Technological Perspectives on Pottery Production in Belgrade Between the 14Th-17Th Centuries
Archaeology of Ottomanisation in the Middle Danube region: technological perspectives on pottery production in Belgrade between the 14th-17th centuries
Jelena Živković
Thesis submitted to University College London for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
UCL Qatar June 2019
1 Declaration
I, Jelena Živković confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis.
18 June 2019
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Abstract
This thesis presents archaeological research that centres on the phenomenon of Ottomanisation, defined as the cultural change that unfolded within the political framework of the Ottoman Empire. The research focusses on Belgrade (Serbia) during the 14th-17th centuries, when this town was a major urban centre of the Middle Danube region. Although the term Ottomanisation is often used in historiography to describe changes in material culture, particularly architecture, agents and mechanisms of these changes remained understudied.
The archaeological approach to Ottomanisation proposed in this thesis focuses on the long-term development of Belgrade’s ceramic production technology. The pottery coming from several well-defined archaeological contexts located in the intra and extra muros settlements of Belgrade’s town is scientifically analysed for technological characterisation and provenance determination. Ceramic petrography, wavelength- dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy are the three methods used for the analyses of ceramics, slips and glazes. The theoretical framework used for the interpretation of the analytical data is embedded into the cultural approach to technology and the chaîne opératoire conceptual framework that enable the identification of potters’ choices, their communities of practice and technological traditions.
The results suggest that the production technology of the locally made pottery went through substantial changes after the Ottoman conquest of Belgrade in 1521. The Ottoman-era production (1521-1688) brought a new set of knowledge and skills, suggesting the presence of a new group of potters in Belgrade after the conquest. They probably encountered an existing community of potters, as some technological traits suggest. A dynamic of interaction between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ communities of potters shaped the cultural change. Therefore, this thesis suggests that Ottomanisation should not necessarily be seen through a top-down model of political influence of the Ottoman Empire on its subjects, but it can also be related to cultural interaction between different communities in the Ottoman societies.
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Impact Statement
The work presented in this thesis is the first archaeological study of Ottomanisation in the Balkans. It advances new approaches to this important question of cultural change. At the same time, this thesis is the first attempt made towards the discussion of Ottomanisation in the light of ceramic production technology.
On a more local scale of impact, this thesis brings forth the first scientific study of Late Medieval and Post-Medieval Belgrade’s ceramics and significantly contributes to the understanding of technology, provenance, production organisation, technological traditions and communities of practice in this city. It also presents a good starting point for further studies of these questions in the region of the Middle Danube.
The scientific data presented here add to the current state of knowledge on the ceramic and glaze technologies in the Late Medieval and Post-Medieval Balkans and beyond in Eastern Europe. It also demonstrates how these data can be used for broader archaeological interpretations, including cultural change.
Outside of academia, this thesis aspires to contribute to the process of breaking a social stigma built around the notion of the Ottomans and Islam in the Balkans. Ever since the 19th century, Balkan societies define their identities by opposing the ‘Ottoman yoke’. A resistance to Ottomanisation and Islamisation of the Orthodox communities has been an important identity marker. This dangerous narrative has been used, too often, in the context of violent conflicts throughout the 20th century. Opposing this view, this thesis demonstrates that the local communities were active agents of Ottomanisation in the Balkans and cannot be seen as monolithic entities whose national identities remained intact throughout the long-lasting rule of the Ottoman Empire.
4 Acknowledgments
This thesis would not have been possible without the great support I have received from my supervisors Thilo Rehren, Myrto Georgakopoulou and Jose Cristobal Carvajal Lopez. They have guided me through all the phases of my research and thesis writing, and moreover provided a strong support for my academic path. I am genuinely grateful to them for everything they have done for me.
The research was funded by Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development through their funding of UCL Qatar. I am extremely thankful for their generous financial support that enabled me to carry out this research without bearing the financial burden that often follows PhD students.
Throughout this research, regular meetings with Vesna Bikić in Belgrade shaped my understanding of Belgrade’s ceramics and the archaeology in Serbia. Thanks to her generous support, my access to archaeological ceramics, documentation, working space and facilities of the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade was massively facilitated saving me a lot of time. I am thankful for her help that made this research possible.
In Serbia, I would like furthermore to thank several other colleagues. Nika Strugar provided me the permission and space to study the archaeological pottery from Dorćol. Marko Popović found an easy way for me to get the fieldwork documentation from Dorćol’s excavations. I would also like to thank other colleagues from the Institute of Archaeology working at the Belgrade Fortress – Vujadin Ivanišević, Ivan Bugarski, Sonja Stamenković and Milica Radišić.
At UCL Qatar, the Archaeological Materials Science Laboratory generated a supportive community over the past several years that had a great positive impact on my work, and I would like to use this opportunity to thank my colleagues. Carmen Ting taught me how to use our lab equipment for thin sections preparation and was always willing to help me identify strange inclusions in thin sections. Maninder Singh Gill used his time generously to demonstrate basic principles of glaze analysis on the scanning electron microscope. Loic Boscher was always there to offer advice on the preparation of polish blocks. Martina Renzi and Khaleda Akhtar assisted me on numerous occasions with the lab equipment. Philip Connolly’s technical support was 5 appreciated as well. I have received a valuable input on ceramic petrography from UCL Qatar’s visiting researchers, Evangelia Kiriatzi, Demetris Ioannides and Ruth Siddall. There was ongoing support from colleagues working in the Conservation Laboratories – Voula Golfomitsou, Stephanie Black and Arianne Panton – for which I thank them.
A big thank you goes to my fellow PhD students at UCL Qatar Ghaida al-Sawalha, Stefani Kavda, Alkindi al-Jawabra, Lesley Grey and Ann-Kathrin Lange. Our friendship and mutual support are something that I will remember as the most positive side of PhD studies in Doha.
This work is dedicated to my son Konstantin whose birth changed everything for the better. It is also dedicated to my husband Jovan, mum Dara, sister Bojana and brother- in-law Ivan who helped me to finish this PhD while raising a baby. I am endlessly grateful to my family for being supportive and selflessly dedicated to my aim. I hope this work meets your expectations.
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Contents
Abstract 3
Impact Statement 4
Acknowledgments 5
Chapter 1 Introduction 24
1.1. Research framework 24
1.2. Aims and objectives of the research 25
1.3. Structure of the thesis 26
Chapter 2 Background of the research 28
2.1 Belgrade, landscape and geography 28
2.2 Belgrade in the local and regional history (14th-17th centuries) 32
2.2.1 Political history 32
2.2.2 Urban developments 36
2.3 Material culture in the light of archaeological investigations 42
2.3.1 History of ceramic research 43
2.3.2 Archaeological ceramics of Phases 1 and 2 44
2.3.3 Archaeological ceramics of Phases 3 and 4 48
2.4 The geology of Belgrade’s area 55
Chapter 3 Ottomanisation, Islamisation and artisans: perspectives of historiography and art history 60
3.1 Ottomanisation in the Ottoman historiography and art history 61
3.1.1 Ottomanisation of Belgrade 63
3.2 Islamisation in the Ottoman historiography 64
3.2.1 Islamisation of Belgrade 66
3.3 Artisans in the Ottoman historiography 71
3.3.1 The guilds of artisans in Ottoman urban centres 72
3.3.2 Craft organisation in Ottoman rural areas 75
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3.3.3 Craft organisation in the town of Belgrade 76
3.3.4 Craft organisation in Belgrade’s countryside 78
Chapter 4 Theoretical frameworks: archaeological perspectives 82
4.1 Technology and cultural change in anthropological and archaeological studies 82
4.1.1 Ceramic technology in ethnoarchaeology: the chaîne opératoire approach 85
4.1.2 Cultural change in archaeology 89
4.2 The organisation of production of ceramic 94
4.2.1 Archaeological approaches to production organisation: two perspectives 97
Chapter 5 Methodology 102
5.1 Archaeological sites, contexts and phases 103
5.1.1. Belgrade Fortress - Lower Town 105
5.1.2 Dorćol – the Old Synagogue site 112
5.2 The macroscopic method 114
5.3 Sampling for microscopic and elemental analyses 116
5.3.1 Sampling for petrographic analysis 116
5.3.2 Sampling for the elemental analysis of ceramics (WDXRF) 121
5.3.3 Sampling for slip and glaze analysis (pXRF and SEM-EDS) 122
5.4 Analytical methods 124
5.4.1 Ceramic petrography 124
5.4.2 Elemental analysis of ceramics (WDXRF) 126
5.4.3 Semi-quantitative analysis of glazed surfaces (pXRF) 130
5.4.4 Quantitative analysis of slips and glazes (SEM-EDS) 130
Chapter 6 Results 134
6.1 The results of macroscopic investigation 134
6.1.1 Phases 1 and 2 135
6.1.2 Phases 3 and 4 141 8 6.2 The results of ceramic petrography 149
6.3 The results of the elemental analysis of ceramics (WDXRF) and the comparative assessment of petrographic and chemical data 174
6.3.1 Chemical clusters 176
6.3.2 The comparative assessment of chemical and petrographic data and the definition of compositional groups (CG) 187
6.4 The results of glaze and slip analyses 201
6.4.1 The semi-quantitative composition of glazes (pXRF) 201
6.4.2. The microstructure of slips (optical microscopy and SEM-EDS) 201
6.4.3 The chemical composition of slips (SEM-EDS) 205
6.4.4 The microstructure of glazes (optical microscopy and SEM-EDS) 210
6.4.5 The composition of the high-lead glazes (SEM-EDS) 213
6.4.6 Manufacturing methods of glazes 217
6.4.7 Comparative assessment of compositional groups with slips and glazes 221
Chapter 7 Discussion 224
7.1 The reconstruction of chaînes opératoires and the provenance of raw materials 224
7.1.1 Coarse wares of Phases 1 and 2 224
7.1.2 Tableware of Phase 2 231
7.1.3 The pottery of Phases 3 and 4 233
7.2 Defining local technological traditions and communities of practice 242
7.3 The organisation of ceramic production in Belgrade 246
7.3.1 The organisation of ceramic production in Phases 1 and 2 247
7.3.2 The organisation of ceramic production in Phases 3 and 4 250
7.4 Towards an Archaeology of Ottomanisation 254
Chapter 8 Conclusion 263
Glossary 267
Bibliography 271
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Appendix A 293
Appendix A.1 294
Appendix A.2 301
Appendix B 340
Appendix C 380
Appendix D 392
Appendix D.1 393
Appendix D.2 397
Appendix E 404
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List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Map of the Balkan Peninsula showing the location of Belgrade and other major sites mentioned in the thesis. Map is courtesy of Professor Mihailo Milinković. 29
Figure 2.2 View of the Belgrade Fortress from the Sava river. Photo: Jelena Živković. 30
Figure 2.3 Belgrade’s landscape with marked locations of the Avala and Kosmaj mountains. Source: Google Earth. 30
Figure 2.4 View of the Avala mountain from the village of Ripanj. Photo: Jelena Živković 31
Figure 2.5 Ottoman Belgrade in Phases 3 and 4. The approximate size of Late Medieval Belgrade (Phases 1 and 2) is marked in yellow. The map is modified after Šabanović (1964, pp.35–36). 37
Figure 3.1 Map is showing the distribution of potters in villages around Belgrade as mentioned in the 16th century Ottoman tax registers (see Table 3.4). The villages of Putenik, Bućevci and Tatarin have unknown locations. After the geological map of Stevanović (1974, p.3). 81
Figure 5.1 Map of the Belgrade Fortress and Dorćol with marked positions of archaeological sites and contexts used in this research. The map is modified after Popović (2006, p. 158; Figure 88). 104
Figure 5.2 Plan of the Metropolitan Palace with marked positions of archaeological contexts of Phases 2 and 3. The plan is modified after Popović and Bikić (2004, p.56, Figure 20). 105
Figure 5.3 Architectural remains of the Metropolitan Palace. A view from the northern wall of the Upper Town. Photo: Jelena Živković. 106
Figure 5.4 The Metropolitan Palace, sections of walls. R: 1:100. (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 68, Figure 35). 108
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Figure 5.5 The pit-silos found in Room 5. The base (left) and section (right) in R 1:50 (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 66, Figure 31). 109
Figure 5.6 A hut built between the walls of the demolished Metropolitan Palace. R 1:100. (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 113, Figure 63). 110
Figure 5.7 Building IV in the Lower Town, the section through the entrance in relation to the Palace level. R 1:50 (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 119, Figure 67). 111
Figure 5.8 Building IV in the Lower Town, the plan of the building with marked position of the pit and the stove. R 1: 100. (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 120, Figure 70). 111
Figure 5.9 Plan of House II in the Lower Town defined as Context 7 in this research (Marjanović-Vujović, 1973 TVII). 112
Figure 5.10 The plan of the Old Synagogue site with the position of excavated trenches (Popović, 1978a). 113
Figure 5.11 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 2 at the Lower Town based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right). 117
Figure 5.12 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 3 at the Lower Town based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right). 118
Figure 5.13 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 4 at the Lower Town based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right). 119
Figure 5.14 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 1 at Dorćol, based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right). 120
Figure 5.15 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 2 at Dorćol, based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right). 120
Figure 5.16 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 4 at Dorćol based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right). 121
Figure 5.17 Backscatter electron image of ceramic zones analysed with SEM-EDS. 133
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Figure 6.1 Cooking pots of W1 (top left), W4 (top right) and W2 (down) from the Lower Town. Photo: Jelena Živković. 135
Figure 6.2 Stove pots of W1 from the Lower Town. Photo: Jelena Živković. 136
Figure 6.3 Cooking pots of W22 (left) and W25 (right), decorated with the incised wavy lines and dated to Phase 1 at Dorćol. Photo: Jelena Živković. 136
Figure 6.4 Relation between different functional categories of vessels dated to Phases 1 and 2 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, based on MNI of rims. 137
Figure 6.5 Relation between different functional categories Phases 1 and 2 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, based on EVE of rims. 137
Figure 6.6 Examples of bases with wheel and string marks (left) and smoothed with a concave recess (right); W2 from Lower Town (left) and W25 from Dorćol (right). Photo: Jelena Živković. 139
Figure 6.7 Base marks having stamps with a cross in a circle; W2 from the Lower Town (left) and W1 from Dorćol (right). Photo: Jelena Živković. 139
Figure 6.8 Finishing styles on ceramics of Phase 2 from Lower Town. Stamping on W4 (top left), painting on W6 (top right) and glazing on W2 (down). Photo: Jelena Živković 140
Figure 6.9 Diverse pots of W11 from the Lower Town. A cooking pot of Phase 3 (top left), a glazed pitcher of Phase 4 (top middle), a glazed storage jar of Phase 4 (top right), a glazed footed bowl of Phase 4 (middle left), glazed jugs of Phase 3 (middle right) and glazed stove pots of Phase 4 (down). Photo: Jelena Živković. 142
Figure 6.10 Coarse wares of Phases 3 and 4 documented at the Lower Town. Cooking pots of W9a dated to Phase 4 (left and middle) and a baking pan of W13 dated to Phase 3. Photo: Jelena Živković. 143
Figure 6.11 Grey-Polished jugs of W7a dated to Phase 3 at the Lower Town and W7b dated to Phase 4 at Dorćol. Photo: Jelena Živković. 143
13 Figure 6.12 Relation between functional categories of Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol archaeological sites, based on MNI of rims. 144
Figure 6.13 Relation between functional categories of Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol archaeological sites, based on EVE of rims. 144
Figure 6.14 Base marks on vessels of W11 documented at the Lower Town. A bowl with a pedestal foot dated to Phase 4 (left) and string marks on a cooking pot of Phase 3 (right). Photo: Jelena Živković. 146
Figure 6.15 Stamped bases of W9a, Phase 4 at the Lower Town (Marjanović-Vujović, 1973 T.VI). 146
Figure 6.16 The number of glazed wares in Belgrade’s assemblage. 147
Figure 6.17 Glaze colours presented in the Belgrade’s assemblage. 147
Figure 6.18 Glazed, slipped and painted wares of Phases 3 (down) and 4 (top) documented at the Lower Town. Jugs with underglaze white slips (top left), a jug with partially underglaze painting in red (top right), a bowl decorated with the slip and glaze (down left) and a bowl with specs of white slip coated with yellow glaze. Photo: Jelena Živković. 148
Figure 6.19 Fabric 1 (F1). From top to down: BG60 contains inclusions of chert and quartz; BG59 with inclusions of chert, monocrystalline quartz and quartzite; BG74 with inclusions of serpentinite and the matrix that shows a core/margin colour differentiation; BG83 with inclusions of limestone and quartzite; BG84 with inclusions of quartzite and serpentinite and matrix that shows a core/margin colour differentiation. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 153
Figure 6.20 Fabric 2 (F2). BG99 (top) showing the texture of F2 with inclusions of quartz; BG100 (down) showing TFs and altered rock similar to serpentinite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 154
Figure 6.21 Fabric 3 (F3). BG103 (top) illustrates the fine texture of F3. BG104 (down) with inclusions of TFs and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 155
14 Figure 6.22 Fabric 4 (F4). BG105 (top) and BG110 (down) illustrate the coarse texture of F4 and inclusions of granite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 156
Figure 6.23 Fabric 5 (F5). BG124 (top) illustrates the coarse texture of F5 with inclusions of monocrystalline quartz, opaques and amphiboles; BG126 (down) contains coarse inclusion of gneiss with opaques. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 157
Figure 6.24 Fabric 6 (F6). BG152 (top) and BG212 (down) illustrate a typical fine texture of F6 with inclusions of quartz and TFs. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 159
Figure 6.25 Subgroup of Fabric 6 (SGF6). BG310 shows the contrast between the coarse inclusion of Intermediate volcanic rock (probably andesite or dacite) and the typically fine texture of SGF6. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 160
Figure 6.26 Fabric 7 (F7). BG160 (top) illustrates the texture of F7 with inclusions of quartz; BG163 (down) with the inclusion of serpentinite and quartz. Both samples represent medium-coarse texture of F7. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 161
Figure 6.27 Fabric 8 (F8). BG168 (top) with inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz; BG271 (middle) with inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz, Intermediate volcanic rock (probably andesite or dacite) and muscovite mica; BG306 (low) with polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, Intermediate volcanic rock (probably andesite or dacite) and serpentinite. All three samples represent medium-coarse texture of F8. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 163
Figure 6.28 Subgroup of Fabric 8 (SGF8). BG156 (top) shows a typical texture of SGF8; BG158 (down) contains inclusions of muscovite mica and quartz. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 164
Figure 6.29 Fabric 9 (F9). BG144 illustrates a coarse texture of F9 and inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 166
Figure 6.30 Fabric 10 (F10). BG229 illustrates a very fine texture of F10 with inclusions of quartz in the fine fraction. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 167
15 Figure 6.31 Fabric 11 (F11). Sample BG239 shows a coarse texture of F11 with inclusions of calcite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 168
Figure 6.32 Fabric 12 (F12). BG281 illustrates a typical texture of F12 (top) and inclusions of limestone, serpentinite, mono- and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite (down). View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 169
Figure 6.33 Fabric 13 (F13). BG285 with inclusions of serpentinized volcanic rock with porphyritic structure and polycrystalline quartz (top) as well as chert (down). View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 171
Figure 6.34 Fabric 14 (F14). BG292 represents a coarse texture of F14 (top) and TFs type 2 (down). View in XP (left) and PPL (right). 172
Figure 6.35 Dendrogram resulting from the cluster analysis (CA) performed on all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics. Data are used in a form of logratios. Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th. 181
Figure 6.36 Scatter-plot of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows clusters (C). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th. 182
Figure 6.37 Scatter-plot of loadings derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics.
Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th. 183
Figure 6.38 The positive correlation between CaO and Mn in the samples of C1 and C2 of CG3. 189
Figure 6.39 Scatter-plot showing of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows fabrics (F). Excluded oxides and elements P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th. 196
Figure 6.40 Scatter-plot showing of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the 16 WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows compositional groups
(CG). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th. 197
Figure 6.41 Scatter-plot showing of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows coarse ceramic compositional groups (CG). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th. 199
Figure 6.42 Scatter-plot showing of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows fine ceramic compositional groups (CG). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th. 200
Figure 6.43 Reflected light photomicrograph (XP) of polished block section taken from BG199 showing Slip A situated between the ceramic body and the glaze. 202
Figure 6.44 Stereo photomicrograph of sherd BG192 showing the white and brown coloured Slip B. 203
Figure 6.45 Stereo photomicrograph of sherd BG196 showing the brown Slip B. 203
Figure 6.46 SEM (BSE) photomicrograph of polished block section taken from BG170 showing Slip A situated between the ceramic body and the glaze. 204
Figure 6.47 SEM (BSE) photomicrograph of polished block section taken from BG259 showing Slip B coated on the ceramic body. 205
Figure 6.48 The SEM photomicrographs (BSE) of polished block sections taken from BG168 (left) showing a thin glaze layer with corrosion and BG156 (right) showing unevenly applied glaze. 210
Figure 6.49 The SEM photomicrograph (BSE) of polished block sections taken from BG208 (left) showing the texture with coarse inclusions of quartz and BG170 (right) showing the most common texture in Belgrade’s assemblage containing scarce inclusions of quartz located in various zones. 212
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Figure 6.50 The SEM photomicrograph (BSE) of polished blocks sections taken from BG208 (left) showing inclusions of quartz and Ca-rich component and BG182 (right) showing Fe-rich inclusions. 213
Figure 6.51 The SEM photomicrographs (BSE) of polished block sections taken from BG174 (left) showing the interface crystals developed throughout the entire glaze; and BG169 with a thin interface (right). 213
Figure 7.1 Potential areas used for raw materials exploitation for local coarse wares dated to Phases 1 and 2 proposed based on the petrographic evidence. Map modified after Stevanović (1974, p.3). 227
Figure 7.2 Cooking pots of CG1 dated to Phase 1 at Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 229
Figure 7.3 Cooking pots of CG2 dated to Phases 1 and 2 at Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 230
Figure 7.4 Coarse wares of CG3 dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 230
Figure 7.5 Coarse wares of CG5 dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 231
Figure 7.6 Coarse wares of CG6 dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 231
Figure 7.7 Glazed jugs of CG4 dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 233
Figure 7.8 Potential areas used for raw materials exploitation for local medium-coarse and fine wares of Phases 3 and 4 proposed based on the petrographic evidence. Map modified after Stevanović (1974, p.3). 236
Figure 7.9 The pottery of CG7 dated to Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 240
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Figure 7.10 The pottery of CG8 dated to Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 240
Figure 7.11 The pottery of CG9 dated to Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaîne opératoires. 241
Figure 7.12 The pottery of CG10 dated to Phase 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 241
Figure 7.13 The pottery of CG11 dated to Phase 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires. 241
Figure 7.14 The plan and section of the larger kiln (left) and the smaller kiln (right) found at Kruševac (Minić, 1979, pp. 155-156, Fig. 2 and 3). 252
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Periodisation used in this research based on dates estimated for archaeological horizons. For more details, see Chapter 5. 33
Table 2.2 Ceramics of Phases 1 and 2 from Dorćol and the Lower Town. Typology and drawings are taken from Bikić (1994), Bjelajac (1978) and Popović and Bikić (2004). Wares are defined for the purposes of this research (see Chapter 5). Photos are taken by Jelena Živković at the City Museum of Belgrade and the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade. 47
Table 2.3 Ceramics of Phases 3 and 4 from the Lower Town and Dorćol. Typology and drawings are taken from Bikić (2003). Wares are defined for the purposes of this research (see Chapter 5). Photos are taken by Jelena Živković at the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade. 55
Table 3.1 The population of villages around Belgrade based on the Ottoman tax registers of the 16th century. The given estimation includes only household (hane) units without single men and widows. It is usually taken that one household contains five people in average (see Inalcik, 1994, pp. 26–28). All calculations are made based on the translation provided by Šabanović (1964). 68
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Table 3.2 The civil population in the town of Belgrade based on the Ottoman tax registers of the 16th century. The given estimation includes only household (hane) units without single men and widows. It is usually taken that one household contains five people in average (see Inalcik 1994, pp. 26-28). The calculations for the years 1536 and 1560 are made by Šabanović (1964) while the numbers for 1572 and 1582 are taken from Šabanović (1970). 69
Table 3.3 The number of Ottoman militia in the town of Belgrade for the years 1536 and 1560 based on the Ottoman tax registers. The given estimation includes only single men. All calculations are made based on the translation provided by Šabanović (1964). 69
Table 3.4 The list of potters settled in Belgrade’s countryside based on the 16th century Ottoman tax registers. The information given in this table is extracted from Šabanović’s (1964) translation. 79
Table 4.1 Parameters that define production organisation according to the typology proposed by Costin (1991). 95
Table 5.1 Phases and contexts related to the Lower Town, defined for the purposes of this research. The description of Context 7 is from Marjanović-Vujović (1973) while all other contexts are from Popović & Bikić (2004). 107
Table 5.2 Phases deriving from Context 8 at the Old Synagogue site in Dorćol. After Bjelajac (1978) and Popović (1978). 113
Table 5.3 Ceramic analytical groups. 115
Table 5.4 Number of samples per ware selected for the petrographic analysis. 119
Table 5.5 Number of samples selected for WDXRF analysis 122
Table 5.6 Number of samples selected for the SEM-EDS analysis of glazes and slips. 123
Table 5.7 The composition of certified reference materials GSR-1 and PMS. The table gives a comparison between single measurements conducted in 2017 in the Fitch Laboratory for purposes of this research, certified values of reference materials and
20 means of ten measurements on each standard published in Georgakopoulou et al. (2017, Table 4). δ value shows differences between the measurements conducted in 2017 and those reported by Georgakopoulou et al. (2017). Oxides are reported in wt% and elements in ppm. 129
Table 5.8 Comparison between compositions of Corning Standard C as published by Adlington (2017) and measured in this research. 131
Table 5.9 Standardised zones used in analyses of glazes and slips with SEM-EDS. 132
Table 6.1 Clusters with estimated values of Mean, relative standard deviation (RSD), minimum (MIN) and maximum (MAX). Values given for Mean, MIN and MAX are in % and ppm respectively while RSD is expressed in %. 185
Table 6.2 Chemical composition of calcite-tempered pottery determined through the WDXRF analysis normalised to 100% after disregarding CaO. Values for Mean are given in % and ppm respectively while RSD is expressed in %. 186
Table 6.3 Variants of CG8 distinguished by different methods of paste preparation. 192
Table 6.4 Slip compositional groups determined through SEM-EDS. All results are normalised to 100 wt%.’-‘ indicates below detection limit. 206
Table 6.5 Comparison between the chemical compositions of slips and ceramic bodies determined through SEM-EDS. For purposes of diminishing the diffusion of glaze elements CuO and PbO have been excluded from the results as these represent either the elements coming from the glaze or added deliberately, and the remaining elements are normalised to 100 wt%. ’-‘ indicates below detection limit. 207
Table 6.6 The chemical composition of clay matrix in the slip and the body determined though the SEM-EDS spot analysis. For purposes of diminishing the diffusion of glaze elements CuO and PbO have been excluded from the results as these represent either the elements coming from the glaze or added deliberately, and the remaining elements are normalised to 100 wt%. 208
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Table 6.7 The microstructural features of glazes observed with SEM-EDS. 211
Table 6.8 The chemical composition of the glaze determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for below detection limit. 216
Table 6.9 The chemical composition of various inclusions in samples BG182 and BG208, determined through SEM-EDS analysis and given in at%. All values normalised to 100 at%. ‘-‘ stands for below detection limit. 216
Table 6.10 Technological traits of slips and glazes integrated with compositional groups (CG). 222
Appendices Illustrations
Appendix A.1 Table 1 Information about wares deriving from the macroscopic study of Belgrade’s assemblage. LT stands for the Lower Town, D for Dorćol and P for Phase. 300
Appendix C Table 1 The chemical composition of ceramics determined through the WDXRF analysis, including all elements. 386
Appendix C Table 2 The chemical composition of compositional groups (CG), given as Mean (% and ppm), Relative standard deviation (RSD) (%), Minimum (MIN) (% and ppm) and Maximum (MAX) (% and ppm) obtained through the WDXRF analysis. The samples of a CG that show compositional variations are separated with the dash line for purposes of comparison (see the text). Outliers are separated with solid lines. The table also provides comparative information on petrographic (fabrics) and chemical data (clusters). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th. 391
Appendix D.1 Table 1 The results of pXRF analysis of glazes, using the Mining Plus method. ‘-‘ stands for bellow detection limits. 396
Appendix D.2 Table 1 Types of glaze recipes associated with the lead-silica mixture. CuO and PbO are excluded and the remaining composition in normalised to 100 wt%. Determined through SEM-EDS. ‘-‘ indicates below detection limits. 398
Appendix D.2 Table 2 Glazes made of a pure lead oxide compound. CuO and PbO are excluded and the remaining composition in normalised to 100wt%. Determined through SEM-EDS. ‘-‘ indicates below detection limits. 398
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Appendix D.2 Table 3 Glazed slipware that were double-fired. Comparison made between different analytical zones illustrates the diffusion of elements. Compositions are determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for below detection limits. 400
Appendix D.2 Table 4 Ceramics without the slip that were double-fired. Comparison made between different analytical zones illustrates the diffusion of elements. Compositions are determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for the below detection limits. 401
Appendix D.2 Table 5 Ceramics without the slip that were single-fired. Comparison made between different analytical zones illustrates the diffusion of elements. Compositions are determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for the below detection limits. 402
Appendix D.2 Table 6 Ceramics without a slip coating that could potentially be either double- or single-fired. Comparison made between different analytical zones illustrates the diffusion of elements. Compositions are determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for the below detection limits. 403
Appendix E Table 1 Comparative assessment of analytical data obtained by different methods used in this research. 427
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1. Research framework The Ottoman appropriation of the Balkans at the end of the Middle Ages does not merely relate to a series of military events but it can also be described as a cultural experience that has been shaping identities of the Balkan communities. From material culture to folklore, cuisine, music and language, the influence of the Ottomans outlasted their Sultanate and left a remarkable trace on the Balkan cultures (Todorova, 2009, p. 12). This, however, has not been a one-direction influence; to the contrary, it can be described as a shared cultural experience that the Balkan communities have been recognising as a common trait in a sea of differences. The process of cultural change, in academia known as Ottomanisation, has been widely acknowledged but how it came into being is not well understood. This thesis offers an archaeological attempt to address Ottomanisation by emphasising the role of material culture in understanding the process of cultural change.
The geographical focus of this research is on Belgrade (Beograd) that was one of the main urban centres of the Middle Danube during the Middle Ages, and thus it can be taken as representative for this region. The archaeological interpretation centres on the technology of ceramic production that is reconstructed from the remains of common pottery consumed in Belgrade’s households before the Ottoman conquest (the 14th- 15th centuries) and during the first Ottoman rule over the town (the 16th-17th centuries). Belgrade, like many other Balkan towns, experienced a profound change in the consumption of ceramics after the Ottoman conquest. The introduction of new ceramic forms and styles, including those associated with Monochrome Glazed Ware, Sgraffito and Glazed Slipware, linked Belgrade to the other Balkan towns under Ottoman rule. The consumption was ‘Ottomanised’ immediately after the conquest of the town in 1521 and continued to be so until the end of the 17th century. The current understanding of this change is vague because the agents of production (potters in this case), their workshops and modes of organisation are still unknown. A comprehensive understanding of Ottomanisation requires the exploration of production and consumption dynamics that led to the cultural change.
24 To fill the gap, this thesis will present the results of an in-depth technological study of Belgrade’s pottery conducted with the methods of materials science. The absence of comparative data sets hinders a discussion of regional perspectives of cultural change. Instead, the research explores a longue durée local-scale dynamic of production and seeks to reconstruct technological traditions local to Belgrade. It follows the development of local communities of practice and the changes which their technology and production organisation faced after the Ottoman conquest.
1.2. Aims and objectives of the research The main aim of this research is to offer an archaeological interpretation of Ottomanisation presented in the light of changes of local ceramic technology and production organisation in Belgrade between the 14th-17th centuries. The research seeks to explore the impact which the Ottoman conquest of Belgrade in 1521 had on local artisans, their practice and technological traditions as well as craft organisation. Understanding the integration of local artisans into the network created by the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans is set to be one of the key objectives. This is a cross-disciplinary research that combines archaeology, materials science, historiography and anthropological theory of technology. As such, the study aims to contribute to the discipline of Ottoman Archaeology and post-medieval studies in Europe in general.
The methodology followed in this research is embedded into the materials science approach. Together with the macroscopic study, scientific analysis of ceramics is used for the reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires, which is a highly relevant framework for understanding production changes, especially in the absence of direct evidence for production as is the case with this research. In terms of theory, this research follows the approach of cultural embeddedness of technology that emphasises the importance of technological choices. This concept enables a discussion of analytical results in a way meaningful for the question of Ottomanisation.
This is the first study dedicate to the technological characterisation of Belgrade’s ceramics and the first attempt made towards the identification of provenance and modes of production organisation. Two hundred seventy ceramic samples analysed here comes from several well-dated households excavated in the intra and extra muros settlements of Belgrade’s town. The pottery dated to two pre-Ottoman phases (the 14th
25 and the 15th centuries) will be analysed for the purpose of defining the local production technology prior to the Ottoman conquest. This pottery will be compared to the pottery of two Ottoman phases dated to the 16th and 17th centuries.
More specific aims set in this research include the following:
Mineralogical and chemical characterisation of selected samples from Belgrade dated between the 14th-17th centuries. The reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires based on the analytical data. The provenance characterisation determined through the comparison made between the analytical data and the geological maps of Belgrade’s area. The use of meaningful technological patterns deriving from the chaînes opératoires for defining local technological traditions and communities of practice attached to them. The use of meaningful technological patterns deriving from the chaînes opératoires for identifying modes of production organisation. A discussion of Ottomanisation using the results of this research. A critical discussion of the historiographic macro-scale narrative about Ottomanisation.
1.3. Structure of the thesis Following the introduction presented in Chapter 1, Chapter 2 gives the background information relevant for this research. The first part of Chapter 2 provides an overview of landscape and geography of Belgrade’s area, important for the understating of the local environment and available resources. The second part is dedicated to the history of Belgrade, introducing political and socio-economic events relevant for the process of Ottomanisation. Furthermore, Chapter 2 also presents the archaeological pottery that is the subject of this research, and a history of ceramic studies relevant for Belgrade’s case. Finally, the geology of Belgrade, important for the understanding of raw materials sources potentially exploited between the 14th-17th centuries is presented in the final section of Chapter 2.
Chapters 3 and 4 present the literature review of theoretical debates relevant for this research. Chapter 3 discusses three topics shaped in Ottoman historiography and art history - Ottomanisation, Islamisation and artisans. Chapter 4 centres on theoretical
26 frameworks developed in anthropology, ethnography and archaeology that define the theoretical stance of this research. The technological perspective of cultural change in archaeological interpretations is the focus of this chapter.
Chapter 5 presents the methodology used in this research. It gives a detailed description of archaeological contexts and methods used for the macroscopic and microscopic examinations of Belgrade’s pottery.
Chapter 6 presents the results of this research. It is divided into four section. It starts with the results of macroscopic investigations and continues with the results of mineralogical and chemical analyses of ceramics, slips and glazes.
Chapter 7 is dedicated to the discussion of analytical results. In the first section, the chaînes opératoires are reconstructed and the potential provenance of raw materials is suggested. In the following section, technological traditions and communities of practice are discussed. The succeeding section elucidates the production organisation. The final section offers an archaeological interpretation of Ottomanisation in Belgrade.
Chapter 8 brings concluding remarks and final observations. In addition, suggestions for future research are given in this chapter.
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Chapter 2 Background of the research
‘Beograde (Beograde) na ušću dveju reka ispod Avale’ (Đorđe Marjanović)
‘Belgrade (Belgrade) at the confluence of two rivers beneath Avala’ (translation Jelena Živković)
This chapter provides background information regarding aspects of the geography, history, archaeology and geology of Belgrade that are relevant for this research. The chapter is divided into four sections, starting with the description of the local landscape and geography. The second section gives an overview of historical events that occurred on Belgrade’s ground between the 14th and 17th centuries. It is divided into a political and socio-economic history of Belgrade. This section aims to offer a historical context for the archaeological research presented in this thesis. The third section reviews archaeological investigations into 14th to 17th c. Belgrade, emphasising ceramic studies. This pottery is the analytical subject of this thesis. Finally, the fourth section refers to the geology of Belgrade, highlighting features that are relevant for the interpretation of the results presented in Chapter 7.
2.1 Belgrade, landscape and geography Belgrade is located in the Middle Danube region, at the far north of the Balkan Peninsula (Fig. 2.1). Prior to the 20th century, the rivers Sava and Danube formed the northern border of the city, surrounding it from three sides. The elevation above the confluence of the Sava into the Danube was used for the construction of military fortifications that overlooked the southern edges of the Pannonian Plain from Roman times onwards (Fig. 2.2). Civil settlements grew on the southern side of the Fortress, which is open to the Balkan Peninsula and presents the only land access to the town. Moving further to the south, the hilly landscape turns into the small mountains of the Šumadija region that are also known as Belgrade’s mountains (Fig. 2.3). Closer to the town is the Avala mountain (elevation 511 meters), located 15 km away from the downtown Belgrade (Fig. 2.4). The second one is the Kosmaj mountain (elevation 626 meters), located at a distance of 40 km from Belgrade. The mountains and surrounding lowlands are intersected with small rivers and creeks that flow into the Sava and the Danube. These two mountains form the natural southern edge of Belgrade. The
28 villages located on slopes and in lowlands around these two mountains constituted an economic and administrative hinterland of Belgrade, and therefore they are included in this research. They are known for deposits of silver-rich lead, iron and mercury ores, all exploited in the past including the period under consideration (Hrabak, 1956; Simić, 1957). Equally important, the area between Belgrade and the mountains has been known for its agricultural and pastoral productivity in the Ottoman period (Miljković Bojanić, 2001).
Figure 2.1 Map of the Balkan Peninsula showing the location of Belgrade and other major sites mentioned in the thesis. Map is courtesy of Professor Mihailo Milinković.
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Figure 2.2 View of the Belgrade Fortress from the Sava river. Photo: Jelena Živković.
Figure 2.3 Belgrade’s landscape with marked locations of the Avala and Kosmaj mountains. Source: Google Earth.
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Figure 2.4 View of the Avala mountain from the village of Ripanj. Photo: Jelena Živković
The Danube communication axis that linked Belgrade with the Black Sea and Istanbul to one side and Central Europe to the other side had great influence on the socio- economic development of the town. Located on a strategic location, Belgrade’s port was an inevitable stop for all ships that sailed on the Danube (Hrabak, 1958). For the local population, the rivers were the most valuable source of food, and the Ottoman documents show that Belgrade’s fish market gained a regional significance in the 16th and the 17th centuries (Hrabak, 1960). At the same time, the Danube and its tributaries constituted a natural boundary in the Balkans that separated the Ottomans from the Habsburgs, their biggest rival in this part of the world. Thus, control over the Danube was of major importance for warfare logistics and the economy in general (Brummett, 2013, p. 59).
