Archaeology of Ottomanisation in the Middle Danube region: technological perspectives on pottery production in Belgrade between the 14th-17th centuries Jelena Živković Thesis submitted to University College London for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy UCL Qatar June 2019 1 Declaration I, Jelena Živković confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 18 June 2019 2 Abstract This thesis presents archaeological research that centres on the phenomenon of Ottomanisation, defined as the cultural change that unfolded within the political framework of the Ottoman Empire. The research focusses on Belgrade (Serbia) during the 14th-17th centuries, when this town was a major urban centre of the Middle Danube region. Although the term Ottomanisation is often used in historiography to describe changes in material culture, particularly architecture, agents and mechanisms of these changes remained understudied. The archaeological approach to Ottomanisation proposed in this thesis focuses on the long-term development of Belgrade’s ceramic production technology. The pottery coming from several well-defined archaeological contexts located in the intra and extra muros settlements of Belgrade’s town is scientifically analysed for technological characterisation and provenance determination. Ceramic petrography, wavelength- dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy are the three methods used for the analyses of ceramics, slips and glazes. The theoretical framework used for the interpretation of the analytical data is embedded into the cultural approach to technology and the chaîne opératoire conceptual framework that enable the identification of potters’ choices, their communities of practice and technological traditions. The results suggest that the production technology of the locally made pottery went through substantial changes after the Ottoman conquest of Belgrade in 1521. The Ottoman-era production (1521-1688) brought a new set of knowledge and skills, suggesting the presence of a new group of potters in Belgrade after the conquest. They probably encountered an existing community of potters, as some technological traits suggest. A dynamic of interaction between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ communities of potters shaped the cultural change. Therefore, this thesis suggests that Ottomanisation should not necessarily be seen through a top-down model of political influence of the Ottoman Empire on its subjects, but it can also be related to cultural interaction between different communities in the Ottoman societies. 3 Impact Statement The work presented in this thesis is the first archaeological study of Ottomanisation in the Balkans. It advances new approaches to this important question of cultural change. At the same time, this thesis is the first attempt made towards the discussion of Ottomanisation in the light of ceramic production technology. On a more local scale of impact, this thesis brings forth the first scientific study of Late Medieval and Post-Medieval Belgrade’s ceramics and significantly contributes to the understanding of technology, provenance, production organisation, technological traditions and communities of practice in this city. It also presents a good starting point for further studies of these questions in the region of the Middle Danube. The scientific data presented here add to the current state of knowledge on the ceramic and glaze technologies in the Late Medieval and Post-Medieval Balkans and beyond in Eastern Europe. It also demonstrates how these data can be used for broader archaeological interpretations, including cultural change. Outside of academia, this thesis aspires to contribute to the process of breaking a social stigma built around the notion of the Ottomans and Islam in the Balkans. Ever since the 19th century, Balkan societies define their identities by opposing the ‘Ottoman yoke’. A resistance to Ottomanisation and Islamisation of the Orthodox communities has been an important identity marker. This dangerous narrative has been used, too often, in the context of violent conflicts throughout the 20th century. Opposing this view, this thesis demonstrates that the local communities were active agents of Ottomanisation in the Balkans and cannot be seen as monolithic entities whose national identities remained intact throughout the long-lasting rule of the Ottoman Empire. 