DOCSLIB.ORG

India's Maritime Heritage Was Not Written by Any One Man

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
India's Maritime Heritage Was Not Written by Any One Man INDIA’S MARITIME HERITAGE As a peninsular sub continent, with over 10000 km coast line, nature ordained India to be a Maritime Nation from post ice age about 10000 B.C. There is cogent evidence that Indian ships dominated the vast ocean around our peninsula from over 4000 years B.C till 17th Century A.D. This was reason enough for the ocean around it to be known as Indian Ocean, the only ocean in the world named after a country. Discovered as a mound in 1954 A.D, the Lothal site was extensively excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India from 1955 to 1961. Their findings consist of the township of Lothal and its market place. Lothal was one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. The techniques and tools pioneered in Lothal, in metallurgy, for making beads, and cutting gems to make valuable ornaments, have stood the test of time for over 4000 years. Archeologists also found a burnt brick basin built during the Indus Valley Civilization in about 2400 B.C, which is the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships. It connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh plus the peninsula of Saurashtra, when the surrounding Kutch desert of today, was part of the Arabian Sea. The dock was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. Archaeologists also unearthed trenches sunk on the northern, eastern and western flanks of the mound, bringing to light the inlet channels connecting the dock with the river. Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans possessed great knowledge relating to tides, hydrography and maritime engineering in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati. Their engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 meters, and east-west arms of 37 meters. Original height of embankments was 4.26 meters. Main inlet is 12.8 meters wide, and another is provided on the opposite side. To counter the thrust of water, offsets were provided on the outer wall faces. When the river changed its course in about 2000 B.C. a smaller inlet, 7 meters wide, was made in the longer arm, connected to the river by a 2 kilometer channel. At high tide a flow of 2.1–2.4 meters of water would have allowed ships to enter. As the Gulf of Khumbhat has the highest tidal amplitude, ships could be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary. Provision was made for escape of excess water through the outlet channel, 96.5 meters wide and 1.7 meters high in the southern arm. A wooden door could be lowered at the mouth of the outlet to retain a minimum column of water in the basin, to ensure floatation of ships at low tides. Size of country craft that still sail the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal today, could be regularly docked at Lothal. Since walls of this dock are of kiln-burnt bricks, Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures. Considering that the princess dock in Bombay, which was completed in July 1735 A.D, used more or less the same technology as Lothal and is still in use today, it means over 4400 years between Lothal and this Dock which offers tangible evidence of Indian Maritime skills. Attached is a recreated picture of this dock and the area around it. Attached also, is picture of a sketch of stern of a wrecked ship made of Kerala teak, found in this dock at Lothal in 1961. Indus Valley Civilization did not know Iron. Therefore Indian Ships were usually made of Kerala Teak, stitched together with coir yarn usually dipped in fish oil. Some were square rigged on two masts with raked stem and stern. It should be noted that these crafts did not have a rudder as we know it. They were steered with two large oars one on each quarter. Advantage was that the ship could be steered even when totally becalmed and NOT making any way through the water. There are also numerous allusions in the Rig Veda, about „Sataritara‟ or galley with hundred oars. It describes several commercial sea voyages and uses „Samudra‟ in classical Sanskrit for „Oceans‟. It has also been established that the ancient city of Dwarka, now submerged in the sea, was the gateway of Indian ships to the west from about 1500 to 1000 BC to trade with Syria and Cyprus. Archeological research India‟s Maritime Heritage 1 on the submerged Dwarka has found incontrovertible evidence of iron implements' sea anchors in triangular and rectangular shapes and rock drilled posts to tie ocean going ships. Excavations in Uttar Pradesh have found artifacts, furnaces and slag in layers of radiocarbon, dated 1,800-1,000.B.C. Therefore Use of Iron has now been established in India from about 1800 B.C. But it has not yet been established how these shipwrights were able to drill so many holes in such a hard wood as Teak, with such precision to tie the planks together and make them watertight, as early as 2400 B.C. Ships from Lothal, traded to China in the Far East and to both coasts of Africa. Trade up to Babylon and Mediterranean areas was carried out over the sea and land route through the Red Sea and Persian Gulf in the west. Lothal's scientists used a shell compass and divided the horizon and sky into 8–12 whole parts, 2000 years before the Greeks. Ancient Indians knew eastern shores of the Indian Ocean well, including Burma Thailand, Cambodia, Indo China and Malaysia, as "Suvarnabhumi," land of Gold, and the Indonesian