The second communication axis relevant for Belgrade was the land route known in Roman times as via militaris, while the Ottomans called it Istanbul yolu or Istanbul cadessi (Zirojević, 1970). Belgrade was the starting point and Istanbul the end of this road that connected the major Balkan towns - Niš, Sofia, Plovdiv and Edirne - into one network. The efficiency of this road was an instrument that facilitated the process of Ottomanisation in the Balkans (Klusakova, 2001).
Thus, Belgrade lay on the intersection of two major communication axes in South- Eastern Europe – the Danube and the Balkan land route. They connected the town with centres of political power in different periods under consideration in this research. In
31 the 15th century, Belgrade was connected with the northern Hungarian lands via the Danube. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottomans used both axes to connect the Balkan provinces with the capital.
2.2 Belgrade in the local and regional history (14th-17th centuries) Between the disintegration of the Roman limes on the Danube in the 6th century and the spread of the Ottoman Empire in the Pannonian Plain in the 16th century, Belgrade mostly served as a fortified frontier town. Due to its strategic location, the town was a focal point of various military agents whose presence played a significant role in its development. The period of the 16th-17th centuries, which is the focus of this research, brought after a long time a different geopolitical position to Belgrade. After the Ottoman conquest of Buda in 1541, the border with the Habsburgs was moved to the north of Belgrade. This shift facilitated the growth of the civil settlement, although it did not lead to the de-militarisation of Belgrade (Popović, 1960). These two geopolitical positions must be taken into account when considering the material culture of the town because they imply different types of socio-economic networks that in different periods connected or disconnected Belgrade from its surroundings.
2.2.1 Political history
In the 13th century the Hungarian Kingdom became a dominant political force in the Middle Danube, following a long warfare with the Byzantine Empire. Belgrade was the key Hungarian town on the southern border until the Ottoman conquest in 1521. Phases 1 and 2 of this research, dated to the 14th and 15th centuries respectively, correspond to this period (Table 2.1). Hungarian kings sought to extend political relations with Serbian kings and despots that periodically influenced the development of Belgrade. In a period between 1284-1316, Belgrade was granted to a former Serbian king Dragutin (r. 1276-1282) who acted as a Hungarian nobleman. The rule of Serbian nobility is considered to be the principal cause for the dominant presence of the Orthodox Serbian-speaking population from the 14th century onwards (Mijušković- Kalić, 1967, pp. 67–68).
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Phase Chronology Political framework Phase 1 c. the 14th century The Hungarian Kingdom
Phase 2 the second half of the 15th century The Hungarian Kingdom and the beginning of the 16th century (before 1521) Phase 3 the 16th century (after 1521) The Ottoman Empire
Phase 4 the 17th century (before 1688) The Ottoman Empire
Table 2.1 Periodisation used in this research based on dates estimated for archaeological horizons. For more details, see Chapter 5.
In the middle of the 14h century, the Ottomans emerged as a new regional power in the Balkans (Kiel, 2009). The Ottoman conquest of the Balkan principalities had a great impact on the Danubian border with Hungary. After the battle at Kosovo Polje in 1389, which marked the end of the Serbian principality of Lazar Hrebeljanović (r. 1373-1389), the Ottomans initiated attacks on Hungarian fortifications on the Danube. King Sigismund of Hungary (r. 1387-1437), threatened by these intrusions, formed the southern border defence on the Danube that consisted of several strong fortifications supplied regularly by men and goods. For this cause, Sigismund engaged mobile troops of South Slav refugees settled in Hungary that were experienced in warfare against the Ottomans (Bak, 1990, pp. 61–62). For the next two centuries, Belgrade was key to this border defence.
After the Mongolian ruler Timur (r. 1370-1405) heavily defeated the Ottoman army at Ankara in 1402, the pressure coming from the Ottomans was released for a while. Following this event, Despot Stefan Lazarević (r. 1389-1427) signed a peace agreement with Sigismund, and in return he received Belgrade, which became the new capital of the Serbian Despotate (1404-1427). This was a period of great urban modifications of Belgrade and the construction of new defensive fortifications (Popović, 2006). However, soon asfter Stefan’s death in 1427, the town was returned to Sigismund, according to the previously made agreement, and became once again the most significant Hungarian stronghold on the Danube borderline.
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The handover of Belgrade coincided with a new wave of Ottoman conquests in the Balkans. The previous vassal principalities were slowly incorporated into the Ottoman state and transformed into provinces (sancaks)1 with an enforced taxation system (Brummett, 2013). Smederevo, the capital of the Serbian Despotate of Đurađ Branković (r. 1427-1456) was conquered in 1459 and became the centre of a newly formed sancak. The Ottomans were now stationed in close vicinity of Belgrade which was sieged three times and attacked on numerous occasions until the final conquest in 1521.
The first Ottoman siege of Belgrade occurred in 1440. Although this siege was unsuccessful, it introduced a period of constant intrusions of Ottoman frontier commanders who crossed the Danube every year, taking slaves and material goods from southern Hungary (Magina, 2017). In 1442, the Ottomans managed to conquer a strategic location on the Avala mountain, cutting off Belgrade from its countryside (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, p. 116; Katić, 2015, p. 254). They constructed a military fort on the top of the Avala mountain known in sources as Güzelce Hisȃr (pretty fort) or simply as Havȃla (the dominant elevation) (Katić, 2015, p. 257). Although the fort was lost by the Ottomans in the 1440’s as part of the agreement with the Serbian Despot Đurađ (Katić, 2015, p. 258), by the end of that decade Avala with the surrounding villages was part of the Ottoman Smederevo sancak (Miljković Bojanić, 2004). The earliest known population census in the Smederevo sancak was conducted in 1476/8, listing villages and tax burdens of their inhabitants who became fully integrated inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire (Šabanović, 1964, pp. 1–4).
Led by the young Sultan Mehmed II (r. 1431-1481) who conquered Constantinople in 1453 and launched the final conquest of the Balkan states, the Ottomans organised another siege of Belgrade in 1456. Despite having more men and better logistics than the Hungarian crown, the Ottomans failed to take Belgrade. Voivode Janos Hunyadi, who was the military commander of Belgrade and the Danubian frontier, successfully engaged local population and resources to defend the town.
Following the withdrawal of the Ottoman army, Belgrade was in a difficult position despite a splendid victory on the battlefield. The town was practically destroyed, especially the suburbs, and diseases decimated the local population (Mijušković-Kalić,
1 All terms taken from Turkish are listed and explained in the Glossary at the end of the thesis. 34
1967, p. 176). On the other side, the Ottomans resumed military operations on the Danube soon after their defeat at Belgrade. From the fort on Avala, the Ottomans controlled all the roads to the town, and the villages between Belgrade and Avala were trapped in constant conflicts between the two sides (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, p. 185). Although the town was not under siege, the continuous attacks of Ottoman border commanders on Belgrade’s countryside threatened the town. Their attacks were especially frequent in autumns when Belgrade’s dwellers were out of the city walls in their vineyards (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, p. 207).
The conquest of the Middle Danube became a priority again in 1520 after Sultan Suleiman (r. 1520-1566) inherited the Ottoman throne. Destabilised by civil unrests, de-centralised Hungary had a weak position on the frontier and was entirely unprepared for the Ottoman attack in 1521. Suleiman applied a different military tactic than Mehmed II, and decided to attack the town from the north, cutting off any provision of supply from Hungary. The Ottomans conquered the Lower Town first, and according to sources its dwellers burned down their homes and moved to the better protected Upper Town (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, p. 255). However, not even the strong walls of the Upper Town stopped the Janissaries, and the town surrounded to the Ottomans in August 1521. To confirm the victory, Suleiman ordered his commanders to burn down the remaining towns in Srem (the region between the Sava and the Danube) and so hinder a gathering of the Hungarian military (Šabanović, 1974a, p. 323). A day later, Suleiman marched into the town and converted the main church in the Lower Town to a mosque. The Hungarian-speaking population demanded a free pass to Hungary, which was approved, and they left Belgrade (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, p. 262). The Serbian-speaking population was, however, forced to move to Istanbul. They took their religious relics, including the icon of Virgin Mary that was in the town since the 11th century, and established a new settlement on the outskirts of Istanbul (Deroko, 1953). These two events illustrate the scale of population movement and cultural change. Although the precise scale of de-population is unknown, according to the first Ottoman census organised in 1528, the civil settlement was poorly inhabited (Šabanović, 1964, pp. 138–141).
Between 1521 and 1688/1717 Belgrade was an Ottoman town. Phases 3 and 4 of this research are dated to the 16th and 17th centuries respectively (Table 2.1). Immediately after the conquest in 1521, Belgrade became an administrative centre and largest town
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(sehir) of the Smederevo sancak, initially in the Beylerbeylik of Rumeli and after 1541 in the Beylerbeylik of Buda (Miljković Bojanić, 2004, pp. 44–45). In the first two decades after the conquest, the town served as a focal point for the Ottoman conquest of Hungary, hosting a large number of military personnel (Šabanović, 1974a, pp. 326– 327). After the fall of Buda in 1541, Belgrade lost its strategic importance on the border, which was moved further to the north. Still, the town remained a central point of military gathering during large campaigns of sultans and grand viziers against the Habsburgs and especially the siege of Vienna in 1683. From an isolated position in the centre of warfare, Belgrade became a well-connected town and a regional hub. In a dense network of Ottoman urban settlements, Belgrade started to thrive thanks to the rising benefits of regional and international trade. The decreasing number of permanently stationed solders opened more space for the growth of the civil population.
At the end of the 17th century, Belgrade was again in the centre of extensive warfare. The unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 initiated the Habsburg attack on Ottoman territories. Hungary was taken in 1687 while Belgrade was conquered in 1688. Before his departure, the Ottoman commander of Belgrade burned down the suburbs on the Sava and the Danube (Veselinović, 1974, p. 472). This takeover was short lasting, and the Ottomans returned to the town already in 1689. Before the second Austrian conquest in 1717, Belgrade remained a border town that suffered great losses during the war. The events in 1688 mark the terminus ante quem for this research.
2.2.2 Urban developments
The written sources and archaeological remains provide a patchy picture about urban and socio-economic developments in 14th century Belgrade (Phase 1). A civil settlement protected by a wall emerged in the 14th century outside the old Byzantine fort (Popović, 2006, p. 77). The existence of a small extra muros settlement was confirmed in the archaeological rescue excavations in the area of Dorćol, on the Danube bank (Popović, 1978a) (Fig. 2.5). Ceramics from this area, dated by a coin to the early 14th centry (Bjelajac, 1978) at the internally unstratified site of the Old Synagogue were analysed in this research (see Chapter 5, Phase 1).
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Figure 2.5 Ottoman Belgrade in Phases 3 and 4. The approximate size of Late Medieval Belgrade (Phases 1 and 2) is marked in yellow. The map is modified after Šabanović (1964, pp.35–36).
At the beginning of the 15th century Belgrade, as the capital of the Serbian Despotate, went through substantial urban transformations. Large-scale construction works were undertaken around the old Byzantine fort, giving Belgrade three distinctive urban units that will remain almost intact until the extensive Austrian modifications in the 18th century (Popović, 2006, pp. 85–131) (Fig. 2.6). The intra muros civil settlement called Donji grad (the Lower Town), founded on the place of the 14th century settlement, was extended and subdivided into Eastern and Western Suburbs. The Lower Town became the home of merchats and craftsmen. On the elevation above the rivers, Gornji grad (the Upper Town) was erected. The Upper Town was a strong fortification, protected with double walls and a ditch from the south. This space was reserved for
37 the inhabitation of nobility in the 15th century. Within the Upper Town, Zamak (the Castle) was reserved for the inhabitation of the ruler.
After the Hungarian takeover in 1427, the urban fabric and social structure of Belgrade suffered modifications. The Upper Town became a military space. When the French traveller Bertrandon de la Broquiére visited the town in 1433, he left a note that the Serbian population was not allowed to enter the Upper Town because the Hungarian nobility did not trust them due to their cooperation with the Ottomans (De La Brokijer, 1950, p. 133). Nevertheless, they occupied the Lower Town. The existence of the extra muros settlement was again confirmed in archaeological excavations in Dorćol’s area (Bjelajac, 1978), and it was probably similar in size to the 14th century settlement (Popović, 1978b, p. 127).
Scarce written sources shed some light on the socio-economic conditions in the town before the Ottoman conquest. There are no estimations on the size of the urban population settled in Belgrade. Written sources often mention Serbs and Hungarians as the two main groups settled in the town (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, pp. 312–313). Furthermore, in the mid-15th century Ragusans had their trading colony in Belgrade.
Belgrade was a seat of both Catholic and Orthodox bishops. The Catholics had one church in the Upper Town and two in the Lower Town (Mijušković-Kalić, 1974a, p. 164). The Metropolitan Orthodox church was situated in the Lower Town, probably next to a large residential complex interpreted as the Metropolitan palace built in the second half of the 15th century (Popović and Bikić, 2004). Ceramics excavated from the remains of the Metropolitan palace were analysed in this research (Phase 2).
For this research, it is important to emphasise that at least from the beginning of the 15th century, the Metropolitan bishop received the revenue in silver from the mining settlement Rudište which was in possession of the Orthodox church (Mijušković- Kalić, 1967, p. 91). The mining village of Rudište has been identified as part of the modern day village Ripanj, located below Avala (Simić, 1957; Šabanović, 1964, p. 7). From 1453, the mine was in possession of Hunyadi (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, pp. 305– 306). This transfer coincides with a decade of Serbian rule over the Avala fort (1444- 1458), which allowed Hunyadi to enjoy the revenue from the ore exploitation at Rudište (Katić, 2015, p. 258). The situation changed in the second half of the 15th century. Already in 1476/8, the Serbian-speaking mining population of Rudište payed
38 taxes in silver to the Ottoman authorities (Šabanović, 1964, p. 7). By the time of the second census in 1516, Rudište was abandoned because its population had moved to ‘the land of infidels’, which was Hungary (Šabanović, 1964, p. 18).
The economy of Belgrade was largely dependent on the trade network developed by the Ragusan merchants. The rise of Dubrovnik was facilitated by the economic expansion of Italy in the 13th century that was largely dependent on silver exports from Serbian and Bosnian mines (Inalcik, 1994, pp. 256–257). Using caravan routes, Dubrovnik developed a well-organised network of towns that connected the Adriatic coast with the Danube basin, focusing on the Balkan mining centres. Danubian centres served as hubs for the trade with Central Europe, and as part of this network Belgrade was a temporary or permanent port for the Ragusan merchants. The main exported goods from the Balkans were ores rich in silver, lead, copper and gold. This network included Rudište in the middle of the 15th century, a silver-lead mine close to Avala (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, p. 297). In return, Ragusan merchants provided access to luxurious textiles and wares to Belgrade’s dwellers (Bikić, 1995). It seems that the constant warfare around Belgrade did not prevent people from different sides to trade in goods, as some agreements from the second half of the 15th century show (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, p. 304).
The Ottoman conquest in 1521 changed the course of urban development (Fig. 2.5). Belgrade became a seat of several administrative-judicial and military authorities in the 16th-17th centuries. Although faced with an initial drop of population, Belgrade was designated as şehir, or a fully developed city (see Todorov, 1983, p. 20), and became the administrative centre of the Smederevo sancak and seat of a qadi (a judge), whose jurisdiction exceeded the borders of the sancak.
The Ottoman conquest also brought a change in the status of social groups settled in Belgrade. Previously established social ties between various social groups were broken and new ones were formed. The former feudal system composed of large estates in the hands of the aristocracy that tied peasants to the land ceased to exist (Inalcik, 1994, p. 16). The land that belonged to the aristocracy and the church was granted as timars, used by the privileged sipahis in exchange for their military service to the Sultan. The peasants, artisans and merchants formed a new class of taxpayers called reaya that initially had lighter burdens compared to the previous period. This situation changed in the 17th century due to the deficit in the imperial treasury, and the tax for non-
39
Muslims was increased, which caused discontent among this social group (Inalcik, 1994, p. 24).
Although Christians formed the majority in the first half of the 16th century, by 1582 Muslims constituted over 60% of the total urban population (Šabanović, 1970). Besides them, the town was inhabited by Slavic-speaking Christians, together with Gypsies, Jews, Greeks and Armenians (Šabanović, 1974b, p. 365). There are different estimations about the size of the urban populations. Çelebî (1957, p.95) wrote in 1660 that Belgrade had 98,000 people settled in 17,000 houses. A bishop Petar from Bar who visited Belgrade in 1632 and 1636 left a note that the town had 60,000 people settled in 8,000 households (Samardžić, 1955, p. 53). However, the Ottoman tax registers available for the 16th century suggests that the town had less than 10,000 people (Šabanović, 1964). According to the classification of Balkan cities provided by Todorov (1983, pp. 28–30), Belgrade went from being a small city in the first half of the 16th century (245 taxable households in 1536), to a medium-size city (498 taxable households in 1566; 1,113 in 1272 and 934/936 in 1582) in the second half of the 16th century (figures of taxable households calculated from Šabanović 1964; 1970).
Ottoman Belgrade was divided into two urban units and each consisted of several neighbourhoods or mahallas classified after the religious affiliation of the dwellers (Fig. 2.5). The first urban unit was the intra muros town, which was generally a rare type of settlement in the Ottoman Empire (Todorov, 1983, p. 33). The Upper Town remained a military space, although the Muslim civil population was allowed to settle there by the middle of the 16th century and formed one small mahalla (Šabanović, 1970, p. 18). The Lower Town was a civil fortified suburb divided into four mahallas settled by Muslims only (Šabanović, 1970, p. 17). The extra muros area was known as varoṣ; it was a significantly larger settlement than the one within the walls. Although its core overlapped with the 15th century extra muros settlement, the Ottoman varoṣ extended greatly towards the south, and included Christian mahallas on the bank of the Sava, and at Vračar and Topčider (Šabanović, 1970, p. 9). Mahallas in the varoṣ spread in an irregular order along two main communication axes – the Smederevo road and the famous Imperial road (Fig. 2.5). The varoṣ was the commercial centre of the town, especially its part called ҫarşi that contained markets and artisans’ shops. Belgrade had four large ҫarşi and two more mentioned by Çelebî (1957) in 1660. In addition to regular markets, the town had three bedesten (covered markets) that were 40 large stone buildings constructed in a typical Ottoman style (Šabanović, 1970, p. 32). Reinhold Lubenau, a German traveller who visited Belgrade in 1587, praised Belgrade’s shops for being as well supplied as shops in Germany and Italy thanks to Ragusan merchants (Zirojević, 1966, p. 54). The varoṣ had furthermore five or six caravanserais and about thirty hans where merchants could stay and stock their goods. The monumental caravanserai of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha had two stories, and consisted of a bedesten, 160 rooms for merchants and stables (Samardžić, 1955, p. 50). Several imarets, hamams and public fountains complete the image of a typical Ottoman town in the 16th-17th centuries. A special place in the new urban fabric belonged to religious places whose number varied. Çelebî (1957) mentioned 217 mosques and masjids as well as 17 tekkes in 1660. While the number of tekkes is taken as accurate (Šabanović, 1970, p. 31), the number of mosques and masjids is estimated to be around 80 with a possibility that additional small masjids could exist in mahallas (Nikić, 1960, p. 152).
The 16th century was a period of economic growth in the Balkans during which Dubrovnik had a monopoly over trade (Inalcik, 1994, p. 262). From the 1440s the Dubrovnik Republic was an Ottoman vassal and payed taxes to the Sultan. With the integration into the Ottoman Empire, the Ragusans were granted special trade privileges in the Balkans and received protection from the Ottoman sultans. The development of their network was facilitated by the Ottoman expansion on three continents. However, unlike before, the trade in silver and other precious metals was prohibited and they turned to other exporting goods, such as salt, animal skins, wax and wheat (Inalcik, 1994, pp. 259–263). For the need of the Balkan population, the Ragusans imported various textiles and luxurious objects. Belgrade was no exception in this regard. After a period of intense frontier warfare in the second half of the 15th century, the Ragusan merchants returned to Belgrade after the Ottoman conquest. A decade later, they founded a colony in the town, providing luxurious textiles imported from Italy for its military garrison and civilians (Samardžić, 1955, p. 51). The 16th century warfare in Hungary and campaigns against Austria had a positive impact on this trade and this was a period of great prosperity for Belgrade which served as a main transit point. The construction of caravanserais and hans in the town speak volumes of this development (Šabanović, 1974c). Belgrade remained an emporium in the 17th
41 century despite the decline of Dubrovnik that was largely replaced by Bosnian, Greek and Jewish merchants (Stoianovich, 1960).
2.3 Material culture in the light of archaeological investigations Material remains uncovered in numerous archaeological excavations in the area of historic Belgrade point to a vivid cultural dynamic from the Roman period until the Modern Age. Medieval and post-medieval horizons are rich in ceramics that remain the most important testimony of cultural developments (Bajalović – Hadži-Pešić 1984; Bikić 1994; 2003b; Bjelajac 1978; Marjanović-Vujović 1973; Popović & Bikić 2004). This is especially true for the 16th and 17th centuries, the period for which architectural remains have almost entirely vanished. The Bajrakli mosque and the fountain of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha are rare monuments that give insight into the urban fabric of Ottoman Belgrade. Thus, the study of ceramics is important not merely for the reconstruction of production and consumption trends but also to open a rare window into the cultural dynamics that shaped the history of the town.
Archaeological ceramics dated between the 14th and 17th centuries are known from consumption contexts located in the intra and extra muros settlements. Remains of production debris, such as kilns and wasters, have not been documented. Outside the historic town, there are no known archaeological ceramics of the 14th to 17th centuries due to a lack of systematic archaeological investigations of rural areas. The fort of Avala was described before its complete destruction in 1934 (Bošković, 1940), but archaeological remains have not been collected. Since this research will discuss the rural area in the context of ceramic provenance, the lack of archaeological remains presents a great obstacle. The following review will focus on ceramics from consumption contexts from two locations in the town of Belgrade – the Lower Town of the Belgrade Fortress and Dorćol – that are analysed in this research.
Numerous ceramic finds testify to the inhabitation of several households located in the intra muros settlement at the Lower Town that served as a military, administrative and religious centre throughout all phases (Popović and Bikić, 2004; Popović, 2006). The inhabitation in the Fortress was controlled by the local provincial authority, and usually implied the segregation of the local population. This rule was especially pronounced in the Ottoman phases, when only Muslims could settle in the Lower
42 Town. The Fortress has been systematically excavated throughout the 20th century, which resulted in rich archaeological strata. The earliest household considered in this research is dated to the second half of the 15th century (Phase 2) and it is interpreted as the residency of the Serbian Orthodox Metropolitan (Popović and Bikić, 2004). Following the Ottoman conquest of the town in 1521 (Phase 3), the first Muslim settlers formed two households in the Lower Town, located next to the mosque of Sultan Suleyman (Bikić 2007; Popović and Bikić 2004). In the 17th century, the remains of two houses were excavated in the Lower Town, both inhabited by the Muslim citizens (Marjanović-Vujović 1973; Popović and Bikić 2004).
Ceramics from the Fortress will be compared to ceramics from Dorćol’s internally unstratified site Old Synagogue (Popović, 1978a). The site is named after a synagogue situated in the centre of the Jewish mahalla that served as a sanctuary of the Jewish community settled in Belgrade after the Reconquista in Spain (Popović, 1978a). The first synagogue was built on this place in the second half of the 16th century, although architectural remains documented during the archaeological excavations mostly belong to a building from the 19th century. The synagogue was an important landmark in Belgrade until WWII when it was destroyed during the Nazi occupation. The Old Synagogue is one of few archaeological sites investigated in rescue excavations of the Dorćol’s area during 1970’s that revealed important archaeological findings from the extra muros part of the town. Apart from the 17th century ceramics (Phase 4), the pottery of older archaeological horizons was documented at this site as well, dated to the 14th (Phase 1) and the 15th centuries (Phase 2). Although some vessels were documented in pits, most of the pottery comes from poorly stratified archaeological layers and, thus, it is dated based on analogy with the Belgrade Fortress (Bjelajac, 1978). Despite being poorly contextualised, Dorćol’s ceramic vessels testify to the consumption in a civil settlement that lacked the presence of political elites in Phases 1 and 2 as well as the Jewish community in Phase 4.
2.3.1 History of ceramic research
The archaeological ceramics from Belgrade dated between the 14th and 17th centuries have been studied for several decades (Bajalović - Hadži-Pešić 1981; 1984; Bikić 1994; 2003b; 2012a; 2013; 2017; Bjelajac 1978; Marjanović-Vujović 1973; Popović & Bikić 2004). The development of a classification system, based on morphological characteristics of ceramics, increased the knowledge on consumption trends, regional
43 distribution, traditions in pottery making, imports and trade routes. The typology developed for medieval (Bjelajac, 1978; Bikić, 1994) and post medieval pottery (Bikić, 2003b) by researchers at the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade enabled a systematic approach to ceramic studies. This typology is primarily based on forms and decoration styles, but also includes macroscopic observations of technological traits, such as properties of pastes and firing regimes. Considering the lack of production debris, the provenance of Belgrade’s pottery has not been discussed thoroughly. The distribution of pottery as well as the political importance of Belgrade have led scholars to suggest a local provenance of some wares (Bajalović - Hadži-Pešić, 1981; Bikić, 2003b).
The advanced ceramic studies in Belgrade have been facilitated by well-defined archaeological contexts that can be dated accurately. Well-contextualised pottery is not very common at post-medieval sites in the Balkans, and thus Belgrade presents a good starting point for the local and future regional studies on production centres and technological traditions.
2.3.2 Archaeological ceramics of Phases 1 and 2
The pottery of Phase 1, dated to c.14th century, is documented at the Old Synagogue site at Dorćol (Bjelajac, 1978). Material of the same horizon is poorly detected at the Fortress (Bikić 1994, p.66; Popović 2006, pp.47–48), and thus is not included in this research. At Dorćol, around 40 homogenous cooking pots were reconstructed, characterised by everted rims and rounded walls decorated with incised wavy lines (Table 2.2). This pottery is considered to be of local origin in Belgrade and representative of a local tradition in pottery making (Bikić, 1994, p. 65).
The pottery of Phase 2 is documented both at the Lower Town and Dorćol, dated to the second half of the 15th and the early 16th centuries. The largest part of the 15th century assemblage consists of coarse kitchenwares, such as cooking pots and matching lids (Bikić, 1994, pp. 73–80). According to the typology proposed by Bikić (1994), cooking pots appear in several groups, each linked with different traditions in pottery making. The most numerous are cooking pots of Group 1, characterised by an everted rim and rounded walls that end in a narrow base (Table 2.2). The decoration is limited to incised parallel lines in the upper part of the body. Group 2 refers to cooking pots with a flat and elongated neck and symmetrical rounded body (Table 2.2). Based on the typological analogy, Groups 1 and 2 are associated with ceramic
44 traditions and workshops of medieval Hungary (Bikić, 1994, pp. 75–77). Contrary to these two groups, cooking pots of minor Group 3, characterised by everted rims and rounded walls decorated with incised decoration (Table 2.2), are associated with the tradition that flourished in medieval Serbia, and represent the continuation of the 14th century tradition documented at Dorćol (Bikić, 1994, pp. 77–79). Interestingly, the distribution of cooking pots of Group 3 is restricted to the Fortress, and they do not appear in Dorćol’s assemblage. Another group found only at the Fortress are distinctive grey cooking pots with everted stamped rims (Table 2.2), interpreted as products of workshops located in Austria (Bikić, 1994, pp. 92–93). Tableware constitutes a surprisingly small fraction of the 15th century assemblage at both sites. Jugs with one vertical handle, beakers and bowls can be classified into this group. A glaze coating rarely appears on the tableware, but remains of glass vessels are documented at the Metropolitan palace site (Popović and Bikić, 2004, p. 93). Another class, decorative stove pots that can be described as technical, is documented at the Lower Town in six different shapes and sizes (Table 2.2). These pots used to decorate the outer walls of two large stoves in the Metropolitan palace (Popović and Bikić, 2004, p. 89). In addition to the above-mentioned ceramic classes, Phase 2 at the Fortress is characterised by several minor groups of wares imported from specialised workshops that is not included in the analysis conducted in this research. A jug of a white fabric painted with darker tones found in the Metropolitan Palace is a typical product of Hungarian medieval workshops (Popović and Bikić 2004, p. 90). Another group of tableware is Maiolica from Italian workshops. Five pitchers made in the Maiolica technique were found in the Metropolitan Palace (Popović and Bikić 2004, p. 91). In addition, two Sgraffito vessels, one bowl and one jug/pitcher, were made in a workshop located somewhere in the Serbian Despotate (Popović and Bikić 2004, p. 90).
Besides ceramics, archaeological excavations of the Metropolitan Palace in the Lower Town revealed diverse archaeological finds. Numerous are fragments of glass bottles and flat window glasses discovered in the context of the Palace’s destruction (Popović and Bikić 2004, p. 90, Fig.55). Two finds of bronze candlesticks and one bell fulfil a picture of the everyday life in this monumentally built residency Popović and Bikić 2004, p. 95-96).
45
Wares Drawings Photos
Cooking pot from Dorćol (Phase 1)
Ware 22
Cooking pot of Group 1 (Phase 2)
Ware 1
Cooking pot of Group 2 (Phase 2)
Ware 3
Cooking pot of Group 3 (Phase 2)
Ware 2
46
Cooking pot of Austrian provenance (Phase 2)
Ware 4
Tableware/jug (Phase 2)
Ware 1
Tableware/bowl and beaker (Phase 2)
Ware 2
Stove pots (Phase 2)
Ware 1
Table 2.2 Ceramics of Phases 1 and 2 from Dorćol and the Lower Town. Typology and drawings are taken from Bikić (1994), Bjelajac (1978) and Popović and Bikić (2004). Wares are defined for the purposes of this research (see Chapter 5). Photos are taken by Jelena Živković at the City Museum of Belgrade and the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade.
47
2.3.3 Archaeological ceramics of Phases 3 and 4
After the Ottoman conquest in 1521, the consumption trend in Belgrade changed. This change is reflected in larger quantities of tableware compared to Phase 2, especially glazed classes, as well as the introduction of new forms of pottery. In her seminal work on ceramics of Ottoman Belgrade, Bikić (2003b) distinguished three traditions in pottery making. Two of them, named Serbian and Hungarian, represent the continuation of the 14th-15th century local traditions while the Ottoman tradition is the newly introduced one to the town (Bikić, 2003b, p. 16). These three traditions can be distinguished based on decorative styles and vessel shapes, as well as some technological traits such as firing and fabric. The provenance of all three classes could not be established due to the lack of production remains in Belgrade.
Common pottery manufactured in all three proposed traditions - Serbian, Hungarian and Ottoman - has been found in archaeological contexts of both Phases 3 and 4. Phase 3 is defined by ceramics discovered in two Lower Town households, formed above a layer of the Metropolitan Palace destroyed in a fire during the Ottoman conquest (Bikić, 2007). It is dated to the first decades of the Ottoman rule over the town, during which the Lower Town served as a settlement of the privileged Muslim class. The ceramics of this horizon have not been identified in rescue excavations at Dorćol. Contrary to that, ceramics of the 17th century (Phase 4) have been documented in two household contexts at the Lower Town and the unstratified Old Synagogue site at Dorćol. Ottoman Phases 3 and 4 show continuity in pottery consumption, although each has some recognisable traits that will be discussed further.
The Serbian tradition in the work of Bikić (2003b) refers to the pottery found in Belgrade that was reminiscent of ceramics made in the medieval Serbian Principality and Despotate of the 14th-15th centuries (Bajalović - Hadži-Pešić 1980; 1981), best defined after assemblages found at sites in Stalać (Minić and Vukadin, 2007), Kruševac (Minić, 1980), Novo Brdo (Jovanović, Zečević and Ćirković, 2004) and the Studenica monastery (Bikić, 2015). This tradition defined in medieval Serbian states refers to tableware (bowls, pitchers, jugs and goblets) decorated by white painting and glazing, following models established in the Byzantine workshops (Bikić, 2003a). Based on the distribution of this pottery, random findings of tripods and wasters as well as written sources, Bajalović Hadži-Pešić (1980) suggested that this pottery was produced in four workshops - Novo Brdo, Stalać, Kruševac and Belgrade.
48
Archaeological remains of kilns, wasters and pottery found in Kruševac dated to the 16th-17th centuries show that at least one of the medieval workshops continued working into the Ottoman period (Minić, 1979).
In Ottoman Belgrade, the number of painted and glazed pottery made in the Serbian tradition is modest, and it mostly relates to small cooking pots of Types II/2 and II/7, characterised by everted rims and rounded walls with one handle (Table 2.3) (Bikić, 2003b, pp. 101–105). Baking pans (crepulje) and their lids (vršnici) are not numerous, and almost all examples are dated to Phase 4. This common class of kitchenware was used for the traditional preparation of bread and has a long continuity in the production and consumption until the present day (Tomić, 1983).
The Hungarian tradition in Phases 3 and 4 is defined as the continuation of the dominant production of Phase 2, with slight changes, such as a broader use of glazes (Bikić, 2003b, p. 106). Although ceramics made in this tradition are found at different locations in the Fortress, its quantity is modest in the contexts under consideration (Table 2.3). Bikić (2003b) attributes jugs (Type III/3), made in a fabric that contains abundant sand inclusions, to the group of unglazed kitchenware made in this tradition. In a group of monochrome glazed pottery made of well-prepared clay with very fine sand inclusions, Bikić (2003b, p. 109) includes cooking pots with elongated neck, rounded walls and one handle (Types II/6). Jugs painted in red on a plain background and coated with a green transparent glaze (Type III/21) belong to a special class that is known from medieval sites in Central Europe (Gerelyes, 2009).
The Ottoman tradition is defined as an amalgamation of Islamic and Byzantine styles (Bikić, 2003b, p. 116). Ceramics shaped in this tradition represent the largest fraction of the assemblage under study. Phases 3 and 4 are characterised by the diversity of ceramic classes that include commonly found pots for cooking, serving and storing of food and drinks, and also miscellaneous forms such as toys for children, candlesticks, musical instruments, money boxes and night pots (Bikić, 2003b, pp. 153–156). Although miscellaneous classes are not found in the contexts under the consideration, and therefore are not included in the analysis performed in this research, they nevertheless provide a vivid picture about the everyday life in an Ottoman town. Pots made in the Ottoman tradition are also characterised by a standardised production process. For example, the jug Type III/10 was made in two standardised sizes. Bikić (2017) linked this type of production with the work of guilds.
49
In Phases 3 and 4, cooking pots of Ottoman tradition are extremely rare and represented by only one Type II/9, characterised by a wide-open recipient (Table 2.3). The class of monochrome glazed tableware is more numerous. It includes bowls on a foot (Types I/1, I/2, I/4, I/5 I/7, I/20), jugs (Types III/10), jugs-ibriks (Types III/4 and III/24), pitchers (Types VI/1 and VI/4), goblets (Types VII/4), and jars with two handles (Types II/5, II/28 and II/29). Another large class is the pottery with underglaze painted decoration, distinguished by several styles and techniques. The first technique refers to painting over a white slip. Three styles can be distinguished. The first style consists of the application of dripping white slip from the upper part of the bowls (Type I/4) and jugs (III/20), which are additionally coated with glaze (Table 2.3). The second style is a decoration of bowls (Types I/5 and I/12) with green specks and strips painted on the white slip that is covering the entire vessel. Over the painted motives, green glaze is applied (Table 2.3). The third style includes bowls (Type I/32) decorated with green pigment and covered with transparent glaze. Bowls classified as Type I/32 are decorated with splashing technique over the white slip. The last underglaze painting technique consists of brushed linear shapes and is found on jugs Type III/2. The popular medieval and post-medieval sgraffito technique is also present in Belgrade’s assemblage. It is applied over bowls of Types I/1 and I/2. The class of Grey-Polished Ware presents a distinctive group in Belgrade’s assemblage. Spouted jugs with strainers (Type III/7) and beakers (Type VI/15) are made in grey fabric achieved by polishing after firing in a reduction atmosphere (Table 2.3). Finally, the assemblage contains stove pots of Type XVI/1 that have glazed interiors, unlike the types of Phase 2.
The 16th-17th centuries tableware classified in the Ottoman tradition have a wide distribution. Besides Belgrade, Monochrome Glazed, Painted Slipware, Sgraffito and Grey-Polished Ware appear at several sites in the region such as Smederevo (Cunjak, 1998), Bač (Nađ, 1961), Osijek (Radić, 2015), and Buda (Gerelyes, 2009). Similar decoration techniques can be found at more distant sites such as Saraҫhane in Istanbul (Hayes, 1992), Boeotia (Vionis, 2016, 2017) and the Aegean (Vroom, 2005). The popularity of certain forms and decorative styles in urban centres across the Ottoman Empire is a phenomenon that has been associated with the Ottoman Muslim class in some works (Gerelyes, 2009). However, this pottery appears also at sites that are not
50 necessarily related to Muslims, such as Dorćol, which suggests that the reasons for its consumption have to be sought elsewhere.
Besides this common pottery that is analysed in this research, Ottoman phases are also characterised by typically Ottoman fritware such as Iznik Ware (Bajalović - Hadži- Pešić 1984; Živković et al. 2017), as well as coffee cups and smoking pipes (Bikić, 2012b). These classes are excluded from this research because either their origin is not local (Iznik Ware) or they are not comparable with the common pottery and should be the subject of separate research (coffee cups and tobacco pipes). In terms of their quantities, they make less than 1% of the 16th-17th centuries assemblages (Živković et al. 2017, p. 135).
51
Wares Drawings Photos Cooking pot of Type II/2 Serbian tradition Phase 3
Ware 11
Cooking pots Type II/7 Serbian tradition Phase 4
Ware 9a
Baking pan Type IX/1 Serbia tradition Phase 3
Ware 13
Unglazed jug Type III/3 Hungarian tradition Phase 4
Ware 11
52
Cooking pot Type II/9 Ottoman tradition Phase 4
Ware 9a
Bowl Type I/2 (monochrome glazed) Ottoman tradition Phase 3
Ware 11
Bowl Type I/5 Ottoman tradition Phase 4
Ware 11
Bowl Type I/14 Ottoman tradition Phase 4
Ware 11
Jugs Type III/2 Ottoman tradition Phase 3
Ware 11
53
Jug Type III/20 Ottoman tradition Phase 4
Ware 11
Jug Type III/2 Ottoman tradition Phase 4
Ware 15
Pitcher Type VI/1 Ottoman tradition Phase 3
Ware 11
Beaker Type VII/1 Ottoman tradition Phase 3
Ware 11
Grey-polished jug Type III/7 Ottoman tradition Phase 4
Ware 7a
54
Storage jar Type II/29 Ottoman tradition Phase 4
Ware 11
Stove pots Type VI/4 and XVI/5 Ottoman tradition Phase 4
Ware 11
Table 2.3 Ceramics of Phases 3 and 4 from the Lower Town and Dorćol. Typology and drawings are taken from Bikić (2003). Wares are defined for the purposes of this research (see Chapter 5). Photos are taken by Jelena Živković at the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade.
