 estuaries, beaches. Length: 47–49 cm. Builds large stick nest in eucalypts, paperbarks and tea-trees. Identification: Familiar large, black bird with massive, black bill; bright yellow eye and white Range and status: First recognised as a separate tips to wings and tail. species by CSIRO in 1970. Not recorded by McGarvie and Templeton in early 1970s. First Habits: Singles, pairs, winter flocks. Omnivorous recorded on King Island during the Field Atlas diet of fruit, insects, carrion and small vertebrates. (1977–81) of Australian Birds. Very common and Forages on beaches among seaweed and on widespread by end of 20th century. Breeding

117 confirmed in the Nook Swamp in 2000. Population Habits: Singles, pairs, small winter flocks. Walks, possibly expanding as result of wallaby carcasses. runs and wags tail up and down. Perches on rocks, Current status: Common breeding resident. tops of bushes, tussocks, fences. Fluttering song Special management: Monitor population size in flight in spring. Forages on ground for invertebrates. non-breeding and breeding seasons. Determine if Habitat: Open farmland, pastures, grasslands, forest raven is displacing black currawong from airstrip, golf course, roadsides, low coastal heath, breeding and foraging habitat. forest clearings. Nests on ground in shelter of tussocks or rocks. Corvus mellori Little raven Range and status: Widespread, particularly on west Length: 48–50 cm. half of island. Considered more common in early Identification: Slightly smaller than forest raven 1900 but increasing in early 1970s around Loorana. with less massive, more curved bill. Distinguished Fairly common to uncommon breeding resident. from forest raven by voice and wing-flicking Special management: Monitor distribution and behaviour. Voice a guttural baritone, rapid and abundance in breeding and non-breeding seasons clipped ‘ark-ark-ark-ark’ faster than forest raven. in relation to numbers and habitat of common Perched birds often accompany each note with skylark. Protect nesting habitat. upwards flick of both wings closed together (2). Habits: Sociable. Forms winter flocks. Roosts Tree martin communally. Omnivorous. Forages on ground for Hirundo nigrans invertebrates and scavenges on carcasses of dead Other names: Tree swallow, Australian tree animals. martin. Habitat: Open farmland and many vegetation Length: 12.5–14 cm. communities on the island. Semi-colonial breeder. Identification: Sexes alike. Small black and white Builds stick nest in tree-forks usually below 10 swallow with diagnostic deep buff forehead, white m high. Breeding not recorded on King Island. rump and short tail. Crown and upperbody glossy- Range and status: Identification positively black; underbody whitish with fine dark streaks on confirmed on King Island in 1970 from collected throat. specimens. Numbers fluctuate but more common in Other aerial insectivores: familiar welcome or winter. Autumn–winter flocks of 30–100 recorded in house swallow has longer, deeply forked tail; 1971–72 by McGarvie and Templeton at Reekara forehead, face and throat a deep rufous-tan and and Loorana. Not recorded in winter of 1997 by rump blue-black not white. Holdsworth. Possibly a common winter nomad from mainland Australia. Current status uncertain. White-throated needletail (spine-tailed swift) is a very fast, large, long-winged, black swift with Special management: Monitor distribution and white forehead, throat and undertail; and short, population size in non-breeding season. dark square tail. Richard’s pipit Habits: Erratic flight of small groups often over freshwater and around nearby large old eucalypts Anthus novaesellandiae Plate 8.33 and more isolated paddock eucalypts. Roost Other names: Groundlark, Australian pipit. sociably in trees. Perch on overhead wires. Length: 16–19 cm. Habitat: Open farmland, rivers and freshwater Identification: Pale brown groundlark. wetlands with large old eucalypts with tree-hollows. Diagnostic thin, black streak down side of buff Nests in tree-hollows but also on cliffs and in throat joins dark breast streaks. Fawn eyebrow; buildings. Nesting not recorded on King Island. outer tail edged white; long pinkish legs. Similar Range and status: Fairly common trans-Bass Strait species: Introduced common skylark distinguished migrant. Breeding not recorded. Some birds by crest on crown and no black throat streak. usually present in spring and summer. Over 30