Islands as "Suvarna-dvipa," the Islands of Gold. Hence Indian colonization of this region, through ancient ports such as Tamaralipti, Mahabalipuram (Tamluk) Palura near Gopalpur on the Eastern seaboard, and Broach, Debal and Orhet on the western shore. This way Southeast Asian countries became a part of the Indian ethos and readily and comprehensively embraced Hinduism and Buddhism. This was mainly because colonization was not achieved by Indians through military expeditions but through peaceful means including shipping and trade, which proved more permanent. Rulers along the coasts of the Indian ocean, usually used peaceful means to help their port cities prosper. They provided facilities, opportunities, infrastructure and fair treatment to visiting merchants for trade. Evidence that this continued for centuries is sculpted at Angkor Wat in Vietnam, Borobuddur and the Param Brahman Temple in Java Indonesia. More such sculptures of 7th/8th Centuries A.D, can be seen at Mahabalipuram. Regular sea trade in Ivory, Lapiz Lazuly, gold, pearls, shell and bone inlay, also flourished between India and Mesopotamia in about 2350 B.C. There is Archeological evidence of the use of Indigo on the clothes of Egyptian Mummies. Homer mentions Indian Ivory and several other Indian articles including Indigo, being regularly traded between India and Greece in 8th /9th Centuries B.C. Homer knew tin only by its Sanskrit name. Indian Cedar was found used in the Palace of Nebuchandzzar 604 – 560 B. C. Two rough logs of Indian teak were found in the temple of the Moon God in Ur, 550/538 B.C. Most valuable Indian export was silk, exchanged against gold during the Persian Empire. Greeks used to wear Silken robes for prestige and luxury. These were known as Tyrian Robes. All this shows continuity of Indian sea trade and relations with the west. Pharoah Nechos of Egypt built a canal in about 650 B.C. through Wadi Tumelat area. It was a navigable canal and connected the Mediterranean with the Red Sea, through the Nile River and Bitter lakes. This changed the pattern of Indian trade from the original sea and land route to the Mediterranean cities into a direct sea route, because Indian ships could now sail into the Mediterranean from the red sea, through this canal. Romans extended this canal and renamed it Trajans canal. It was deliberately filled by Abbasid Caliphs in 775 A.D for political reasons. Arthasastra of Kautilya and writings of Meghasthenes of Greece evidence that during Mauryan rule, from 321 B.C, a Navadhyaksha, (Superintendent of Shipping) looked after shipping administration. State encouraged shipwrights to build ships and granted them tax relief. Emperor Ashoka (265-238 BC), had direct contact by ship via the then existing ship canal through Egypt, with Ptolemy who founded Alexandria. Plini the elder wrote in 69-70 A.D, that as many as 125 Indian Ships usually lay in the ports of Egypt, Cyria and Rome, supplying Indian products to the Ptolemies and adds “there was no year in which Indians did not drain Roman empire of 100 Million Sesterces. Ashoka also sent Prince Mahendra to Sri Lanka, by ship, to spread Buddhism. A Sanskrit source "Yukti Kalpataru" classifies and describes ships of various sizes and types of that era. Periplus of the Erythraean sea, a mariners guide book of first century A.D. by a Greco–Egyptian Author names many Ports on the west coast of India. Fahien returned to China via Java on an Indian Ship in about 399 – 415 AD. Marcopolo 1254 – 1324 India‟s Maritime Heritage 2 A.D, speaks of Aden as a regular port of call for Indian Ships and says that Indian ship were built to last 100 years and some ships were so large so as to require 150/200/300 crew.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 4. Trade Structure
    TRADE STRUCTURE 4. TRADE STRUCTURE 4.1 Changing Nature of Global Container Trade Container shipping routes can be divided into three main groups: (1) East-West trades, which circle the globe in the Northern Hemisphere linking the major industrial centres of North America, Western Europe and Asia; (2) North-South trades articulating around major production and consumption centres of Europe, Asia and North America, and linking these centres with developing countries in the Southern Hemisphere; and (3) intraregional trades operating in shorter hauls and with smaller ships. North–south routes are Figure 4-1 shows study estimates of the container trade volumes (full export/import containers only) in 2002 and 2015 of each of trade groups. Container trade volumes on the East-West routes will increase from 34 million TEU in 2002 to 70 million TEU in 2015 representing 5.8 per cent of annual average growth rate. The study forecasts suggest that the intraregional trades will show solid growth from 28 million TEU to 72 million TEU with a compound average growth rate of 7.5 per cent per annum over the same period. The North-South trade is also expected to grow at a rate of 6.2 per cent per annum on average, exceeding the growth rate of the East-West trade. Figure 4-1: Container Trade by Trade Group (2002 and 2015) 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 2002 40.00 2015 Million TEU 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 East-West Intra-Regional North-South/South-South 32 TRADE STRUCTURE 4.2 Asia - North America The biggest deep sea liner route is the trans-Pacific trade between Asia and North America, representing 14.5 million TEU in 2002, equivalent to 43 per cent of the total East-West trade and 19 per cent of the world total.