2.4 The geology of Belgrade’s area
The geological past of Belgrade is marked by marine transgressions and regressions and includes the rocks of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic origins. The area of Belgrade can be divided into two distinct geological units. The first includes various marine and alluvial sediments on the banks of the Sava and the Danube, where the historic town of Belgrade is located. Further south, Avala and Kosmaj are characterised by a melange of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. The following section will give an overview of Belgrade’s geological past, emphasizing these two areas of interest (Fig. 2.6).
55
The oldest rocks in Belgrade are serpentinites of Jurassic age, detected in two large zones on the eastern slopes of the Avala mountain but also found in smaller zones between Avala and Kosmaj (Pavlović, 1980, p. 16). Although an intense serpentinisation affected all minerals, some of the rare preserved pyroxenes and olivines indicate that the original rock was peridotite of the harzburgite type (Ivković, 1975, p. 11). In some parts, the hydrothermal pressure entirely changed the mineralogical composition of serpentinites, creating silica- and carbonate-rich rocks. In the former, ores rich in mercury and iron sulphides are formed within the rock structures. In carbonate rocks, ore rich in galena is developed (Ivković, 1975, p. 16).
The Late Jurassic rocks belong to the so-called diabase-chert formation (Pavlović, 1980, p. 16) or the volcanic-sedimentary formation (Marković et al., 1985, p. 15). The largest spread of this formation is detected on the slopes of Avala, in the villages of Pinosava, Ripanj and Rušanj connected with the river of Topčiderska reka. This formation is a heterogeneous geological group. One component is composed of olistolith, blocks, and clasts of limestone, chert, and sandstone set in an argillaceous- marly matrix. Limestones and marls are often silicified and mixed with manganese minerals. In the Šutilovački creek, chert-shale series lacking in limestone are detected as part of this component. The second component contains volcanic rocks, specifically diabase and spilite. They are composed of fine and coarse, in both cases altered, phenocrysts of albite (a soda-rich plagioclase feldspar mineral), as well as biotite, amphibole and rarely pyroxenes. Diabase and spilite appear as effusions mixed with sedimentary rocks. In carbonate rocks of this formation, finds of foraminifera, corals and brachiopods are singled out.
The Cretaceous geological formations are characterised by sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Carbonates, such as limestone and marl, as well as iron-rich sandstone and iron- rich oolitic limestone, all containing microfossils, are documented on a large area, stretching from the city of Belgrade to the Kosmaj mountain (Pavlović, 1980, p. 17). In some parts of Belgrade, these sediments are part of a flysch while in the valley of Topčiderska reka they are characterised as non-flysch made of alevrolite and marl (Marković et al., 1985, p. 23). In this context, alevrolite is defined as a sedimentary rock made of clay with calcite. In the valley of Topčiderska reka, the layer above alevrolite is characterised by sandstones and conglomerates composed of andesite, spilite, tuff, muscovite-schist, serpentinite with chlorite, meta-sandstone, and meta-
56 alevrolite (Marković et al., 1985, p. 24). Above the Topčiderska reka, the slopes and the top of the Avala mountain are made of cretaceous marl, limestone and sandstone mixed with chert, feldspars, and mica (Ivković, 1975, p. 16).
Figure 2.6 The geological map of Belgrade. Modified after Stevanović (1974, p.3). 2
The Avala mountain and the area with villages in its foothills, such as Resnik and Pinosava, contain veins of volcanic rocks dated to the Late Cretaceous and Paleogene. They form dykes that cut across the serpentinites, the rocks of diabase-chert formation
2 Some geological studies citied in this thesis were conducted after the currently available geological maps of Belgrade’s area were published. This results in the lack of some geological formations on Fig. 2.5 that is a simplified version of the geological map. More detailed geological maps are available in the publications of Marković et al. (1985), Ivković (1975), Pavlović (1980) and Filipović & Rodin (1980), but they could not be graphically illustrated in this work. 57 and the Cretaceous flysch (Vasković and Matović, 1996, p. 392). These veins contain a mineralogically and chemically heterogeneous group, divided into two sub-groups that have the same geological origin. The first sub-group includes quartz-poor volcanic rocks with porphyritic, holocrystalline, microgranular and granophyric textures: trachybasalts and basaltic trachyandesite, kersantite, biotite andesite, hornblende- biotite andesite, hornblende-biotite-augite andesite, latite and trachyandesites (Vasković and Matović, 1996, p. 393, Table 2.2). These rocks are composed of the minerals plagioclase, K-feldspar, hornblende, biotite, augite, sanidine and <2 % of quartz distributed in different ratios. They were detected in the central and southern parts of Avala and the creek Prečica. The second sub-group refers to the quartz-rich volcanic rocks quartz-latite and dacite, with porphyritic, microgranular and holocrystalline textures (Vasković and Matović, 1996, p. 394, Table 3). Quartz-latite and dacite are composed of plagioclase, sanidine, biotite, hornblende, quartz and augite present in different ratios in each rock. Similar to the first sub-group, quartz- rich volcanic rocks appear on Avala, along the creeks Vranovac, Duboki potok and Gleđevac. At some locations, both quartz-latite and dacite are hydrothermally altered (silicified) and fragmented when above ground.
In the Avala’s area, the outcrops of hornblende-hornfels facies are detected as well (Vasković, 1993). They formed during the process of contact metamorphism between the magma and flysch that contains sandstone and limestone lithofacies. Hornfels contains the minerals garnet, plagioclase, clinopyroxene, anorthite, chlorite, tremolite and amphibole among the most frequent ones.
The Late Cretaceous is also characterised by phonolites found in Banjica (Marković et al., 1985, p. 24). These are dark rocks, made of coarse phenocrysts of sanidine (5- 20%), partially to completely altered plagioclase (<4 %), nepheline (3-4 %), pyroxenes and biotite.
The city centre of Belgrade, including the Fortress and Dorćol, lie on the Neogene sediments, such as various limestones, sandy alevrolite, and mudstone with a rich microfauna (Marković et al., 1985, p. 25).
To the south, around Kosmaj, quartz-latite pyroclasts are identified in several series (Pavlović, 1980, p. 19). The first one spreads around the village of Misača, made of ignimbrite and tuff. They are composed of andesite (30-35 %), sanidine, quartz, biotite,
58 and altered pyroxenes set in a glassy matrix. The second series refers to volcanic breccia and is related to Pb-Zn ores around Babe on Kosmaj. Volcanic breccia is composed of various volcanic rocks and related minerals connected with volcanic material of quartz-latite composition.
The Neogene is also marked by the granitoid of Kosmaj, an arch of plutonic rocks stretching between Kopaonik and Avala (Pavlović, 1980, p. 20). It consists of alkaline feldspar, anorthoclase, quartz, hornblende, and biotite. This plutonic rock is accompanied by various igneous rocks discovered in veins. On the western slopes of Kosmaj, veins of aplite, made of alkaline feldspar, andesine and quartz, transverse the granitoid. On the Kosmaj mountain and in the village of Ripanj located on the southern slopes of Avala, veins of lamprophyre are documented. The lamprophyre in Ripanj is composed of coarse crystals of biotite, pyroxenes and serpentine, transformed from olivine.
In contact with the granitoids, the Late Cretaceous sediments on the western and north- western slopes of Kosmaj have been metamorphosed (Pavlović, 1980, p. 21). In areas of strong metamorphism, new rocks were formed, such as komit and skarn. Komit is a rock of grey, green or purple colour with a heterogeneous structure. Besides the pyroxenes and dendritic granite, it can contain epidote, amphibole, and cordierite. In zones of contact metamorphism in Kosmaj, various rocks can be described as transitional forms between sedimentary and metamorphic. Some of these are sandstones rich in amphibole or marls with cordierite.
The Middle Miocene is also characterised by veins of rhyolite in the area of Kosmaj- Babe (Pavlović, 1980, p. 21). The rhyolite of Kosmaj is composed of coarse phenocrysts of quartz, sanidine, and biotite set in a fine-grained matrix made of quartz and feldspars.
The Quaternary of Belgrade is characterised by accumulative sediments from rivers and lakes, such as sand and silt, as well as aeolian sediment loess (Marković et al., 1985, pp. 30–31). These sediments cover the valleys of the rivers Sava and Danube.
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Chapter 3 Ottomanisation, Islamisation and artisans: perspectives of historiography and art history
This chapter gives an overview of three topics relevant to this research – Ottomanisation, Islamisation and artisans – developed within the Ottoman historiography and art history. The critical view of these phenomena sets the socio- economic framework for the interpretation of the analytical data presented in Chapter 7. In the rich opus of Ottoman historical studies Ottomanisation, Islamisation and craftsmanship appear as intertwined topics much related to the growth of urban settlements. As such, they will be presented in this chapter, focusing on the Balkan Peninsula (Ottoman Rumeli), where Belgrade is located.
In the context of the Balkans, Ottomanisation and Islamisation often refer to the same process of cultural and religious change. This is because the process of religious conversion to Islam in the Balkans coincided with the Ottoman conquest, while in other provinces this process started much earlier. However, there is a consistent difference in the use of these two terms in the historical literature that will be explained further below. A stance taken in this research is that Ottomanisation refers to the cultural change that happened within the political framework of the Ottoman Empire while Islamisation is seen as a religious change. This is not in line with definitions used in Islamic Archaeology that sees Islamisation as a process of cultural change (Carvajal Lopez 2013; Insoll 1999), but fits better the terminology utilised in Ottoman studies, mainly historiography.
Ottomanisation, Islamisation and artisans will be discussed in this chapter on two different scales, from broader theoretical models relevant to the Ottoman realm on the one side, to the very local examples situated in Belgrade on the other side. On a local scale, the primary sources used here are the 16th century tax registers (tahrīr defterleri) for Belgrade’s area translated into Serbo-Croatian by Šabanović (1964). His translations of the defterleri of 1476-8, 1516, 1521, 1528, 1528-30, 1536, and 1560 present the most valuable source for the study of Ottoman Belgrade. Unfortunately, full translations of the defterleri of 1572 and 1582 have never been published, but Šabanović (1970) partially used the data from these registers elsewhere, giving a summary of the basic facts that can be used in this review. The lack of tax registers for
60 the 17th century presents a great obstacle for the understanding of Ottomanisation, Islamisation and craftsmanship in Phase 4 of this research. For some Balkan provinces, this gap has been filled by studies of other primary sources (e.g. Kiel 2004; Minkov 2004), but this was not the case with the Smederevo sancak. The only source of demographic history in the 17th century is Çelebî’s (1957) travelogue, but most historians treat this source with caution due to the exaggerations contained in the text. Belgrade has also been described by several western travellers who passed through the town on their way to Istanbul in the 17th century (Zirojević, 1966; Veselinović, 1984).
3.1 Ottomanisation in the Ottoman historiography and art history Ottomanisation has not been precisely defined as a coherent theoretical framework, and therefore its meanings vary across Ottoman studies. Nevertheless, this term usually has two clear connotations in the literature, related to both tangible and intangible culture.
The first meaning refers to the material culture or more precisely to the distinctive architectural style that emerged in towns under Ottoman political and military control (Bierman, 1991; Watenpaugh, 2004; Pinon, 2008; Boykov, 2011; Karidis, 2014). In this context, Ottomanisation is almost a synonym for urbanisation, both regarding changes of urban planning and imposition of a particular architectural style. Thus, Pinon (2008) notes that the main characteristic of Ottoman cities and towns has been the ‘Ottomanisation’ of existing urban fabrics. Despite architectural differences in Ottoman provinces that stretched across three continents, the Ottoman rule, at least in the 16th century, brought a recognisable architectural style and urban planning that can be identified today as typically Ottoman (Watenpaugh, 2004, p. 28). A standardised architectural model was planned in the imperial office in Istanbul, led by the famous master Sinan and his architects, and then copied in the provinces (Necipoğlu, 2005). In terms of buildings and their functions, this system is characterised by large complexes of the külliye type or individual mosques, madrasas, tekkes, caravanserais, bazaars, hamams, kitchens, and hospitals, but also fountains and bridges. These buildings had their characteristic spatial arrangements, with the imperial mosque usually taking a prominent elevated position (Bierman, 1991). In Rumeli, which before the Ottoman conquest was not part of the Dar al-Islam, the erection of innovative architecture dramatically changed the urban fabric of the
61 existing towns. This transformation went beyond the material domain, communicating the new social and imperial order to the local population.
Usually, Ottoman urban buildings were part of waqfs or pious endowments. Waqfs have been seen not merely as static urban landmarks, but also as powerful generators of economy acting as a link between the town and the countryside. They consisted of a source of revenue that could be either agricultural land in a village or a rentable commercial building in a town and a beneficiary ranging from mosques, madrasas, members of a founder’s family to the poor and disabled (Ghazaleh, 2011, p. 2). Their patrons had diverse social backgrounds, ranging from the imperial family, members of the military and administrative elite in provinces, to town’s guilds (Hanna, 2011). In Rumeli, waqfs of Ottoman military commanders who conquered the region and contributed to the development of urban centres were especially important.
In its second meaning, Ottomanisation refers to the growth and expansion of a social class called Osmanlilar or ‘Ottomans’ (Shaw, 1974, p. 58). Divided into military, administrative and religious classes, Osmanlilar were the people loyal and devoted to the sultan, who accepted and practised Islam and participated in the system of values known as the ‘Ottoman way’ (Shaw, 1974). The ability to speak Ottoman Turkish was among the notable features of the ‘Ottoman way’. In addition to them, Krstić (2011) singles out the Rūmī identity, which is a broader term that encompasses the characteristics of the Osmanlı class mentioned above, but could be better identified as the urban elite. Rūmīs often emerged from the strata of converts to Islam, but they could be Christians as well and spoke several languages other than Turkish, such as Persian, Greek and various Slavic languages (Krstić, 2011, p. 54). This aspect is one of the main differences between Ottomanisation and Islamisation in historiography; being a convert to Islam does not require a knowledge of Ottoman Turkish nor does it provide a place in the ruling class (Lopasic, 1994, p. 173). This point has been thoroughly discussed by Kadrić (2017) in the case of Bosnia, showing that local Muslims opposed the rule of devşirme (youth levy) by offering their sons to the state because that was the only way for them to enter the Osmanlı class. In other words, being a Muslim was insufficient for a change of social status, and the Christian reaya taken in devşirme had an advantage over the Muslim reaya that could change the status only in exceptional military circumstances (Inalcik, 1994, p. 17).
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In addition to these two meanings, Ottomanisation is sometimes related to other phenomena of the Ottoman society as well. However, these meanings are not always precisely defined, and they randomly appear in the literature. Relevant for this research, Ottomanisation could also be understood as the network created across the vast space of the empire. As a global power, the Ottoman Empire influenced the connectivity between distant areas stretching from China to Western Europe. Previously separated by borders of small principalities, the Balkan cities became part of one of the largest empires, and this fact strongly influenced their further urban and economic development (Veinstein, 1991). The new urban network was especially strong along the principal communication axes that accelerated the movement of people and cultural transmissions (Klusakova 2001, 360).
In summary, Ottomanisation has been associated with the Ottoman elite that shaped the new social order by imposing buildings constructed in a new Ottoman style. Cities became an arena for the demonstration of imperial power that dragged both Muslims and non-Muslims to participate in the new network. Although this research follows changes in the material culture in a town, it will argue that Ottomanisation is not necessarily related to the elites only by emphasising the agency of artisans in the process of cultural change (Chapter 7).
3.1.1 Ottomanisation of Belgrade
The Ottomanisation of Belgrade fits into the above-described model. From its pre- Ottoman urban fabric, Belgrade kept the Fortress divided into the Lower and Upper Towns as well as the core of the extra muros settlement that expanded greatly towards the south in the 16th-17th centuries (Fig. 2.5). Using the existing urban plan, the Ottoman elites started a profound transformation of the town immediately after the conquest. Since Belgrade did not surrender but was conquered after a long resistance, the main Orthodox church in the Lower Town was quickly converted to a mosque (Đurić-Zamolo, 1984, p. 333). Soon after, between 1521 and 1523, Mehmed Pasha, the sancak-bey of Smederevo, established the first complex of buildings in the varoṣ as part of his waqf, including the monumental mosque with madrasa, imaret and caravanserai (Šabanović, 1974c, p. 377). Besides the caravanserai, another source of revenue of that waqf was collected from several shops, mills and construction sites located in the town, to be used for food supply in the imaret and salaries of people working for the endowment. Mehmed Pasha’s complex was founded in Belgrade’s
63 varoṣ before the first Muslim mahallas were formed, showing an organised top-down plan for the development of the urban fabric. In the following decades, the town continued growing through foundations and commercial activities of sancak-beys and grand viziers. The list of buildings includes mosques, madrasas, caravanserais, hans, tekkes, hamams, imarets, large houses of wealthy citizens and mahallas with ordinary houses (Çelebi, 1957). By the time Çelebî visited Belgrade in 1660, the town was entirely Ottomanised and contained all the material aspects of an Ottoman town (Çelebi, 1957).
From the 16th century onwards Belgrade was part of a great network of the Ottoman Empire that exposed the town to different cultures. Situated on the Imperial Road, Belgrade was an inevitable stop of merchants and travellers from the Near East and Central Europe (Veselinović, 1984). This network facilitated the growth of not only the Muslim society but also various groups of non-Muslim merchants who travelled great distances and whose presence in towns was an important social component starting from the 17th century onwards. Besides, Belgrade was a home to intellectuals, both Muslim and non-Muslim, that spoke and wrote in different languages (Fotić, 2005).
Thus, by the end of the first Ottoman rule in 1688, Belgrade had all the characteristics of an Ottoman town with a range of buildings constructed in the Ottoman style. The recontextualisation of the existing urban fabric, urbanisation, and the imposition of numerous buildings based on waqfs of the ruling class transformed the town. This change in tangible and intangible culture precedes the Islamisation of the town, seen as the growth of the Muslim population.
3.2 Islamisation in the Ottoman historiography Islamisation is a topic that greatly exceeds the limits of Ottoman historiography. The term Islamisation has various meanings. It has been used as a synonym for the conversion to Islam (with emphasis on the longue durée conversion of societies), political integration into Islamic polities, and the influence of Islamic culture on others (Peacock, 2017). In the Ottoman historiography, an attempt has been made to discuss Islamisation not merely as the conversion to Islam, but also as a social process ‘similar to the mechanism of innovation and diffusion in human society’ (Minkov, 2004, p.
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27), and ‘the process by which the religious tradition of Islam became a major factor within the early Ottoman polity’ (Krstić, 2011, p. 27). Vasić (1991, p. 425) emphasises that Islamisation has to be considered as a process of broader political, cultural, socio- economic and ethno-demographic transformation of Balkan societies. However, in most instances, the Ottoman historiography has narrowed Islamisation to the process of conversion to Islam. This topic has received great attention in the Ottoman historiography, driven by curiosity and the necessity to explain regional differences in the process of Islamisation, the general factors that contributed to this process as well as the reasons behind the inability of Islam to gain a majority in the Balkans despite the long-lasting political rule of an Islamic Empire (Minkov, 2004).
The recent scholarship on the Islamisation in the Balkans agrees on the fact that this was a gradual process that unfolded in phases under the influence of numerous regionally-distinctive factors (Antov 2016; Aščerić-Todd 2015; Kadrić 2017; Kiel 2004; Krstić 2011; 2017; Lopasic 1994; Minkov 2004; Radoushev 1998; Vasić 1991; Zhelyazkova 2002). Interpretations take into account intra-regional differences, the preceding social and political strata, the chronology of Ottoman conquest as well as political tendencies of the Empire in the moment of conquest. In some phases, a top- down model was dominant, channelled through devşirme, but in other instances, Islamisation was a bottom-up process shaped through the interaction of various social groups. In general, with the exceptions of Bosnia and Albania, Rumeli went through several gradual stages of conversion, starting from the 15th century onwards. During the 15th century, which was a period of sizeable political transformation and conquest, Islamisation was at a modest stage, accepted mostly by the members of Christian elites who sought to preserve social benefits by accepting the Ottoman political domination (Krstić, 2011, p. 55). In some areas, such as Thrace and Dobruja, the conversion of non-elite populations was accelerated by the settlement of Muslims from Anatolia, both sedentary and nomadic populations (Kiel, 2009, p. 155). Radoushev (1998) emphasises the role of artisans among the new settlers in the Rhodopes, especially salt- makers in the 15th century. In the course of the 16th century, the pace of conversion was faster, affecting larger social strata. The competition for raw materials and market access in towns, among others, led to the Islamisation of the urban artisans (Faroqhi, 2015). In rural areas, this process was influenced by unfavourable economic conditions that forced Christian reaya to pay higher taxes to the sultan and the Orthodox church
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(Minkov, 2004, pp. 92–97). In addition to that, the religious syncretism and the activities of the Sufi orders contributed to Islamisation. The peak of Islamisation was in the 17th century, especially in towns that overall gained features of Islamic cultural landscapes. Nevertheless, even at the peak, non-Muslims remained the majority in Rumeli overall. The Muslim population was unevenly distributed, reaching a majority in Bosnia and some urban centres including Belgrade. The process of conversion ceased by the end of the first quarter of the 18th century (except in Albania and Dobruja), not only in areas affected by the Habsburg-Ottoman wars, such as the Middle Danube, but also in areas that remained in the sultan’s possession until WWI (Minkov, 2004, p. 52).
Similar to Ottomanisation, Islamisation in the Balkans has been associated with urban culture. The process is related to all social classes, including the artisans. The urban craftsmanship was closely related to religion, which is a cultural association that dates back to the Ottoman beginnings in 14th century Anatolia, when ghazi (Muslim religious warriors), dervishes (members of the Sufi fraternity) and akhis (trade and craft associates) based their practice on the fütüvvet or Islamic codes of noble conduct. Bosnian guilds had a strong religious character associated with the Sufi dervishes who formed the first Muslim strata in the towns (Aščerić-Todd, 2015).
3.2.1 Islamisation of Belgrade
Although Islamisation has been a central topic in the Balkan historiography, this did not result in an even understanding of this process in all provinces. The Middle Danube region has not been particularly discussed in this regard, and the understanding of Islamisation has remained somewhat fragmentary. What can be reconstructed from the available primary sources is that Islamisation is mostly associated with the conversion. Converts to Islam were registered in the defters as ‘sons of Abdullah’ which was the expression used by Ottoman officials to describe the newly converted Muslims (Šabanović, 1964). De-population of Belgrade after the Ottoman conquest in 1521 and the fast pace of population growth, especially the Muslims, indicated that some new people settled in the town. However, unlike other Danubian provinces such as Dobruja, it seems that the Smederevo sancak did not experience a state-organised influx of Muslims that would affect the demographic picture (Antov, 2013). These facts indicate other ways of population movements that are not well understood so far. The influence of the state on these movements cannot be entirely dismissed (see example of Vlachs
66 below), and it can be assumed that communities who settled in the town were encouraged and free to do so. Some immigrants were foreign Muslims coming from Anatolia, Arab and Kurdish lands as well as Balkan provinces, as clearly indicated in the registers (Šabanović, 1964). Conversion rates in the 16th century suggest that among newcomers were also members of non-Muslim communities that converted to Islam while living in Belgrade. At least some of the immigrants from the Balkan provinces could speak one of the South Slavic languages that enabled them to integrate into the local population in Belgrade. Some Muslims, such as the members of military corps and the political elite, did not pay any type of tax, and therefore remain invisible in the currently available sources (defters). They were mostly stationed in Belgrade’s and Avala’s fortresses.
Islamisation was less pronounced in rural areas around Belgrade than in the town, which is a common pattern in the Balkans. Since the villages around Avala were conquered several decades before the town of Belgrade (see Chapter 2.3.1), tax registers for this rural area exist from the second half of the 15th century. The first Muslims living in villages were Vlachs, registered in the nahiye (administrative sub- area of sancak) of Belgrade in 1528 (Šabanović, 1964, pp. 30–112). According to the previous two defterleri, dated to 1476-78 and 1516, the population of those villages belonged to the Christian reaya. Vlachs were semi-nomadic pastoralists encouraged by the Ottoman authorities to settle in villages on the Danubian frontier, enjoying the status of auxiliary militia loyal to the sultan (Antov, 2013). They are considered to be an important element of Islamisation in the former Serbian lands (Todorov, 1983, p. 36), although the figures for Belgrade’s villages do not show a significant increase of Muslims. A population census of Vlachs was conducted in 1528, showing they lived in a dense network composed of 156 villages around Belgrade (Table 3.1). They formed 1,946 households (hane) in total, out of which 1857 were Christian and 47 Muslim households. The absolute majority of Vlachs around Belgrade were Christians with typical Slavic names that cannot be differentiated from the sedentary reaya. Still, tax registers listed them as Vlachs, implying their different status from the rest of the population. Out of the 47 Muslim households, the male heads of 22 households were registered as ‘sons of Abdullah’, showing their status as new converts. It remains unclear whether they arrived as Muslims or they converted after entering the auxiliary service for the state. The latter option is more plausible because the new converts lived
67 in predominantely Christian villages. Only two villages, with clear Turkish toponyms (Torkol and Turska reka) were exclusively populated by Muslim Vlachs. The next census dated to 1528-30 does not mention the Vlachs as privileged group anymore, but most of them remained on the land as regular reaya. Some of them settled at the new frontier in Hungary (Todorov, 1983, p. 37).
The registers of the years 1528-30, 1536 and 1560 show minor fluctuations of Muslims in rural areas around Belgrade (Table 3.1). After an initial drop in 1528-30 (to 2%), the number of Muslims increased gradually and reached 5% in 1560. The registers show a concentration of Muslims in villages closer to Belgrade and Avala (Kumodrag, Resnik, Kaluđerica, Banjica), although this was not always the case. Also, later registers note a larger number of all-Muslim villages, but the majority of new converts still lived in religiously inter-mixed villages. The number of new converts was always around 50% of the total Muslim population, showing the pace of conversion throughout the 16th century. By 1560, some villages (Banjica, Lipovište, Banja, Kijevo) were divided into Christian and Muslim parts.
Year of tax No. of villages Total number Christian Muslim register around of households households households Belgrade in (hane) (hane) (hane) the Smederevo sancak 1528 156 1946 (100%) 1857 (95.5%) 47 (4.5 %)
1528-1530 171 3075 (100%) 3024 (98%) 51 (2%)
1536 181 3039 (100%) 2952 (97%) 87 (3%)
1560 183 2559 (100%) 2422 (95%) 137 (5%)
Table 3.1 The population of villages around Belgrade based on the Ottoman tax registers of the 16th century. The given estimation includes only household (hane) units without single men and widows. It is usually taken that one household contains five people in average (see Inalcik, 1994, pp. 26–28). All calculations are made based on the translation provided by Šabanović (1964).
The town of Belgrade experienced a large-scale and relatively fast process of Islamisation (Table 3.2). The first Muslim mahallas were documented in the defter of 1536. Before that year, only Christian neighbourhoods in the varoṣ were mentioned, consisting of one to three households per mahalla and giving the picture of a depopulated town. In 1536, Christians were still the dominant group in the town. They
68 occupied 139 households spread over fourteen mahallas. The Muslims counted 80 households in four mahallas. The Muslim mahallas were located in the varoṣ (three) and the Lower Town of the Fortress (one). According to Šabanović (1970, p. 14), the civil settlement in the Lower Town was probably formed before 1536, maybe immediately after the conquest in 1521, because the main, and for a while, the only mosque was located there. At that time the dwellers were probably related to the military corps that did not pay taxes. Contrary to that, the local Christians lived in the varoṣ only. In addition to them, two mahallas were settled by Gypsies (Šabanović uses the term Cigani) who are not distinguished by religion unlike other communities (for the problem of Gypsies in the Ottoman tax registers see Marushiakova and Popov, 2001, pp. 26–32). The most numerous segment of the town’s population were martolos, or the Christian militia (Table 3.3).
Year of Total Christian Muslim Gypsy Jewish tax number of households households households households register households (hane) (hane) (hane) (hane) 1536 250 (100%) 139 (56%) 80 (32%) 31 (12%) /
1560 538 (100%) 93 (17%) 385 (72%) 55 (10%) 5 (1%)
1572 1,113 195 (18%) 706 (63%) 192 (17%) 20 (2%) (100%) 1582 934 or 936 195 (21%) 597 or 595 120 (13%) 22 (2%) (100%) (64%) Table 3.2 The civil population in the town of Belgrade based on the Ottoman tax registers of the 16th century. The given estimation includes only household (hane) units without single men and widows. It is usually taken that one household contains five people in average (see Inalcik 1994, pp. 26-28). The calculations for the years 1536 and 1560 are made by Šabanović (1964) while the numbers for 1572 and 1582 are taken from Šabanović (1970).
Year of tax register Number of martolos Number of mustahfizes
1536 385 /
1560 124 430
Table 3.3 The number of Ottoman militia in the town of Belgrade for the years 1536 and 1560 based on the Ottoman tax registers. The given estimation includes only single men. All calculations are made based on the translation provided by Šabanović (1964).
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Over the next five decades, Belgrade’s Muslim population dramatically increased more than fourfold (Table 3.2). This fast rate of Islamisation can be seen in other medium-size Balkan towns as well (Todorov, 1983, p. 54). The census of 1560 records 385 Muslim households (hane) formed in sixteen mahallas. Muslims constituted 72% of the total population, forming the majority in the town. For the first time, a Muslim mahalla is mentioned in the Upper Town of the Fortress, reserved for the military until then, while four other mahallas were located in the Lower Town. The rest of the Muslim neighbourhoods were distributed in the varoṣ. Out of 385 Muslim households, the male heads of 109 were new converts while the rest belong to the ‘older’ generation of Muslims and newcomers. Besides civilians who were craftsmen and merchants, the 1560 defter records 430 members of the territorial militia (mustahfiz) composed of Muslims stationed in the Fortress (Table 3.3). Among them, some soldiers provided maintenance service for the military garrison. The second largest group were still Christians. Compared to 1536, the number of Christian mahallas decreased to 11 in 1560, settled by only 93 households. Thus, the Christians formed 17% of the total town’s civil population. Furthermore, 124 Christian soldiers served the Ottoman military garrison as martolos. Gypsies lived in four mahallas and formed 55 households or 10% of the population. The 1560 defter brought one more group of citizens – Jews – who lived in five households in the varoṣ. Historical studies for some other Balkan provinces show that the process of Islamisation reached its peak in the 17th century (Minkov, 2004). In 1660, Çelebî (1957, pp. 95–96) described 39 Muslim, 3 Gypsy, 3 Serbian, 1 Jewish and 1 Armenian mahallas in Belgrade. Some other unpublished registers indicate that in the first half of the 17th century the Christians of Belgrade lived in 7 mahallas (Šabanović, 1970, p. 26) while Çelebî (1957) mentioned only three Christian (Serbian) mahallas. Despite imprecise data, these figures show that the Muslims had a steady majority in the 17th century as well.
In summary, the process of Islamisation in Belgrade and the surrounding countryside follows the pattern observed for other regions of Rumeli. The pace of conversion and the number of Muslims is significantly different in the town and the countryside. Drawing on the picture created by tax registers, the villages around Belgrade were well-populated. There is a gradual and slow rise in the number of Muslims, especially converts, reaching a peak of 5% in 1560. Therefore, the rural areas remain predominantly settled by Christians. In the town of Belgrade, the growth of Muslim
70 population was much faster. They enter the registers about 15 years after the conquest of the town (1536) and by 1560 they reached a stable majority. Figures presented in Table 3.2 show that Belgrade’s population was Islamised within about four decades of Ottoman rule. Several events influenced the fast rise of Muslims in Belgrade, such as the consolidation of the Ottoman military power in the Danubian provinces and the transformation of Belgrade into a town situated in the interior of the Empire (Šabanović, 1970, p. 15). Considering urban features, architectural developments and demographic structure, it could be said that from the second half of the 16th century Belgrade was a typical Islamic town in Rumeli.
3.3 Artisans in the Ottoman historiography Life and work of artisans in the Ottoman Empire have received considerable attention in recent studies (see Faroqhi 2012; 2015). Some interpretations of primary sources offered by historians are relevant for this research that centres on the production of pottery in Ottoman Belgrade. Topics such as social and religious status of artisans as well as modes of production organisation they practiced will be highlighted below.
The Ottoman society was characterised by a plurality of production modes, as the historiography informs us. Under state sponsorship, the Imperial workshops in Istanbul were specialised in the manufacture of luxurious goods (Faroqhi, 2012), while Iznik workshops produced the high-quality ware of the same name (Atasoy and Raby, 1989). Furthermore, Thessaloniki’s workshops manufactured woollen cloths for the military following a particular arrangement with the Ottoman state (Gara, 2005). The supply of everyday items in urban centres was handled by the guilds, forming professional associations of craftsmen and merchants (Cohen 2001; Gerber 1988; Wilkins 2010; Yi 2004). Little is known about the production in the countryside (Quataert, 1994), but it seems that craftsmen in rural areas lived off the land as much as off the craft (Faroqhi, 2006b). This variety of organisational modes deserves archaeological attention because it offers a chance for close comparison between written sources and remains of material culture. Forms of artisanal production organisation in urban and rural circumstances are in the scope of this research and will be considered in detail.
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3.3.1 The guilds of artisans in Ottoman urban centres
The guilds (the Ottoman terms are ṭaʼife and eṣnāf) were professional and highly specialised organisations of craftsmen and merchants in cities. Guilds were not an exclusive phenomenon of the Ottoman Empire, and similar corporations carried out pre-industrial production in many European cities (Epstein, 1998; Ogilvie, 2014). Although some structural similarities existed, such as the hierarchy based on masters and apprentices, the Ottoman guilds did not emerge from European models but from the 14th-century Anatolian akhi brotherhoods that were closely associated with Islamic moral codes (Faroqhi, 2015). The following review will focus on aspects of guilds’ production relevant for this research.
The guilds emerged in Ottoman towns between the late 15th and the late 16th centuries in a manner that indicates the involvement of central authorities (Faroqhi, 2012, p. 31). Based on sijills or registers of qadis’ courts, the main source for the study of guilds, representatives of guilds started launching legal complaints before qadis in the central cities of Istanbul, Bursa and Edirne around 1500 (Faroqhi, 2012, p. 31). These formative years are not always clear in the sources, and sometimes artisans appear in qadis’ registers without notes on the guilds. It seems that some Balkan towns, besides Edirne, testify to the early emergence of guilds as well. Thus, the 1489 defter for the Bosnian sancak lists both Muslim and Christian households in Sarajevo affiliated with eṣnāf (Aščerić-Todd, 2015, p. 143). In Belgrade’s defter of 1560, headmen of two guilds are explicitly listed among numerous craftsmen, indicating the existence of guilds as well (Šabanović, 1964, pp. 441–445). From the second half of the 16th century, more references are available for the guilds, and it could be said that by the beginning of the 17th century, these organisations were fully functional in most Ottoman urban centres.
As urban institutions, the guilds played a role in securing social order and economic prosperity by paying taxes to the state (Faroqhi, 2006a, p. 344). They supplied local markets with necessary goods and provided services for urban dwellers. Since they gathered significantly sized male populations, the central authorities recognised their importance for the control of social peace.
The internal organisation of the Ottoman guilds was founded on a strict hierarchy. A headman had the title of kethüda (şeyh in some provinces or some guilds), and his
72 assistant was yiğit başı. The kethüda was chosen by other guildsmen, but he also had to be approved by the state authorities (Faroqhi, 2006a, p. 350). He oversaw the supply of raw materials and represented his guild at the court. The headmen had the authority to punish, verbally and physically, their members. In Bosnia, the kethüda had another assistant (kalfabaşı) who acted as a supervisor, making sure that the quality standards of a given guild were fully applied (Aščerić-Todd, 2015, pp. 89–90). The guilds were composed of a variable number of masters (usta), who were skilful craftsmen. Masters paid full fees to their guilds, receiving in return material support from other guildsmen in case of an accident or debts. From the end of the 17th century, there is evidence for the existence of collective workshops run by several masters. However, they did not lead to production being divided into stages, and masters remained independent in their work (Faroqhi, 2006a, p. 340). The system of craft learning and knowledge transmission was based on apprenticeship. Apprentices (çırak) were at the bottom of the hierarchy, and their work was not paid. Their training probably coincided with bachelorhood, ending with the promotion to master. It is not very clear how the system of apprenticeship was organised, but what can be reconstructed from the sources is that the birthright played a prominent role (Yi, 2004, p. 52). The sons of masters usually inherited the guild membership after finishing their apprenticeships. From the court register dated to 1686, the potters’ guild of Jerusalem consisted of members of one family (Cohen, 2001, p. 151). However, this was not the only way to join a guild, and at least in the early years of the 17th century, the Istanbul guilds were open to skilful workers coming from outside of their communities (Yi, 2005, p. 62).
The number and size of guilds varied significantly in relation to the local socio- economic conditions. In the 17th century, Istanbul probably had over one hundred guilds (Yi, 2004, p. 25). In other cities, the number of guilds varied in the 16th-17th centuries. For example, Cairo had 260, Damascus 163, and Aleppo 157, while Jerusalem had around 60 guilds (Cohen, 2001, pp. 5–7). One city could have several guilds of tanners or butchers who offered similar services which shows the high degree of craft specialisation. Each guild counted a different number of members. Although Çelebî’s description cannot be taken as accurate, it gives a sense of proportions. Thus, according to his evidence, the bakers of Istanbul counted 10,000 guildsmen that owned 999 shops, while the guild of sellers of leather pieces had 15 men working in 10 shops (Yi, 2004, pp. 46–47). Most guilds, however, range between these two extremes.
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Potters, who worked in large cities, formed relatively small guilds. Based on lists of trades in law codes and price registers for 17th century Istanbul (Yi, 2004 appendices), the guilds of potters were not numerous in the capital. They appear under different terms, being listed as follows: çanakçılar (makers of earthenware pots), çömlekçiler (earthen pot-makers), dibekkârân (potters), çömlekciyân (potters), çömlekçi (potters) and kenarcıyân (edge-decorators of pottery). This diverse terminology leaves the impression of sub-specialisations within the ceramic craft. However, understanding the subtle differences between these terms requires a specialised linguistic approach that is currently not available. In Istanbul, the list of appeals from the qadi court gives the number of members in one guild of potters (Yi, 2004 Appendix F). Thus, the guild of çömlekçi in 1618 consisted of 4+ men, led by kethüda and yiğitbaşı. In Jerusalem, the guild of potters (fakhūrī, fawākhīrī) had five members in 1686 (Cohen, 2001, p. 151). These are only the guilds whose disputes were solved by the qadi, and there is a possibility that their number was larger. Nevertheless, the pattern emerging from these numbers is consistent and gives a good sense of the potters’ modest participation in the urban economy. Another question arising from these numbers is whether so few potters could supply the vast market of Istanbul or even the much smaller one in Jerusalem. This question requires further research, but the consumption demands leave the impression that additional supply was required. Perhaps additional needs were fulfilled from the surrounding countryside, but the urban-rural relations are poorly understood in the Ottoman historiography (Quataert, 1994).