118 birds recorded at Lake Martha Lavinia in insect-like ‘bzzt’ followed by explosive ‘wit-wit’ November–December 1972 were either breeding when perched or in flight. birds or non-breeding immatures. Current breeding Habits: Singles, pairs. Breeding males spiral high status unknown. and sing in air like a common skylark then plummet Special management: Monitor distribution and to the ground, often near nest. Males also sing from abundance during spring and autumn migration tops of bushes, reeds, rushes and grasses. and also during spring to determine if breeding Habitat: Wet, reedy margins of freshwater lagoons occurs. Identify and protect large, old eucalypts and swamps, river-flats with rushes, drainage with tree-hollows. ditches, low moist heath and regenerating, poorly drained land with rushes and reeds. Little grassbird Builds dome-shaped nest low in tussocks, Megalurus gramineus Plate 8.6 rushes and shrubs. Length: 13–15 cm. Range and status: Considered common in 1960s Identification: A cryptic, small brown bird of reeds in Loorana and Egg Lagoon in north and central and rushes of wetlands. Sexes alike. Crown and north of island. Locally fairly common in Sea upperbody brown with black streaks; eyebrow pale; Elephant River estuary in 1997. Current status underbody greyish with fine black streaks; long, naturally rare in Tasmania. Breeding resident on pointed tail. Distinct three-note song ‘pe-pee-peeee’. King Island but not on Tasmanian mainland. Habits: Singles, pairs, small parties. Skulks in Special management: Monitor distribution and dense wetland vegetation. More conspicuous in density of breeding males and females in summer. spring. Difficult to see in autumn–winter. Identify and protect breeding habitat from Habitat: Freshwater wetlands, swamps, drainage clearance and wildfire. ditches and damp regenerating cleared land with dense reeds and rushes. Silvereye Nests low in shrubs, reeds, grasses and rushes. Zosterops lateralis lateralis Plate 8.34 Range and status: Recorded at Grassy and Porky Length: 10–12.5 cm. Creek in 1960s and 1970s. Recorded in Nook Identification: Small grey and olive-green bird Swamp in very small numbers in 1971. Possibly a with diagnostic white eye-ring. Upper body olive- very rare breeding resident. Current status and green with grey back. Throat and breast grey with distribution uncertain. flanks rich chestnut-buff; undertail whitish. Special management: Monitor distribution and Habits: Singles, pairs, small to large flocks. Forages abundance. Estimate population size in spring from for invertebrates in foliage during breeding season. singing males. Protect wetland habitat. Feeds on fruit, particularly in late summer–autumn. Disperses in autumn. Migrates to mainland Golden-headed cisticola Australia in autumn. Cisticola exilis Habitat: Wet and dry eucalypt forest with Other names: Golden-headed fantail warbler, understorey shrubs, paperbark and blackwood tailorbird. swamp forest, coastal heath and scrub, King Island Length: 9–11.5 cm. scrub, rural and urban parks, gardens and orchards. Identification: Small brown, cryptic bird of Nests in dense foliage of understorey shrubs marshy vegetation. Sexes differ in breeding season. and small trees. Breeding male: head, nape, breast and sides of Range and status: Widespread. Common underbody rich golden buff; back and wings buff breeding trans-Bass Strait migrant. with heavy black streaks; belly whitish. Female and non-breeding male: less golden; crown buff-brown with fine black streaks. Voice: breeding males utter

119 Bassian thrush Sings a beautiful flutelike song particularly at dawn Zoothera lunulata Plate 8.13 and dusk in spring. Other names: Ground, scaly or White’s thrush. Habitat: Favours tall paperbark swamp forest and wet and dry eucalypt forests with lots of leaf litter, Length: 26–29 cm. logs and fallen branches on the ground. Identification: Only Tasmanian native thrush. Nests in forks of small understorey trees, tree- Sexes alike. Olive-brown to coppery-brown cavities, stumps and crowns of tree ferns. upperbody; whitish underbody with black scallop Range and status: Widespread. Uncommon markings. Similar species: juvenile common breeding resident. blackbird, an introduced thrush, is browner with dark brown mottling. Special management: Protect all remaining paperbark swamp forest and eucalypt forest, Habits: Singles, pairs. Forages in ground litter and particularly mature and old growth forest. jabs bill in soil for worms and other invertebrates.