    [Show full text]
  • Opening Essential Questions? Lesson Objectives
    Silk Road Curriculum Project 2018-2019 Ingrid Herskind Title of Lesson Plan: Silk Road: Cartography and Trade in Ancient and Modern China Ingrid Herskind, Flintridge Prep School, La Canada, CA Lesson Overview: Students will explore the “Silk Road” trade networks by investigating a route, mapping the best path, and portraying a character who navigated the route. Opening essential questions? How did the Silk Road routes represent an early version of worldwide integration and development? How does China’s modern One Belt, One Road project use similar routes and methodologies as the earlier Silk Road project? How is this modern project different? Lesson Objectives: Students will be able to: Students will also apply skills from the Global Competence Matrix and will: • Investigate the world beyond their immediate environment by identifying an issue, generating a question, and explaining its significance locally, regionally, and globally. • Recognize their own and others’ perspectives by understanding the influences that impact those perspectives. • Communicate their ideas effectively with diverse audiences by realizing how their ideas and delivery can be perceived. • Translate their ideas and findings into appropriate actions to improve conditions and to create opportunities for personal and collaborative action. 1 1 World Savvy, Global Competence Matrix, Council of Chief State School Officers’ EdSteps Project in partnership with the Asia Society Partnership for Global Learning, 2010 1 Silk Road Curriculum Project 2018-2019 Ingrid Herskind Length of Project: This lesson as designed to take place over 2-3 days (periods are either 45 min or 77 min) in 9th Grade World History. Grade Level: High School (gr 9) World History, variation in International Relations 12th grade Historical Context: • China was a key player in the networks that crossed from one continent to another.
    [Show full text]
  • Harbor Information
    Vineyard Sound MV Land Bank Property * Keep our Waters Clean Moorings/Launch Service ad * eek Ro ing Cr Herr \ REMEMBER: All local waters are now a \ TISBURY TOWN MOORINGS are located insideWEST CHOP the VINEYARD Vineyard HAVEN Haven Harbor L (Town of a breakwater and can be rented on a first-come, first-servek basis. e Tisbury) NO DISCHARGE ZONE. T Drawbridge a s h m o o CONTACT THE HARBORMASTER ON CHANNEL 9. No Anchorage No Anchorage Heads must be sealed in all waters within 3 miles of shore and Moorings are 2-ton blocks on heavy chain and are maintained Channel Enlarged area Lagoon Pond the Vineyard Sound. regularly. They are to be used at boat owners’ risk. For ANCHORAGE, see map other side and/or consult the har- We provide FREE PUMPOUT service to mariners in Vineyard bormaster. Haven Harbor, Lagoon Pond and Lake Tashmoo. Call Vineyard o Haven pumpout on Channel 9 between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m., RUN GENERATING PLANTS AND ENGINE POWER o Anchorage seven days a week. EQUIPMENT BETWEEN 9 A.M. AND 9 P.M. ONLY. m I Ice * h R Repairs s Private moorings are available to rent from Gannon & WC NO PLASTICS OR TRASH OVERBOARD. Littering is MV Land Bank a Restrooms Property subject to a fine (up to $25,000 for each violation) and arrest. Benjamin, Maciel Marine, and the M.V. Shipyard or contact T Boat Ramp W Boaters must deposit trash only in the dumpsters and recy- Vineyard Haven Launch Service on Channel 72. e Water k dd Dinghy Dock cling bins at Owen Park and at Lake Street.