Finally, the social structure of guilds presents an important topic for this research, especially because it remains connected with the other two phenomena – Ottomanisation and Islamisation. The production and services provided by the guilds were embedded into the foundation of the urban economy, and therefore, they had a place in the Ottoman social hierarchy. Guildsmen, as part of the urban reaya, paid taxes to the state, which in return provided conditions for their work and headway. By grouping skilful artisans of all religious confessions, the guilds participated in the Ottoman social order formed in the towns (Faroqhi, 2006a, p. 351). Thus, this was one of the Ottoman institutions that crossed religious differences (Lopasic, 1994, p. 173). The emergence of guilds is linked to the spread of Ottoman political rule, following the top-down model. In that sense, the guilds could be seen as part of the Ottomanisation process, as a social element that actively contributed to the ‘Ottoman
74 way’. At the same time, although the guilds consisted of artisans of different religious and language affiliations, the demographic structure of Ottoman towns was in favour of the Muslims. In 17th-century Istanbul, the qadi registers show that an overwhelming number of guilds consisted of only Muslim members (34 out of 50), while the others belonged to Greeks and Jews with only three religiously mixed guilds (Yi, 2004, pp. 67–68). It has been suggested that the dominance of Muslim guildsmen in Ottoman towns facilitated the conversion of non-Muslim members to Islam, even in cases of strictly non-Muslim guilds (Faroqhi, 2015, p. 11). This is because the market economy and broader social system made the craft practice and trade easier for Muslims. Furthermore, the ethical foundation of guilds on the fütüvvet directly implied Islam in the craft practising, which could create difficulties for non-Muslims in the religiously mixed guilds (Yi, 2004, pp. 60–61). In Bosnia, and in other provinces as well, the guilds were close to the Sufi movements, and their members participated in religious rituals (Aščerić-Todd, 2015, p. 91). This was not obligatory for Christians and Jews, but it has been assumed that this aspect facilitated Islamisation in Bosnian towns (Aščerić-Todd, 2015, p. 154).
3.3.2 Craft organisation in Ottoman rural areas
Craft organisation outside large cities has not been sufficiently studied in the Ottoman historiography (Quataert, 1994). The main reason is a lack of sources on craft activities. Namely, the sedentary population in the countryside was above all engaged in agriculture as the primary source of revenue. Unlike their colleagues in towns, rural craftsmen relied on farming for tax payments. In anthropology, this group of craftsmen would be described as part-time specialists (see Chapter 4). In the late 15th and the early 16th century, labour in the countryside faced some transformations. The Ottoman law allowed rural craftsmen, who were farmers at the same time, to support themselves and pay taxes relying only on their crafts. In that case, they were allowed to leave a village and move to a city (Todorov, 1983, p. 70).
Several sources of incomplete information could be emphasised for the purposes of this research. First of all, rural artisans did not form guilds and were probably not organised in the same way known as for towns (Faroqhi, 2006a, pp. 337–338). In household-based production, rural artisans could be men as well as women, as the example of the 19th-century textile industry shows (Faroqhi, 2006b, pp. 385–386). Although not much is known regarding the distribution of the final products from the
75 villages to the towns, references to the purchase of raw materials exist in sources. One kethüda‘s tasks was to negotiate the purchase of raw materials for his guild fellows. The 17th century textile industry in Thessaloniki relied entirely on raw materials from the Balkan hinterland (Gara, 2005), and this demand dictated the entire production.
3.3.3 Craft organisation in the town of Belgrade
Craft organisation in Ottoman Belgrade has not been the subject of historical studies. There is a limit to current knowledge, especially when it comes to the 17th century, due to a lack of any publication of qadi registers (see Hrabak, 1978).
The first mention of crafts practised in Ottoman Belgrade was made in tax registers of 1536 and 1560 (Šabanović, 1964). In 16th century Belgrade the bulk of the tax-paying urban population consisted of artisans, which is a typical situation observed for other Balkan towns as well (e.g. Kreševljaković, 1991). Listed occupations are very similar to those appearing in Istanbul (Yi, 2004), Jerusalem (Cohen, 2001) and other towns. Among frequently mentioned craftsmen are a tailor, saddler, bootmaker, baker, pita- maker, butcher, builder, cauldron-maker, locksmith, leather-maker, tanner, cap-maker, goldsmith, and many others. These occupations reflect the variety of everyday needs in Belgrade.
Describing Belgrade’s ҫarṣi in 1660, Çelebî (1957, pp. 100–101) mentioned 3,700 shops supplied with various goods. While this number probably cannot be taken as accurate, it gives a sense of the scale of production and trade in the town. According to Çelebî (1957), Belgrade’s population can be divided into six classes – military, merchants of land and sea, administrative staff, people in charge of vineyards and gardens, bargees, and craftsmen. As a type of well-established urban crafts, Çelebî (1957, p. 102) especially praised the Gypsy production of iron items and cauldron- makers, who manufactured various vessels made of metal such as cooking pots, bowls and serving plates, flower pots, cups, censers, and pots for rose waters. Two decades later, in 1681, Giovanni Battista, a bailo from Venice who visited Belgrade on his way to Istanbul, wrote that Belgrade had all the crafts necessary for trade in wax, wool, and leather, which is the reason why the merchants of Dubrovnik, Bosnia and Venice visited the town frequently (Veselinović, 1984, p. 100).
The first and only mention of guilds in Belgrade was made in the 1560 defter. That year, two headmen of guilds were explicitly listed among the craftsmen in the town.
76 A certain Mehmed Sehriar was the headman of tanners (Šabanović, 1964, p. 441) and Ahmed, the son of Mehmed, was the headman of boot-makers (Šabanović, 1964, p. 443). A tanners’ mahalla existed in the town, but it is uncertain whether this refers to a guild organisation. The same applies to some cemaats (communities), organised to meet the various needs of the Ottoman military. Šabanović (1974a, p. 349) also wrote about the guild of saddlers in the context of the 1560 defter. The development of guilds into the 17th century is unknown due to the lack of sources.
The majority of artisans listed in the registers of 1536 and 1560 were Muslims, including both foreigners and local converts. The same situation can be observed for the Bosnian towns (Aščerić-Todd, 2015, p. 155). However, the registers and Çelebî’s travelogue describe non-Muslim craftsmen working in the town as well.
Written sources do not mention potters among the 16th-17th centuries craftsmen settled in Belgrade. Interestingly, they worked in pre-Ottoman Belgrade during the 15th century (Phase 2), according to Hungarian written sources (Mijušković-Kalić, 1974b, p. 285). After the Ottoman conquest, the potters continued appearing in the vicinity of Belgrade, in the towns of Sremska Mitrovica and Bač (Dávid and Gerelyes, 2015, p. 74), testifying to the continuity of urban pottery making in the Hungarian domain. Also, a ceramic workshop was discovered in archaeological investigations of 17th-century Kruševac, located within the town (Minić, 1979).
A potters’ guild existed in 19th century Belgrade, then the capital of Serbian Principality (Vučo, 1956). Although this date is out of the scope of this research, it is important to mention several relevant details. The first mention of the potters’ guild dates back to 1825, when it is listed as ‘the old guild of the Ottoman type, established in the time of the Ottoman conquest and Islamisation of the country’ (Vučo, 1956, p. 135). This guild managed to survive the reform of the guild system in the middle of the 19th century that required a minimal number of 12 craftsmen in one guild. The potters of the guild complained before the authorities in several instances against newcomers from North Macedonia and Turkey settling in villages around Belgrade and whose cheap pottery disrupted the market. They also fought against the construction of a modern factory for the production of tiles and bricks. These facts speak for the existence of a strong organisation of potters in early 19th-century Belgrade, and although continuity of practices from the 16th-17th centuries cannot be confirmed, they do imply a certain urban tradition in pottery making.
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3.3.4 Craft organisation in Belgrade’s countryside
The 16th-century defters provide an insight into the craft organisation in villages around Belgrade. The professional affiliations appear in two forms (Šabanović, 1964). In the first case, the term potter (an Ottoman Turkish form is unknown while Šabanović is using a Serbian term grnčar) is explicitly mentioned after a personal name. The second case refers to the expression ‘son of potter’, designating the family origin of a given person. Whether a person mentioned as a ‘son of potter’ was actually a potter himself is hard to tell, but apparently this was an important identity marker used by Ottoman authorities to distinguish between the various tax-payers. The same expression is used in tax registers of the 15th century for the region of Brankovića (Hadžibegić, Handžić and Kovačević, 1972). In her study of medieval pottery, Bajalović Hadži-Pešić (1981) uses this connotation to identify potters.
The names of potters mentioned in the registers reveal that all of them were Christians (Table 3.4). The same applies to blacksmiths, who are also frequently listed in the registers. Three potters mentioned in 1528 had the Vlach status, but their names reveal their Serbian population origin. They were probably settled in Belgrade’s countryside by the Ottomans. Other potters belonged to the Serbian population that most probably lived there before the Ottoman conquest. Therefore, rural-based artisans did not belong to the new class of Islamised population. At least this is the pattern for the 16th century, but similar to the town, demographic data is missing for the 17th century, and it is not possible to follow potential changes. In the majority of cases, these potters lived in all- Christian villages, but there are some in intermixed villages as well.
Contrary to the urban craftsmen, their peers in the countryside paid only the standard agricultural taxes, and not a single defter mentions craft-related payments (Šabanović, 1964). Agriculture was of high importance to the Ottoman state (Inalcik, 1994) and compared to that, the Ottoman administration probably treated the rural crafts as second-choice occupations. The only exception around Belgrade was the silver mine of Železnik, whose population in 1476/8 paid taxes in silver ores (Šabanović, 1964, p. 7), but in 1516 they started paying agricultural taxes as well (Šabanović, 1964, p. 18). This leaves us with an unclear idea about the scope of craft production in the countryside. In Miljković-Bojanić’s (2001, p. 133) opinion, the rural-based craftsmen produced goods only for other peasants in the countryside. Indeed, obligations related to farming were extensive and compulsory because of the tax system. Thus, these
78 potters could be defined as part-time specialists that used the craft as an additional source of income. However, that does not imply a small-scale production. The rural potters had an advantage over their urban peers in the sense that whole households could be engaged in the manufacturing process. Working outside the strict obligations imposed by the guilds, they could have, theoretically, freedom with their time and household workforce. It is important to note that the Ottoman documents left evidence of only male potters, who paid taxes in the name of their households, leaving women invisible in written sources.
Nahiye Village Year Potters Železnik Železnik/Vrbica 1516 Nikola the potter and his brother Jovan Belgrade Belina-Selište 1528 Vukašin the son of potter and with him: Rado, his brother; Rajak, his son; Milovac his son (Vlachs) Belgrade Đurinci 1528 Radovan the son of potter (Vlachs) Belgrade Donja Ostružnica 1528 Radica the son of potter and with him: Stepan his son (Vlachs) Železnik Putenik 1528/30 Stojko the son of potter
Železnik Lunjevac 1528/30 Radivoj the son of potter
Zemun Bežanija 1546 Mitrašin the potter
Zemun Bućavci 1546 Dobrivoj the potter
Železnik Tatarin 1560 Jovan the son of potter
Belgrade Beljina 1560 Radul the son of potter
Zemun Bežanija 1566/7 Dmitrašin the potter
Table 3.4 The list of potters settled in Belgrade’s countryside based on the 16th century Ottoman tax registers. The information given in this table is extracted from Šabanović’s (1964) translation.
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Different patterns of temporal and spatial distribution of potters could be drawn for Belgrade’s countryside based on the information from the registers. Firstly, although there is a clear temporal continuity in the appearance of potters in tax registers between 1516 and 1566/7, the spatial continuity is missing (Fig. 3.1). Apart from the village of Bežanija, whose potters are mentioned in two consecutive registers, other villages have a temporary occupation of potters. All mentioned villages remained populated throughout the 16th century, and this pattern cannot be related to the depopulation of certain areas. Several explanations can be offered for this situation; 1. either Ottoman officials did not consistently record professional affiliations; 2. or potters’ activities were discontinued because they were complementary; 3. or potters migrated frequently. The first two explanations are more plausible, simply because it was not that easy for the agricultural population to leave the land (Lopasic, 1994, p. 172). This leaves the possibility that the number of rural-based potters was higher than estimated based on the available registers.
The scattered spatial distribution of potters is indicated in Figure 3.1. The only micro region with a dense concentration of potters is around the Kosmaj mountain. In this area, four potters’ villages – Vrbica, Đurinci, Lunjevac and Beljina - were located. Other than them, Belina-Selište was located on the southern slope of Avala while Donja Ostružnica was on the Sava river. The other two villages from the Železnik nahiye – Putenik and Tatarin – cannot be located. Two villages – Bežanija and Bućavci – were located on the left side of the Sava river, but only the former can be precisely pointed on the map. The spatial distribution of these villages is interesting in the sense that they lie in different geological zones, which will be discussed more in the light of the results of ceramic analyses (Chapter 7).
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Figure 3.1 Map is showing the distribution of potters in villages around Belgrade as mentioned in the 16th century Ottoman tax registers (see Table 3.4). The villages of Putenik, Bućevci and Tatarin have unknown locations. After the geological map of Stevanović (1974, p.3).
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Chapter 4 Theoretical frameworks: archaeological perspectives
This chapter reviews theoretical frameworks relevant for addressing the process of Ottomanisation in archaeology. These frameworks were developed within the fields of archaeology, anthropology, ethnography, ethnoarchaeology and materials science and focus on the role and significance of technology for the understanding of human interactions and cultural change. In addition to the historiographic approach outlined in Chapter 3, frameworks discussed in this chapter are central to the interpretation of cultural change using the data gained from the analysis of archaeological ceramics.
Chapter 4 consists of two sections: technology and production organisation. These two fields of inquiry are still interpreted separately in the scholarship, although this picture is changing rapidly (Arnold, 1999, p. 59). The following review will emphasise the cultural or social approach to technology and production organisation that is recognised as relevant for the interpretation of ‘-isation’ processes. Scholars advocating this approach have shed new light on mechanisms of cultural change, such as the transmission of technological knowledge and the importance of technology for understanding individual and communal identities. Furthermore, the relevance of scale for the understanding of cultural change has been theorised. Therefore, these aspects will be highlighted in this chapter, offering theoretical perspectives on Ottomanisation that will be discussed further in Chapter 7.
4.1 Technology and cultural change in anthropological and archaeological studies
In studying Ottomanisation as a process of cultural change, this research is using the theoretical framework generically identified as a cultural approach to technology (Livingstone Smith, 2000, p. 21). This approach emerged in social anthropology as a critique of the evolutionary explanation of technological change or the so-called Standard View of Technology, which emphasises the natural and physical constraints in the process of technological decision making. By emphasising the social
82 embeddedness of technology, the cultural approach underlined the social interaction between various agents and material culture (Pfaffenberger, 1992).
Technology can be understood as an unfolding human activity that produces material objects, but also social relations and cultural knowledge (Dobres, 2000, p. 96). This dynamic view of technology highlights social interactions as a critical point of production processes. While producing things, from mundane to luxurious objects, people interact with others in their society as well as with the materials they engage in production (Dobres and Hoffman, 1994, p. 215). During this process of interaction, humans give meaning to objects they produce, but also to the relationship they forge with other social members. Some of the symbolic meanings attached to technologies create practices that look illogical from a modern viewpoint and can only be understood within the social context that created them (Lemonnier, 1993, p. 4). Thus, for a comprehensive understanding of technological processes, both tangible and intangible elements of culture must be considered.
Technology as a socially meaningful activity involves several elements of culture. Agents of technological processes can be both individuals and groups (Dobres, 2000, p. 130). In this research, both types of agency will be discussed, according to the archaeological practice of approaching the micro- and meso-scales (Chapter 4.3). Agents operate within structures that can have tangible (architecture, pottery production) or intangible (politics, ideology) properties. Technology emerges during the interaction between agents and structures that continuously re-define their social meanings, and this process is known as structuration (Dobres, 2000, p. 132).
The cultural approach to technology accepts that agents make many technological choices that are not necessarely constrained environmentally (Lemonnier, 1992; van der Leeuw, 1993; Sillar and Tite, 2000). This is especially true for the ceramic craft, which relies on readily accessible raw materials such as clays and various tempers. However, in any given society agents share a consensus on how things should be made and what final objects should look like (Lemonnier, 1993, p. 14). This idea is summarised in Bourdieu’s notion of habitus (1977, pp. 72–96), which denotes embedded culture, including technological knowledge, skills, and motor habits. Technical traits included in the habitus are learned and reproduced during the manufacturing processes that represent one tradition. Therefore, material products are
83 not merely reflection of individual tendencies, but very importantly they also represent the materialisation of the societies they belong to (Dobres, 2000, p. 137).
Learning is a central concept of culture, usually understood as the mechanism in charge for its maintenance and reproduction (Minar and Crown, 2001). Technological traditions are part of culture defined as the mix of technical knowledge, skills, motor habits, beliefs and attitudes passed from one generation to the next during apprenticeship (Gosselain, 2008; Wallaert, 2008). Apprenticeship refers to broad spectra of activities that aim to ensure achievements of technical knowledge, physical and muscle memory, as well as social relations that form one tradition (Wendrick, 2012). Furthermore, learning can be understood as any activity achieved through the participation in a community of practice, and as such, it is central to all human beings (Wenger, 1998). The successful transmission of technology from one generation to the next is manifested as the continuity of a tradition.
If technology is learnt in a tradition and reproduced through the social interaction between agents, the question is how does cultural change occur and how can the study of everyday habitual practices explain this change? These questions are fundamental for archaeological studies that deal with the variability of material culture (Stark, Bowser and Horne, 2008), and the following sub-chapters will discuss them in more details from different perspectives. In general, Lemonnier’s (1993) argument that cultural change is shaped by the social interaction of people that invent or borrow cultural elements from others, remains essential overall. Technological transfer and transmission play a significant role in explaining this phenomenon. In both cases, the innovation has to fit in the representation of technology already available in the correspondent (Lemonnier, 1993, p. 13). When a process of cultural change occurs, both material culture and social meanings attached to it receive a new interpretation.
The theoretical and methodological framework that enables the identification and interpretation of cultural continuity and discontinuity is called the chaîne opératoire. This conceptual framework has roots in French anthropology, dating back to Mauss who argued that even seemingly natural body gestures are learnt and that sequential acts express collective attitudes (after Dobres, 2000, p. 153). The term chaîne opératoire itself was formulated by Leroi-Gourhan, explaining the sequential nature of technical gestures that are repeated and reproduced during daily activities (Roux, 2017, p. 101). In the ceramic craft, the sequence usually includes procurement of raw
84 materials, their processing and forming, drying, firing, and decorating (Rye, 1981; Orton, Tyers and Vince, 1993; Rice, 2015). Some of these sequences, such as forming, involve motor habits adopted through hard and repetitive learning. The learning of some forming techniques can take place over many years of apprenticeship that shape the cognitive skills of a potter and lead to automatic and subconscious movements (Roux, 2017). Since learning is never merely an individual process, but it occurs in a community of practice (Wenger, 1998), understanding the manufacturing sequences and patterns they create in one tradition means also understanding cultural continuity and discontinuity.
Some of the fundamental postulates of technology have been elaborated in ethnographic, archaeological and ethnoarchaeological works. Aspects important to this research are the subject of review presented in Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2., focusing on the use of the chaîne opératoire framework in ceramic studies.
4.1.1 Ceramic technology in ethnoarchaeology: the chaîne opératoire approach
Throughout the 20th century ethnoarchaeology significantly contributed to the study of ceramics technology (Longacre, 1991). Its most considerable advantage over the archaeological approach is a direct insight into processes of social dynamics. However, several problems, of importance to this research, have been highlighted with respect to ethnoarchaeological work. One of the most serious is the problem of a static approach to research. Societies are documented in a specific moment in time, and cultural change is often not visible (Gosselain and Livingstone Smith, 2005, p. 42). Thus, this approach relies on the spatial rather than the temporal distribution of technological patterns. Archaeology has a different perspective on material culture, encountering temporal variability and its meaning in the cultural context. A notable exception in ethnoarchaeology is the work of Arnold (1985, 1989, 2008) in Mexico that follows one community of potters over more than thirty years. Another problem derives from the use of ethnographic analogy in archaeological interpretations, which has a long history (David and Kramer, 2001). While some scholars see ethnoarchaeology as a middle range theory (Dietler and Herbich, 1998; Herbich and Dietler, 2008), others see no use of it for addressing archaeological questions (Gosselain, 2016). Some authors (Arnold, 2008) call for a careful approach, reminding that the use of analogy cannot be avoided in archaeology.
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Today, archaeologists studying technology and cultural change usually do not draw direct parallels from ethnography but use it as a valuable source of information for obtaining patterns of cultural variability. Central to the understanding of cultural change have been ethnoarchaeological investigations about the transmission of knowledge, learning, social boundaries and the importance of chaîne opératoire (Stark, Elson and Clark, 1998 ed. Stark, Bowser and Horne, 2008). Most ethnographic studies were done in rural areas, focusing on communities whose craft practice is located in household units and involves members of one family. The notable exception from this pattern is Arnold’s long-term study of the urban community of potters in Ticul, Mexico (1985;1989; 2008).
4.1.1.1 Learning and transmission of knowledge
Complex cultural factors involved in the learning of ceramic technology shape traditions that can be understood as ‘specific sets of procedures, gestures, tools, materials, finished products, and beliefs and attitude toward actors and materials’ (Gosselain, 2008, p. 152). As part of the habitus, tradition is a dynamic concept, consisting of elements that show both continuity and discontinuity in one cultural context (van der Leeuw, 1993). Traits of tradition are transmitted between members of one community or shared between different communities through a continuous process of social learning. Thus, understanding the process of learning represents the key for studying how and why technological traditions change, together with the culture as a whole. The social mechanisms in charge of learning are well-documented in several ethnoarchaeological studies, encompassing geographically dispersed societies (Arnold 2008; Bowser 2005; Gosselain 2008; 2011b; Gosselain & Livingstone Smith 2005; Livingstone Smith 2000; Herbich & Dietler 2008; Roux & Corbetta 1989; Wallaert-Petre 2001; Wallaert 2008). In these studies, the learning of ceramic technology is linked to socialisation. The apprentice follows a long trajectory to become a socially accepted member of the ‘potters’ community’ (Herbich and Dietler, 2008).
The dominant mode of learning responsible for the continuity of a tradition is considered to be the vertical transmission of knowledge. Usually, apprentices start learning during childhood from their parents or other family members. In this early stage, the apprentice carries out manual domestic tasks that, among others, include the collection and sorting of raw materials, as well as the familiarisation with paste recipes.
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Learning has an informal character and cannot be distinguished from other daily activities in the household (Arnold 2008; Gosselain 2008; Gosselain & Livingstone Smith 2005; Wallaert 2008). In a later stage of apprenticeship that coincides with the early adolescence, learning becomes more formal and includes copying the teacher’s gestures and postures. These skills are related to forming techniques in pottery making and require the development of motor habits. As described by Arnold (2008, pp. 229– 272) for the example of Ticul’s potters in Mexico, in this phase of learning a future potter formes a particular group of muscles to perform a forming task. Thus, changing a forming technique in later periods of life requires not only a new set of knowledge and skills, but also a different type of physical strength and muscular performance. In the community of the Dii potters of Cameroon, the learning of forming techniques is enforced by physical and verbal punishments, which puts additional pressure on apprentices to discourage their experimentation with the tradition (Wallaert, 2008, pp. 190–191). In all cases, the apprenticeship takes about a decade or more, and it is subjected to hard and repetitive work that leads to the development of automatic and subconscious movements in a future potter. The duration of apprenticeship sometimes depends on the nature of the forming style that is going to be adopted (Roux and Corbetta, 1989). Thus, the implementation of the wheel-throwing technique requires over a decade of learning while the coiling technique can be mastered in less than three years. Therefore, depending on their cultural context, apprenticeships produce different kinds of motor skills that cannot be changed easily during the practice (Roux and Corbetta, 1989, p. 95).
Apart from learning during childhood, many societies also provide examples of learning in adulthood. Some female potters learn the craft from their mothers-in-law after marriage (Wallaert-Petre, 2001). Luo potters of Kenya practice this form of apprenticeship, which is part of resocialisation that initiates new female members into the potters’ community of their husbands (Dietler and Herbich, 1989). In Mexico, craft learning in adulthood is usually associated with people who were not raised in potters’ households, in which cases a non-traditional forming technique (such as the mould making) is preferred due to the shorter duration of the apprenticeship (Arnold, 1999).
The process of learning does not cease after the successful end of the apprenticeship, but on the contrary, it continues to develop through the social contacts of the potters (Gosselain and Livingstone Smith, 2005, p. 42). This process is called the horizontal
87 transmission of knowledge, and it happens in all societies despite strong affinities of potters to preserve a traditional way of craft practice. The list of factors that influence changes in potter’s behaviour is long, ranging from migrations, socio-economic, political to personal reasons. Considering the complexity of cultural dynamics, it is not possible to draw explicit models of change or to predict which steps in the chaînes opératoires are more likely to be affected. However, ethnoarchaeological studies give examples of how agents change their techniques when they negotiate their new social roles and relationships (Arnold 2008; Gosselain 2011a; Gosselain & Livingstone Smith 2005).
Potters, like all other people, are exposed to migrations and relocations. If they move to a place without a potters’ community, they will probably find a new source of raw materials, but preserve other technical elements (Gosselain and Livingstone Smith, 2005, p. 42). On the contrary, if potters find themselves in a competitive environment, they interact with other peers that follow potentially different traditions. This puts pressure on newcomers to modify their technical behaviour in order to re-socialise into a new community (Gosselain, 2011a, p. 218). The pressure created by the new market of consumers, with their already shaped sociocultural values and expectations, might affect the sizes and decoration of the pots (Arnold, 2008, p. 93). In southwest Niger, some potters said that the consumption demand affected their traditional paste recipe, forcing them to mix three types of clay. However, when they produce the pottery for their households, only the traditional one-clay recipe learnt from their ancestors is used (Gosselain, 2008, p. 161). Even in the Dii community of potters that limits the mobility and discourages any change, potters might modify the paste recipe or decorative motifs because of personal preferences (Wallaert, 2008, p. 196). Changes in social economies involving direct and indirect pressure from the state of Mexico on Ticul’s potters influenced, to a different extent, all segments of the chaînes opératoires in the second half of the 20th century (Arnold, 2008).
Almost all ethnoarchaeological studies under consideration emphasise that the forming technique is the most resistant to change in the chaînes opératoires (Arnold 2008; Gosselain 1998; Gosselain 2000; Gosselain 2011a; Wallaert 2008). This is because of the relation between learning and forming, which involves motor habits, heritage and identity markers. However, even the forming techniques can be modified and changed as ethnographic examples in Sub-Saharan Africa (Gosselain, 2000, 2008) and Mexico
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(Arnold, 2008) show, but these examples are limited to a small number of individuals, and they do not include whole communities of potters. Therefore, changes can be made at almost any manufacturing stage. Importantly, changes in one stage do not necessarily lead to changes in the entire chaînes opératoires (Gosselain, 2000, p. 191).
4.1.2 Cultural change in archaeology
Archaeology has a long-lasting interest in the study of cultural change, which is a subject that continues to be important despite shifts in theoretical paradigms. This continuity is probably triggered by the urge to explain human behaviour that shaped different material realities (Barrett, 2012, p. 146). Part of this agenda has the focus on ‘-isations’ phenomena that have sparked generic interpretations of cultural change, often implying models of cultural diffusion, assimilation and colonisation. The integration of technological studies gave a new course to this agenda, emphasising the role of agents in the process of cultural change. Of particular interest for this research are phenomena of Minoanisation (Abell & Hilditch 2016; Broodbank 2004; Broodbank & Kiriatzi 2007; Gorogianni et al. 2016; Knappett & Nikolakopoulou 2014), Mycenaeanisation (Kiriatzi et al., 1997; Kiriatzi and Andreou, 2016; Raymond et al., 2016) and Islamisation (Carvajal Lopez 2013; Carvajal Lopez & Day 2013; 2015) that will be discussed further.
Despite geographical, chronological, and contextual differences, the cited studies of Minoanisation, Mycenaeanisation and Islamisation serve as important comparison models for Ottomanisation because they utilise a theoretical framework of cultural approach to technology and methodology that relies on macroscopic and microscopic analyses of pottery. The general approach to ceramic studies is based on a comparison made between pre-existing ceramic traditions and new traditions associated with the ‘-isation’ phenomena. The comparative approach enables an in-depth examination of changes in the technologies of local communities after their integration in new networks. Drawing on the results of technological characterisation, these phenomena have been interpreted as processes involving human and landscape interactions, mobility, transmission of knowledge, and technological innovation. The plurality of transformations and the variability of material culture occurring even within the same cultural context are meaningful hints for the current study on Ottomanisation.
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4.1.2.1 The Aegean Bronze Age and cultural change
Minoanisation is usually explained as a process of profound cultural influence of Crete on the Aegean islands, manifested through the appearance and production of common and recognisable material culture during the 2nd millennium BC (Broodbank 2004; Broodbank & Kiriatzi 2007). Mycenaeanisation was initiated from the Greek mainland during the Late Bronze Age, creating a network of people and goods across the Eastern and Central Mediterranean (Knappett and Kiriatzi, 2016).
Ceramic studies of these phenomena suggest that sequences such as the procurement of raw materials, paste preparation, and forming techniques proved to be indicative markers of cultural change at micro-scalar studies. The technical innovation and cultural acceptance of wheelmaking, in particular wheel-coiling, has been used as the strongest argument for the transmission of knowledge and mobility of potters between different communities (Kiriatzi et al., 1997; Abell and Hilditch, 2016; Gorogianni, Abell and Hilditch, 2016; Kiriatzi and Andreou, 2016). Before experiencing strong connectivity with Crete, the Aegean communities were not familiar with the wheelmaking technique, and traditionally made ceramics by hand. The use of the wheel requires a different set of motor habits comparing to handmaking, which prevents potters from simply adopting this technique through processes of horizontal transmission (Arnold, 2008; Gosselain, 2008). When wheel-made vessels started appearing in the archaeological records of the Aegean islands, they all had the morphological features of Minoan pots. However, in this case the morphology is not a sign of provenance, and most of these vessels were locally made at various islands, as the results of petrographic and chemical analyses demonstrate (Abell & Hilditch 2016; Broodbank & Kiriatzi 2007; Kiriatzi 2010; Knappett & Nikolakopoulou 2008). The innovation limited to certain ceramic forms is indicative of Minoanisation, because it shows the incorporation of certain Cretan consumption trends (such as feasting) across the Aegean. Thus, the technological innovation is tied with changes in consumption and desire of some local communities to participate in a Cretan lifestyle.
Minoanisation was not a uniform process and archaeological studies show a great degree of plurality when it comes to the practical integration of wheelmaking. At an Early Bronze Age site on Kythera, wheelmaking is associated with sand-tempering, which is the paste recipe characteristic of Crete (Kiriatzi, 2010, p. 10). Raw materials used by potters are local to Kythera though, proving a local provenance. This set of
90 evidence speaks for the presence of a community of Cretan potters’ on the island that brought with them knowledge and skills, but also showed the need to adapt their practice to the new landscape and cultural environment (Broodbank and Kiriatzi, 2007). Contrary to this example of early Minoanisation, at a Middle Bronze Age site of Akrotiri on Thera, wheelmade pottery was produced using local clays and low paste processing, both choices known in the previous local tradition (Knappett and Nikolakopoulou, 2008, p. 37; Abell and Hilditch, 2016, p. 158). This pattern indicates that it was the local community of potters that adopted wheelmaking, along with the preservation of technological traits embedded in their tradition. The transmission of knowledge and skills of wheelmaking occurred during a period of long-term interaction between the Cretan and local potters.
The example of Mycenaeanisation in central Macedonia is evidence of a technological change that affects the full chaînes opératoires (Kiriatzi et al., 1997; Kiriatzi and Andreou, 2016). Namely, the new locally manufactured Mycenaean-style pottery is associated not only with the use of the wheel, but also with a different firing regime as well as new forms and decorative styles.
In cases where the forming technique has not been a useful indicator of cultural change, other technological traits have been used. For example, Late Bronze Age assemblages on the Levantine coast contain ceramics made of grog-tempered paste recipe, which is a feature associated with pottery manufacture in mainland Greece (Boileau, 2016). Therefore, depending on the archaeological context, various technological choices included in the ceramic chaînes opératoires can indicate cultural change.
Scholars who advocate the social embeddedness of technological practice emphasized the necessity of understanding Minoanisation and Mycenaeanisation as multivariate processes, that unfolded gradually depending on previous histories of islands and cultural contexts (Broodbank 2004; Knappett & Kiriatzi 2016). Archaeological evidence indicates the dynamic and gradual nature of these processes; encountering continuous human interactions that cannot be reduced to monolithic cultural blocks accepted and dismissed at a precise moment in prehistory (Knappett and Nikolakopoulou, 2008, p. 3).
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Minoanisation and Mycenaeanisation demonstrate the necessity of understanding cultural change on the micro- and meso-scales. This approach came partially as a reaction to the initial macro-scale approach that produced meta-narratives about the colonisation of the Aegean islands, but it also came as a need to offer a framework that includes agents of cultural change (Nikolakopoulou and Knappett, 2016). The micro- scale approach addresses the long-term changes in local technologies at archaeological sites or islands under the influence of Crete or mainland Greece, respectively. The meso-scale approach relies on the social embeddedness of learning and transmission of knowledge inside one community, constituting a link between a single apprentice and society that is shaping her/his skills (Knappett and Leeuw, 2014). Therefore, these two scales can bring both individual and group agents into the interpretation of the complexity of cultural change.
Mobility has been one of the key aspects of Minoanisation and Mycenaeanisation, as argued in the social approach to technology and cultural change. In contrast to the idea of colonisation as a one-way influence of Crete on the Aegean islands through firmly established political colonies, this approach advocates the understanding of multi-scale mobility (Knappett and Kiriatzi, 2016). In addition to politically-driven movements, this approach recognizes the importance of human mobility in the Mediterranean motivated by various reasons, ranging from economic to personal (Broodbank, 2004, pp. 67–73, 2016). The latter type can easily remain unrecognized in the archaeological record if only consumption patterns are considered. The transfer of technology, on the other hand, provides insight into the direct interaction occurring between craftsmen that constituted a non-elite segment of the Aegean society (Nikolakopoulou and Knappett, 2016, p. 105). This interaction involves the mobility of craftsmen and transmission of knowledge between different traditions. For example, technological traits on the island of Kythera offer some evidence for a continued immigration of Cretan potters, or the ongoing connection created between potters of the Cretan tradition on Kythera and Crete (Broodbank and Kiriatzi, 2007, p. 264). Similarly, the appearance of wheelmaking at the site of Ayia Irini has been associated with direct contacts established between potters of Crete and the island of Kea, developed through migrations of potters from one island to another (Gorogianni, Abell and Hilditch, 2016, p. 215). Other forms of potters’ migrations include the itinerant character and temporary settlements of Cretan potters on Thera, which is an argument again
92 supported by the adoption of wheelmaking (Abell and Hilditch, 2016, p. 158). Travelling potters have also been offered as an interpretation for the appearance of locally made Mycenaean-style vessels formed on the wheel in central Macedonia (Kiriatzi and Andreou, 2016, p. 137).
4.1.2.2 Islamisation of Al-Andalus
Islamisation of the Vega of Granada was seen as ‘the change in social conditions brought about by the inclusion in any acknowledged form of Islam of a significant social segment of the regional population’ rather than as the result of religious conversion following the Arab conquest at the beginning of the 8th century (Carvajal 2013, 59). It was furthermore defined as a new cultural practice formed through the co-existing experience of different communities in the given historical and regional context of the Vega of Granada.
As such, it is suggested that Islamisation can be observed in patterns of changes of ceramic material culture (Carvajal Lopez 2013, 62; Carvajal Lopez & Day 2013, 447). Technological changes were examined on cooking pots documented at seven sites in the Vega region and dated between the 6th-12th centuries. Results of ceramic petrography were compared to the local geologies of archaeological sites. This approach enabled the authors to follow both temporal and spatial changes in production on a regional scale. Based on all the material evidence, two phases in the Islamisation of the Vega were suggested (Carvajal Lopez & Day 2013, 438–441).
The first phase was associated with the Arab conquest and successive migrations of the Muslim populations between the early 8th century and the beginning of the 10th century (Carvajal Lopez 2013). This period was marked by a relatively lose control of the Cordoban Umayyads over the Vega and a significant role of local Muslim elites in the organisation of land and economy. The distinctive regionalisation of this period was reflected in the ceramic material culture, as the results of macroscopic and microscopic analyses show (Carvajal Lopez & Day 2013; 2015). During this phase, new pottery types were firstly introduced and then gradually replaced previous types. Forming techniques showed considerable variations, from the concurrent manufacture of handmade, turntable and wheelmade pottery to the sole use of the wheel. Despite this variability, the results of ceramic petrography indicated stability in paste recipes
93 through time. Fabrics were in general firmly associated with the sites of their consumption, which suggest that workshops functioned in close vicinity of those sites.
The second phase of Islamisation of the Vega coincided with a strong centralisation of authorities in Cordoba that started around the beginning of the 10th century (Carvajal 2013, 66). It seems that the new political circumstances influenced the appearance and distribution of material culture. Ceramic production of this phase showed a higher level of standardisation in all segments of the chaînes opératoires, and it is worth emphasizing the exclusive choice of the wheel for forming cooking pots (Carvajal Lopez and Day 2013, 445). Although the dominant fabrics continued to be produced, their distribution changed, and they became associated with regional capitals.
4.2 The organisation of ceramic production
In archaeology, anthropology, and ethnography, organisation of production makes an important field of inquiry that often complements the technological study and represents its continuation (Costin, 2005). This is especially true in this research that lacks direct evidence of production (workshop remains, kilns and wasters), and where the archaeological approach to production organisation relies on the reconstruction of technological practices. Indirect evidence of production (ceramics from consumption contexts), analysed using scientific methods, offers a window into the organisation of production. Some hypotheses, relevant for this research, will be discussed here.