Mammals

Abbreviations: Head and body (HB), Tail (T), echidna has more fur and less spines than those on Weight (Wt). mainland Australia. Habits: Forages on the ground and digs in soil and Platypus among logs. Extracts ants and other soil inverte- Ornithorhynchus anatinus Plate 5.15 brates with sticky tongue. Burrows beneath soil Size: HB 400–450 mm. T 100–150 mm. Wt 2.5 kg. when disturbed. Description: Naked blue-grey snout like duck’s Habitat: Eucalypt forests and woodlands and tea- bill, broad tail, webbed feet. Upperbody grey- tree scrub, especially those on sandy soils. brown fur. Range and status: Considered common in late Habits: Swims low in water. Dives and forages for 1980s. Probably fairly widespread and uncommon, aquatic invertebrates. Very active in early morning but current status needs to be determined on new and evening. Shelters in burrow in bank of stream. surveys. Habitat: Freshwater streams and rivers. Special management: Record sightings and map distribution. Range and status: Fairly widespread in rivers flowing to east and south. Uncommon. Tasmanian platypus is genetically distinct from those on the Swamp antechinus Tasmanian mainland and are more closely related Antechinus minimus minimus Plate 5.18 to those in adjacent Victoria. Size: HB 120 mm. T 80 mm. Wt 55 g. Special management: Record sightings and map Description: Upperbody fur grizzled brown with distribution. Monitor stream health and protect distinct rufous tinge on rump, flanks and hind legs. riparian vegetation. Underbody paler, greyish-yellow or buff. Pointed snout. Ears short and broad. Tail 70% of HB. Six Short-beaked echidna teats like swamp antechinus in Tasmania. Tachyglossus aculeatus Plate 5.16 Habits: Active at dawn and dusk. Moves fast along Other name: Echidna or spiny ant-eater. runways. Forages for insects, spiders, earthworms Size: HB 400 mm. Wt 3–4 kg. and other invertebrates. Builds nest of grass and sedges in tussocks. Males die off after mating in Description: Strong, sharp spines cover back, tail autumn. and dark brown fur. Long snout is tubular and naked. Short legs with long claws. The Tasmanian

120 Habitat: Edges and interior of wet scrub and Eastern pygmy possum forest, paperbark and blackwood swamp forest Cercartetus nanus Plate 5.19 and wet sedgeland and heath. Size: HB 90 mm. T 90 mm. Wt 30 g. Range and status: Recorded from Pegarah State Description: Upperbody fawn-grey. Underbody Forest and near Naracoopa and Reekara. Rarely paler greyish-buff to white. Tail prehensile with reported, possibly uncommon but easily sparse brown fur, often swollen at base. Ears large overlooked. and oval. Nose and feet pinkish. Special management: Conduct small mammal Habits: Arboreal. Forages in eucalypts and surveys to determine distribution, habitat and Banksia for mainly pollen and nectar but also abundance. Vulnerable to predation by domestic insects, spiders and fruit. Builds nest of shredded and feral cats, so eradicate feral cats and foster bark and leaves in tree hollows, cracks in branches responsible cat ownership. and in sheds. Inactive and torpid for days and weeks in cold weather and in winter. Common ringtail possum Habitat: Wet scrub, King Island scrub and coastal Pseudocheirus peregrinus Plate 5.20 heath and scrub. Size: HB 330 mm. T 330 mm. Wt 900 g. Range and status: One record from Egg Lagoon. Description: Upperbody fur grizzled grey-brown Possibly uncommon to rare but status unknown. with rufous tinge to limbs and flanks. Underbody Special management: Conduct mammal surveys and patch behind ears white. Prehensile (able to to determine distribution, habitat and abundance. curve and grip), long tapered tail with lower one- Protect trees with hollows and foraging habitat. third tipped white. Habits: Nocturnal and arboreal. Forages in canopy Long-nosed potoroo and understorey and feeds on leaves, especially Potorous tridactylus Plate 5.21 eucalypts, flowers and fruit. Builds nest or drey of Other name: Rat kangaroo. bark, leaves and twigs in densely foliaged shrubs and trees. Voice is a high-pitched twittering. Size: HB 360 mm. T 230 mm. Wt 1.3 kg. Habitat: Eucalypt forests and woodlands, Description: Head and upperbody grizzled dark paperbark swamp forest, wet tea-tree scrub. brown. Paler underbody. Elongated snout. Tail short often with white tip. Short rounded ears. Range and status: Considered uncommon by Claw on middle digit of forefoot longer than claws Green in 1960s. Probably still uncommon. on outer digits. Smaller and browner than Special management: Protect habitat. Control Tasmanian potoroos. feral cats. Determine impact of 1080 on ringtail Habits: Hops through scrub along runways. Digs possum. for invertebrates, fungi, roots and tubers in soil. Common brushtail possum Conical diggings larger than those of bandicoots. Builds nest of grasses in dense cover. Carries Trichosurus vulpecula material in coiled tail. Size: HB 450 mm. T 300 mm. Wt 3.5 kg. Habitat: Forest and woodland, wet scrub, King Description: Very familiar possum with thick, soft, Island scrub and coastal heath with dense grey-brown fur and a bushy tail. understorey of tea-tree, shrubs and ground layer Habits: Eats mostly leaves but also flowers, fruits vegetation. and bird’s eggs and young. Mostly forages on the Range and status: Probably more widespread. ground. Roosts in hollows, buildings and in crown Range contracting. Seen in recent years in north, of tree ferns. south and south-east. Population probably Habitat: Eucalypt forests and woodlands, swamp declining and now uncommon to rare. forests, scrub and heath. Special management: Conduct mammal survey. Range and status: Widespread and very common. Probably threatened by cats and 1080 poison.