4 Acknowledgments This thesis would not have been possible without the great support I have received from my supervisors Thilo Rehren, Myrto Georgakopoulou and Jose Cristobal Carvajal Lopez. They have guided me through all the phases of my research and thesis writing, and moreover provided a strong support for my academic path. I am genuinely grateful to them for everything they have done for me. The research was funded by Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development through their funding of UCL Qatar. I am extremely thankful for their generous financial support that enabled me to carry out this research without bearing the financial burden that often follows PhD students. Throughout this research, regular meetings with Vesna Bikić in Belgrade shaped my understanding of Belgrade’s ceramics and the archaeology in Serbia. Thanks to her generous support, my access to archaeological ceramics, documentation, working space and facilities of the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade was massively facilitated saving me a lot of time. I am thankful for her help that made this research possible. In Serbia, I would like furthermore to thank several other colleagues. Nika Strugar provided me the permission and space to study the archaeological pottery from Dorćol. Marko Popović found an easy way for me to get the fieldwork documentation from Dorćol’s excavations. I would also like to thank other colleagues from the Institute of Archaeology working at the Belgrade Fortress – Vujadin Ivanišević, Ivan Bugarski, Sonja Stamenković and Milica Radišić. At UCL Qatar, the Archaeological Materials Science Laboratory generated a supportive community over the past several years that had a great positive impact on my work, and I would like to use this opportunity to thank my colleagues. Carmen Ting taught me how to use our lab equipment for thin sections preparation and was always willing to help me identify strange inclusions in thin sections. Maninder Singh Gill used his time generously to demonstrate basic principles of glaze analysis on the scanning electron microscope. Loic Boscher was always there to offer advice on the preparation of polish blocks. Martina Renzi and Khaleda Akhtar assisted me on numerous occasions with the lab equipment. Philip Connolly’s technical support was 5 appreciated as well. I have received a valuable input on ceramic petrography from UCL Qatar’s visiting researchers, Evangelia Kiriatzi, Demetris Ioannides and Ruth Siddall. There was ongoing support from colleagues working in the Conservation Laboratories – Voula Golfomitsou, Stephanie Black and Arianne Panton – for which I thank them. A big thank you goes to my fellow PhD students at UCL Qatar Ghaida al-Sawalha, Stefani Kavda, Alkindi al-Jawabra, Lesley Grey and Ann-Kathrin Lange. Our friendship and mutual support are something that I will remember as the most positive side of PhD studies in Doha. This work is dedicated to my son Konstantin whose birth changed everything for the better. It is also dedicated to my husband Jovan, mum Dara, sister Bojana and brother- in-law Ivan who helped me to finish this PhD while raising a baby. I am endlessly grateful to my family for being supportive and selflessly dedicated to my aim. I hope this work meets your expectations. 6 Contents Abstract 3 Impact Statement 4 Acknowledgments 5 Chapter 1 Introduction 24 1.1. Research framework 24 1.2. Aims and objectives of the research 25 1.3. Structure of the thesis 26 Chapter 2 Background of the research 28 2.1 Belgrade, landscape and geography 28 2.2 Belgrade in the local and regional history (14th-17th centuries) 32 2.2.1 Political history 32 2.2.2 Urban developments 36 2.3 Material culture in the light of archaeological investigations 42 2.3.1 History of ceramic research 43 2.3.2 Archaeological ceramics of Phases 1 and 2 44 2.3.3 Archaeological ceramics of Phases 3 and 4 48 2.4 The geology of Belgrade’s area 55 Chapter 3 Ottomanisation, Islamisation and artisans: perspectives of historiography and art history 60 3.1 Ottomanisation in the Ottoman historiography and art history 61 3.1.1 Ottomanisation of Belgrade 63 3.2 Islamisation in the Ottoman historiography 64 3.2.1 Islamisation of Belgrade 66 3.3 Artisans in the Ottoman historiography 71 3.3.1 The guilds of artisans in Ottoman urban centres 72 3.3.2 Craft organisation in Ottoman rural areas 75 7 3.3.3 Craft organisation in the town of Belgrade 76 3.3.4 Craft organisation in Belgrade’s countryside 78 Chapter 4 Theoretical frameworks: archaeological perspectives 82 4.1 Technology and cultural change in anthropological and archaeological studies 82 4.1.1 Ceramic technology in ethnoarchaeology: the chaîne opératoire approach 85 4.1.2 Cultural change in archaeology 89 4.2 The organisation of production of ceramic 94 4.2.1 Archaeological approaches to production organisation: two perspectives 97 Chapter 5 Methodology 102 5.1 Archaeological sites, contexts and phases 103 5.1.1. Belgrade Fortress - Lower Town 105 5.1.2 Dorćol – the Old Synagogue site 112 5.2 The macroscopic method