Costin’s typology (1991) defined some of the basic postulates of organisation of production that have initiated further discussion in this field. A notion of craft specialisation is central to this typological scheme. It is defined as production organisation that characterises societies with fewer producers than consumers (Costin, 1991, p. 4) or the production of goods that can be alienated from producers and consumed outside of their households by other members of the society (Clark, 1995; Inomata, 2001; Schortman and Urban, 2004). This typology defines four parameters of production organisation (Table 4.1) that are usually discussed in relation to political economy (Brumfiel and Earle, 1987). This is especially the case with the context parameter that implies a connection between the political attachemnt of production and the goods’ value and distribution in the society. Furthermore, it is also assumed that the size of a production unit can be related to the scale of production. The political
94 economy in this context is formulated as the relationship established between structures of political powers and production, exchange, and consumption (Feinman 2004; Stein 2001, p.356;). Although both craft specialisation and political economy look useful for characterising craft production in the Ottoman Empire, they contain some questionable associations that will be highlighted later on.
Parameter Description
Scale It refers to the size of production units and types of labour recruitment. On one side of the hierarchical scale are household-based workshops and opposite to them are nucleated corvée and retainer workshops. Concentration It describes the spatial distribution between producers and consumers in the landscape. Intensity It refers to part-time (producers that practice their craft in addition to other economic activities) and full-time (producers who only rely on their crafts as the source of income) specialisation. Context It refers to independent (producers who have self-autonomy in their work) and attached (producers who practice their craft under the influence of political elites) specialisation. It is assumed that these two types of specialisation affect distribution and consumption. Thus, independent specialists usually produce mundane items while attached specialists manufacture luxuries goods. Table 4.1 Parameters that define production organisation according to the typology proposed by Costin (1991).
Although the terms presented in Table 4.1 are still broadly used in the scholarship, many studies questioned the application of evolutionary models that link specialisation and political complexity. Some of the most influential discussions challenged the connection between the scale parameter and social complexity. Thus, both Arnold (2008) in his ethnographic work in Mexico, and Sinopoli (2003) in her archaeological synthesis of the Vijayanagara Empire in India, demonstrated that so-called complex societies can rely entirely on household-based production of ceramics, arguing for the cultural embeddedness of this production. In both cases, the pressure coming from the state led to horizontal changes in craft organisation, creating extended workshops operating with non-kin related labour (Mexico) or associations based on guilds and casts (India). Therefore, they showed that the top-down pressure does not necessarily
95 produce larger units of production or any changes in household units whatsoever. The context parameter probably has faced the strongest criticism that is additionally validated in the context of this research. Some of the issues put forward are the invisibility of actual producers who stayed in the shadow of elites (Brumfiel and Earle, 1987), the use of modern esthetic perceptions for the categoriation of utilitarian versus luxurious goods (Arnold, 1999), the lack of any political dimension of utilitarian goods (Day, Relaki and Todaro, 2010), the artificial division made between elites and producers based on western ideology (Inomata 2001; 2007), and the point that concepts of attached and independent specialisations are perceived as fixed identities while in reality they have been fluid and changeable (Sinopoli, 2003).
On a positive side, the typological scheme initiated a large number of ethnographic and archaeological discussions that explored links between different variables included in interpretations of production organisation (Arnold 1999; 2000; 2008; Berg 2004; Roux 2015; Roux & Corbetta 1989; Sinopoli 1988). Some of these examples unequivocally have illustrated the wide variability encompassed in the range of patterns of material culture and all the dangers of applying evolutionary models on these patterns. They have, furthermore, demonstrated all difficulties of assessing without written sources the influence of political economies on craft organisation. Thus, top-down approaches to the question of production organisation remain challenging in archaeology, which motivated the development of more effective bottom-up approaches built upon interaction of diverse agents in a complex web of networks (Duistermaat, 2017, p. 125). The technology of ceramic production, based on the chaîne opératoire framework, plays a vital component of the bottom-up approach (Day, Relaki and Todaro, 2010; Hilditch, 2014).
Although this is a valid point, the top-down influence of a state on the organisation of crafts cannot be just dismissed. This is especially true for studies where this influence is the historical reality, such as the Ottoman Empire. Some ethnoarchaeological works, such as Arnold’s in Mexico (2008), undoubtedly demonstrated the extent of socio- political influences (such as national laws, national policies on labour organisation, large-scale conflicts, and infrastructural projects) on various parameters of craft production, including specialised task divisions (introduction of clay miners and people specialised only in certain sequences of pottery making) and patterns of learning. The information on socio-political factors affecting the production
96 organisation usually comes from written sources and therefore, where applicable, archaeological studies should be supported and reinforced with the evidence deriving from texts.
The following review will highlight both top-down and bottom-up perspectives by exploring different case studies that can highlight aspects of production organisation essential for this research. The bottom-up perspective is essential for addressing the production organisation through methods of archaeological science. The focus is on detection of potential patterns that can shed additional light on how ceramic production unfolds in the local landscape of Belgrade, by emphasizing the relation between production, exchange, and consumption on a local scale. On the other side, a top-down perspective remains important for testing the hypothesis deriving from the Ottoman historiography about the guild-based urban economy. What the guild association means concerning the production organisation has not been discussed in the archaeological literature so far, and therefore, it remains challenging to introduce this topic into the discussion of this work. This task requires testing some premises made in the historiography with archaeological and scientific methods.
4.2.1 Archaeological approaches to production organisation: two perspectives
When only indirect evidence of production is encountered, the standardisation argument appears as central to the notion of specialisation. In a broad sense of meaning, standardisation refers to a relative degree of homogenity and uniformity in a class of goods (Rice, 1981; Sinopoli, 1988, p. 582; Blackman, Stein and Vandiver, 1993, p. 61). Standardisation is commonly used as a major proxy in assessing increasing craft specialisation, production intensity and scale. The underlying assumption is that in circumstances of intense specialisation (usually full-time), producers develop skills that are efficient, routinised and motorised (Costin, 1991, p. 33; Rice, 1991, p. 268). It has been recognised that standardisation relies on numerous variables, including morphological, decorative and technological attributes (Costin, 1991, p. 35; Rice, 1991, p. 268). The variables that reflect the unconscious movements of producers, including consistency in a choice of raw materials, sequences of production that are associated with motor skills, and subtle variations in composition are emphasised as being especially indicative for the understanding of craft production (Costin, 1991, p. 35; Costin and Hagstrum, 1995, p. 622).
97 It has been proposed in historiography that Ottoman guilds are associated with the standardised production of goods, mainly with respect to labour organisation and their recruitment as well as an intensity of production corresponding to full-time occupation (Faroqhi, 1994, p. 585). Although this particular hypothesis has not been systematically explored in archaeology before, several studies have tested similar premises about relations between units of production and standardisation (Sinopoli, 1988; Arnold, 2008), as well as the intensity of production and standardisation (Roux, 2003).
In ceramic studies, standardisation has been tested through metric, compositional and technological analyses. The metric analysis is often focused on measuring the thickness of walls, diameters of rims and bases, orientations of neck and handles, volumes, heights, and shapes. In the case of a ceramic assemblage of the Vijayanagara Empire, Sinopoli (1988) tested the relation between standardisation and large-scale production units associated with centralised production in so-called complex societies. Her observations demonstrated that even in controlled archaeological contexts, such as a single deposit, the standardisation could be seen only in pots belonging to one type. When different types of pots are compared, the variability increases and there are no means to detect effectively a common origin of pots. Drawing on that, she concludes that pottery production probably occurred in small units, thus rejecting an assumed link between the imperial-level political organisation and existence of large- scale production units. Another case study from the islands of Kea and Melos in Greece also examines the variability of metric measurements on a single type of pottery – the conical cups of the Late Bronze Age associated with Minoanisation (Berg, 2004). Although both islands consumed conical cups and participated in the Minoanisation process, the material from Kea shows a higher degree of standardisation compared to Melos’ ceramics. This result questions the relation between changes in craft organisation and standardisation, calling for a more comprehensive approach that would look at the internal cultural dynamics of the islands and the impact of socio- political factors on their economies. A comparative ethnographic study conducted in India and Spain on several types of vessels tested the relation between the rate of production and standardisation by isolating the intensity parameter (Roux, 2003). The results showed less variability in workshops with a high-rate productivity (full-time specialisation) than in those with low-rate productivity (part-time specialisation).
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However, Roux (2003) found that this result depends on the skill of potters and types of pots they produce, and it cannot be taken as the outcome of deliberate standardisation. That the standardisation depends on the individual skills of potters, built through experience, has also been pointed out in ethnographic research on the Philipines (Longacre, 1999). Besides, best-developed skills are not always equivalent to increased production. For example, the introduction of mould-making in Mexico is correlated with fewer skills acquired by potters (Arnold, 1999, p. 77). Also, task divisions driven by social changes in production organisation produce the same effect of skill reduction (Arnold, 2008).
Another two types of measurements, compositional and technological, rely on the chaîne opératoire approach, assessing the variability of different sequences and addressing their meanings altogether. Using the methods of materials science and ethnography, various authors questioned possible links between standardisation on the one side and increased production, elite control over access to resources, and the relation between the variability of ceramics and modes of production organisation on the other side. In his ethnographic work in Latin America, Arnold (2000) showed that paste variability is related to a series of factors, including environmental (natural variability of raw materials, even those extracted from a single source), procurement (potters’ individual or cultural perception of proper raw materials, need to experiment), social (religious reasons), and functional (shapes, sizes, and function of pots). He concludes that elite control over access to raw material sources does not lead to standardisation of pastes and that more extensive research is needed before one can claim a connection between patterns of paste variability and craft organisation (Arnold, 2000, p. 363). Identifying paste standardisation with analytical methods proved to be an even more challenging task. The example of prehistoric bowls from Syria shows that standardisation can be positively observed through petrographic and chemical analyses only in strictly controlled archaeological circumstances (Blackman, Stein and Vandiver, 1993). Thus, the analysis of 27 wasters of one type of bowl from a single deposit does show standardisation in all the sequences of the chaîne opératoire, but the same result cannot be observed when analyses are extended to random archaeological finds of the same type of bowl documented in various contexts. When it comes to modelling, the seminal ethnographic work of Roux and Corbetta (1989) in India showed that the wheel throwing technique is not necessarily related to craft
99 specialisation, despite the conventional connection made between these two variables in the literature. Instead, they suggest that wheel-throwing develops in socio-cultural settings that support a long apprenticeship of potential potters. The same conclusion appears in Arnold’s (2008) ethnographic work in Mexico, where modern potters of Ticul have not adopted the wheel throwing technique despite the increased production of pottery and testified full-time specialisation.
Therefore, even if standardisation can be identified through metric, technological, and compositional analyses of ceramics, its meaning remains questionable in the context of the organisation of production. As the examples show, increased demand and intensity of production do not necessarily lead to changes in units of production, skills, more restricted use of raw material sources or modelling techniques. Instead, they can lead to re-organisation of existing resources, with the potential addition of new labour power (Sinopoli, 2003). These features do not necessarily introduce standardisation in the production practice. Hence, it is important to emphasize that production organisation, with all the traits attached to it cannot be explained with a model or typology. The interpretation of ceramic variability and standardisation have to be sought within their cultural context.
Recently, a relational view of production organisation has been suggested, encompassing a bottom-up approach to this topic (Duistermaat, 2017). This approach summarises, among others, the chaîne opératoire framework. Instead of starting from already defined hypotheses and testing assumed links between variables, this approach suggests that production organisation can be assessed through interactions between humans, environment, objects, tools, and spaces (Duistermaat, 2017, p. 124).
The application of different analytical techniques gave a significant contribution to the understanding of ceramic variability in the archaeological record (e.g. Hilditch 2014; 2008; Kiriatzi et al. 2011). Framed within the chaîne opératoire, patterns of variability are helpful for the identification of a series of technical choices made by humans. These decisions, furthermore, reveal networks of interactions shaped between potters and other members of the community (other potters and consumers) as well as the landscape (through choices made regarding the selection and procurement of raw materials). Patterns formed out of these choices indicate technological traditions, which reflect on individual and communal identities (Day, Relaki and Todaro, 2010, p. 214). The archaeological investigation with a longue durée perspective provides
100 both temporal and spatial mapping of technological traditions, identifying potential changes in technological practices. By doing this, it is possible to characterise changes in the degree of variability and possible appearance/disappearance of standardisation. The meaning of standardisation should be sought in a broader context, relying on the careful analysis of exchange and consumption. For example, the appearance of standardised Minoan conical cups on the Aegean islands is closely associated with new consumption trends involved in the process of Minoanisation, such as feasting (Berg, 2004; Hilditch, 2014). Information of this kind provides a deeper understanding of the ‘-isation’ processes than a simple labeling of standardisation within a typological system. Also, a careful examination of temporal patterns of ceramic production at several pre-Palatial sites in Greece shows that specific locations can be related to the production over an extended period, indicating a specialised nature of these sites (Day, Relaki and Todaro, 2010).
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Chapter 5 Methodology
This chapter explains the methodology utilised in this research. It is divided into four sections. The first section gives insight into the archaeological sites and contexts from which the analysed pottery comes from. In the second section, the macroscopic method of pottery analysis is presented. Information deriving from the macroscopic study is used for sampling for petrographic analysis, which is explained in the third section together with a sampling strategy for chemical analyses of ceramics, slips and glazes. Analytical methods are presented in the final section of this chapter.
The methods of materials science are used in this research for technological characterisation and provenance determination of selected pottery from Belgrade dated between the 14th and17th centuries. The primary method is thin section ceramic petrography, used for the reconstruction of several technological sequences such as procurement of raw materials, paste preparation and firing modes as well as provenance (Quinn 2013; Whitbread 2001, 451). The petrology of non-plastic inclusions identified in thin sections is compared to locally available geological formations as presented on geological maps and petrological studies of Belgrade’s area (Filipović & Rodin 1980; Ivković 1975; Marković et al. 1985; Pavlović 1980; Vasković & Matović 1996; Vasković 1993). Using this criterion, potential areas of raw material exploitations are suggested.
In addition to ceramic petrography, three methods of chemical analysis were used for purposes of technological characterisation of ceramic pastes, slips and glazes. Ceramics were analysed by Wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis (WDXRF) for elemental grouping of their bulk compositions. Slips and glazes are analysed with portable X-Ray fluorescence (pXRF) and a scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS). While the former method was used for the preliminary testing of glazes, SEM-EDS was used for compositional analyses of slips and glazes as well as the identification of application methods.
The above-described methods were selected because they provide an adequate methodological framework for the objectives outlined in this research (Chapter 1.2). In addition, they have often been utilised in studies of ceramic and glaze technologies
102 as well as provenance, proving to be useful analytical tools (e.g Carvajal Lopez & Day 2013; Day et al. 1999; Day et al. 2012; Joyner 1997; Kiriatzi 2010; Kiriatzi et al. 1997; Kiriatzi et al. 2011; Whitbread 1995). Apart from these methods, ceramic studies embedded into the materials science approach explore a wide range of methodological options that could not be applied in this case. In ceramic provenance studies, ceramic petrography can be also used for the analysis of geological samples of clays that are fired (refiring tests) in order to be comparable to archaeological pottery (e.g. Kiriatzi et al, 2011; Tite, 2001). This is a more reliable provenance approach but considering the lack of direct evidence of production and any information about sources of raw materials that could serve as a starting point for the geological sampling, this was not a feasible method in this time-limited research. Methods of chemical analyses, such as WDXRF and NAA, could also be used in provenance studies of ceramics in combination with reference groups (Day et al. 1999; Hein & Kilikoglou 2017; Hein & Mommsen 1999). However, due to the lack of reference groups for the Middle Danube region this approach was not applicable. Furthermore, determining the provenance of Belgrade’s glazes, considering their high lead composition (see Chapter 6.4), could rely on their lead isotope measurement (Brill & Wampler 1967; Henderson et al. 2005; Mason et al. 2011). However, this approach also requires a well-developed reference data base of lead isotopes measured in archaeological glazes and lead-rich ores and metals for the Central Balkans that can be used for the comparison with Belgrade’s glazes, which is currently not the case.
5.1 Archaeological sites, contexts and phases
For the purposes of this research, ceramics were selected from two archaeological sites located intra (Lower Town) and extra muros (Dorćol) (Fig. 5.1). These two civil settlements had different political and social trajectories, and therefore, their comparison offers an insight into potentially different consumption, distribution and production trends. Importantly, ceramics studied in this research derive only from households and are related to everyday use, which makes them comparable. The ceramics excavated at these two civil settlements will be used in this research as indirect evidence for production.
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Figure 5.1 Map of the Belgrade Fortress and Dorćol with marked positions of archaeological sites and contexts used in this research. The map is modified after Popović (2006, p. 158; Figure 88).
The archaeological ceramics derive from several archaeological contexts, described in sections 5.1.1 and 5.1.2. These archaeological contexts were chosen using several criteria including the application of proper excavation methods, the quantity of the target and sample populations and appropriateness of those contexts for addressing broader archaeological questions, as suggested by Orton (2000, pp. 1–13). For the purposes of this research, and according to the archaeological data, contexts are grouped into four phases (Tables 5.1 and 5.2).
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5.1.1. Belgrade Fortress - Lower Town
The majority of selected archaeological contexts of Phases 2, 3 and 4 are situated within the Belgrade Fortress, more precisely at the Lower Town that was used in the past as a fortified civilian suburb (Fig. 5.1). The Lower Town was systematically excavated by the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade between 1977-1997 (Popović and Bikić, 2004). The intense search for the church of the Ascension of the Virgin Mary in the Lower Town, a part of the monastery that served as the seat of the Orthodox Metropolitan of Belgrade before the Ottoman conquest, brought to light rich material culture and architectural remains dated between the middle of the 15th and the beginning of the 18th centuries. The majority of excavated buildings are situated next to the so-called Danube slope of the Lower Town, right below the northern walls of the Upper Town. During the Austrian extensive modifications of the Fortress carried out between 1721-1723 some archaeological horizons in this part of the Lower Town were disturbed while architectural remains were filled with the soil dug out during the construction of military objects in the Upper Town. In addition, the continuous habitation and regular construction works from the Roman period onwards created complex archaeological situations. Still, several well-defined archaeological units, related to architectural remains, brought to light ceramic finds that can be properly dated and contextualised.
Figure 5.2 Plan of the Metropolitan Palace with marked positions of archaeological contexts of Phases 2 and 3. The plan is modified after Popović and Bikić (2004, p.56, Figure 20).
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Figure 5.3 Architectural remains of the Metropolitan Palace. A view from the northern wall of the Upper Town. Photo: Jelena Živković.
The pottery of Phase 2 was found in archaeological contexts of a monumental two- story building with a cellar interpreted as the Metropolitan Palace (Fig. 5.2), which remains are visible in the Lower Town (Fig. 5.3). It was constructed in the second half of the 15th century (Phase 2), following the fire that destroyed an older Building VII probably in the middle of the 15th century found beneath the Palace (Popović and Bikić, 2004, p. 53). The Palace consisted of several rooms, cellar, the porch decorated with stone arcades, two courtyards and the fountain (Fig. 5.2). The building had walls made of stone and bricks (Fig. 5.4) as well as plaster floors except in the main Room 1 (Large hall) that had a specially designed floor made of wood and bricks. Ceramic vessels were found in several pits and scattered on the floors across the Palace. The majority of vessels are described as coarse cooking wares, while fine tableware or imported tableware such as Italian Maiolica are rare (Popović & Bikić 2004, pp.86- 94). The oldest Context 3 consists of ceramics found between the floors of Building VII and the Palace (Table 5.1). Two pits defined as Contexts 1 and 2, associated with Room 5 on the western side of the building, are seen as being contemporary with the Palace. One pit, interpreted as a silo, was dug into the floor of Room 5 on the depth of 5 meters (Context 1) (Fig. 5.5). The pit had vertical extensions, probably used to carry
106 wooden shelves, used for the food storing. The second pit was dug next to the outer wall of Room 5 and it is interpreted as a waste pit (Context 2). Ceramics found in these two pits are associated with living activities in the household. The phase of destruction is defined as Context 4 and refers to ceramics scattered on the floor in several rooms of the palace. Apart from the common pottery for everyday use, this context was abundant in finds of stove pots deriving from two stoves.
Context Chronology Description Phase 2 (c.1456-1521) Hungarian Kingdom Context 1 Second half of the 15th Metropolitan Palace, pit-silos in Room 5. - beginning of the 16th Ceramics belong to the occupation and century destruction phase. Context 2 Second half of the 15th Metropolitan Palace, the waste pit located on the - beginning of the 16th outer side of the western wall of Room 5. century Ceramics belong to the occupation and destruction phase.
Context 3 Mid of the 15th century Metropolitan Palace, the archaeological layer between the floor of Building VII and the floor of Palace. This archaeological layer precedes the Palace construction.
Context 4 The beginning of the Metropolitan Palace, ceramics found on the floor 16th century, dated of Rooms 1, 3, 4 and atrium. Dated to the phase with the coin of the of destruction and the Ottoman conquest in 1521. Hungarian king Vladislaus, which is minted in 1508 Phase 3 c. 1521 - c. 1600 Ottoman Empire Context 5 The 16th century (after Two huts and a kiosk formed in the ruins of the 1521) Metropolitan Palace, above the previous Rooms 4 and 5. Ceramics were found on floors and domestic pits and they belong to the occupation phase. Phase 4 c.1600-1688 Ottoman Empire Context 6 The 17th century Building IV, built over huts and kiosk of Phase 3. Ceramics found on floors and domestic pits belong to the occupation phase.
Context 7 The second half of the House II. Ceramics found on floors belong to the 17th century (before occupation phase. 1688). Table 5.1 Phases and contexts related to the Lower Town, defined for the purposes of this research. The description of Context 7 is from Marjanović-Vujović (1973) while all other contexts are from Popović & Bikić (2004).
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Figure 5.4 The Metropolitan Palace, sections of walls. R: 1:100. (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 68, Figure 35).
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The Metropolitan Palace was destroyed in a fire related to the
Figure 5.5 The pit-silos found in Room 5. The base (left) and section (right) in R 1:50 (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 66, Figure 31).
The Metropolitan Palace was destroyed in a fire related to the Ottoman conquest in 1521 (Popović and Bikić, 2004, p. 85). Following the fire, the building was partially demolished, and the remaining walls were used for the construction of two residential buildings interpreted as huts and one kiosk (Fig 5.2). The new buildings had wooden walls and floors made of plaster (Fig. 5.6). They were located close to the mosque (previously the main Orthodox church) and the caravanserai of Sultan Suleiman. Ceramic vessels, here described as Context 5 (Table 5.1), were found scattered on the floors of the two huts and kiosk, but in some cases were also mixed with the ceramics dated to the horizon of the Palace’s destruction (Popović and Bikić, 2004, pp. 114– 117). Ceramics for everyday use studied in this research were mixed with Iznik Ware produced in the first half of the 16th century (Živković et al., 2017, p. 4) as well as metal pots (Popović and Bikić, 2004, p. 83). All these finds enabled the dating of ceramics to the first half of the 16th century.
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Figure 5.6 A hut built between the walls of the demolished Metropolitan Palace. R 1:100. (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 113, Figure 63).
The huts and kiosk of Phase 3 were abandoned by the end of the 16th century and their remains were filled out and elevated. The space was used for the construction of a new stone Building IV, interpreted as maktab (school) in the complex of the Imperial mosque, founded in the first half of the 17th century and destroyed during the Austrian occupation in 1688 (Popović and Bikić, 2004, p. 127). This building partially incorporated architectural remains of the 15th century Metropolitan Palace, and there is the evidence that the cellar of the Palace was in use (Fig. 5.7 and 5.8). Context 6 consists of archaeological finds documented on the floor, in a pit and the well of Building IV. Besides the ceramic vessels and stove pots analysed in this research, the list of archaeological finds include metal pots, smoking pipes, weights, tools, and weapons (Popović and Bikić, 2004, p. 125).
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Figure 5.7 Building IV in the Lower Town, the section through the entrance in relation to the Palace level. R 1:50 (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 119, Figure 67).
Figure 5.8 Building IV in the Lower Town, the plan of the building with marked position of the pit and the stove. R 1: 100. (Popović & Bikić 2004, p. 120, Figure 70).
Context 7 of Phase 4 is related to the household inventory of House II, dated to the second half of the 17th century and destroyed during the Austrian military attack in 1688 (Marjanović-Vujović, 1973). House II was a stone-wooden house with two rooms (Fig. 5.9), located close to a road that connected the Lower Town with Dorćol
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(Fig. 5.1). The smaller room was directly connected with the entrance and had a well- preserved stove used for cooking and heating with in-situ finds of stove pots. This was probably the kitchen/living room that also had a pit, potentially used as a bath, situated between the stove and the wall that separated two rooms. The majority of ceramic vessels were found in the south-western corner of the small room, which suggests that a kitchen shelf was located there (Marjanović-Vujović, 1973, p. 204). Besides vessels, some included in this research, smoking pipes, glass beads, a lead pendant with Arabic letters, tools and coins were found in the smaller room of the house (Marjanović- Vujović, 1973).
Figure 5.9 Plan of House II in the Lower Town defined as Context 7 in this research (Marjanović-Vujović, 1973 TVII).
5.1.2 Dorćol – the Old Synagogue site
For purposes of this research, the pottery found at an internally unstratified site of the Old Synagogue at Dorćol (Fig. 5.1) is marked as Context 8 (Table 5.2). This site was partially excavated in 1978 when four trenches, opened from the inner and outer sides of the apse (Fig. 5.10), were excavated in artificial layers, which resulted in poor definition of units in relation to architectural remains (Popović, 1978a). Therefore, the pottery from the site is defined as one Context 8.
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Context 8 Chronology Description
Phase 1 c. 14th c. Ceramics found around a ditch in the trench 1/78-d, in the digging layers no. 3 and 4 Phase 2 c. second half of the Ceramics found in the trench A, pit in the 15th – beginning of digging layer no. 3 the 16rh c. (before 1521) Phase 4 the 17th c. Ceramics found in Pit 1 in SW part of the trench 1/78-c, in the digging layer no. 8 Table 5.2 Phases deriving from Context 8 at the Old Synagogue site in Dorćol. After Bjelajac (1978) and Popović (1978).
Figure 5.10 The plan of the Old Synagogue site with the position of excavated trenches (Popović, 1978a).
Apart from Ottoman-period ceramics concomitant with the synagogue, pottery that certainly predates the Ottoman conquest was found in pits and archaeological layers. Bjelajac (1978) dated the pottery from this site typologically by parallels with the Belgrade Fortress. Recent excavations at this site, conducted in summer 2018, mostly confirm the chronology suggested by Bjelajac, except for Phase 1 that has not been documented (Bikić 2018 pers. comm.). Therefore, Bjelajac’s (1978) chronology is accepted here, and the pottery is assigned to three phases (Table 5.2).
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Chronologically the oldest Phase 1 was originally dated to the beginning of the 14th century, based on a coin of the Venetian doge Pietro Gradenigo (1289-1311) (Bjelajac, 1978, p. 137). However, this dating has several problems. During the macroscopic research conducted in the Belgrade City Museum, it was observed that the coin looks worn, with only one tiny part preserved. Therefore, the general impression is that the coin was out of use by the time of its actual deposition (Bikić, Strugar and Živković 2015 pers. comm.). According to the original fieldwork documentation, ceramics of this horizon were excavated in the layer III-IV, without any clear archaeological context (Popović, 1978a). Furthermore, morphological features of these ceramics are closer to the early 15th century (Bikić 2015 pers. comm.). Nonetheless, there is no possibility to date this horizon properly, just to accept a very vague dating stretched between the early 14th and the early 15th century. This does not diminish the importance that these ceramics have in this research. With very archaic features, visible in their decoration and a mixture of wheel and hand-making modelling techniques, these ceramics play a crucial role in the understanding of the local tradition and technology that precedes the production of Phase 2.
Ceramics of Phase 2, found in Trench A at the Old Synagogue site, have typological similarities with ceramics of Phase 2 at the Lower Town, which enabled their dating to the second half of the 15th century (Bjelajac, 1978, p. 136). Ceramics of Phase 4 were found in a pit and can be characterised as Ottoman-period production. However, the question of a more precise chronology remains open. The presence of certain forms consumed at the Lower town in the 17th century, such as glazed stove pots and storage jars with two handles, suggest the dating to Phase 4.
5.2 The macroscopic method
The macroscopic research aimed to establish a database to be used as a tool in the sampling process as well as in further studies. The research was carried out during March and April 2015 at the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade (on ceramics from the Fortress) and the Belgrade City Museum (on ceramics from Dorćol).
The primary groups of ceramics defined for the purposes of this research are called wares (Table 5.3). For a definition of a ware, a few main criteria were considered: visually detectable inclusions, their distribution throughout the clay matrix, and the
114 properties of the matrix. The definition of a ware relies on visual inspection of ceramic sherds and should be distinguished from fabrics established based on results of microscopic studies that provide a more precise definition of the above-mentioned criteria. Other categories, such as morphological types and functional groups, come as sub-categories of wares.
Ceramic groups Method Definition Ware (W) Macroscopy Group of pottery defined after visually detectable inclusions, their distribution through the clay matrix, and the properties of the matrix. Described in Chapter 6.1 Fabric (F) Ceramic Group of samples made of the same raw petrography materials, using similar paste preparation techniques. Described features: inclusions, matrix and voids. Samples of one fabric may contain variations in the abundance and size of inclusions and voids as well as matrix properties. Described in Chapter 6.2 Cluster (C) Chemical analysis Group of samples characterised by the paste of ceramics with clearly defined chemical signature. (WDXRF) Samples of one group may contain variations in chemical compositions. Described in Chapter 6.3.1 Compositional Integrated results Group of samples characterised by the paste of group (CG) of ceramic same mineralogical and chemical features, as petrography and defined by ceramic analyses. Described in WDXRF Chapter 6.3.2 Technological Integrated results Group of pottery that reflect a common tradition (TT) of all methods technological knowledge and skills, approach to raw materials, motor habits, firing and decoration made within one community of potters. It is discussed in Chapter 7.2 Table 5.3 Ceramic analytical groups.
The quantification of ceramics is an important part of the sampling process. This is because it is necessary to establish relations between various wares and types before actual sampling (Orton et al. 1993, 166-181). In assemblages from both sites under study, a significant number of potsherds were discarded from the collections after the first systematisation. Remaining assemblages contain only diagnostic potsherds, ceramics grouped into recognized types or representative samples of specific functional categories. Furthermore, a number of pots were reconstructed during the conservation treatment, which disabled weighing and counting as quantification methods. The most useful method of quantification in this research was minimal number of individuals (MNI), estimated for all rims and bases as two separate categories. The reliability of the method lies in the fact that all rims and bases are
115 diagnostic parts of vessels, which means that their existing number is the same as the original one. In comparison to MNI, estimated vessel equivalent (EVE) for rims and bases was also measured and used for sampling purposes. Although in most cases MNI and EVE produce comparable results, sometimes the outcomes were somewhat different and therefore relations between measured categories should be observed through a combination of the two methods. Both methods were applied to every ware in order to highlight relations between wares in the assemblage.
Most information relevant for the reconstruction of technological sequences relates to forming and finishing. As in the previous cases, these details were tied to wares. Their importance lies in their association with the results from further microscopic studies, rather than in sampling.
Finally, decorative techniques and styles were recorded in the database. A significant percentage of the pottery of Phases 3 and 4 is glazed and thus it was necessary to obtain data about colour/s from the interior and exterior sides of shards or pots. Besides glazes, other types of decoration were also documented, such as incising, polishing, painting, stamping etc. The appearance of a slip proved to be important for the observation of varieties in decorative styles and was added in the database as a separate category.
5.3 Sampling for microscopic and elemental analyses 5.3.1 Sampling for petrographic analysis
The sampling for petrographic analysis was based on the statistical outcomes of the macroscopic research. It was organised by phases at both archaeological sites that will be described separately. A ware presents the basic sampling unit for each phase, which encompasses various ceramic types. Since rims proved to be more precise in typology than bases, MNI and EVE of rims were used for statistical calculations. In total, 271 samples were selected, numbered and added into the database (the list of samples is given in Appendix E).
For addressing relevant questions outlined in this research, two variables were set as important for sampling. The first variable measures quantitatively the most numerous wares and types within selected phases. This is important for the definition of technological patterns and provenance. The second variable addresses ceramics with
116 the longue durée in Belgrade, even if some segments of technological sequences might be different (e.g. ceramics that have the same typological features but different forming techniques). These ceramics are relevant for the study of continuity/change in the local production.
5.3.1.1 Sampling at the Lower Town
Four wares - W1, W2, W3 and W4 - appear as characteristic for Phase 2 (Fig. 5.11). Since W1 and related W2 constitute the majority in the analysed assemblage, the sampling focus was on these two wares. W1 is represented by 43 samples while Ware 2 is represented by 12 samples (Table 5.4). Furthermore, Ware 3 appears frequently in the assemblage and 17 samples were selected for further analyses. Ware 4 is less numerous than the previous three, and in this case 10 samples were selected. In the case of other wares, one sample for each W7b and W13 was selected due to their importance for tracing continuity in the local production.
Figure 5.11 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 2 at the Lower Town based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right).
Phase 3 shows a sharp break from Phase 2. None of the major wares of Phase 2 (W1, W2, W3 and W4) continued to be in use in the new historic context. This is very distinctive for W3 and W4 that showed no similarities with fabrics of Phase 3. On the other hand, although W1 and W2 as such do not appear in Phase 3, they show a certain degree of similarity with W8, W9, W10 and W11. However, the exact relation between them could not be established only through macroscopic examination.
Phase 3 is characterized by the predominance of W11, with the addition of several other wares (Fig. 5.12). Therefore, the majority of samples were taken from W11 (50) while several other samples belong to various wares (Table 5.4). In contrast to Phase 2, where differences between wares could be easily noted, in Phase 3 the
117 differentiation was much less straightforward. W8, W10 and W11 in many cases looked more like varieties of a single rather than distinctive wares. However, only further microscopic analyses can establish the degree of similarities or differences.
Figure 5.12 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 3 at the Lower Town based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right).
Phase 4 is characterized by a larger diversity of wares than the two previous phases (Fig. 5.13). The continuity between Periods 3 and 4 is clearly visible in the predominance of W11. However, nine new wares emerged throughout Phase 4, testifying to a variety in the ceramic consumption. Similar to the previous period, in some cases it was very hard to make a clear distinction between fine W11 and W15. However, all others were easily recognizable in the assemblage. Several wares (W14, W17, W18 and W19) are recognizable only in scattered body potsherds, and their presence is not reflected in the given statistics. Furthermore, House II (Context 7) has a large number of reconstructed pots, which is sometimes reflected in the higher EVE percentage. The largest number of samples was taken for W11 (39), while other wares are represented proportionally to their frequency in the assemblage of Phase 4 (Table 5.4).
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Figure 5.13 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 4 at the Lower Town based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right).
Ware Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 4 Dorćol Lower Dorćol Lower Lower Dorćol Town Town Town W1 4 43 9 W2 1 12 3 W1/W2 3 W3 17 W4 10 W6 1 W7a 5 2 W7b 1 1 1 1 W8 3 W9a 12 W9b 5 W10 6 W11 50 39 6 W13 1 1 4 W14 1 W15 12 1 W16 1 W18 1 W19 2 W20 2 W22 5 1 W23 1 W24 2 W25 1 Table 5.4 Number of samples per ware selected for the petrographic analysis.
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5.3.1.2 Sampling at Dorćol
At the Dorćol site, Phase 1 is characterized by the appearance of coarse wares that were not found at the Lower Town (W22, W24 and W25). In addition to them, the major wares of Phase 2 at the Lower Town appear in Phase 1 at Dorćol (W1 and W2) (Fig. 5.14). Considering all methodological constraints, only 13 samples in total were selected from Phase 1 (Table 5.4).
Figure 5.14 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 1 at Dorćol, based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right).
The succeeding Phase 2 is characterised by a domination of Ware 1, similar to the Lower Town site (Fig. 5.15). Interestingly W3 and W4, very common for Phase 2 at the Lower Town, were not found in this context at all. Once again, it was hard to make a clear distinction between W1 and W2, which resulted in 3 samples sorted between these two wares (Table 5.4). The majority of samples were taken for W1 (9), while other fabrics are represented proportionally.
Figure 5.15 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 2 at Dorćol, based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right).
Wares of Phase 4 are the same as those found at the Lower Town, but the variability is significantly smaller (Fig. 5.16). W11 is again the most common one and 6 samples
120 were selected from this group (Table 5.4). Furthermore, W15 is also visible but only one sample from the pit could be taken for analysis. W7a and W7b contain only a small number of potsherds without preserved rims, which refelcts on the statistics in Fig. 5.10. They are included in the sampling, with 3 samples.
Figure 5.16 Chart shows relation between different wares of Phase 4 at Dorćol based on MNI of rims (left) and EVE of rims (right).
5.3.2 Sampling for the elemental analysis of ceramics (WDXRF)
The sampling for elemental analysis of ceramics was based on the preliminary results of ceramic petrography (Table 5.5). The aim of the chemical analysis was to identify groups that together with the larger set of petrographic data can be meaningful for the reconstruction of ceramic technology. Furthermore, the sampling for WDXRF analysis was designed to test the compositional variability of fabrics.
The sampling was limited to fabrics for which a local provenance has been assumed (F1, F7, F8, SGF8, F9, F12, F13, F14) and fine fabrics which could not be characterised and distinguished adequately by petrography (F2, F3, F6, SGF6, F10). The chemical characterisation of F6 was especially important considering the number of samples (Table 5.5) and its importance for the understanding of continuity between Phases 3 and 4. Fabrics with a longue durée, F10 and F11, were prioritised for chemical analysis to study the technological continuity between phases. These two fabrics showed a high degree of petrographic homogeneity (Appendix B), and chemical analysis was supposed to show any new compositional relations.
Overall, 135 samples were selected for WDXRF analysis, using the criteria mentioned above. From each Fabric, at least 50% of all sherds of that group were analysed, creating a representative number for forming chemical clusters.
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Fabrics Total number of samples (including The number of samples selected for samples related to fabrics) the WDXRF analysis
F1 46 25
F2 3 1
F3 3 2
F6 55 28
SGF6 15 7
F7 21 14
F8 22 14
SGF8 11 5
F9 8 4
F10 9 7
F11 20 10
F12 11 6
F13 9 4
F14 6 3
Loners 3 0
Table 5.5 Number of samples selected for WDXRF analysis
5.3.3 Sampling for slip and glaze analysis (pXRF and SEM-EDS)
The primary method used for the slip and glaze analyses was SEM-EDS. The selection of samples for SEM-EDS originally relied on the semi-quantitative analysis of glazes carried out by pXRF. It included all 93 glazed samples in the assemblage. The aim was to detect potential differences in the composition of glazes that would provide a major principle for the selection of samples for the SEM-EDS analysis. Slips could not be measured with this method, as most of them are coats between the glaze and the body. Since the results of the pXRF analysis (Chapter 6.4.1.) showed that all samples contain a lead glaze, implying a compositional uniformity, the sampling was designed to meet the criteria deriving from the petrographic study (Table 5.6).