121 Red-necked wallaby Range and status: One record of a female Macropus rufogriseus Plate 5.22 collected in 1964. Status unknown. Other name: Bennett’s wallaby. Special management: Conduct surveys of bats. Size: HB 800 mm. T 750 mm. Wt 16 kg. Gould’s wattled bat Description: Thick dark grey fur above and paler Chalinolobus gouldii Plate 5.17 below. Reddish-brown neck. Size: HB 65–75 mm. T 40–50 mm. Forearm Habits: Feeds on grasses and herbs. 44.0–48.7 mm. Wt 12.2–17.8 g. Habitat: Pastures and grasslands with nearby Description: Dark brown fur with blackish head forest, woodland scrub and heath. and shoulders. Ears short and rounded. Fleshy Range and status: Widespread and abundant. lobes (wattle) at base of ear and on lower lip near corner of mouth. Tasmanian pademelon Habits: Roosts and hibernates in tree-hollows and Thylogale billardierii in buildings. Fast direct flight. Forages for insects, Other name: Rufous wallaby. especially beetles and moths, generally in upper Size: HB 600 mm. T 410 mm. Wt 7 kg. forest understorey and canopy and above. Description: Upperbody fur dark brown to grey- Habitat: Edges and interior of forests and brown. Underbody yellow-brown. woodlands. Habits: Shelters in dense understorey vegetation Range and status: One record near Currie. Status during the day. Forages on grasses, herbs and unknown. shrubs at night. Special management: Conduct surveys of bats. Habitat: Pastures and regenerating cleared land with nearby forest, woodland, scrub and heath Swamp rat with dense ground layer vegetation. Rattus lutreolus velutinus Plate 5.23 Range and status: Widespread and very common. Size: HB 160 mm. T 110 mm. Wt 120 g. Description: Upperbody soft, thick, dark grey- Lesser long-eared bat brown fur with paler underbody. Tail dark grey Nyctophilus geoffroyi pacificus and scaly. Distinguished from introduced black rat Size: HB 50 mm. T 43 mm. Forearm 36.5–42.6 mm. by shorter tail than HB and plumper head and Wt 6.8–12.2 g. body. Description: Upperbody fur light grey-brown with Habits: Mainly nocturnal. Makes well-defined paler underbody. Ears long and joined across runways and shallow burrows in dense grass and forehead by flap of skin. Nose leaf well-developed. sedges. Feeds on stems of grasses and sedges, Habits: Roosts during the day in tree-hollows and fungi and insects. Constructs nest in burrows and cracks, under bark and in buildings. Hibernates grasses. from late autumn-early spring. Forages for insects, Habitat: Wet sedgeland, rank grass, margins of especially moths, on warm nights from late spring wetlands and sedgy-grassy gullies of wet forest, to late autumn. Most active soon after sunset and heath and swamp forest. before sunrise. Flies slow and often forages low to Range and status: Probably widespread and fairly the ground. common. Habitat: Edges and interior of forests and Special management: Conduct small mammal woodlands. surveys.

