LIVELIHOODS AND ENVIRONMENT IN SOUTHERN THAI MARITIME VILLAGES BY OLLI-PEKKA RUOHOMAKI Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of PhD in the Department of Anthropology and Sociology, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 1997 ProQuest Number: 10672664 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672664 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 2 ABSTRACT This thesis explores the diversification of local livelihood structure and the political economy of resource use in two maritime communities in Krabi, Southern Thailand. The thesis is divided into four parts as follows: Part I (i.e. Chapter 2) examines the political economy of resource use in the Andaman Sea region. The objective of Part I is to place the research sites in a larger political-economic framework and to delineate the main problems that are found in this region. Part II focuses on the research sites. After setting the geographical and historical contexts, the economic organisation of the communities are unravelled in chapter 3. Chapter 4 examines the village household and gender issues with case studies to illustrate the points made. Part III (i.e. Chapter 5) examines at length the sources and patterns of livelihood in the research sites. The various economic activities that villagers engage in are explored in detail and case studies are used to illustrate the arguments made. Part IV consists of chapters 6 and 7. The objective of these two chapters is to reflect on the dilemmas villagers face in confronting change and their responses. Chapter 6 outlines the collective meso-level responses of fishing communities against the conflicts over local resources examined in Part I. In addition, the role of external agencies, namely Thai non­ governmental organisations, in these collective meso-level responses of local fishing communities is considered. Chapter 7 considers the position of contemporary maritime villagers in the modern capitalist world-economy. Chapter 8 concludes the thesis by summarising the main points made and by reflecting on the relationship between livelihoods and the environment in Krabi. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis, could not have been written without the help, hospitality and insights of many people. I and my wife Katja arrived in Krabi in July 1993 after a 14 hour train trip to Trang from where we had to endure a long and slow bus trip on muddy country roads to Krabi town. In Krabi I met khun Ovat Ukris and his brother khun Vinai Ukris, who put us in touch with a number of people who proved helpful throughout our stay in Krabi. Very special thanks go to khun Preecha and khun Paradee Poolphokpol who in so many ways made our stay in Krabi a pleasurable experience. They not only employed my wife Katja in their tourist establishment', but put me into contact with khun Chongrak, the leader of the local Thai NGO working with fishermen in the region. Khun Chongrak together with his friends phi Suwit and Viroot helped me understand the environmental problems in the region. Then there is acharn Klin Khongmuangphet from Krabi Physical Education College, who provided numerous and valuable insights into local language, history and culture. Then there are the numerous people of Ban Laem Pho and Ban Ko Kwang whose meals I shared and whose time I encroached on. They are too numerous to name, nonetheless I wish extend my gratitude to the families of Hajj Yi, village head Kasem, Pong and Man from Ban Ko Kwang and Sen, Ibrahim and Hem from Ban Laem Pho for their special hospitality. To Lat, the curer and 'time-machine' from Ban Laem Pho I owe special thanks. With him I sat hour upon hour talking about 'everything under the sky'. There is no way I can ever repay the kindness of the villagers, who were sympathetic to my attempts to understand their way of life. I only hope that I have conveyed a fair and balanced account of their lives. The writing of the thesis would not have been possible without the guidance, criticisms and advice of my supervisor Dr Andrew Turton. He encouraged me to follow my own interests, while at the same time guiding me in the right direction. I am also grateful to Dr Johan Pottier, Dr R.L. Stirrat and Dr Dolores Martinez for advice and criticisms. I wish also to express gratitude to my teachers at the Department of Anthropology, University of Helsinki who taught a lot about anthropology to me in my undergraduate days. Professor Jukka Siikala deserves special thanks for encouragement. The research would not have been possible without a studentship from the Finnish Academy. Additional funds for the fieldwork in Thailand were granted by the Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, Central Research Fund of the University of London and the School of Oriental and African Studies. I am grateful to the National Research Council of Thailand for granting me permission to carry out fieldwork in Krabi. Special thanks for Kimmo Leino for helping me solve computer problems. I am grateful to Russell Peterson for proof-reading the text. Katja's contribution has been the most valuable of all. She shared the joys and frustrations of fieldwork and writing up process. I thank her for her constant support. 