    [Show full text]
  • Trading Centers in the 1000S-1100S the Population Began to Grow
    Trading Centers In the 1000s-1100s the population began to grow. Farmers were growing more food. The number of foreign invaders had declined. A retreat in polar ice had caused good weather. Many peasants left the fields to work in the village. They began to produce products. Nobles began to trade western products for luxury goods from the east. Sugar, spices, silk, and dyes. Trading centers developed on sea routes. The sea routes connected western Europe with the Mediterranean, Russia, and Scandinavia. Two of the earliest and most important trading centers were Venice and Flanders. Venice Venice was an island port in the Mediterranean Sea. It was near the coast of Italy. It was founded in the 500s, by people fleeing from Germans. They traded salted fish for wheat from Italy. They traded with the Byzantines. They exported wheat, wine, and slaves. They traded for fabrics and spices. In the 1100s, Venice became a leading port. Many Venetians became merchants. They learned to read and write. They learned to use money and keep records. Eventually they had a banking system. Italian towns began to make cloth. They sent the cloth to Venice to be shipped. Other Italian towns became shipping centers. The Italian navy removed the Muslims from the Mediterranean Sea. The Near East was open to Europe. Italian trading towns argued about money and trade routes. European Atlantic coast towns soon developed trade routes. By 1530, they were more powerful than Italian towns. Flanders Was an area in modern Belgium of small towns. The Flemish raised sheep. They used the wool to weave cloth.
    [Show full text]
  • The Port of Portland's Marine Operations
    The Port of Portland’s Marine Operations The Local Economic Benefits of Worldwide Trade Prepared for: August 2013 Contact Information Ed MacMullan, John Tapogna, Sarah Reich, and Tessa Krebs of ECONorthwest prepared this report. ECONorthwest is solely responsible for its content. ECONorthwest specializes in economics, planning, and finance. Established in 1974, ECONorthwest has over three decades of experience helping clients make sound decisions based on rigorous economic, planning and financial analysis. For more information about ECONorthwest, visit our website at www.econw.com. For more information about this report, please contact: Ed MacMullan Senior Economist 99 W. 10th Ave., Suite 400 Eugene, OR 97401 541-687-0051 [email protected] Table of Contents Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... ES-1 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 2 Global Trade, Local Benefits ...................................................................................... 3 3 Intermodal Transportation Efficiencies .................................................................... 9 4 The Auto-Transport Story .......................................................................................... 10 5 The Potash Story ........................................................................................................ 12 6 The Portland Shipyard Story ....................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Report on Survey of U.S. Shipbuilding and Repair Facilities 2001
    Report on Survey of U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime U.S. Shipbuilding and Administration Repair Facilities 2001 REPORT ON SURVEY OF U.S. SHIPBUILDING AND REPAIR FACILITIES 2001 Prepared By: Office of Shipbuilding and Marine Technology December 2001 INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 Overview of Major Shipbuilding and Repair Base ................................................ 5 Major U.S. Private Shipyards Summary Classification Definitions ....................... 6 Number of Shipyards by Type (Exhibit 1) ........................................................... 7 Number of Shipyards by Region (Exhibit 2) ........................................................ 8 Number of Shipyards by Type and Region (Exhibit 3) ........................................ 9 Number of Building Positions by Maximum Length Capability (Exhibit 4) ........... 10 Number of Build and Repair Positions (Exhibit 5) ............................................... 11 Number of Build and Repair Positions by Region (Exhibit 6) .............................. 12 Number of Floating Drydocks by Maximum Length Capability (Exhibit 7) .......... 13 Number of Production Workers by Shipyard Type (Exhibit 8) ............................. 14 Number of Production Workers by Region (Exhibit 9) ........................................ 15 Number of Production Workers: 1982 – 2001 (Exhibit 10) ................................. 16 Listing
    [Show full text]
  • Section 3 Step-By-Step Instruction the Wealth of Timbuktu SECTION SECTION “ the Inhabitants Are Very Rich
    Section 3 Step-by-Step Instruction The Wealth of Timbuktu SECTION SECTION “ The inhabitants are very rich. Grain and animals are Review and Preview 3 abundant, so that the consumption of milk and butter is considerable. But salt is in very short supply because it is Students have learned about Native carried here from Tegaza, some 500 miles from Timbuktu.... American cultures in North America The royal court is magnificent and very well organized. This king makes war only upon neighboring enemies and and their interaction through trade. upon those who do not want to pay him tribute. Now they will learn about cultures on ” the continents of Europe, Africa, and —Hassan ibn Muhammad, The Description of Africa, 1526 Asia and how they were linked through trade. � City of Timbuktu in West Africa Trade Networks of Section Focus Question Asia and Africa How did trade link Europe, Afri- ca, and Asia? Objectives Why It Matters While Native Americans were developing Before you begin the lesson for the day, • Learn about the role played by Muslims in diverse cultures and civilizations, other civilizations thrived write the Section Focus Question on the world trade. in Europe, Africa, and Asia. board. (Lesson focus: Europeans, Africans, • Discover how great trading states rose in East Section Focus Question: How did trade link Europe, and Asians exchanged goods, ideas, and Africa and West Africa. Africa, and Asia? influ­ences through trade.) • Find out how China dominated an important trade route across Asia. The Muslim Link in Trade From earliest times, trade linked groups who lived Prepare to Read at great distances from one another.