122 References (7) Menkhorst, P. & Knight, F. (2001). A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia. Oxford University Press, Identification and biology of freshwater Melbourne. fish (8) Taylor, R.J. (1991). Fauna Conservation in (1) Allen, G.R., Midgley, S.H. & Allen M. (2002). Field Production Forests in Tasmania. Forestry Guide to the Freshwater Fishes of Australia. CSIRO Commission Tasmania, Hobart. Publishing, Victoria. (9) Taylor, R.J., O’Neill, M.G. & Reardon, T. (1987). (2) Fulton, W. (1990). Tasmanian Freshwater Fishes. Tasmanian bats: Identification, distribution and Fauna of Tasmania Handbook No. 7. University of natural history. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Tasmania, Hobart. Society of Tasmania 121, 109–119. (3) McDowall, R.M. (1996). Freshwater Fishes of South- (10) Watts, D. (1987). Tasmanian Mammals. A Field eastern Australia. Reed Books, Chatswood, New Guide. Tasmanian Conservation Trust, Hobart. South Wales. Taxonomy, identification, biology and Identification and biology of frogs conservation of birds and reptiles (1) Christidis, L. & Boles, W.E. (1994). The Taxonomy (1) Cogger, H.G. (2000). Reptiles and Amphibians of and Species of Birds of Australia and its Territories. Australia (6th edition.) Reed Books, Sydney. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union Monograph (2) Donaghey, R. (2000). Where have all the frogs gone? 2. RAOU. Tasmanian Land for Wildlife Newsletter 2, 3–5. (2) Debus, S. (1995). Bird Identification. Crows and (3) Ehmann, H. (1992). Encyclopedia of Australian ravens. Wingspan 5 (4), 38–42. Animals: Reptiles series. Angus and Robertson, (3) Garnett, S.T. & Crowley, G.M. (2000). The Action Australia. Plan for Australian Birds 2000. Environment (4) Hutchinson, M., Swain, R. & Driessen, M. (2001). Australia, Canberra. Snakes and Lizards of Tasmania. Fauna of (4) Green, R.H. & McGarvie, A.M. (1971). The birds of Tasmania Handbook No. 9. University of Tasmania, King Island. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum Hobart. 40, 1–42. (5) Martin, A.A & Littlejohn, M.J. (1982). Tasmanian (5) Higgins, P. (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Amphibians. Fauna of Tasmania Handbook No. 6. Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4: Parrots to University of Tasmania, Hobart. Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. (6) Higgins, P.J. & Savies, S.J.J.F. (1996). Handbook of Cassette tape Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. • Nagorcka, R. (1996). Frogs – Tasmania. Natural Volume 3: Snipe to Pigeons. Oxford University Press, History and Calls of Tasmanian Frogs. Deloraine Melbourne. Field Naturalists Group, Deloraine. (7) Higgins, P.J., Peter, J.M. & Steele, W.K. (2001). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Identification, biology and conservation Antarctic Birds. Volume 5: Tyrant-flycatchers to of mammals Chats. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. (8) Higgins, P.J. & Peter, J.M. (2002). Handbook of (1) Churchill, S. (1998). Australian Bats. New Holland Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Publishers, Sydney. Volume 6: Pardalotes to Shrike-thrushes. Oxford (2) Green, R.H. (1973). The Mammals of Tasmania. University Press, Melbourne. Mary Fisher Bookshop, Launceston. (9) Marchant, S. & Higgins, P.J. (1993). Handbook of (3) Green, R.H. & McGarvie, A. M. (1971). The birds of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. King Island. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum Volume 2: Raptors to Lapwings. Oxford University 40, 1–42. Press, Melbourne. (4) Green, R.H. (1974) Mammals. In W.D. Williams (10) Marchant, S. & Higgins, P.J. (1990). Handbook of (ed). Biogeography and Ecology in Tasmania. (pp. Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. 367–96). Dr W. Junk, The Hague. Volume 1: Ratites to Ducks. Oxford University Press, (5) Hope, J.H. (1965). Mammals of the Bass Strait Melbourne. Islands. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria (11) McGarvie, A.M. & Templeton, M.T. (1974). 79, 163–195. Additions to the birds of King Island, Bass Strait. (6) Hyett, J. & Shaw, N. (1980). Australian Mammals. Emu 74, 91–96. A field guide for New South Wales, South Australia, (12) Pizzey, G. (1997). The Graham Pizzey and Frank Victoria and Tasmania. Nelson, Melbourne. Knight Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. HarperCollins Publishers, Australia.

123 (13) Skira, I.J. & Davis, G. (1987). The short-tailed CDs shearwater colonies of King Island. Tasmanian •Nagorcka, R. (1996). Secret Places. Track 4. Life on Naturalist 90, 1–5. Black Sugarloaf. (Sounds of birds, frogs and (14) Watts, D. (2002). Field Guide to Tasmanian Birds. mammals). Second edition. New Holland Publishers, Sydney. • Stewart, D. (2001). Australian Bird Calls. Tasmania. Nature Sound. Mullumbimby, NSW.