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Fabric Phase/Arch. Site Glaze colour Slip colour The number of samples for SEM-EDS Phase 2 F2 yellow, brown no 3 Lower Town Phases 3 and 4 green, brown, F6 Lower Town white and brown 13 yellow Dorćol Phases 3 and 4 green, brown, SGF6 Lower Town white 4 yellow, black
Phases 2, 3 and 4 F7 green, brown white 3 Lower Town
Phases 3 and 4 F8 green, yellow white and brown 4 Lower Town
Phase 3 SGF8 green white 2 Lower Town
Phase 3 F16 black no 1 Lower Town Table 5.6 Number of samples selected for the SEM-EDS analysis of glazes and slips.
The sampling covered the glazed pottery of Phases 2, 3 and 4 at both archaeological sites under consideration. Phase 1 is not included because no glazed pottery is assigned to it. Most of the samples come from the Lower Town, which is understandable considering the quantity of the glazed pottery at that site compared to the Dorćol site. Since glazes are truly rare in Phase 2, all four glazed samples are included in the SEM- EDS analysis. For Phases 3 and 4, samples were selected from all fabrics containing glazed pottery, based on the preliminary petrographic analysis (F6, SGF6, F7, F8, SGF8). Also, a single sample of F16 is included, primarily because it is coated with a rare black glaze. The aim of sampling per fabrics was to study potential differences between compositions of glazes and slips coming from ceramics with different raw materials and paste recipes.
During the sampling from these fabrics, two principals were taken into account. Firstly, it was important to cover the full spectrum of various colours, in order to investigate potential differences in colourants. Secondly, the sampling was targeting the macroscopically visible slipped samples. This criterion aimed to include the technological diversity of the pottery finishing present in the assemblage. The total
123 number of samples selected for SEM-EDS analysis of glazes and slips was 30 (Table 5.6).
5.4 Analytical methods
5.4.1 Ceramic petrography
Mineralogical characterisation and provenance determination of 271 samples, selected based on the macroscopic research, was done with ceramic petrography. Samples, prepared in the form of thin sections, were grouped and described following the methodology originally established by Whitbread (1989, 1995, pp. 365–396) that was further modified by Quinn (2013, pp. 80-83, Appendices A.1 and A.2).
The sorting of samples into groups was done using the method of visual classification (Quinn 2013, pp. 73-79). Main criteria for the visual grouping were basic properties of main aplastic inclusions (colour, texture, size, shape, abundance) that are indicative of their mineralogical and petrological compositions as well as those of matrix and voids. The classification of fine fabrics, generally lacking in coarse inclusions, relied on the texture, matrix and void features as well as identifiable fine inclusions if applicable. The visual grouping was carried out independently from other categories used in this research, such as wares, in order to provide an objective view on petrographic groups. The basic classification unit was a fabric, which is the term that describes a group of samples that share common inclusions and matrix properties, reflecting the use of raw materials from similar geological environments and a common approach to paste preparation (Kiriatzi et al. 2011, p. 93; Quinn 2013, p.77) (Table 5.3). Sub-groups are defined by specific petrographic variability (particular type of inclusions, their distribution, frequency or matrix features) within a fabric. A sample described as related to a fabric is a single specimen that contains inclusion/s not included in the variability described for that fabric. Three fabrics in the assemblage contain a single sample each that are representative of distinct pastes.
For each of these categories, the full description of inclusions, matrix and voids is given in Appendix B, using a template provided by Quinn (2013, Appendices A.1 and A.2). Inclusions are described into more details than the matrix and voids because of their distinctive nature. For each fabric, inclusions are defined by their size, shape, roundness/angularity, spacing, orientation and distribution. For a clay matrix,
124 abundance, colour and texture are described. Voids are defined by their shapes and orientation. In addition, comments were added for each fabric to summarise the most important characteristics of a given group of samples. The full description aims to provide meaningful data for the reconstruction of technology, such as the procurement of raw materials and their characterisation (e.g. residual or sedimentary clays / calcareous and micaceous clays), paste preparation (e.g. clay mixing, tempering), firing methods (e.g. regime and atmosphere of firing) and post-depositional alterations (e.g. deposition of sediments) (Quinn 2013, pp. 151-210).
In addition to technology, ceramic petrography is used for the provenance determination of ceramics, which was carried out through the comparison with geological maps of Belgrade’s area. Inclusions of minerals and rocks identified in thin sections archaeological pottery are compared to geological formations around Belgrade. In cases of positive overlap, local provenance has been suggested. Although the provenance determination requires a holistic approach that ideally should include the collection of geological samples and firing tests (Quinn 2013; Tite 2001), this was not a feasible task for this time-limited research. Another limiting factor for the collection of geological samples was the heavy urbanisation of historical rural areas around Avala and the closure of natural water streams (such as Topčiderska reka), which is preventing the access to river banks and natural occurring exposures of clays. Therefore, potential clay sources are not suggested or pointed out on geological maps, but instead general areas of raw material sources are proposed. Furthermore, the research focuses only on the question of local provenance and due to the lack of reference groups and comparative regional cases studies the provenance of imported pottery was not discussed.
For the petrographic assessment, samples were prepared in the form of thin sections (30μm thick), cut through the ceramic body and including any external decorative layers. The preparation procedure consists of several steps. A polished sample was impregnated in epoxy resin and fixed on a glass slide. The excess parts of the sample were cut off on the Petro Thin instrument, allowing the remaining piece to be properly ground to the required thickness. Following the mechanical grinding, the sample was polished by hand. During that phase, constant monitoring of the quartz colour under the optical microscope allows the sample to be polished to the right thickness of 30 μm. Once this thickness is reached, the sample was covered with a 0.7 mm cover glass.
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The thin sections were then studied under polarizing microscopes, LEICA DM750P and LEICA DM4500P (with a camera LEICA DFC290 HD), with x2.5, x4, x5, x10, x40 and x50 objectives used. The full description includes textural and metric characterisation as well as photomicrographs (Chapter 6.2; Appendix B).
5.4.2 Elemental analysis of ceramics (WDXRF)
WDXRF was used for the chemical characterisation of 135 ceramic samples. This method gives quantitative data on concentrations of major, minor and trace elements, and is used for the definition of compositional groups that can be related to raw materials sources (Pollard et al. 2007, 104-109).
The results of the WDXRF analysis are given in Appendix C. These raw data were further treated with multivariate statistics. The primary approach included cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA). For the purposes of CA and PCA, the raw data were transformed to logratios, using Al as a divisor. Although in the case of Belgrade the linkage of the raw data gave a result similar to logratios, the latter way of data treatment is recommended for ceramic analysis to balance potential effects of basic compositional variations and post-burial contamination (Buxeda i Garrigós, 1999, p. 297). As such, logratios are usually used for the treatment of sets of ceramic chemical data (e.g. Buxeda i Garrios & Kilikoglou 2003; Day et al. 1999; Kiriatzi et al. 2011).
Several elements and oxides were excluded from the statistical treatment: Pb and Cu because of their clear association with the glaze and the inability to estimate the diffusion of these elements into the ceramic body; Th because it partially overlaps with Pb and values are known to be affected when measuring ceramics with high Pb contents with this particular WDXRF set-up (Georgakopoulou et al., 2017); and P2O5 because of its association with diagenetic contamination of archaeological ceramics during burial (Freestone, Meeks and Middleton, 1985). Although detected in the glaze as a colourant, Fe oxide is present in the body as a major oxide and its content is thus not affected significantly by the diffusion from the glaze. It was therefore included in the data treatment.
Samples for WDXRF analysis were prepared in the form of glass beads. The preparation of glass beads involves several stages. The initial stage included a detailed cleaning of the samples from surface contamination with a tungsten carbide drill and,
126 where it was necessary, a removal of glazes. After that, the samples were manually ground and pulverised in an agate mill, which turned them into powders. The powdered samples were dried in ceramic crucibles overnight at 105 °C. Following the drying, the loss on ignition test was performed with the samples heated in a muffle furnace at 950 °C for four hours. The aim of this testing is the preparation of standardised and homogenous samples, free of any organic and carbonate components. All powdered samples were weighed before and after loss on ignition. The next step included the fusion of the ceramic powders in platinum crucibles using a glass bead maker FusoMatic 15 at the UCL Qatar laboratories. Samples for fusion were prepared as a mixture of 1 g of ceramic powder and 6 g of a lithium borate flux (Flux LIT/LIM/LiBr 12:22/0.5%). During fusion, the instrument was set to the maximum temperature of 980 °C. The working program included 4 min of heating, 8 min of shaking and 5 min of cooling. The final products were homogenous glass beads, poured onto platinum dishes for cooling.
The samples were submitted to the Fitch Laboratory of the British School at Athens for WDXRF analysis. The instrument used is a BRUKER S8 TIGER with a 4 kW Rh X-ray tube. The instrument was callibrated for the analysis of ancient ceramics, with the ability to measure 26 elements (Georgakopoulou et al., 2017). Nine elements (Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, K, Ca, Ti, Fe) are reported as oxides in wt%, while another seventeen (V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Ba, La, Ce, Nd, Pb and Th) are given as elements in ppm (see Appendix C).
The performance of the analytical method employed has been extensively discussed by Georgakopoulou et al. (2017), while additionally two of the Certified Reference Materials (CRMs) tested by Georgakopoulou et al. (2017) were included in the run of these samples in order to monitor potential drift since the published values. The two CRMs analysed together with these samples were GSR-1, a rock from the China National Analysis Centre for Iron and Steel, and PMS, a sample of microgabbro (Scotland) from the International Working Group - Groupe International de Travail (IWG-GIT). In order to assess accuracy of the measured values and any potential drift in comparison to Georgakopoulou et al. (2017) the single measurements of the two CRMs are compared with their certified values and the means calculated for the ten runs of each published by Georgakopoulou et al. (2017, Table 4). Table 5.7 shows that all major and minor elements are in agreement with the mean values within 1%, while
127 for the trace elements δ values are within 6%. In some cases, where the concentrations approach the detection limits of the method and precision is poorer, δ values deteriorate (e.g. V, Cr for GSR-1 and Ce, Nd for PMS). It should be noted that the Fitch Laboratory continuously measures CRMs to check longterm repeatability and precision of the instrument, with these values remaining similar as reported by Georgakopoulou et al (2017) (Müller pers. comm. 2017). The coefficient of variation is less than 1% for the major and minor elements while for the trace elements is within 5%. Exceptions are La, Ce, Nd and Th that show differences over 10%.
128
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO V Cr Mn Co Ni Cu Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd Pb Th LOI Sum
GSR-1 3.19 0.42 13.36 73.62 0.09 4.98 1.54 0.29 1.92 19 10 470 5 5 0 23 462 119 71 174 319 50 106 48 20 54 0.7 100.3 2017
GSR-1 3.17 0.42 13.36 73.55 0.09 4.98 1.54 0.29 1.92 22 7 474 5 5 0 23 462 117 70 173 325 53 105 46 20 53 mean
δGSR-1 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -13.6 42.9 -0.8 0.0 0.0 n.a. 0.0 0.0 1.7 1.4 0.6 -1.8 -5.7 1.0 4.3 0.0 1.9
GSR-1 3.13 0.42 13.4 72.83 0.09 5.01 1.55 0.29 2.14 24 3.6 463 3.4 2.3 3.2 28 466 106 62 167 343 54 108 47 31 54 cert
PMS 2.16 9.40 17.12 47.17 0.03 0.14 12.51 1.10 10.0 187 314 1230 49 120 63 60 17 271 11 37 139 6 14 8 11 1 0.3 100.3 2017
PMS 2.14 9.40 17.13 47.21 0.03 0.14 12.47 1.11 10.0 189 308 1227 49 120 62 59 18 271 11 36 150 6 5 7 10 1 mean
δPMS 0.9 0.0 -0.1 -0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 -0.9 0.0 -1.1 1.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 1.6 1.7 -5.6 0.0 0.0 2.8 -7.3 0.0 180 13.4 10.0 0.0
PMS 2.08 9.34 17.15 47.0 0.03 0.14 12.48 1.1 10.1 192 314 1239 49 115 59 60 1 280 11 39 148 2.8 6.8 5.5 2.5 0.1 cert
Table 5.7 The composition of certified reference materials GSR-1 and PMS. The table gives a comparison between single measurements conducted in 2017 in the Fitch Laboratory for purposes of this research, certified values of reference materials and means of ten measurements on each standard published in Georgakopoulou et al. (2017, Table 4). δ value shows differences between the measurements conducted in 2017 and those reported by Georgakopoulou et al. (2017). Oxides are reported in wt% and elements in ppm.
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5.4.3 Semi-quantitative analysis of glazed surfaces (pXRF)
The semi-quantitative XRF analysis of all 93 glazed samples was done with a portable instrument Olympus Innov-X Delta Premium with Mining Plus-UCL 3mm calibration mode set up. One spot was measured for each sample, for purposes of efficient collection of data.
There are several limitations to pXRF measurements with an ED detector (Pollard et al., 2007, pp. 112–116). One of the most serious one for the ceramic analysis in general is the inability of pXRF to detect low-Z elements (Hunt and Speakman, 2015). In the analysis of glazed ceramics, it is often not possible to single out the glaze from other layers such as ceramic body and pigments, which sets a limit for the pXRF analysis (Holmqvist, 2017, pp. 372–373; Xu, Niziolek and Feinman, 2019, p. 63). Belgrade’s glazes range in thickness between 40-200 µm (see Section 6.4.4) while the signal penetration depth of pXRF varies between 0.03-1 mm, depending on an element (Holmqvist, 2017, p. 365). That means that in many cases pXRF measurements of glazes report some of ceramic elements as well. Other limiting factors include measurements of often weathered glaze surfaces, although undisturbed surfaces were chosen for the analysis whenever it was possible. However, despite these constraints, the technique is a useful tool for mapping potential differences between glaze compositions. For example, the presence or absence of lead would be a helpful parameter for designing the sub-sampling strategy.
The glazed sherds did not pass any treatment or invasive sampling prior to the pXRF analysis, which is one of the advantages of this method. Ideally, flat surfaces without weathering traces were analysed. In some cases, this was not possible, which potentially affected the results.
5.4.4 Quantitative analysis of slips and glazes (SEM-EDS)
SEM-EDS was used for the quantitative analysis of glazes and slips, as well as for the investigation of methods of their manufacture and application. For the glaze analysis, the methodology established by Molera et al. (2001) and Tite et al. (1998) was used.
Samples for SEM-EDS analysis were prepared as cross-sections mounted in resin and polished to ¼ μm. Following the macroscopic investigation of each sample, polished blocks were prepared to include glazes and slips from both sides where applicable. Before performing SEM-EDS analysis, the polished blocks were examined on the
130 optical microscope (LEICA DM 2500P) for the investigation of the microstructures of the glazes and slips.
The analysis was carried out on A JEOL JSM 6610LV SEM instrument with attached EDS Oxford Instruments X-maxN 50 operated. The following conditions were set up for the analysis: high vacuum, an accelerated voltage of 20 kV, working distance 10 mm, process time 5, and acquisition time 60 seconds livetime. The beam current was monitored periodically by a cobalt standard, and the spot size was adjusted around 59 to achieve 40% deadtime on the cobalt metal. Corning Glass Standard C (Brill, 1999, p. 542) was used to monitor the performance of the instrument. Table 5.8 presents measured values for Corning Glass Standard C that are compared to the most recently published certified values (Adlington, 2017). The difference between the means of the certified values and those measured in this research are within 2%. For the EDS used in this research, the precision, estimated as relative standard deviation, deteriorates as concentration approaches the detection limits of the instrument at around 0.1% (Table 5.7). The instrument was used with the AZtec software.
Corning Standard Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 CoO CuO BaO PbO C Mean (Adlington, 1.1 2.8 0.9 34.9 2.8 5.1 0.8 0.3 0.2 1.1 11.4 36.7 2017) Mean (this 1.0 2.7 0.8 33.7 2.8 5.1 0.8 0.3 0.2 1.2 12.3 39.2 research) RSD (this 2.6 0.9 4.5 0.4 1.3 0.7 5.1 9.6 28.8 3.9 0.9 0.2 research) Table 5.8 Comparison between compositions of Corning Standard C as published by Adlington (2017) and measured in this research.
Glazes and slips were analysed using standardised area scanes (Table 5.9 and Fig. 5.17). Several spectra (Table 5.9) were collected for each of the designated zones. The glaze matrix was measured approximately in the middle of a layer, avoiding weathering deteriorations and the chemical reaction close to the glaze-body interface. The thickness of the glazes, varying between 60 and 200 μm, must be considered as a parameter that influenced the analysis. The analysis of the glaze matrix was carried out on clear areas, avoiding residual quartz grains and other inclusions. This was done for the sake of comparison between homogenous and heterogeneous glazes. Where applicable, inclusions were analysed by spot analysis. In addition to the analysis of the
131 glaze matrix, other zones were measured for a better understanding of the diffusion of elements from the body to the glaze and vice versa. The diffusion process is important for the study of the technology of ceramic production because it reveals whether glazes were applied onto the raw clay or a biscuit-fired body, as well as identifying the application methods (Molera et al. 2001). In that sense, an area marked as ‘lower glaze’ was analysed, which is a glaze layer located close to the ceramic-glaze interface. In samples without slip coating, another zone named ‘upper body’ was analysed, for a better understanding of the diffusion of the glaze elements into the body. The body bulk values were measured in the middle of the ceramic body, at a distance from the glaze-body interface, in order to avoid the diffusion of elements from the glaze. Reported results represent average values calculated from a standardised number of analyses (Table 5.9). The analythical totals were normally between 96-101 wt%, prior to them being normalised to 100 wt%.
Analysed zones Size Magnification Number of spectra
Glaze matrix c. 10,000 μm2 x800 At least 4
Lower glaze c. 2000 μm2 x800 At least 4
Interface c. 25 μm2 x800-x1000 At least 5
Upper body c. 2000 μm2 x800 At least 4
Body bulk 14, 400 μm2 x100 3
Slip c. 2000 μm2 x800 At least 4
Glaze inclusions spot analysis x800-x1000 At least 4
Table 5.9 Standardised zones used in analyses of glazes and slips with SEM-EDS.
132
Figure 5.17 Backscatter electron image of ceramic zones analysed with SEM-EDS.
133
Chapter 6 Results
Chapter 6 presents the results of the macroscopic, mineralogical and chemical analyses of archaeological ceramics, slips and glazes from Belgrade. The chapter is divided in four sections. In the first section, the results of the macroscopic investigation are presented, accompanied by Appendix A. The second section brings the results of ceramic petrography while the full description of fabrics is given in Appendix B. It is followed by the third section, in which the results of the WDXRF analysis of ceramics are given, together with Appendix C. In the same section, the results of mineralogical and chemical analyses of ceramics are integrated. The SEM-EDS analyses of slips and glazes are presented in the fourth section while supplementary data are given in Appendix D. Appendix E gives comparative data for each sample analysed in this research.
6.1 The results of macroscopic investigation
The macroscopic study included over 4,000 ceramic sherds and aimed to quantify and describe wares along with all the sub-sets outlined in Chapter 5.2. The results of the macroscopic investigation provided an initial insight into the technology of ceramic production and prepared the ground for sampling for the petrographic study.
The pre-Ottoman and Ottoman periods, at both archaeological sites, are characterised by a diversity of wares, as listed in Appendix A.1. The macroscopic investigation of the wares indicated significant differences in the production between Phases 1 and 2 on the one hand and Phases 3 and 4 on the other, as nearly no commonalities could be established. The minor wares W7b and W13 are exceptions, representing specialised production of Grey-Polished jugs and baking pans respectively. Some wares, such as W2 (Phase 2) and W11 (Phases 3 and 4), have common macroscopic features, but the relations between them need to be tested with the microscopic analysis. In addition to the wares, a significant difference could be observed in the increased quantity of glazed pottery at the beginning of the Ottoman Phase 3, in comparison to Phases 1 and 2. Hence, the results of the macroscopic study suggest a striking change in the ceramic consumption of Belgrade after the Ottoman conquest.
134
The quantity of sherds in combination with the archaeological data related to the distribution and frequency suggests that the most numerous wares in the assemblage - W22, W1, W2 (for Phases 1 and 2) and W11 (for Phases 3 and 4) - were locally made. The results of ceramic petrography point to the same conclusion (see Section 6.2) and the in-depth interpretation of potential raw materials sources in given in Section 7.1.
6.1.1 Phases 1 and 2
Phases 1 and 2 are characterised by coarse wares that have distinguishable features (Appendix A.1). The dominant wares W1 and W2 (Fig. 6.1 and Fig 6.2) are documented at both the Lower Town and Dorćol sites, showing a similar trend in consumption between the two civil settlements. Other typical wares of Phase 2 from the Lower Town (W3 and W4) are absent from the Dorćol assemblage. Similarly, two wares characteristic of Phases 1 and 2 at Dorćol (W22 and W25) are not identified in any of the Lower Town’s contexts (Fig. 6.3).
Figure 6.1 Cooking pots of W1 (top left), W4 (top right) and W2 (down) from the Lower Town. Photo: Jelena Živković.
135
Figure 6.2 Stove pots of W1 from the Lower Town. Photo: Jelena Živković.
Figure 6.3 Cooking pots of W22 (left) and W25 (right), decorated with the incised wavy lines and dated to Phase 1 at Dorćol. Photo: Jelena Živković.
The distribution of ceramic forms between the two archaeological sites is similar. Cooking pots massively prevail over tableware at both sites (Fig. 6.4 and 6.5). Although it could be argued that this statistic is biased by the lack of clearly defined contexts in the case of Dorćol, the same cannot be claimed for the Lower Town. Therefore, this pattern can be taken as representative for Phases 1 and 2 in Belgrade. It remains unclear whether this pattern indicates particular consumption and dietary tendencies, or the use of tableware made of glass, metal or wood. The abundance of
136 stove pots in the Lower Town is related to a monumental stove in the Metropolitan palace, which leads to their over-representation in the quantitative charts (Fig. 6.4 and 6.5).
Functional categories of Phases 1 and 2, MNI of rims
450 382 400 350 300 250 200 150 87 100 29 20 50 2 0 4 0 2 0 cooking pots tableware stove pots Lower Town P2 87 2 382 Dorcol P1 29 0 0 Dorcol P2 20 4 2
Figure 6.4 Relation between different functional categories of vessels dated to Phases 1 and 2 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, based on MNI of rims.
Functional categories of Phases 1 and 2, EVE of rims
1200 1073 1000
800 695
600 491 382 400
200 126 117 0 0 19 0 cooking pots tableware stove pots Lower Town P2 1073 126 382 Dorcol P1 695 0 0 Dorcol P2 491 117 19
Figure 6.5 Relation between different functional categories Phases 1 and 2 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, based on EVE of rims.
137
The ceramics of Phases 1 and 2 were made in three different forming techniques (Appendix A.1). The first presents a combination of wheel and hand forming. It is unclear which type of wheel was used because some pots have clear wheel marks while in others they are not visible. Following the wheel forming, pots were also shaped by hand, which left clear finger marks on their inner side. This technique is characteristic for ceramics dated to the earliest Phase 1 and was used for the manufacture of coarse cooking pots (W22, W23, W24, W25). The second modelling technique refers to the use of a hand-turning wheel, used for a baking pan of W13. For all other vessels, wheel throwing was used, according to traces on the walls of pots. Ceramics modelled in this technique are especially abundant at the Lower Town, although they are present at Dorćol as well (W1 and W2). Large cooking pots of W1 and W4 have asymmetrical walls despite the use of the wheel, which leaves the impression that potters could not control their movements very well or that they used the coiling technique to connect the different parts of pots (Fig. 6.1).
Another important aspect to be considered for the reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires is the shape of the base. There are several different ways for a pot to be removed from a wheel and be treated after that, which gives insight into the personal signature of a potter and the technological tradition he/she practiced. Ceramics of the dominant W1 and W2 have bases formed in several ways (Appendix A.1) The dominant type has parallel and concentric lines, which are marks that could be related to the wheel surface and the use of a string for the separation of pots from the wheel (Fig. 6.6 left). Contrary to that, the bases of other wares have uniform marks, mostly smoothed (Fig. 6.6 right). This pattern is visible at both archaeological sites under consideration. A distinctive base with a stamp is documented in two cases (W1 and W2), depicting a cross in a circle (Fig. 6.7). This motif appears again in Phase 4 at the Lower Town, on W9.
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Figure 6.6 Examples of bases with wheel and string marks (left) and smoothed with a concave recess (right); W2 from Lower Town (left) and W25 from Dorćol (right). Photo: Jelena Živković.
Figure 6.7 Base marks having stamps with a cross in a circle; W2 from the Lower Town (left) and W1 from Dorćol (right). Photo: Jelena Živković.
The decorative techniques of Phases 1 and 2 are heterogeneous. The cooking pots of Phases 1 and 2 are decorated with wavy or linear lines, incised into the wet clay following the modelling stage (Fig. 6.1 and 6.3). A motif of multiply wavy lines, associated with the pottery of Phase 1, is present on the pottery throughout the Middle Ages in the region (Bajalović - Hadži-Pešić, 1981, pp. 40–51). In this context, these pots look very archaic, and they stand in contrast to the rest of Belgrade’s assemblage. Another form of decoration is stamping on rims, documented on the pots of W4, also done in a non-dried stage of pots (Fig. 6.8 top left). These stamps could be interpreted as a unique signature of a workshop or a potter. On the other side, in Phase 2 at the
139
Lower Town, some pots are decorated with glazes or they have painted motives, both applied over previously dried or fired pots (Fig. 6.8 down). Glazes are scarce in the archaeological record of Phase 2, with only four examples documented (two yellow, one green and one brown).
Figure 6.8 Finishing styles on ceramics of Phase 2 from Lower Town. Stamping on W4 (top left), painting on W6 (top right) and glazing on W2 (down). Photo: Jelena Živković
The results of the macroscopic study suggest that ceramics of Phases 1 and 2 were fired under diverse conditions, based on the colours of the wares (Appendices A.1 and A2). Most of W1, W2, and W22 are characterised by orange-red tones, with and without a core/margin colour differentiation. These features indicate firing in an oxidising atmosphere, and the presence of a darker core suggests a short firing (Orton et al., 1993, p. 69). On the other side, some wares, such as W4, W7b, W23, and W25, are distinctively grey (Appendices A1 and A2), suggesting a reducing atmosphere of
140 firing. Within this group, W4 and W7b have no core/margin colour differentiation, suggesting stable conditions of firing that lasted long enough for the carbon to be removed. In contrast, W23 and W25 have a darker core than margins, indicating incomplete burning of organic material due to short firing (Orton, Tyers and Vince, 1993, p. 69).
6.1.2 Phases 3 and 4
In the archaeological contexts formed after the Ottoman conquest of Belgrade, unlike in Phases 1 and 2, the documented wares showed less distinctive features (Appendix A.1). The quantification of ceramics of Phases 3 and 4 demonstrate the dominance of W11 at both archaeological sites (see Chapter 5.3.1). The continuity of W11 between the two Ottoman phases is an indicator of a stable production during the 16th-17th centuries in Belgrade (Fig. 6.9). In that sense, W11 is similar to W1 in the pre-Ottoman period. Other, less abundant, wares (W8, W10, and W15) show a degree of similarity with W11 (Appendix A.1), but closer comparisons require microscopic testing. This is particularly the case for Phase 3, where more than half of the studied sherds are identified as W11, while other wares are similar to it. On the other hand, some wares of Phase 4, such as W9a, W9b, W13 (Fig. 6.10), W20 and W7a (Fig. 6.11), have specific traits that cannot be related to the still dominant W11 (Appendix A.1). Regardless of these differences between Phases 3 and 4, the continuity in consumption is unquestionable.
All the wares documented at Dorćol were consumed at the Lower Town as well. It seems that the two parts of the town belonged to a single consumption market. Still, the Lower Town contains some wares (e.g. W9a, W9b, W13, W20) not documented at Dorćol. The lack of well-defined contexts at the Dorćol site could explain this result.
141 Figure 6.9 Diverse pots of W11 from the Lower Town. A cooking pot of Phase 3 (top left), a glazed pitcher of Phase 4 (top middle), a glazed storage jar of Phase 4 (top right), a glazed footed bowl of Phase 4 (middle left), glazed jugs of Phase 3 (middle right) and glazed stove pots of Phase 4 (down). Photo: Jelena Živković.
142 Figure 6.10 Coarse wares of Phases 3 and 4 documented at the Lower Town. Cooking pots of W9a dated to Phase 4 (left and middle) and a baking pan of W13 dated to Phase 3. Photo: Jelena Živković.
Figure 6.11 Grey-Polished jugs of W7a dated to Phase 3 at the Lower Town and W7b dated to Phase 4 at Dorćol. Photo: Jelena Živković.
The increased quantity of sherds that can be reconstructed as tableware (bowls, jugs, and beakers) in Phase 3 implies the introduction of new consumption patterns in Belgrade (Fig. 6.12 and 6.13). This is a significant shift compared to Phases 1 and 2, where cooking pots were by far more abundant than tableware. Another change is the lack of stove pots in Context 5, which might indicate a different system of heating and cooking in huts built over the Metropolitan palace. Furthermore, in contrast to Phase 2, a single ware (W11) started being used for the manufacture of both cooking pots and tableware (jugs, bowls, and dishes) (Appendix A.1).
143 Functional categories of Phases 3 and 4, MNI of rims
100 91 90 80 70 60 56 50 39 40 36 30 26 20 14 10 6 0 1 3 0 3 0 cooking pots tableware storage jars stove pots Phase 3 Lower Town 26 91 1 0 Phase 4 Lower Town 56 36 14 39 Phase 4 Dorćol 0 6 3 3
Figure 6.12 Relation between functional categories of Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol archaeological sites, based on MNI of rims.
Functional categories of Phases 3 and 4, EVE of rims 2500 2252 2142 19312000 2000
1500
1000 738 504 500 199 79 0 25 0 34 0 cooking pots tableware storage jars stove pots Phase 3 Lower Town 738 1931 25 0 Phase 4 Lower Town 2142 2000 504 2252 Phase 4 Dorćol 0 199 79 34
Figure 6.13 Relation between functional categories of Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol archaeological sites, based on EVE of rims.
144 In Phase 4, the quantity of cooking pots increases again, but without changes in the consumption of tableware in comparison to Phase 3 (Fig. 6.12 and 6.13). In fact, the number of cooking and table wares became even larger. Furthermore, in Phase 4 a new category of medium-sized glazed storage jars was introduced (Fig. 6.9). Also, both residential buildings in the Lower Town (Contexts 6 and 7) revealed stove pots, indicating a renewed practice in the decoration of large house stoves. Unlike the stove pots of Phase 2, the 17th century examples are glazed from the interior, giving them a unique decorative effect (Fig. 6.9). These new glazed forms are added to the repertoire of W11, together with jugs, bowls, pitchers and dishes known already in Phase 3. In contrast to W11, several other wares show a clear association with particular functional categories. For example, W9a and W9b are related to coarse cooking pots and accompanying lids (Fig. 6.10), while W7a is used for the production of Grey-Polished jugs only (Fig. 6.11). Similarly, W20 is restricted to baking pans with large voids and W13 to baking pans with coarse mineral inclusions (Fig. 6.10).
Regarding forming techniques, Phases 3 and 4 also show some dissimilarities. Wheel- throwing is the dominant forming technique, related to W11 and the wares similar to it (Appendix A.1). In Phase 3 the only exception is one sample of a baking pan of W13 that is formed on a hand-turning wheel. Phase 4 brought a degree of diversity with re- introduction of the hand-turning wheel (W9). The presence of various baking pans (W13 and W20) testifies to the continuity of this production in Belgrade.
The bases of Phases 3 and 4 are formed in a variety of ways (Appendix A.1). The dominant W11 has five different base marks that indicate a plurality of potters’ approaches (Fig. 6.14). Similarly, all other wares have more than one type of mark on the base. Interestingly, W9 has stamped bases depicting a cross in a circle with variations (Fig. 6.15), a motif known in Belgrade already during the 15th century (see Fig. 6.7). Like with the hand-turning wheel, it seems that Phase 4 testifies the revival of pre-Ottoman traditions absent from Context 5 of Phase 3. The presence of pots marked with a cross in a circle at the Lower Town, settled only by Muslims, is a peculiar case.
145 Figure 6.14 Base marks on vessels of W11 documented at the Lower Town. A bowl with a pedestal foot dated to Phase 4 (left) and string marks on a cooking pot of Phase 3 (right). Photo: Jelena Živković.
Figure 6.15 Stamped bases of W9a, Phase 4 at the Lower Town (Marjanović-Vujović, 1973 T.VI).
In sharp contrast to Phases 1 and 2, the contexts of Phases 3 and 4 contain a high percentage of glazed pottery (Fig. 6.16), which is the most common type of decoration. On open forms (bowls, dishes), glazes cover the interior and partially exterior side while closed forms (jugs, pitchers, storage jars) are glazed on the exterior side and rims. Glazes can be monochrome and polychrome (Fig. 6.17). The glaze usually appears together with slip coating, and in some cases red paint is present as a type of underglaze decoration (Fig. 6.18). The Glazed Slipware tradition pre-dates the Ottoman ceramics in the Balkans (Minić, 1998), but in Belgrade, it appears more often
146 in Phases 3 and 4. The most common type of slip is white, which is visible as a layer beneath the glaze or as a decoration on the non-glazed side of the vessel (Fig. 6.18). Besides white, slips of brown colour are also documented, although sometimes it was difficult to distinguish them from the ceramic bodies. Brown slips are usually applied on the non-glazed sides of vessels (microscopic illustrations are given in Chapter 6.4).
Glazed samples from Belgrade
90 84 84 80 70 61 60 50 42 43 40 30 20 10 10 4 4 0 Phase 2 Lower Town Phase 3 Lower Town Phase 4 Lower Town Phase 4 Dorćol Total 84 61 84 10 Glazed 4 42 43 4
Figure 6.16 The number of glazed wares in Belgrade’s assemblage.
Colours of glazes among samples selected for analyses 60
50
40
30
20
10
0 green yellow brown polychrome black transparent Series1 56 11 15 4 2 1
green yellow brown polychrome black transparent
Figure 6.17 Glaze colours presented in the Belgrade’s assemblage.
147
Figure 6.18 Glazed, slipped and painted wares of Phases 3 (down) and 4 (top) documented at the Lower Town. Jugs with underglaze white slips (top left), a jug with partially underglaze painting in red (top right), a bowl decorated with the slip and glaze (down left) and a bowl with specs of white slip coated with yellow glaze. Photo: Jelena Živković.
The green colour of the glaze is the most abundant in the assemblage, followed by brown and yellow (Fig. 6.17). The popularity of green colour could be related to the cultural preferences of Muslims who had the exclusive right of wearing green clothes (Faroqhi, 2002, p. 74). Some samples contain more than one colour, for example, green from the outer side and brown on the inner side (Appendix A.1) Furthermore, the intensity of colours is not consistent, especially with the green glazes that range between light and dark tones. Polychrome glazes are not numerous, and they usually present a mixture of only two colours. A polychrome effect is also achieved by the combination of slips and glazes. Black glaze is documented only in two cases, and
148 perhaps represents a deterioration of some other colour (see samples BG174 and BG182 in Appendix A.2).
The ceramics of Phases 3 and 4 were fired in different conditions. The dominant W11, as well as W10, W13, W14, W15, and W20, are characterised by orange tones, suggesting an oxidising atmosphere during firing (Appendix A.1). The majority of samples of W11 have no core/margin colour differentiation. This result indicates stable firing conditions, in which the ceramics reached an equilibrium (Orton et al., 1993, p. 69). Other wares with orange colours of margins occasionally have deep brown cores, suggesting a short firing. Another group of ceramics, W7a, W7b, W12, W16, and W19, are characterised by a grey colour, which is an indicator of a reducing firing atmosphere (Appendix A.1). These samples show no core/margin colour differentiation.
6.2 The results of ceramic petrography
The results of petrographic analysis show that ceramics from Belgrade can be classified into 17 fabrics, with 2 sub-groups and a few related samples. In pre-Ottoman Belgrade, a continuity of production can be established between Phases 1 and 2 at Dorćol. In Phase 2, the sites at Dorćol and the Lower Town have no common fabrics, except a minor group of tableware. Ceramic petrography indicates a break in the production after the Ottoman conquest of Belgrade when the fabrics of Phase 2 were entirely replaced by the new ones of Phase 3. The fabrics of Phase 3 continued to be consumed in Phase 4 at both sites.
Phases 1 and 2 are characterised by coarse calcareous fabrics F1 and F12 that contain a mixture of aplastic inclusions related to sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks characteristic for the local environment (See Section 7.1). Similar range of inclusions is present in the samples of F13, suggesting again the local origin, but in this case the matrix is micaceous and non-calcareous, which, together with texture, singles out this fabric in the assemblage. Opposite to them, coarse non-calcareous F4 and F5 contain inclusions atypical for the local environment. Fine F2 and F3 add to the petrographic diversity present in Phase 2. They contain no sufficient petrographic information that could point to their likely origin. In total, pre-Ottoman Phases 1 and 2 are characterised
149 by eight different recipes, defined based on petrology of coarse inclusions and petrographic features such as texture and matrix.
In Phases 3 and 4, the most numerous among fabrics is a fine F6, distinguished by the texture and the micaceous matrix. Fabrics F7, F8 and F9 are also micaceous and low- calcareous and can be described as related. Unlike F1 and F12, medium-coarse fabrics F7, F8 and F9 contain rare inclusions of sedimentary rocks, but are abundant in the inclusions of metamorphic and igneous rocks that are most likely originating from the local environment (see Section 7.1). In Phase 4, two distinct fabrics are identified - F10 and F11- characterised by a very fine texture and calcite-tempering, respectively. In addition, three fabrics - F15, F16 and F17- counting a single sample each are documented for Phases 3 and 4. In total, nine distinct recipes are described for Phases 3 and 4.
The description of the fabrics is given in Appendix B. The photographs of the samples used for the preparation of thin sections are given in Appendix A.2.
Fabric 1: Coarse sedimentary with polycrystalline quartz/quartzite and serpentinite Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96. Appendix B; Fig. 6.19.
Fabric 1 (F1) presents the largest fabric of Phase 2, encompassing various cooking and stove pots as well as one jug (Appendix E). It is characterised by the presence of coarse inclusions of different origins set in a calcareous matrix. Considering the abundance and distribution of the inclusions, this fabric can be described as heterogeneous. However, despite these variations in the occurrence of inclusions, its uniform texture and its main inclusions form distinctive features of F1.