    [Show full text]
  • Best Management Practices for Oregon Shipyards
    Oregon Department of Environmental Quality Best Management Practices for Oregon Shipyards September 2017 BMPs for Oregon Shipyards Alternative formats Documents can be provided upon request in an alternate format for individuals with disabilities or in a language other than English for people with limited English skills. To request a document in another format or language, call DEQ in Portland at 503-229-5696, or toll-free in Oregon at 1-800-452-4011 or email [email protected]. 2 BMPs for Oregon Shipyards Overview The ship/boat building and repair industry present a unique problem in terms of applying pollution control techniques. Although a given facility may not compare exactly with another facility in terms of repair capabilities, type and size of docks, size of vessels, and so on, there are enough similarities between facilities to describe control techniques that can be adapted to suit a specific site and Standard Industrial Classification (SIC). There are several different functions that occur at ship and boat repair and manufacturing facilities. Some facilities employ a few people, while others employ many people, including various subcontractors, electricians, labors, machinists, welders, painters, sandblasters, riggers, pipe fitters and a number of administrative and managerial staff. Each of these facilities and associated shipyard services creates their own unique set of potential environmental problems. A tremendous amount of spent blast abrasive dust, old paint and used grit is generated daily. Millions of gallons of vessel discharges are piped, collected, tested, treated, recycled, transported or discharged. Air pollution, noise pollution, accumulations of solid and hazardous waste and point and non-point pollution can occur simultaneously with the variety of operations that occur at these facilities.
    [Show full text]
  • Michigan State Harbors Guide
    Table of Contents Cover .....................................................................................................................................................................................................5............................................................................................ Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................................................6...................................................................................................... Missions and Commissions ...................................................................................................................................................................7.............................................................................................................................. Sport Fish Restoration Program ............................................................................................................................................................8..................................................................................................................................... Welcome to the Great Lakes .................................................................................................................................................................9...............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Basic Concepts of Maritime Transport and Its Present Status in Latin America and the Caribbean
    or. iH"&b BASIC CONCEPTS OF MARITIME TRANSPORT AND ITS PRESENT STATUS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN . ' ftp • ' . J§ WAC 'At 'li ''UWD te. , • • ^ > o UNITED NATIONS 1 fc r> » t 4 CR 15 n I" ti i CUADERNOS DE LA CEP AL BASIC CONCEPTS OF MARITIME TRANSPORT AND ITS PRESENT STATUS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN UNITED NATIONS Santiago, Chile, 1987 LC/G.1426 September 1987 This study was prepared by Mr Tnmas Sepûlveda Whittle. Consultant to ECLAC's Transport and Communications Division. The opinions expressed here are the sole responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily coincide with those of the United Nations. Translated in Canada for official use by the Multilingual Translation Directorate, Trans- lation Bureau, Ottawa, from the Spanish original Los conceptos básicos del transporte marítimo y la situación de la actividad en América Latina. The English text was subse- quently revised and has been extensively updated to reflect the most recent statistics available. UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATIONS Sales No. E.86.II.G.11 ISSN 0252-2195 ISBN 92-1-121137-9 * « CONTENTS Page Summary 7 1. The importance of transport 10 2. The predominance of maritime transport 13 3. Factors affecting the shipping business 14 4. Ships 17 5. Cargo 24 6. Ports 26 7. Composition of the shipping industry 29 8. Shipping conferences 37 9. The Code of Conduct for Liner Conferences 40 10. The Consultation System 46 * 11. Conference freight rates 49 12. Transport conditions 54 13. Marine insurance 56 V 14.