124 Rare King Island land birds

Plate 8.1 Plate 8.2 Common bronzewing Phaps chalcoptera Pink robin (male) Petroica rodinogaster Trevor Waite Jim Napier

Plate 8.3 Plate 8.4 Tawny-crowned honeyeater Phylidonyris melanops Pink robin (female) Petroica rodinogaster Trevor Waite Jim Napier

Plate 8.5 Plate 8.6 Eastern spinebill Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris Little grassbird Megalurus gramineus Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

P15 Plate 8.7 Satin flycatcher (female) Myiagra cyanoleuca Trevor Waite

Plate 8.8 Satin flycatcher (male) Myiagra cyanoleuca Trevor Waite Uncommon King Island land birds

Plate 8.9 Plate 8.10 Brown goshawk (immature) Accipter fasciatus Black-faced cuckoo-shrike Coracina novaehollandiae Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

Plate 8.11 Plate 8.12 Fan-tailed cuckoo Cacomantis flabelliformis Dusky woodswallow Artamus cyanopterus Bill Wakefield Trevor Waite

P16 Plate 8.13 Bassian thrush Zoothera lunulata Trevor Waite

Plate 8.14 Blue-winged parrot Neophema chrysotoma Trevor Waite Common King Island land birds

Plate 8.15 Plate 8.16 White-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster Brown falcon Falco berigora Bill Wakefield Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.17 Plate 8.18 Swamp harrier Circus approximans Brush bronzewing Phaps elegans Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

P17 Plate 8.19 Plate 8.20 Shining bronze-cuckoo Chrysococcyx lucidus New Holland honeyeater Phylidonyris novaehollandiae Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

Plate 8.21 Plate 8.22 Superb fairy-wren (male) Superb fairy-wren (female) Malurus cyaneus Malurus cyaneus Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

Plate 8.23 Plate 8.24 Crescent honeyeater (female) Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera Crescent honeyeater (male) Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

P18 Plate 8.25 Plate 8.26 White-fronted chat (male) Epthianura albifrons White-fronted chat (female) Epthianura albifrons Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

Plate 8.27 Plate 8.28 Olive whistler Pachycephala olivacea Grey shrike-thrush Colluricincla harmonica Trevor Waite Trevor Waite

Plate 8.30 Golden whistler (female) Pachycephala pectoralis Trevor Waite Plate 8.29 Golden whistler (male) Pachycephala pectoralis Trevor Waite

P19 Plate 8.31 Plate 8.32 Grey fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa Australian magpie Gymnorhina tibicen Trevor Waite Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.33 Richard’s pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae Trevor Waite Plate 8.34 Silvereye Zosterops lateralis Trevor Waite Shorebirds, gulls and terns

Plate 8.35 Plate 8.36 Black-faced cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscescens Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica Bill Wakefield Bill Wakefield

P20 Plate 8.38 Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres Dave Watts Plate 8.37 Common greenshank Tringa nebularia Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.39 Pied oystercatcher Haematopus longirostris Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.40 Red-necked stint Calidris ruficollis Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.41 Red-capped plover Charadrius ruficapillus

Plate 8.42 Plate 8.43 Sooty oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus Hooded plover Thinornis rubricollis Dave Watts Trevor Waite

P21 Plate 8.45 Pacific gull Larus pacificus Bill Wakefield Plate 8.44 Banded lapwing Vanellus tricolor Trevor Waite

Plate 8.46 Caspian tern Sterna caspia Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.47 Fairy tern Sterna nereis Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.48 Double-banded plover Charadrius bicinctus (breeding plumage) Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.49 Plate 8.50 Black-fronted plover Elseyornis melanops Masked lapwing Vanellus miles Bill Wakefield Trevor Waite

P22 Waterbirds of King Island

Plate 8.51 Blue-billed duck Oxyura australis Bill Wakefield Plate 8.52 White-faced heron Egretta novaehollandiae Trevor Waite

Plate 8.53 Australian shelduck Tadorna tadornoides Bill Wakefield Plate 8.54 Spotless crake Porzana tabuensis Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.55 Dusky moorhen Gallinula tenebrosa Plate 8.56 Bill Wakefield Lewin’s rail Rallus pectoralis Bill Wakefield

Plate 8.57 Plate 8.58 Hoary-headed grebe Brown quail Coturnix ypsilophora Poliocephalus poliocephalus Trevor Waite P23 Bill Wakefield