The inclusions present in this fabric have origins in sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. There is a consistent occurrence of mono- and polycrystalline quartz and chert. Other minerals and rocks are identified in some samples of this fabric. Sedimentary rocks are the most abundant, appearing as clastic and carbonate rocks. Chert stands out as a Dominant-Common inclusion, while limestone is Frequent- Absent. Furthermore, some sub-rounded forms of monocrystalline quartz could be
150 associated with sedimentary rocks. Next to them are igneous rocks, represented in the fabric with two different types. The first one is an intermediate volcanic rock, which consists of feldspar phenocrysts set in a fine-grained groundmass, possibly dacite or andesite (Common-Absent). The second type is a fragmentated igneous rock that consists of quartz and feldspar. It is probably a plutonic rock with a composition close to granite. Among the metamorphic rocks quartzite and serpentinite are identified. Quartzite can contain crystals of muscovite mica, sometimes altered and containing fine-brown particles. Serpentinite is documented as Frequent to Absent. In addition to the listed rocks and minerals, F1 contains two types of textural features (TFs), distinguished by the texture, size, colour, relief and optical density. Both types could be identified as clay pellets as defined by Whitbread (1986, pp. 83–84), referring to argillaceous inclusions formed within the clay deposit used in pottery production.
The matrix of F1 is calcareous, characterised by a core/margin colour differentiation. Samples usually have orange/red margins and brown cores (in PPL and XP), indicating short firing in an oxidising atmosphere. The optical activity of the matrix suggests an approximate equivalent firing temperature around 800 °C (see Quinn 2013. pp. 188- 203). Ceramics of F1 are porous as testified by numerous voids.
Related to Fabric 1 Sample: BG64
Sample BG64 is defined as related to F1 (RF1) because it lacks chert, which is the main difference with respect to F1. All other inclusions, matrix and void properties are typical for F1. Therefore, deviations from F1 perhaps could be interpreted as due to slightly different deposition of certain rocks in a similar type of clay.
151
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Figure 6.19 Fabric 1 (F1). From top to down: BG60 contains inclusions of chert and quartz; BG59 with inclusions of chert, monocrystalline quartz and quartzite; BG74 with inclusions of serpentinite and the matrix that shows a core/margin colour differentiation; BG83 with inclusions of limestone and quartzite; BG84 with inclusions of quartzite and serpentinite and matrix that shows a core/margin colour differentiation. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Fabric 2: Quartz-rich and non-calcareous Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 99, 100, 101. Appendix B; Fig. 6.20.
Fabric 2 (F2) is comprised of three glazed jugs dated to Phase 2 (Appendix E). It is characterised by inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz as well as a type of altered rock close to serpentinite. They are set in a non-calcareous to weakly calcareous matrix. The source of quartz is hard to interpret but based on its roundness and boundaries in the polycrystalline quartz, it could be associated with igneous rocks. The matrix is homogeneous and optically active, which suggests an approximate equivalent firing temperature of 800-850 °C. The colour is buff in PPL and grey in XP. Rare voids are present in the form of vughs and planar voids.
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Figure 6.20 Fabric 2 (F2). BG99 (top) showing the texture of F2 with inclusions of quartz; BG100 (down) showing TFs and altered rock similar to serpentinite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Fabric 3: Low-calcareous and very fine Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 102, 103, 104. Appendix B; Fig. 6.21.
Fabric 3 (F3) is a very fine fabric used for the production of three beakers dated to Phase 2 (Appendix E). They are characterised by the presence of TFs that can be interpreted as clay pellets (Whitbread, 1986, pp. 83–84), and they contain fine inclusions of quartz and mica set in a low calcareous matrix. In addition to TFs, BG104 contains inclusions of polycrystalline quartz and micrite. The matrix is homogenous, while the only inhomogeneity relates to TFs. The colour is beige in PPL and reddish grey to green in XP. The optical activity of the matrix suggests an equivalent firing temperature around 800 °C.
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Figure 6.21 Fabric 3 (F3). BG103 (top) illustrates the fine texture of F3. BG104 (down) with inclusions of TFs and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Fabric 4: Coarse and granite-rich Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121. Appendix B. Fig. 6.22.
Fabric 4 (F4) includes only cooking pots of Ware 3 dated to Phase 2 (Appendix E). This is a homogenous fabric characterised by the presence of granite. Other minerals identified in the fabric, such as microcline feldspar, quartz, and mica could be associated with granite. The matrix is non-calcareous to weakly calcareous. The colour ranges between light brown to beige in PPL while some of the samples have a core/margin colour differentiation, which all together suggest variable atmosphere of firing. Based on the optical activity of the matrix, the equivalent firing temperature could be estimated to around 800 °C. The fabric is porous, as indicated by abundant voids, especially vughs and planar.
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Figure 6.22 Fabric 4 (F4). BG105 (top) and BG110 (down) illustrate the coarse texture of F4 and inclusions of granite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Fabric 5: Coarse with opaques Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131. Appendix B. Fig. 6.23.
Fabric 5 (F5) encompasses only cooking pots of Ware 4 dated to Phase 2 (Appendix E). It is characterised by a Dominant gneiss containing an opaque mineral that could probably be identified as graphite based on its tabular and elongated shape. The gneiss also contains microcline and alkaline feldspars, quartz, and other opaques. The matrix is weakly calcareous and homogenous. The colour of the matrix ranges between yellow, brown and greyish in PPL, suggesting a variable firing atmosphere. The optical activity of the matrix suggests that the equivalent firing temperature was around 800 °C. Rare voids consist of vughs.
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Figure 6.23 Fabric 5 (F5). BG124 (top) illustrates the coarse texture of F5 with inclusions of monocrystalline quartz, opaques and amphiboles; BG126 (down) contains coarse inclusion of gneiss with opaques. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Fabric 6: Fine and micaceous with TFs Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 152, 165, 166, 167, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190, 191, 192. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 203, 205, 206, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 215, 218, 219, 220, 226, 227, 228, 257, 258, 259, 262, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 270, 276, 277, 278. Samples of Phase 4 from Dorćol: BG 284, 308, 311, 313, 318. Appendix B; Fig. 6.24.
Fabric 6 (F6) includes numerous samples of Phases 3 and 4, identified as cooking pots, bowls, jugs, pitchers, storage and stove pots (Appendix E). Most of the inclusions occur in the fine fraction (93-95 %), while the TFs are the only consistent inclusions of the coarse fraction. The dominance of fine fraction over the coarse fraction sets some limitations for the interpretation of F6 through petrography. The grouping of
157 samples to this fabric is based on the specific texture and distribution of identifiable inclusions.
F6 is characterised by the presence of quartz and mica in the fine fraction, set in a micaceous matrix. In the coarse fraction, inclusions of angular quartz and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite could be identified. Less abundant are inclusions of limestone, serpentinite, sandstone, muscovite mica and siltstone. The list of inclusions in the fine fraction indicates a mixed geological environment characterised by sedimentary, metamorphic (contact metamorphism) and igneous rocks. Rounded, deep-brown TFs are among the main features of F6. TFs can probably be reconstructed as clay pellets (Whitbread, 1986, pp. 83–84). The matrix is low calcareous to non- calcareous and micaceous. Only three samples (BG 220, 227, 270) show a core/margin colour differentiation while the matrix in other samples has a homogenous colour. The characteristic colour is orange/red in PPL and XP, suggesting an oxidising firing atmosphere. The weak to moderate optical activity indicates that the equivalent firing temperature was around 850 °C. Many of the samples are coated with a slip, forming a separate layer between the body and the glaze. The slip under the glaze can be easily distinguished by its grey colour (in XP) and a texture slightly finer than the body. Voids are present in the fabric, mostly in the form of meso and mega vughs.
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Figure 6.24 Fabric 6 (F6). BG152 (top) and BG212 (down) illustrate a typical fine texture of F6 with inclusions of quartz and TFs. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Sub-group of Fabric 6: Medium-fine and micaceous Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 135, 139, 174, 177, 181. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 200, 204, 208, 217, 260, 261, 274 Samples of Phase 4 from Dorćol: BG 304, 309, 310.
Appendix B; Fig. 6.25.
The sub-group of F6 (SGF6) has more inclusions in the coarse fraction than F6. This produces a different inclusion sorting than in F6, but the texture remains very similar. Also, the petrography of the inclusions remains the same, showing a mixture of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. Furthermore, the distribution is equally unimodal. It is unclear whether coarser inclusions are the consequence of less-careful treatment of the clay than was the case with F6, or this difference is a matter of natural occurrence. Another distinguishing feature is the less abundant presence of TFs, defined in this sub-group as Very Few to Absent.
Among the inclusions of the coarse fraction, monocrystalline quartz and quartzite are characteristic while others appear inconsistently. Same as in F6, this sub-group
159 contains monocrystalline quartz and mica in the fine fraction. The matrix has the same properties as in F6, suggesting a similar treatment of the paste and stable firing conditions. Slip, together with glaze, is detected in samples BG181 (both sides), BG204, and BG310 as a separate layer of clay of grey colour with an average thickness of 0.1 mm.
Figure 6.25 Subgroup of Fabric 6 (SGF6). BG310 shows the contrast between the coarse inclusion of Intermediate volcanic rock (probably andesite or dacite) and the typically fine texture of SGF6. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Fabric 7: Medium-coarse and serpentinite-rich Sample of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG97. Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 305, 307. Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 142, 143, 145, 147, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159, 160, 161, 163, 179, 188. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 214, 275 Appendix B; Fig. 6.26.
Fabric 7 (F7) was used for the manufacture of various cooking pots, bowls, dishes, jugs and beakers of Phases 2, 3 and 4 (Appendix E). This is a homogenous fabric, characterised by the presence of serpentinite set in a weakly to moderately calcareous and micaceous matrix.
The coarse fraction contains inclusions of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite and serpentinite, together with monocrystalline quartz stand out as representative of this fabric. In addition, characteristic inclusions are fragments of igneous rocks that could not be positively identified. The porphyritic intermediate volcanic rock consisting of feldspars set in a fine-grained groundmass is
160 probably andesite or dacite. The second is an igneous rock composed of quartz and plagioclase and is probably closer to plutonic rocks of granitic type. Sedimentary rocks are less abundant in this fabric, characterised by chert and limestone in some samples. The matrix is homogenous with the only inhomogeneity relating to TFs. The colour ranges from orange, red to brown (in both PPL and XP), suggesting firing in a predominantly oxidising atmosphere under perhaps uneven conditions, resulting in the colour variations and a core/margin colour differentiation. The optical activity suggests that the equivalent firing temperature can be estimated to around 800 °C. Many samples are coated with a slip, recognisable as a layer of grey colour (in XP) between the glaze and the body. Voids are present in a variety of shapes and sizes, indicating occurrence of organic inclusions in the clay.
Figure 6.26 Fabric 7 (F7). BG160 (top) illustrates the texture of F7 with inclusions of quartz; BG163 (down) with the inclusion of serpentinite and quartz. Both samples represent medium- coarse texture of F7. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
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Samples related to Fabric 7: BG98 and BG148
Samples BG98 and BG148 lack in serpentinite, which is one of the most abundant inclusions of F7. However, all other inclusions, texture, matrix and void properties are typical for F7.
Fabric 8: Micaceous with polycrystalline quartz/quartzite Sample of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG306 Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 137, 140, 150, 168, 169, 170, 180, 189, 193. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 202, 216, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 271, 272, 273. Appendix B; Fig. 6.27
Fabric 8 (F8) is used for the manufacture of jugs, bowls, cooking pots, and baking pans dated to Phases 3 and 4, with one sample from Dorćol dated to Phase 2 (Appendix E). This slightly heterogeneous group is characterised by the presence of monocrystalline and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, set in a micaceous and weakly calcareous matrix. Furthermore, TFs are one of the key features of the fabric. They can be interpreted as clay pellets (Whitbread, 1986, pp. 83–84). Other inclusions of the coarse fraction appear in some samples while in others they are absent. Two igneous rocks are Common-Absent. Intermediate volcanic rock, probably andesite or dacite, consists of plagioclase phenocrysts set in a fine-grained groundmass. An igneous rock that consists of quartz with alkaline and plagioclase feldspars is probably granite. Metamorphic mica-schist and serpentinite are among the less abundant and inconsistent inclusions. Sedimentary rocks are rare, represented by Very Rare to Absent limestone. The matrix is homogenous and optically active, suggesting the equivalent firing temperature to be around 850 °C. The colour ranges from yellow to brown in PPL and orange to grey in XP, signifying uneven firing conditions in a probably oxidising atmosphere. A core/margin colour differentiation supports this conclusion. A grey coloured slip (in XP) and glaze are identified in several samples. Voids consist of vughs and planar shapes.
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Figure 6.27 Fabric 8 (F8). BG168 (top) with inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz; BG271 (middle) with inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz, Intermediate volcanic rock (probably andesite or dacite) and muscovite mica; BG306 (low) with polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, Intermediate volcanic rock (probably andesite or dacite) and serpentinite. All three samples represent medium-coarse texture of F8. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
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Sub-group of Fabric 8: Micaceous with muscovite mica and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 134, 149, 156, 158, 162, 164, 178, 183. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 248, 269. Sample of Phase 4 Dorćol: BG314 Appendix B; Fig. 6.28.
The sub-group of F8 (SGF8) is characterised by more abundant inclusions of muscovite mica and rocks containing muscovite mica than is the case with F8. This is especially true in cases of polycrystalline quartz/quartzite and an igneous rock of granitic type, both containing inclusions of muscovite. Apart from this specific feature, all other inclusions identified in this sub-group are typical for F8. The same is true for the matrix and voids. A grey slip (in XP) and glaze are identified in several samples.
Figure 6.28 Subgroup of Fabric 8 (SGF8). BG156 (top) shows a typical texture of SGF8; BG158 (down) contains inclusions of muscovite mica and quartz. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
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Sample related to Fabric 8: Sample BG311
Sample BG311 is described as related to F8 (RF8) because it contains slightly different inclusions than F8. The main difference is an appearance of mafic to intermediate volcanic rock composed of a mineral characterised by green colour in PPL and high second order birefringence in XP (olivine or augite) and plagioclase. The properties of the matrix and voids are the same as described for F8.
Fabric 9: Coarse with igneous rocks
Sample of Phase 2 Dorćol: BG293
Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 136, 138, 141, 144, 151.
Sample Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG247.
Appendix B; Fig. 6.29.
Fabric 9 (F9) includes several types of cooking pots and one bowl dated to Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town, as well as one cooking pot of Phase 2 from Dorćol. It is characterised by inclusions of intermediate volcanic rock (probably andesite or dacite) and an igneous rock that is probably granite set in a low calcareous matrix.
The coarse fraction is characterised by fragmented igneous rocks. Intermediate volcanic rock consisting of feldspar phenocrysts set in a fine-grained groundmass is Common. The second igneous rock, probably granite, consists of quartz and plagioclase and alkaline feldspars, and occasionally fine-grained brown minerals that cannot be positively identified (in PPL and XP). Other than igneous rocks, monocrystalline and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, plagioclase feldspar and TFs are present in the coarse fraction. The fine fraction contains quartz and feldspar. The matrix is homogenous and optically active, suggesting that the equivalent firing temperature was about 800 °C. The colour ranges from yellow to orange and grey to brown in PPL and XP, with a core/margin colour differentiation present in several samples. These features suggest uneven firing conditions with fluctuation of oxygen. Voids consist of meso- and macro-vughs and channels.
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Figure 6.29 Fabric 9 (F9). BG144 illustrates a coarse texture of F9 and inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Related to Fabric 9: Sample BG298
Sample 298 is defined as related to F9 (RF9) because it lacks the intermediate volcanic rock while Rare limestone and serpentinite are present. Despite differences in inclusions, the texture of BG298 is the same as F9. The characteristics of the matrix and the voids are the same as those of F9.
Fabric 10: Calcareous and very fine Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG132. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 267. Samples of Phase 4 from Dorćol: BG 312, 319, 320 Appendix B; Fig. 6.30.
Fabric 10 (F10) includes samples of Grey-Polished jugs of Phases 2 and 4 at both sites. It is characterised by inclusions of fine quartz set in a calcareous matrix. Inclusions in the coarse fraction are very scarce, with TFs and limestone identified in two separate samples. The fine fraction contains quartz, mica, limestone, and to a lesser extent, opaques. The matrix is homogenous and predominantly grey (in PPL and XP), suggesting a reducing atmosphere of firing. The weak optical activity indicates that the firing temperature reached about 850 °C or more. Rare voids consist of vughs and channels.
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Figure 6.30 Fabric 10 (F10). BG229 illustrates a very fine texture of F10 with inclusions of quartz in the fine fraction. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Fabric 11: Calcite-tempered Sample of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG133. Sample of Phase 3 Lower Town: BG194. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 249, 252, 253, 254, 255. Appendix B; Fig. 6.31.
Fabric 11 (F11) was used for the production of baking pans, cooking pots and accompanying lids of Phases 2, 3 and 4. It is characterised by coarse inclusions of angular calcite mineral set in a calcareous matrix. The predominance of calcite, mostly of an angular shape, indicates its use as a temper. Apart from calcite, TFs are present in the coarse fraction, and some samples also contain quartz (Rare to Absent) and Intermediate volcanic rock (Very Rare to Absent). The optical activity of the matrix and the perfectly preserved crystals of calcite show that the equivalent temperature did not reach more than 750 °C, which is a turning point for the decomposition of calcite (Rye, 1981, p. 33; Quinn, 2013, p. 191). The matrix colour is orange, red to brown in PPL and XP, and several samples show a core/margin colour differentiation. These features indicate an oxidising firing atmosphere, that did not last long enough for the carbonates to be modified. F11 has a porous microstructure, containing mega, macro and meso vughs as characteristic.
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Figure 6.31 Fabric 11 (F11). Sample BG239 shows a coarse texture of F11 with inclusions of calcite. View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Related to Fabric 11: Sample BG250
Sample BG250 is also characterised by calcite tempering, but its calcite crystals are smaller and rounded in comparison to F11. Also, this sample contains more inclusions in the coarse fraction, including mono- and polycrystalline quartz, plagioclase, medium-coarse igneous rock, and mica. The matrix and voids have the same properties as described for F11.
Fabric 12: Calcareous with limestone and quartz Samples of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG 280, 281, 282, 283 Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 296, 297, 300, 301, 315, 316. Appendix B; Fig. 6.32.
Fabric 12 (F12) includes cooking pots of Phases 1 and 2 documented at Dorćol (Appendix E). It is characterised by inclusions of limestone and quartz set in a calcareous matrix.
The course fraction contains sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks. Limestone appears in the form of micritic formations and microfossils. Apart from limestone, chert is documented among sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic rocks are present, as quartzite, mica-schist and serpentinite. Several samples of this fabric also contain intermediate volcanic rock (probably andesite or dacite). The matrix is calcareous and optically active, suggesting an equivalent firing temperature of around 800 °C. The colour of the matrix ranges between orange, red and brown (in PPL and XP), with a distinctive core/margin colour differentiation. These features indicate an oxidising
168 atmosphere of firing, probably under uneven conditions. The shapes of the voids include vughs, planars and channels, testifying to various types of organic inclusions.
Figure 6.32 Fabric 12 (F12). BG281 illustrates a typical texture of F12 (top) and inclusions of limestone, serpentinite, mono- and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite (down). View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Related to Fabric 12: Sample BG295
Sample BG295 is described as related to F12 (RF12) because it has more chert (Dominant) and less limestone (Few). All other inclusions of the coarse fraction, such as polycrystalline quartz and TFs, are typical for F12. The matrix and voids have the same features as described for F12.
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Fabric 13: Coarse micaceous with serpentinized volcanic rock with porphyritic structure, chert and serpentinite
Samples of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291.
Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 302, 303.
Appendix B; Fig. 6.33.
Fabric 13 (F13) is comprised of cooking pots dated to Phases 1 and 2 at Dorćol. It is characterised by coarse inclusions of serpentinized volcanic rock with porphyritic structure, chert and serpentinite set in a micaceous and low-calcareous matrix.
The coarse fraction contains a specific mixture of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Dominant to Frequent are inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite that can contain muscovite mica. Igneous rocks are represented by a type of volcanic rock and one that is probably plutonic identified in Sample BG289. Serpentinized volcanic rock with porphyrithic structure contains randomly orientated plagioclase phenocrysts set in a fine-grained groundmass that has yellow/orange/red/dark brown colour in PPL and XP. It could be related to andesite. Furthermore, the Intermediate volcanic rock (probably andesite or dacite) has the same plagioclase phenocrysts but set in a fine-grained groundmass made of feldspars. Therefore, an association between these two rocks can be assumed. Chert and limestone are abundant sedimentary rocks present in this fabric. In addition to polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, metamorphic rocks serpentinite and mica-schist appear in this fabric. TFs are identified as Very few. The fine fraction is dominated by quartz and mica.
The matrix is non-calcareous and micaceous. The colour ranges from light brown, grey and yellow in PPL and grey to orange in XP, with a core/margin colour differentiation identified in two samples. These features suggest uneven firing conditions, probably in a partially oxidising atmosphere. The moderate optical activity suggests that the firing temperature reached approximately 800 °C. The range of voids includes vughs, channels and planars.
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Figure 6.33 Fabric 13 (F13). BG285 with inclusions of serpentinized volcanic rock with porphyritic structure and polycrystalline quartz (top) as well as chert (down). View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
Fabric 14: Coarse calcareous with igneous rocks Sample of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG292. Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 294, 299. Sample of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG94. Sample of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG256. Appendix B; Fig. 6.34.
Fabric 14 (F14) includes several samples of cooking pots dated to Phases 1 and 2 at Dorćol, as well as to Phases 2 and 4 at the Lower Town. This is a minor coarse fabric characterised by a bimodal distribution of inclusions set in a calcareous matrix. F14 has a similar texture to bimodal samples of F1, but with inclusions of different origins.
The coarse fraction contains different rocks and minerals, out of which mono- and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite are Dominant to Frequent. Igneous rocks are characteristic for this Fabric. An igneous rock that is probably granite, is composed of alkali feldspar, quartz, and plagioclase. Occasionally, this rock also includes mica.
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Furthermore, andesite/dacite is identified. In addition to them, a serpentinized volcanic rock with porphyritic structure is documented in sample BG256. Two types of TFs are present. TFs type 1 are brown inclusions containing quartz and mica, a variety of naturally occurring clay pellets (Whitbread, 1986, pp. 83–84). TFs type 2 is an indicator of clay mixing, and it is present only in sample BG292. The fine fraction is dominated by monocrystalline quartz.
The matrix is calcareous and homogenous, except in sample BG292, which contains signs of clay mixing. The colour ranges from yellow to brown in PPL and XP, and only one sample (BG299) shows a core/margin colour differentiation. These traits suggest even firing conditions, probably in an oxidising atmosphere. The optical activity of the matrix suggests that the firing temperature reached about 800 °C. Voids consist of vughs channels and planars.
Figure 6.34 Fabric 14 (F14). BG292 represents a coarse texture of F14 (top) and TFs type 2 (down). View in XP (left) and PPL (right).
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Related to Fabric 14: Sample BG251
Sample BG251 is dominated by granite which is the main difference between this sample and the samples of F14. The fine fraction is dominated by quartz. The matrix and voids have the same features as described for F14.
Petrographic loners: samples BG146, BG182 and BG307
Fabrics F15, F16 and F17 contain a single sample each (BG146, BG182 and BG307), having no clear connection with the other fabrics previously described. Their petrographic features are described in Appendix B.
Comments
To summarise, the results of ceramic petrography show that a number of fabrics have a degree of petrological similarity, but still can be petrographically distinguished by distribution, frequency, and ratio of inclusions as well as the texture and the matrix. This is particularly the case for medium-coarse F7 and F8 with sub-groups and related samples. They contain a mixture of igneous and metamorphic rocks, together with TFs, and to a lesser extent sedimentary rocks set in low calcareous and micaceous matrixes. The abundance of serpentinite and muscovite mica prove to be among the important traits for making petrographic distinctions between these Fabrics. F9 is also associated to F7 and F8 but has a coarser texture and more igneous rocks among its inclusions. Some inclusions of these three fabrics are documented for F1 as well, but with different distribution. Coarse F1 contains more inclusions of sedimentary rocks set in a calcareous matrix and has a significantly different texture compared to F7, F8 and F9. Equally close to F1 is F12, and they also show petrographic similarities, such as the dominance of sedimentary rocks among inclusions and calcareous matrix. F1, furthermore, has a common texture and matrix with coarse F14, but significantly different inclusions. Another coarse ware with a similar mixture of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks is F13, but this fabric has a distinct texture and non- calcareous matrix that stand out in the assemblage.
The above described coarse and medium-coarse fabrics show no clear signs of additional clay treatments, such as tempering or clay mixing. Some samples (e.g. BG292 of F14) are among rare exceptions. The petrographic evidence presented here indicate that pastes were prepared from chosen raw materials without modifications.
173
F3, F6, and F10 are defined on the basis of their fine-grained texture. The chemical analysis (Chapter 6.3) sheds more light on the characterisation of the samples included in those fabrics. Despite limitations, petrography indicated the paste of these fine fabrics was probably refined (potentially levigated).
Opposite to these three fabrics, F11 is characterised by coarse inclusions of calcite that served as a temper. The poor distribution of other inclusions suggests that the clay was refined prior to tempering. Large and abundant voids indicate that organic matter was also added into the clay.
Finally, F2, F4 and F5 stand out from the rest of the assemblage because of their distinct petrographic features. They do not show almost any degree of similarity with other fabrics in the assemblage. Although the inclusions of F2 are common in other fabrics as well, the texture and the colour of the matrix are different to the rest of the assemblage. On the other hand, F4 and F5 have petrological features unknown in other fabrics. F4 contains granite while F5 is characterised by gneiss with associated opaques. Therefore, based on the composition of the main inclusions, these two fabrics stand out from the rest of the assemblage.
6.3 The results of the elemental analysis of ceramics (WDXRF) and the comparative assessment of petrographic and chemical data
The WDXRF analysis of ceramics was conducted on 135 samples, selected after the petrographic characterisation of the assemblage. The raw chemical data are presented in Table 1 of Appendix C.
Section 6.3.1 gives the results of the statistically treated data presented on the hierarchical dendrogram (Fig. 6.35) and the PCA plot (Fig. 6.36) while loadings for the PCA plot are presented on Fig. 6.37. Chemical clusters are described separately from other ceramic groups defined in this research (see Table 5.3) in order to independently outline the results of WDXRF. In total, nine clusters and several outliers are defined. Approximately the same linking distance has been used to define the clusters. For each cluster the variability has been estimated as relative standard deviation (RSD). Mean, Min and Max are also calculated for each cluster in order to illustrate the range of values (Table 6.1). The clusters that include coarse wares (C1,
174 C2, C3, C5, C7, C8 and C9) generally show higher RSD compared to the clusters with fine and medium-coarse wares (C4). The variability of elemental compositions is related to a range of factors, including the inherited variability within coarse samples, small sample size represented by the analysed sample, geological traits of raw materials, human modifications of raw materials (cleaning, mixing and tempering of clays), firing and post-depositional alterations (Buxeda i Garrios et al. 2003; Day et al. 1999; Hein & Kilikoglou 2017).
A group of calcite-tempered pots (the list of samples is given in Table 6.2) is singled out here as a specific case because the variability related to tempering potentially affects the clustering. This group of samples is characterised by the high values and variability of CaO (8.1-35 wt%) (Appendix C, Table 1). The exceptionally high LOI values (loss on ignition) reported for this group are related not merely to the loss of organic content but also carbonates (Georgakopoulou et al., 2017). Tempering will enrich the fabrics in some elements and dilute in others (Neff et al., 1988). A case study of calcite tempered pots from the Bronze Age site of Hagia Photia shows that varying CaO content affects the concentration of trace elements (Day et al., 2012, p. 130). This raises the question whether the scattered distribution of Belgrade’s samples as illustrated on the dendrogram and PCA plot (Fig. 6.35 and 6.36) reflects meaningful compositional differences. In Belgrade’s case, a correlation between the variability of CaO and trace elements cannot be observed. For example, a group of samples with high CaO values (BG194, BG239 and BG253) shows also high variability of trace elements (Cr, Mn, Sr, Zr and Ba). Thus, the evidence suggests that compositional differences between the calcite-tempered samples are significant for the chemical clustering and they suggest the existence of different pastes. To test this hypothesis, CaO is disregarded and the remaining composition is normalised to 100 wt% (Table 6.2). Even in this form, the compositional differences between the samples are significant. Therefore, the original clustering, performed with CaO values (Fig. 6.35 and 6.36), has been taken as valid and as such it will be discussed further below.
In Section 6.3.2, the chemical clusters will be compared to fabrics (Fig. 6.39). The integrated results of mineralogical and chemical analyses of ceramics will be presented as ‘compositional groups’ (CG). One CG represents a ceramic paste with defined mineralogical and chemical composition (Fig. 6.40). It is suggested that samples of the
175 same paste were also made of the same type of raw materials procured from one geological environment, potentially even one source.
Although in Belgrade’s assemblage chemical clusters approximately overlap with fabrics, there are some deviations that need to be addressed. These deviations are case specific, and they will be discussed with each CG. A general rule that has been followed is that fabrics of significantly different mineralogical traits cannot represent one paste even if the chemical analysis suggests compositional similarities. This is, for example, the case with the very fine F10 and coarse F12 that have been clustered together into C6. On the other hand, if the chemical analysis indicates significant variations between the samples of one fabric, they have been split, which is the case with F11. In some cases, compositional similarities obtained by the chemical analysis justified merging of some fabrics with similar mineralogical traits (such as F6 and F8).
Ceramic compositional groups are defined by both mineralogical and chemical compositions. A large number of samples (137) was not included in the WDXRF analysis and they were only characterised by ceramic petrography. F4 and F5 were entirely excluded from the chemical testing because a non-local provenance has been proposed for them (see Chapter 7.1). Hence, technological traditions concerning these two fabrics rely on the petrographic data only. The chemical variability of all other fabrics was tested, and for some of them significant compositional variability has been observed. In the absence of chemical data for the entire assemblage, samples not included in the WDXRF analysis are grouped into a CG with the majority of attributed samples. Still, considering the lack of chemical data for them, these samples have a question mark next to their CG attribution in Appendix E.
6.3.1 Chemical clusters
Cluster 1
Samples of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG 288, 292
Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town BG 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, 60, 62, 65, 66, 70, 87, 102, 103
Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 134, 136, 138
Fig. 6.35 and Fig. 6.36; Table 6.1; Appendix C, Table 1
176 Cluster 1 (C1) includes a low calcareous group of samples (CaO 0.7-2.6wt%) with a high variability of major and minor elements as well as some trace elements such as Zr, Mn, Ni and Sr. Compared to the other clusters, the samples of C1 are distinguished by higher values of Cr (180-342 ppm) and Ni (84-221 ppm), associated with serpentinites (see example of Aegina in Hein et al. 2004; Kiriatzi et al. 2011). Mn (165-463 ppm) is lower than for other clusters (distinguishing elements can be seen in Fig. 6.37).
Cluster 2
Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 67, 71, 73, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82, 86, 91, 93, 95
Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 294, 297
Fig. 6.35 and Fig. 6.36; Table 6.1; Appendix C, Table 1
Cluster 2 (C2) is associated to C1 as illustrated on the PCA plot (Fig. 6.36). Compared to C1, C2 is more calcareous (CaO 2.3-5.7 wt%) with additionally higher Mn (203- 807 ppm), Zn (93-235 ppm) and Sr (97-201 ppm). Cr (112-329 ppm) and Ni (59-123 ppm) show high variability, which is probably related to the different distribution of serpentinites in the samples of this cluster.
Cluster 3
Sample of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG280
Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 64, 132
Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 304, 306
Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 151, 180, 193
Fig. 6.35 and Fig. 6.36; Table 6.1; Appendix C, Table 1
Cluster 3 (C3), similarly to the previous two clusters also shows a high variability of major, minor and some trace elements (Mn, Zn and Zr). It represents a low-calcareous group of samples (1.2-2.8 wt%), and compared to C1 and C2, it is characterised by a higher content of Mn (384-807 ppm) and Fe2O3 (5.0-7.3 wt%) while Cr (94-139 ppm) and Ni (44-70 ppm) are lower.
177 Cluster 4
Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 97, 98
Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 135, 137, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 149, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 176, 177, 183, 187, 189, 192
Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 195, 197, 198, 200, 202, 206, 209, 210, 211, 213, 221, 222, 223, 225, 228, 256, 257, 260, 261, 262, 264, 266, 268, 270, 271, 276
Samples of Phase 4 from Dorćol: 309, 311, 312, 319
Fig. 6.35 and Fig. 6.36; Table 6.1; Appendix C, Table 1
Cluster 4 (C4) shows less elemental variability than C1, C2 and C3. Exceptions are CaO (0.9-3.2 wt%), Cr (107-325 ppm) and Ni (51-259 ppm) that could be associated with the different distribution of limestone and serpentinite respectively. Although the samples of C4 are low calcareous, they are characterised by a high content of Mn (484- 1129 ppm), which is the opposite pattern to that seen for C1 and C2. Similarly to C3, the Fe2O3 content in C4 is high (4.6-8.9 wt%) while the Zr values (193-407 ppm) are higher than for C1, C2 and C3.
Cluster 5
Sample of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG133
Sample of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG252
Fig. 6.35 and Fig. 6.36; Table 6.1; Appendix C Table 1
Cluster 5 (C5) consists of only two samples, both attributed to coarse calcite-tempered wares. The variability between these two samples is high, but at the same time they are compositionally different from the other calcite-tempered samples (C7 and C9). The samples of C5 have higher values of Mn (710-1065ppm) and Ba (425-459 ppm) and lower values of Cr (71-81 ppm), Ni (41-49 ppm) and Sr (65 ppm).
178
Cluster 6
Samples of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG282, 284
Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 315
Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 229, 231, 233, 234, 267
Samples of Phase 4 from Dorćol: BG 312, 316, 318, 320
Fig. 6.35 and Fig. 6.36; Table 6.1; Appendix C, Table 1
Cluster 6 (C6) is a heterogeneous cluster that includes a group of very fine Grey- Polished jugs of Phase 4 and coarse cooking pots of Phases 1 and 2. The heterogeneity is also reflected in the high variability of major, minor and trace elements. This is a group of highly-calcareous samples (CaO 6.0-9.9 wt%), characterised also by relatively high values of Fe2O3 (4.5-7.3 wt%), K2O (2.4-3.4 wt%), MgO (1.4-4.2 wt%),
Rb (88-161 ppm) and low values of SiO2 (52-63.4 wt%) (Fig. 6.37).
Cluster 7
Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 244, 246, 249, 250
Fig. 6.35 and Fig. 6.36; Table 6.1; Appendix C, Table 1
Cluster 7 (C7) comprises coarse calcite-tempered cooking pots dated to Phase 4. This is a group with a low to medium (for the calcite-tempered group) CaO content (8.1- 21.3 wt%). When compared to C5, the samples of C7 have higher contents of Cr (122- 141 ppm), Ni (61-70 ppm), Sr (110-181 ppm) and Zn (114-243 ppm).
Cluster 8
Samples of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG 287, 289, 291
Fig. 6.35 and Fig. 6.36; Table 6.1; Appendix C, Table 1
Cluster 8 (C8) is a coherent group of three coarse samples dated to Phase 1. These are non-calcareous samples (CaO 0.6-0.9 wt%) with correspondingly low Sr (77-
107ppm), also characterised by relatively high content of SiO2 (71.6-75.8 wt%) and Zr
(218-240 ppm) as well as low Fe2O3 (2.7-3.2 wt%).
Cluster 9
Sample of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG194
Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 236, 237, 239
179
Fig. 6.35 and Fig. 6.36; Table 6.1; Appendix C, Table 1
Cluster 9 (C9) is the third cluster that contains calcite-tempered coarse wares dated to Phases 3 and 4. It stands out from the other two clusters (C5 and C7), as is visible on the PCA plot (Fig. 6.36), by the content of some trace elements (Zn, Sr, Zr, Ce). C9 is a heterogeneous cluster with a high variability in almost all components. This is a group of samples with a medium-high (for the calcite-tempered group) CaO content (18.5-30.6 wt%) and correspondingly high content of Sr (280-1112 ppm). It is also characterised by low values of Zn (57-105 ppm), SiO2 (22.2-39.2 wt%) and Fe2O3 (3.2-5.9 wt%).
Outliers are defined as individual samples whose compositions are significantly different to the rest of the assemblage. These are BG 99, 148, 165, 235, 251, 253, 296.
180
Figure 6.35 Dendrogram resulting from the cluster analysis (CA) performed on all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics.
Data are used in a form of logratios. Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th.
181
Figure 6.36 Scatter-plot of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows clusters (C). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th.
182
Figure 6.37 Scatter-plot of loadings derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics. Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th.