    [Show full text]
  • PDF Evolution and Development of the Trade Route in Ladakh
    RESEARCH ASSOCIATION for R AA I SS INTERDISCIPLINARY JUNE 2020 STUDIES DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3909993 Evolution and Development of the Trade Route in Ladakh: A Case-Study of Rock Carvings Dr. Khushboo Chaturvedi, Mr. Varun Sahai Assistant Professor, Amity University, India, [email protected] Assistant Professor, Amity University, India, [email protected] ABSTRACT: From the beginning of human history trade has been major source of growth of civilization and material culture. Economy was the main crux which caused Diasporas what disseminated cultures and religions on our planet. The Silk Road was one of the first trade routes to join the Eastern and the Western worlds. Ladakh also underwent the same process of evolution of trade although it was a difficult terrain but it provides access to travelers from central Asia and Tibet through its passes. Ladakh was a crossroads of many complexes of routes, providing choices for different sectors connecting Amritsar to Yarkand. Again, from Leh to Yarkand, there were several possible routes all converging at the Karakoram Pass. Comparative small human settlements in oases of Ladakh’s desert rendered hospitality to the travelers being situated as halting station on traditional routes. Indeed, such places (halts) were natural beneficiaries of generating some sort of revenues from travelers against the essential services provided to caravans and groups of traders and travelers. Main halts on these routes are well marked with petro-glyphs right from Kashmir to Yarkand and at major stations with huge rock carving of Buddhist deities. Petro-glyphs, rock carvings, inscriptions and monasteries, mani-walls and stupas found along the trekking routes, linking one place to other, are a clear indication that the routes were in-vogue used by caravan traders; these establishments were used as landmarks or guidepost for travelers.
    [Show full text]
  • The Baltic and the Black Sea in Medieval Trade
    THE BALTICAND THE BLACK SEA IN MEDIEVALTRADE by MARIAN MALO WIST (WARSAW, POLAND) The object of this paper is to give a short outlinc knowledge of the history of l3altic commerce. The of the history of Black Sea and Baltic trade during the literature on Black Sea trade is hardly less extensive: Middle Ages, and to examinethe reciprocalaction of W. Heyd's works are probably the rnost important,but thesetwo importanthistorical phen.omena. Considera- m,uchvaluable information is also given in the writings tions of space exclude the possibility of making an ex- of F. Bruun, Manfroni,C. Bratianuand Canale. The haustivestudy of the enormouscomplex oi problems periodicalpublications Atti della SocietdLigure di Sto- connectedwith the subject,and henceno atternptwill ria Patria ot Genoa, anclZapiski Odeskago, Obshestva, be macjeto deal with matterswhich do not appearto Istorii i Drevnostiei ( Records of the Historical and be ol primary importance. AntiquarianSociety of Odeosa),likewise contain material There is already a very copious literature dealing of great interest. A certain amount has been written rvith the historyof tradeon the Baltic.The outstanding concerningthe Black Sea by Polish authors,but econo- works are those of Daenelle, Schlfer and Rdrig, but riric history has so tar receivecilittle attention. Ku- there are many other German, Dutch and Scandinavian trzeba'sHandel Krakowa z Wschodem(Cracow's trade writers whose works merit attention. Arnongst the with the East), and the writings of D4browski, Kolan- Polish writers on the subject, Kutrzeba, Widajewicz, kowski, Halecki, Charewicz and G6rka are among the Wachowski and Koczy have done much to extend our more important works on this subject.
    [Show full text]