5 CONTENTS ABSTRACT 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 MAPS 7 TABLES 7 APPENDICES 7 1* INTRODUCTION 8 1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS 10 1.2 POSITIONS 10 1.3 WHY STUDY SOUTHERN THAI MARITIME VILLAGES? 22 1.4 FIELDWORK METHODOLOGY 23 1.5 ORGANISATION OF THESIS 27 PART I THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF RESOURCE USE IN THE ANDAMAN SEA REGION OF SOUTHERN THAILAND 29 2. INDUSTRIAL FISHING, COMMODITISATION OF MANGROVES AND NON-MARITIME SEABOARD DEVELOPMENTS 30 2.1 CONFLICT OVER FISH 30 2.1.1 LARGE-SCALE VERSUS SMALL-SCALE FISHING SECTORS 30 2.1.2 STATE POLICIES ON FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT 35 2.1.3 THE PROBLEM OF THE SEA AS COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCE 40 2.2 CONFLICT OVER MANGROVES 42 2.2.1 THE CASE OF CHARCOAL INDUSTRY 43 2.2.2 THE CASE OF 'LAND DEVELOPMENT' 44 2.2.3 THE CASE OF THE MANGROVE 'REFORESTATION' PROJECT 45 2.2.4 THE CASE OF AQUABUSINESS 49 2.3 TOURISM 52 2.4 SOUTHERN SEABOARD DEVELOPMENT PROJECT 53 PART II THE PLACE AND PEOPLE 59 3. THE RESEARCH SITES 59 3.1 THE SETTING 59 3.1.1 BAN LAEM PHO AND BAN KO KWANG 66 3.1.2 ECONONOMIC ORGANISATION OF THE COMMUNITIES 70 3.2 LOCAL HISTORY 72 3.2.1 DEBRIS OF AN ANCIENT CIVILISATION 72 3.2.2 SKETCHES OF PHANGNGA BAY IN THE PAST 76 3.2.3 FROM A FISHING ECONOMY TO A DIVERSIFIED ECONOMY 84 6 4. HOUSEHOLD, GENDER AND THE SOCIAL WORLD OF THE VILLAGE 96 4.1 THE SOUTHERN THAI MUSLIM HOUSEHOLD 97 4.1.1 THE HOUSEHOLD DEFINED 97 4.1.2 THE SOUTHERN THAI MUSLIM HOUSEHOLD 100 4.2 HOUSEHOLD PROFILES 102 4.3 MEN'S WORLD, WOMEN'S WORLD 121 4.4 CEREMONIAL AND SOCIAL NETWORKS 127 4.5 THAI MUSLIMS IN THAI SOCIETY 130 PART III SOURCES AND PATTERNS OP LIVELIHOOD 139 5. MAKING A LIVING 139 5.1 SMALL-SCALE FISHERMEN 140 5.1.1 LOCAL MARINE ENVIRONMENT 140 5.1.2 FISHING PRACTICES AND TYPES OF CATCH 143 5.1.3 FISHING RIGHTS 154 5.1.4 PATTERNS OF OWNERSHIP AND PRODUCTION 158 5.1.4.1 ACCESS TO FACTORS OF PRODUCTION 158 5.1.4.2 CREW AND LABOUR 165 5.1.5 DISTRIBUTION AND REDISTRIBUTION OF CATCH 169 5.2 PETTY TRADERS, TOUR BOAT OPERATORS AND TOURIST ESTABLISHMENT WORKERS 174 5.2.1 PETTY TRADERS 174 5.2.2 TOUR BOAT OPERATORS 178 5.2.3 TOURIST ESTABLISHMENT WORKERS 180 5.3 AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL WORKERS 184 5.3.1 RUBBER TAPPERS 184 5.3.2 GYPSUM PIER WORKERS 186 5.3.3 OTHER CASUAL LABOURERS 189 5.4 LAND OWNERS 191 5.5 A MIXED ECONOMY 197 5.5.1 THE DEMISE OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERMEN? 197 5.5.2 SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION 203 PART IV NEGOTIATING THE WINDS OF CHANGE 206 6. RESPONSES TO RESOURCE CONFLICT 207 6.1 ENVIRONMENTALISTS AND FISHERMEN 208 6.2 BAN LAEM SAK SEMINAR AND THE FORMATION OF THE ASSOCIATION OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERMEN OF SOUTHERN THAILAND 214 6.3 SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE USE THROUGH EMPOWERMENT 222 7. THE SOUTHERN THAI MARITIME SOCIETY IN THE WORLD-ECONOMY 228 7.1 THE COMMODITISATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT 228 7.2 FROM BEING 'IN BETWEEN' TO BEING 'DEVELOPED' 238 8. CONCLUSIONS 244 APPENDICES 251 GLOSSARY 280 REFERENCES 285 7 MAPS 1 Phangnga Bay TABLES 1 Changes in the Mangrove Forest Area in Thailand (1975-1989) 43 2 Main Sources of Household Income (Thai Baht) in Ban Laem Pho and Ban Ko Kwang 70 3 Folk Taxonomy of Pomfrets 89 4 Socio-demographic Profile of Household Heads in Ban Laem Pho and Ban Ko Kwang 102 5 Socio-demographic Profile of Family Size and Working Members of Fishing Households in Ban Laem Pho and Ban Ko Kwang 104 6 Annual Household Income in Ban Laem Pho and Ban Ko Kwang 106 7 Most Common Mangrove Species Found in Phangnga Bay 141 8 Seasonal Fishing Patterns 145 9 Capital and Labour Costs per Trip for Gill Net Fishermen 159 10 Summary of Variables Involved in the Conflicts Over Local Resources 222 APPENDICES 1 Contemporary Fishing Technology 251 2 The Fifteen Most Common Species of Fish Caught in Phangnga Bay with Data on English Name, Scientific Name, Local Thai Name, Size, Predominant Method of Catching, Availability and Habitat 262 3 Common Molluscs and Crustaceans Caught in Phangnga Bay with Data on English Name, Scientific Name, Local Thai Name and Size 263 4 The Most Common Species of Coral Fish Sold as Aquarium Fish 264 5 Cycles and Rhythms of Nature 265 6 Production Data on Rice, Rubber and Oil Palm Cultivation 273 7 Household Census Questions 275 8 1.