183
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd wt% ppm C1 Mean 0.8 1.8 16.2 69.1 2.4 1.3 0.8 5.5 120 261 271 20 159 120 117 108 27 171 428 36 67 33 RSD 55.4 17.1 10.3 4.6 17.2 34.0 12.2 21.0 15 19 26 11 28 20 17 22 12 35 15 8 11 8 MIN 0.4 1.4 14.1 58.8 2.0 0.7 0.7 4.1 86 180 165 17 84 75 89 85 22 118 352 30 56 29 MAX 1.7 2.8 20.9 72.5 3.7 2.6 1.0 8.9 161 342 463 24 221 174 171 166 34 309 547 40 86 38 C2 Mean 0.8 2.0 15.0 66.9 2.4 4.0 0.7 5.0 108 245 436 18 135 134 119 130 26 162 404 33 64 30 RSD 21.0 18.9 8.6 3.8 8.1 22.6 6.9 18.6 10 25 36 16 27 25 11 21 10 21 15 10 10 7 MIN 0.6 1.7 13.6 62.6 2.1 2.3 0.6 3.7 96 112 203 13 59 93 98 97 23 120 310 27 56 26 MAX 1.0 2.8 18.3 70.4 2.7 5.7 0.8 6.2 134 329 807 23 193 235 142 201 34 245 515 40 82 33 C3 Mean 1.3 2.2 16.4 66.2 2.9 1.9 0.8 6.1 115 111 605 18 55 122 134 139 29 201 523 38 70 34 RSD 29.1 24.5 11.0 5.0 18.7 34.7 11.1 12.5 14 13 24 12 15 27 21 10 14 21 10 9 10 10 MIN 0.5 1.4 13.0 62.9 2.2 1.2 0.6 5.0 86 94 384 14 44 78 97 112 22 149 466 33 61 30 MAX 1.7 2.9 18.4 72.1 3.7 2.8 0.9 7.3 132 139 807 20 70 163 173 160 34 245 612 42 82 40 C4 Mean 1.4 1.9 15.6 68.2 2.5 1.4 1.0 6.1 108 188 866 20 97 100 112 124 36 317 505 44 86 41 RSD 11.5 16.7 7.5 3.7 8.9 32.8 11.1 13.7 13 34 16 17 54 13 9 11 11 19 5 12 14 12 MIN 1.0 1.2 12.8 60.2 2.1 0.9 0.7 4.6 83 107 484 15 51 70 82 92 27 193 458 33 63 30 MAX 2.0 2.5 19.9 72.7 3.5 3.2 1.5 8.9 164 325 1129 30 259 135 152 152 44 407 593 53 113 50 C5 BG 133 0.5 1.2 11.4 38.6 2.4 20.7 0.4 4.2 59 71 1065 12 41 116 94 65 16 102 424 20 58 23 BG 252 0.5 1.2 12.6 42.9 2.7 19.2 0.5 4.5 68 81 710 19 49 112 107 65 24 119 495 37 97 34 C6 Mean 1.1 3.4 16.0 57.2 3.1 7.7 0.8 6.1 121 133 791 18 75 131 132 212 28 164 513 37 70 33 RSD 20.2 24.7 12.8 5.2 12.9 16.7 10.3 14.6 17 19 33 15 24 18 18 16 8 14 11 13 15 14 MIN 0.8 1.9 12.9 52.0 2.4 6.0 0.6 4.5 95 105 354 12 59 98 85 155 25 143 436 28 54 25 MAX 1.6 4.2 18.8 63.4 3.4 9.9 0.9 7.3 151 204 1153 21 109 170 161 261 32 222 630 43 85 40
184
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd wt% ppm C7 Mean 0.8 1.8 14.7 45.8 1.8 14.3 0.7 5.3 110 133 263 13 65 160 73 141 25 163 372 31 61 31 RSD 12.9 43.9 8.5 15.4 18.6 39.3 9.5 4.3 11 7 26 15 6 37 14 21 7 10 9 4 8 8 MIN 0.7 1.3 13.2 38.4 1.3 8.1 0.6 5.0 94 122 185 10 61 118 60 110 23 144 324 29 55 28 MAX 0.9 3.1 16.0 53.3 2.0 21.3 0.8 5.5 121 141 352 14 70 243 82 181 27 182 392 32 66 34 C8 Mean 0.9 1.0 15.6 73.3 2.9 0.7 0.8 3.0 93 225 116 8 76 59 133 89 27 227 492 40 78 34 RSD 15.4 8.7 7.8 3.0 6.8 16.9 2.1 9.5 9 11 24 30 16 29 8 18 9 5 11 17 7 18 MIN 0.7 0.9 14.3 71.6 2.6 0.6 0.8 2.7 85 197 89 5 62 42 124 77 25 218 429 34 72 28 MAX 1.0 1.1 16.7 75.8 3.0 0.9 0.8 3.2 102 242 145 9 85 76 145 107 30 240 533 47 82 40 C9 Mean 0.3 1.4 12.0 31.8 2.0 24.5 0.5 4.6 106 165 675 14 107 82 92 590 15 82 218 22 37 21 RSD 41.6 26.2 27.2 27.0 24.8 25.7 29.2 27.0 29 26 40 31 31 28 28 61 40 29 25 36 47 37 MIN 0.2 1.1 8.4 22.2 1.5 18.5 0.3 3.2 75 120 492 9 70 57 69 280 9 54 164 14 16 14 MAX 0.4 1.9 15.0 39.2 2.5 30.6 0.7 5.9 136 204 1078 17 148 105 117 1112 22 103 268 29 54 28 Table 6.1 Clusters with estimated values of Mean, relative standard deviation (RSD), minimum (MIN) and maximum (MAX). Values given for Mean, MIN and MAX are in % and ppm respectively while RSD is expressed in %.
185
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd wt% ppm BG 133 0.8 2.0 19.4 65.8 4.2 0.8 7.1 59 71 1065 12 41 116 94 65 16 102 424 20 58 23 BG 194 0.4 2.8 22.7 60.3 4.2 0.9 8.6 75 120 558 9 70 57 71 472 9 54 164 14 16 14 BG 235 0.6 2.4 25.6 63.5 3.0 1.1 3.8 95 225 142 18 172 156 73 272 20 89 253 28 49 25 BG 236 0.6 2.9 22.9 59.8 3.9 0.9 9.0 136 204 573 17 148 105 117 497 18 101 268 28 54 26 BG 237 0.4 2.5 22.8 61.4 3.5 1.0 8.5 129 199 1078 17 116 97 110 1112 22 103 261 29 49 28 BG 239 0.4 2.7 22.7 60.6 3.6 1.0 9.1 83 137 492 11 95 67 69 280 11 71 177 16 30 14 BG 244 1.1 1.9 20.9 65.4 2.4 1.0 7.2 117 140 185 12 64 157 81 129 27 182 386 32 62 34 BG 246 1.1 2.2 21.8 63.3 2.1 1.0 8.6 94 122 242 10 61 243 60 143 25 144 324 29 55 32 BG 249 1.3 2.3 21.7 63.0 3.1 1.0 7.6 109 127 352 14 65 118 82 181 23 161 392 30 59 28 BG 250 1.0 3.8 19.2 66.2 2.3 0.9 6.6 121 141 271 14 70 120 70 110 26 163 384 31 66 30 BG 252 0.7 1.9 19.4 66.1 4.1 0.8 7.0 68 81 710 19 49 112 107 65 24 119 495 37 97 34 BG 253 0.3 2.2 27.5 59.7 2.6 1.0 6.7 59 110 548 7 48 58 33 141 18 55 153 22 47 21 Mean 0.7 2.5 22.2 62.9 3.2 1.0 7.5 95 140 518 13 83 117 81 289 20 112 307 26 54 26 RSD 43.7 21.6 11.2 4.0 23.3 11.1 19.7 34 60 29 50 44 29 103 29 38 36 26 37 26 Table 6.2 Chemical composition of calcite-tempered pottery determined through the WDXRF analysis normalised to 100% after disregarding CaO. Values for Mean are given in % and ppm respectively while RSD is expressed in %.
186 6.3.2 The comparative assessment of chemical and petrographic data and the definition of compositional groups (CG)
Compositional group 1 (CG1) includes the coarse cooking pots of W22 dated to Phase 1 at Dorćol (Appendix E). They are defined as F13 and C8 (Fig. 6.39). This is a distinct group of pottery that stands out in the assemblage both by its mineralogical and chemical characteristics (Fig. 6.40). The paste is micaceous, with coarse inclusions of serpentinized volcanic rock close to andesite, chert and serpentinites (Appendix B).
One of the F13 samples (BG288) analysed by WDXRF is clustered in C1 and shows significant compositional differences to the samples of C8 (Appendix C, Table 2).
BG288 shows major differences in the contents of Na2O, MgO, Fe2O3, V, Mn, Co, Zn and Sr. Thus, BG288 indicates the existence of a distinct paste, however, considering its statistical insignificance it won’t be discussed further and will be treated as an Outlier.
Compositional group 2 (CG2) refers to coarse cooking pots of W1 from Dorćol, dated to Phases 1 and 2 (Appendix E). It is defined petrographically as F12, a calcareous fabric rich in limestone and quartz (Appendix B). Four out of the seven chemically tested samples belonging to F12 cluster as C6, while another three are identified as C2 (BG297), C3 (BG280) and an Outlier (BG296). The difference in chemical compositions between the samples of C6 and BG296, BG297 and BG280 indicate distinct pastes (Appendix C, Table 2). Thus, these three samples will be singled out from CG2 (Fig. 6.40). Considering their statistical insignificance, but also compositional differences between them, these three samples will be defined as Outliers.
Both the samples of C6 and BG296 are described as calcareous, but the latter contains slightly higher content of CaO (7.8 wt%) and correspondently higher Sr (216 ppm) (Appendix C, Table 2). The content of Cr is significantly higher for BG296 (806 ppm) compared to C6 (136-204 ppm), which could be related to uneven distribution of a serpentinitic component (see Hein et al. 2004, p.559). However, another element associated with serpentinites, Ni, is not much higher in BG296 (105 ppm) than in the samples of C6 (84-109 ppm). Other trace elements, such as Mn, also have different concentrations in BG296 and the samples of C6.
187 BG297 and BG280 display a bigger range of differences to C6. They are significantly less calcareous (CaO 2.5-3.5 wt%) and characterised by different contents of MgO
(BG280), Al2O3 (BG279), V (BG297), Cr (both), Mn (both), Ni (both), Zn (both), Rb (BG297), Sr (BG280), Zr (BG297) and Ce (BG297). The high variability in the trace elements speak for the existence of different pastes.
Compositional group 3 (CG3) comprises the coarse wares of W1 dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town that is furthermore defined petrographically as F1 (Appendix E). The chemical analysis indicated some differences between the samples of F1, which led to their split on C1 and C2. F1 is the major fabric of Phase 2, characterised by coarse inclusions of sedimentary rocks and serpentinites set in a calcareous matrix (Appendix B). It is petrographically associated to a minor F14. These two fabrics share the same texture and matrix. F14 is distinguished by the abundant presence of igneous rocks and the lack of sedimentary rocks characteristic for F1. The chemical analysis indicated a relation between them, and thus they will be considered as part of CG3 (Fig. 6.39 and 6.40).
The split of F1/F14 samples into C1 and C2 is related to differences in the contents of CaO and Mn that are positively correlated (Fig. 6.38). This correlation indicates their mineralogical association in the nature. The samples of C1 are no- to low-calcareous (CaO 0.7-2.6 wt%) with Mn content ranging between 165-463 ppm (Table 6.1). Compared to them, the samples of C2 are more calcareous (CaO 2.3-5.7 wt%) with correspondently higher values of Mn ranging between 203-807 ppm (Table 6.1). It is possible to suggest that the correlation between CaO and Mn derives from their presence in limestone. Thus, compositional differences between the samples of F1/F14 derive from an uneven distribution of limestone.
Sample BG64, described as RF1, should also be seen as part of CG3. Petrographically, this sample was separated from F1 due to the lack of chert (Appendix B). The SiO2 content of BG64, related to chert, is in the lower range of CG3 (63.9 wt%), but this is not the only compositional difference that clustered this sample into C3 (Table 6.10). Compared to the range seen for F1/F14, BG64 has higher contents of Mn, Rb and Ba, while Cr and Ni are lower, which places this sample compositionally closer to some of CG8 (see below). It is possible that this variability is related to the absence of some other minerals and rocks, apart from chert. Other petrographic similarities between BG64 and F1 suggest they should be seen as part of one compositional group.
188 Cao and Mn 600
500
400
300 C1 C2 200
100
0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Figure 6.38 The positive correlation between CaO and Mn in the samples of C1 and C2 of CG3.
BG256 (F14 and C4) and BG251 (RF14 and Outlier) will be defined here as Outliers to CG3 (Appendix C, Table 2). Compared to a range of C1/C2 samples given in Table 6.1, BG256 differs in the contents of MgO, V, Co, Zn, Rb, Y and Zr while BG251 shows differences in almost all major, minor and trace elements.
Compositional group 4 (CG4) includes the three samples of medium-fine F2, documented at the Lower Town and dated to Phase 2 (Appendix E). This is petrographically a homogenous group of pottery, but considering its quantity, only one sample (BG99) was selected for the chemical analysis. The results show that BG99 is an Outlier because its composition is significantly different from the rest of the assemblage (Appendix C, Table 2). Thus, BG99 and the rest of F2 will be defined as CG4.
Compositional group 5 (CG5) refers to the pottery of F4, which is a group of coarse cooking wares with granite inclusions (Appendix E). This group has a homogenous texture and distribution of coarse inclusions, which indicates a common origin of raw materials and paste preparation procedure (Appendix B). It has not been included in the chemical analysis, and therefore CG5 is defined based on the results of petrographic study.
189 Compositional group 6 (CG6) includes the coarse cooking pots of F5, dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town (Appendix E). This group was analysed only by petrography, which showed a homogeneous fabric characterised by one type of inclusion - gneiss with opaques (Appendix B).
Compositional group 7 (CG7) represents a group of medium-coarse cooking and table wares, found at the Lower Town and Dorćol and dated to Phases 2, 3 and 4 (Appendix E). It is identified petrographically as F7 and RF7, which is a micaceous and serpentinite-rich fabric (Appendix B). The cluster analysis showed that the samples of F7 and RF7 are part of C4, together with other low-calcareous fabrics of Phases 3 and 4 - F6, SGF6, F8, SGF8 and F9 (Fig. 6.36 and 6.39). Within C4, the samples of F7 and RF7 stand out to the rest of C4 for the higher contents of Mn (926- 1129 ppm), Cr (234-325 ppm) and Ni (112-259 ppm) (Appendix C, Table 2). Cr and Ni can be related to serpentinites, which is one of the main inclusions of F7 in the coarse fraction. Thus, CC7 is defined by both mineralogical and chemical compositions (Fig. 6.40).
Sample BG148 is identified as an Outlier to CG7. This sample is described as RF7, but the chemical analysis showed BG148 differs from the samples of F7 in the contents of all trace elements (Appendix C, Table 2), suggesting it represents a distinct paste. Considering its statistical insignificance, it will be treated as an Outlier.
Compositional group 8 (CG8) is the largest group in Belgrade’s assemblage, and includes a range of functionally different pots dated to Phases 3 and 4 documented at both sites (Appendix E). It includes the samples of fine and medium coarse fabrics F6, SGF6, F8 and SGF8 characterised by the low-calcareous and micaceous paste (Fig. 6.39 and 6.40). The majority of these samples are chemically characterised as C4, while four samples are defined as C3 and one as C1 (Fig. 6.36). The reasons for merging different fabrics and clusters into one technological tradition will be discussed further below.
F6 is the largest fabric in the assemblage. This is a fine fabric, with only 5-7% of inclusions occurring in the coarse fraction (Appendix B). The chemical analysis showed that the samples of F6 form one chemical cluster, C4 (except for BG165), which indicates the existence of a single paste (Fig. 6.36 and 6.39). SGF6 is singled out for containing more inclusions in the coarse fraction (10-15 %) and the chemical
190 analysis showed that this sub-group follows the same patterns as F6. Excluding BG304, the samples of SGF6 are clustered as C4 and can be considered as part of one paste with F6.
F8 is a medium coarse fabric and contains more indicative inclusions compared to F6. It is characterised by the presence of polycrystalline quartz/quartzite and monocrystalline quartz set in a low-calcareous and micaceous matrix. The presence or absence of igneous rocks and muscovite mica make this fabric to some extent heterogeneous (Appendix B). SGF8 is distinguished by its abundant mica content. F8 is chemically characterised as C4, excluding four samples of C3 (BG134, BG180, BG193, BG306). The samples of SGF8 are also included in C4, but they show some compositional variations (see below) that are in line with the petrographic assessment (Appendix C, Table 2).
The cluster analysis showed that the samples of F6, SGF6, F8 and SGF8 have a high degree of compositional similarities which clustered them together (C4). These similarities indicate that a common type of raw materials was used for the manufacture of the two fabrics and their sub-fabrics, exploited in a geological environment rich in polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, igneous rocks and mica. It is possible that the raw materials even come from a single source.
The majority of C4 samples deriving from F6/SGF6 and F8/SGF8 stand out as a coherent group at the right side of the plot (6.39 and 6.40). To this group, sample BG319 of a very fine F10 can be add, making a coherent group with the other fabrics. Statistical observations for this group are given in Appendix C, Table 2.
Some samples of C4 show a degree of variation from this coherent group. Samples
BG177 (SGF6), BG261 (SGF6), BG279 (RF8) have slightly higher values of Al2O3,
MgO, Fe2O3, V, Mn, Zn and Rb (Appendix C, Table 2). Furthermore, four samples of
SGF8 (BG 149, 156, 162 and 183) have higher contents of Al2O3, Fe2O3, V and Ba as well as lower Mn and Zr (Appendix C, Table 2). These variations could be related to differences in mineralogical distribution that characterise SGF6, SGF8 and RF8. On the PCA plot (Fig. 6.40) these two groups gravitate towards the samples of CG3.
Five samples of F8, SGF8 and SGF6 clustered as C3 and C1, respectively, show a similar pattern of variability. The samples of C3 are BG180 (F8), BG193 (F8), BG304 (SGF6) and BG306 (F8). What distinguishes them from the samples of C4 are higher
191 values of Al2O3, Fe2O3, V, Zn, Rb, and Ba as well as lower values of Cr, Mn and Ni (Appendix C, Table 2). Together with BG134 (SGF8) of C1, characterised by the variability of same elements but in different ratios, they deviate from the majority of F8/SGF8/SGF6 samples in a way similar to the above-described samples of C4 (Fig. 6.40). Slight mineralogical heterogeneity of F8 is probably the reason for these deviations. Thus, all the above-described samples that show a degree of variability will be considered as part of CG8 because the overlap between the chemical and mineralogical variability suggests the differences between the samples derive from the uneven distribution of some rocks and minerals in the clay used for the production of this pottery (Fig. 6.40).
Although made of raw materials with the same chemical properties, the petrography clearly separates pastes represented by the different fabrics included in CG8. They will be defined as two variants of CG8 (Table 6.3). Variant A stands for a fine (F6) and medium-fine (SGF6) pottery, while Variant B is distinguished as a medium-coarse pottery (F8 and SGF8). The current evidence suggests that F6 was subjected to refinement, such as levigation, which resulted in the disappearance of the coarse inclusions. The pottery of SGF6 contains unevenly distributed coarse inclusions, suggesting they have not been as carefully removed. F8 and SGSG8, on the other side, are characterised by medium-coarse inclusions, and the petrography could not identify any additional clay treatment.
Paste preparation CG8 F Texture method refinement, possibly Variant A F6 and SGF6 Fine to medium-fine levigation
Variant B F8 and SGF8 Medium-coarse unprocessed Table 6.3 Variants of CG8 distinguished by different methods of paste preparation.
An outlier to CG8 is sample BG165 of F6, for which the chemical analysis demonstrated significantly different composition compared to CG8 (Appendix C, Table 2). Sample BG316 of F6 is classified into CG10. In this sense, although different to the rest of CG8, BG316 is not an Outlier.
Finally, it should be emphasised that CG8 and CG7 are two associated compositional groups. The petrography pointed to a range of similarities between F7 and F8/SGF8, such as low-calcareous and micaceous matrices, similar medium-coarse textures and
192 the dominance of polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, which makes these two fabrics petrographically associated. At the same time, they contain inclusions of different petrology or with different distribution, which led to their distinction (Appendix B). The chemical characterisation also confirmed this ambiguity. From one side, the samples of F7 are clustered in C4 together with F6, SGF6, F8 and SGF8, which is a significant connection. At the same time, the samples of F7 clearly stand out as a sub- group of C4 (Fig. 6.39), unlike the other fabrics/sub-fabrics that are intermixed. Thus, it is possible to suggest that pastes represented by CG7 and CG8 are different but made of mineralogically and chemically associated raw materials probably exploited in the same geological area.
Compositional group 9 (CG9) refers to coarse samples of cooking pots defined as F9 (Appendix E). F9 is distinguished by the presence of coarse inclusions of igneous rocks, set in a low calcareous matrix (Appendix B). The chemically tested samples of F9 show compositional incoherence and are classified as C1, C3 and C4 (Appendix C, Table 2). A closer look at the composition of these samples shows that pronounced differences between them derive from the variability of Cr, Mn, Ni and to a lesser extent Zn, Zr and Ce. Considering the coarseness of F9 these variations of trace elements could be related to the natural variability of raw materials.
Compositional group 10 (CG10) is a group of very fine pottery identified as Grey- Polished jugs (Appendix E). Petrographically, Grey-Polished jugs are defined as a homogeneous F10 that is a very fine fabric with only 7-10 % of inclusions occurring in the coarse fraction. However, the chemical analysis showed a different grouping of F10 samples that are split into several clusters or outliers (Appendix C, Table 2). Considering the fine texture of F10, differences in the chemical compositions are indicative for the classification of Grey-Polished jugs.
CG10 includes the samples of C6, excluding BG312 and BG320 (Fig. 6.40). The samples of CG10 present a well-defined chemical group that can be interpreted as one highly calcareous paste. BG312 and BG320 are slightly more calcareous and further differ from CG10 in the contents of MgO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, V, Cr, Mn and Ce. At the same time, they are related to the CG10 as pointed out by the cluster analysis. However, it remains unclear whether these differences are due to the variability of the raw materials or they reflect the existence of a distinct paste. In the lack of firm
193 evidence and considering the very fine texture of F10, that contains no coarse inclusions that can influence the chemical variability, these differences will be treated as significant for the identification of a different paste. However, since BG312 and BG320 also show a significant degree of variability between them, they will be treated as Outliers. Furthermore, the two other samples of F10 can also be defined as Outliers to CG10. BG132 is a sample of C1 and can be described as low-calcareous with different contents of Na2O, MgO, Fe2O3, Cr, Mn, Rb, Sr, Y and Ce compared to CG10. The other sample, BG319 (C4) shows even higher differences compared to CG10, having a chemical composition similar to the samples of CG8. Thus, BG319 will be considered as part of CG8.
Compositional group 11 (CG11) includes the samples of coarse calcite-tempered vessels dated predominately to Phase 4 at the Lower Town, with two samples dated to Phases 2 and 3 respectively (Appendix E). These baking pans and cooking pots with accompanying lids are petrographically characterised as a homogenous F11 with one related sample (Appendix B). Contrary to the petrographic assessment, the chemical analysis demonstrated compositional differences that cannot be explained with the natural variability of raw materials or analytical difficulties caused by tempering. The split of F11 into three clusters (C5, C7, C9) and several Outliers indicates the heterogeneous character of calcite-tempered vessels (Fig. 6.36 and 6.39). It is suggested here, based on the chemical composition analysis, that clusters C7 and C9 are likely to represent distinct pastes. Despite differences in the chemical compositions, the samples of C7 and C9 share common petrographic features, such as the mineralogy of inclusions, texture and tempering. Thus, they will be marked as two variants of CG11, each representing one paste with an unknown degree of relation to the other paste (Fig. 6.40). CG11a stands for the samples of C7 while CG11b represents the samples of C9.
Four samples of F11 are classified as outliers based on the chemical assessment of ceramics. C5 consists of only two F11 samples and it is difficult to observe how meaningful the compositional differences between them are. In addition to this, the two samples are dated to entirely different Phases, BG133 to Phase 1 and BG252 to Phase 4, which adds to concerns that the chemical similarity might not be meaningful. Thus, these two samples will be considered as Outliers, together with BG253 and
194 BG235, for which the chemical analysis showed stronger compositional deviations (Appendix C, Table 2).
The only fabric that remains undefined in the assemblage refers to three unglazed jugs of Phase 2 from the Lower Town site (BG102, BG103 and BG104, see Appendix E). These jugs were identified as F3 (Appendix B1). The cluster analysis performed on the data from two samples (BG102 and BG103) included in the chemical analysis show that they are associated with the coarse wares of CG3 (Chapter 6.3.1). Although the high variability of elements of coarse wares is expected, F3 is described as a very fine fabric without any major inclusions in the coarse fraction. The differences in the major, minor and trace elements between BG102 and BG103 indicate different pastes. In the absence of chemical data for the third sample, it is not possible to propose any grouping. Thus, these three samples will be treated as Outliers in the absence of common mineralogical or chemical features.
Three petrographic loners, not tested chemically, will also be treated as Outliers. These are samples BG164, BG182 and BG307.
195 Figure 6.39 Scatter-plot showing of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows fabrics (F). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th.
196 Figure 6.40 Scatter-plot showing of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows compositional groups (CG). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th.
197 Comments
Eleven ceramic compositional groups defined in the assemblage can be distinguish by several criteria. The assemblage consists of three distinct pastes that were likely locally made at different periods in Belgrade. A non-calcareous paste defined as CG1 is dated to Phase 1 and currently it is documented only at Dorćol. Phase 2 is marked by the dominance of calcareous pastes CG2 and CG3 documented at the Lower Town and Dorćol respectively. In Ottoman Phases 3 and 4, associated micaceous pastes CG7, CG8 and CG9 were used for the manufacture of common ceramics used at the both settlements.
Using textural properties as the criterion for the distinction of pastes, again three groups of locally made pottery can be seen in the assemblage. Coarse pastes CG1, CG2, CG3 are clearly associated with the production of coarse wares W22 and W1/W2 respectively (Fig. 6.41). However, micaceous and medium-coarse pastes of Phases 3 and 4 - CG7, CG8 (Variant B) and CG9 - are associated with wares used of cooking, serving, storing and consumption (Fig. 6.41). The fine variant A of FG8 was also used for the production of various vessels.
Vessels that are more likely imported also show diversity of pastes. Phase 2 is marked by non- to low-calcareous CG4, CG5 and CG6 that are compositionally different. CG4 can be described as a medium-fine and it was used for the production of tableware. Coarse pastes CG5 and CG6 are associated with coarse cooking wares W3 and W4. In Phase 4, two distinct pastes with unknown origin emerge in the assemblage. The fine CG10 is associated with Grey-Polished Ware while the coarse CG11 related to the coarse calcite-tempered cooking pots and baking pans.
198 Figure 6.41 Scatter-plot showing of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows coarse ceramic compositional groups (CG). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th.
199 Figure 6.42 Scatter-plot showing of first two principal components derived from principal component analysis of logratio chemical data of all samples included in the WDXRF analysis of ceramics, excluding outliers. It shows fine ceramic compositional groups (CG). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th.
200 6.4 The results of glaze and slip analyses
Compositional analyses of slips and glazes were conducted with SEM-EDS. In total, 30 samples, representative of the fabrics, were selected for this analysis. Since the studied assemblage contains 93 glazed samples, prior to the sub-sampling for the SEM-EDS analysis, the sherds were tested with pXRF for potential variability.
6.4.1 The semi-quantitative composition of glazes (pXRF)
The results of the semi-quantitative analysis of the glaze surface done by pXRF presented in Appendix D.1 show that all samples are coated with lead glazes. Variations in the content of Pb could be associated with problems deriving from the limitation of the technique. This was a significant result for the sub-sampling because it implies technological homogeneity regarding the use of the main raw materials. Relying on this semi-quantitative observation, the presence of Si, Al, K, and Ca can be related to the basic components of the lead glazes while Cu and Fe are usual colourants (Tite et al., 1998). Also, P is related to calcium or lead phosphate, due to post-depositional contamination of lead glazes (Hurst and Freestone, 1996, p. 15). Thus, the pXRF analysis have not indicated any significant compositional differences that would be meaningful for the sampling selection for SEM-EDS.
6.4.2. The microstructure of slips (optical microscopy and SEM-EDS)
In the case of Belgrade’s ceramics, the slip appears in two forms. Usually, it is a layer situated between the body and the glaze (Slip A). Macroscopically, it can hardly be detected unless the glaze is damaged, or the slip is thick enough to be visible in the section. On classes of slip painted ware (W11), this layer is extended beyond the glazed surface and serves as a painted decoration of the ceramic body (Slip B). Bowls are usually glazed only from the inner side while the outer side is decorated with the slip. This type of slip is easier to detect macroscopically, and it appears in white and brown colours. Therefore, many samples selected for analyses conducted in this research contain both types of slips (Appendix E).
The initial identification of Slip A was done under the optical microscope, using thin sections and polished blocks. Slips observed in thin sections are described as separate features of the matrix for each fabric where applicable (Appendix B). They appear as uneven layers characterised by grey colour in XP (See Fig. 6.28). In polished blocks observed under the optical microscope, the thickness of slip is ranging between 50 and
201 200 µm (Fig. 6.43). The slip can be distinguished from the body by a distinct colour (usually grey or yellow compared to the red or orange body), and slightly finer texture than the body.
Figure 6.43 Reflected light photomicrograph (XP) of polished block section taken from BG199 showing Slip A situated between the ceramic body and the glaze.
Contrary to Slip A, Slip B could not easily be distinguished in polished sections observed under the optical microscope, and for positive identification, sherds were observed under the stereo microscope. Slip B appears in two colours – white (Fig. 6.44) and brown (6.45) – applied over the ceramic body.
202 Figure 6.44 Stereo photomicrograph of sherd BG192 showing the white and brown coloured Slip B.
Figure 6.45 Stereo photomicrograph of sherd BG196 showing the brown Slip B.
203 The microstructure of slips is better visible under the SEM, using the backscatter mode. Slips A and B are not only different in terms of their positions and colours, but they also show different textural features. Slip A is characterised by a texture slightly finer than the body (BG170) (Fig. 6.46), and sometimes even separated from the body with a void (BG258 and BG278). Inclusions of quartz and mica that can be identified in the slip layer are less coarse than in the body and unevenly sorted. The thickness of the slip ranges between 50 and 200 µm. Slip B is much harder to identify under the SEM. It can be differentiated from the rest of the ceramic body in backscatter electron mode, as it appears brighter than the body reflecting elements of a higher atomic number in its composition. The texture of the slip is not different from the rest of the ceramic body, while the thickness varies between 100 and 200 µm (Fig. 6.47).
Figure 6.46 SEM (BSE) photomicrograph of polished block section taken from BG170 showing Slip A situated between the ceramic body and the glaze.
204 Figure 6.47 SEM (BSE) photomicrograph of polished block section taken from BG259 showing Slip B coated on the ceramic body.
6.4.3 The chemical composition of slips (SEM-EDS)
The chemical analyses done with SEM-EDS shows that four compositional groups of slips can be distinguished (SCG1-4), presented in Table 6.4. P2O5 is excluded from the interpretation of the data because of its association with post depositional contamination (Hurst and Freestone, 1996, p. 15). In Table 6.5, the slips are compared to the ceramic bodies they coat, and for this purpose CuO and PbO, the two oxides associated with the glaze, are excluded. Furthermore, the high values of PbO in the two compositional groups described below (SCG3 and SCG4), suggest the addition of a lead compound into the clay used for the slip. In order to identify the composition of slip and observe differences or similarities to the ceramic body, PbO is disregarded. Compositions in Tables 6.4 and 6.5 are normalised to 100 wt%.
205 Slip Samp. SCG Slip Na O MgO Al O SiO K O CaO TiO FeO CuO PbO colour 2 2 3 2 2 2
BG97 SCG1 A white 0.2 0.8 17.5 75.3 2.7 0.6 1.0 1.5 - 0.5
BG167 SCG1 A white 0.3 1.0 18.5 70.4 3.2 1.3 1.4 3.6 - 0.5
BG171 SCG1 A white 0.3 0.9 18.8 72.5 2.8 1.6 1.1 2.0 - -
BG179 SCG1 A white 0.3 1.0 20.0 71.4 3.0 1.2 1.0 1.9 0.2 -
BG258 SCG1 A white 0.2 0.8 18.5 74.5 3.0 0.5 0.7 1.6 - -
BG259 SCG1 A white 0.4 0.9 20.1 73.2 2.7 0.5 0.8 1.5 - -
BG278 SCG1 A white 0.4 1.0 19.5 70.6 2.8 1.3 1.0 2.4 - 1.1
BG311 SCG1 A white - 0.1 21.9 70.4 3.1 0.5 1.0 1.8 - -
BG311 SCG1 B white 0.3 1.0 22.3 70.3 3.1 0.5 0.7 1.7 - -
BG156 SCG2 A white 1.1 0.7 28.2 63.1 3.9 0.6 0.3 2.0 - -
BG156 SCG2 A white 0.9 0.7 28.4 62.6 3.4 0.9 0.4 2.7 - -
BG169 SCG2 A white 1.0 0.9 31.9 58.9 3.7 0.9 0.4 2.3 - -
BG170 SCG2 A white 1.5 0.7 28.5 62.8 3.2 1.0 0.5 1.9 - -
BG181 SCG2 A white 1.3 0.7 30.1 60.7 3.3 1.2 0.5 2.3 - -
BG181 SCG2 B white 1.1 0.8 29.8 60.6 3.3 1.1 0.8 2.4 - -
BG179 SCG3 B brown 0.5 1.0 20.1 66.3 2.5 0.6 2.5 1.9 - 4.6
BG199 SCG3 A brown 0.9 1.1 17.4 68.5 2.8 0.4 1.2 2.6 - 5.2
BG199 SCG3 A brown 1.0 0.9 16.9 70.4 2.6 0.4 0.8 2.1 - 4.9
BG259 SCG4 B brown 1.3 1.3 12.5 69.1 2.5 1.2 0.7 4.4 - 7.0
BG221 SCG4 B brown 1.2 1.6 15.6 68.4 4.1 1.0 0.7 5.5 - 2.0
BG278 SCG4 B brown 1.0 1.5 16.6 69.3 3.2 0.9 0.6 5.3 - 1.7 Table 6.4 Slip compositional groups determined through SEM-EDS. All results are normalised to 100 wt%.’-‘ indicates below detection limit.
206 Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO BG97 SCG1 0.2 0.8 17.5 75.7 2.7 0.6 1.0 1.5 BG97 ceramic 1.2 1.9 14.9 71.8 2.7 1.3 0.7 5.6 BG167 SCG1 0.3 1.0 18.5 70.8 3.2 1.3 1.4 3.6 BG167 ceramic 1.2 1.6 15.1 71.8 2.6 1.6 0.9 5.4 BG171 SCG1 0.3 0.9 18.8 72.5 2.8 1.6 1.0 2.0 BG171 ceramic 1.4 1.8 16.7 68.9 2.8 1.5 0.9 6.0 BG258 SCG1 0.2 0.8 18.6 74.6 3.0 0.5 0.7 1.6 BG258 ceramic 1.6 1.7 15.5 70.8 2.8 1.0 1.0 5.6 BG311 SCG1 0.3 1.0 21.9 70.4 3.1 0.5 1.0 1.8 BG311 SCG1 0.3 1.0 22.3 70.3 3.1 0.5 0.7 1.7 BG311 ceramic 1.4 1.7 15.4 71.2 2.7 1.2 0.9 5.5 BG156 SCG2 1.1 0.7 28.2 63.1 3.9 0.6 0.3 2.0 BG156 SCG2 0.9 0.7 28.4 62.6 3.4 0.9 0.4 2.7 BG156 ceramic 0.9 1.8 19.3 65.9 2.7 1.1 1.0 7.2 BG169 SCG2 1.0 0.9 31.9 58.9 3.7 0.9 0.4 2.3 BG169 ceramic 1.6 2.1 18.2 65.6 2.8 1.8 1.0 6.8 BG170 SCG2 1.4 0.7 28.5 62.8 3.2 1.0 0.4 1.9 BG170 ceramic 1.7 2.0 16.9 67.6 2.8 1.5 1.0 6.5 BG181 SCG2 1.3 0.7 30.1 60.7 3.3 1.2 0.5 2.3 BG181 SCG2 1.1 0.8 29.8 60.7 3.4 1.1 0.8 2.4 BG181 ceramic 1.6 1.9 19.9 63.7 2.9 1.4 1.0 7.7 BG199 SCG3 0.9 1.1 18.4 72.2 3.0 0.5 1.2 2.7 BG199 SCG3 1.0 0.9 17.8 74.0 2.7 0.5 0.9 2.2 BG199 ceramic 1.5 1.7 15.2 71.4 2.5 1.2 1.0 5.4 BG221 SCG4 1.2 1.7 15.9 69.8 4.2 1.0 0.7 5.6 BG221 ceramic 1.4 1.6 15.2 70.8 2.8 1.3 0.8 6.1 BG179 SCG1 0.3 1.0 20.0 71.5 3.0 1.2 1.0 1.9 BG179 SCG3 0.5 1.1 21.1 69.5 2.6 0.6 2.6 2.0 BG179 ceramic 1.2 1.9 17.4 67.5 3.0 1.7 0.8 6.6 BG259 SCG1 0.4 0.9 20.1 73.2 2.7 0.5 0.8 1.5 BG259 SCG4 1.4 1.4 13.4 74.3 2.7 1.3 0.7 4.8 BG259 ceramic 1.3 1.6 15.3 71.5 2.6 1.2 1.0 5.6 BG278 SCG1 0.4 1.0 19.7 71.3 2.9 1.3 1.0 2.4 BG278 SCG4 1.0 1.5 16.8 70.5 3.2 0.9 0.6 5.4 BG278 ceramic 1.1 2.0 18.0 65.1 3.0 1.5 1.0 8.2 Table 6.5 Comparison between the chemical compositions of slips and ceramic bodies determined through SEM-EDS. For purposes of diminishing the diffusion of glaze elements CuO and PbO have been excluded from the results as these represent either the elements coming from the glaze or added deliberately, and the remaining elements are normalised to 100 wt%. ’-‘ indicates below detection limit.
Slip compositional group 1 (SCG1) comprises low-calcareous slips (0.5-1.6wt %), characterised by the content of SiO2 ranging between 70.3-75.3 wt% and Al2O3 content ranging between 18.5-22.3 wt% (Table 6.4). The Na2O content is also low for this group (<0.4 wt%). 207 The presence of CuO in BG179 (0.2 wt%) and PbO in BG97 and BG167 (0.5 wt%) can be explained with the glaze contamination. SCG1 is mostly associated with Slip A, although samples BG181 and BG311 are coated with both Slip A and Slip B. All the slips in this group Slip compositional group 1 (SCG1) comprises low-calcareous slips (0.5-1.6wt %), characterised by the content of SiO2 ranging between 70.3-75.3 wt% and Al2O3 content ranging between 18.5-22.3 wt% (Table 6.3). The Na2O content is also low for this group (<0.4 wt%). The presence of CuO in BG179 (0.2 wt%) and PbO in BG97 and BG167 (0.5 wt%) can be explained with the glaze contamination. SCG1 is mostly associated with Slip A, although samples BG181 and BG311 are coated with both Slip A and Slip B. All the slips in this group are white.
Compared to the ceramic bodies they coat, the slips of SCG1 show significant compositional differences (Table 6.5). The slips are less calcareous than the ceramic bodies and display lower values of MgO, Na2O and particularly FeO. These differences demonstrate that a distinct clay was used for the production of slip. The clay is compositionally close to kaolinite, as the spot analysis of clay matrix demonstrates (Table 6.6).
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO
BG156 SCG2 0.4 1.0 36.0 55.5 2.9 0.8 0.4 3.1 BG170 SCG2 0.4 1.0 36.0 56.4 2.8 0.9 0.2 2.4 BG311 SCG1 0.1 1.2 30.2 59.0 4.3 0.9 0.3 4.0 BG179 SCG2 0.4 1.6 30.4 59.4 3.3 0.9 1.4 2.6 BG 156 ceramic body 0.3 2.5 27.3 56.3 3.3 0.8 0.6 9.1 BG170 ceramic body 0.6 2.7 25.9 56.3 4.2 1.1 0.5 8.6 BG311 ceramic body 0.6 2.1 19.0 67.8 2.9 1.0 0.6 6.3 BG 179 ceramic body 1.0 3.4 22.8 60.2 2.4 1.1 0.6 8.6 Table 6.6 The chemical composition of clay matrix in the slip and the body determined though the SEM-EDS spot analysis. For purposes of diminishing the diffusion of glaze elements CuO and PbO have been excluded from the results as these represent either the elements coming from the glaze or added deliberately, and the remaining elements are normalised to 100 wt%.
Slip compositional group 2 (SCG2) similarly to SCG1 includes low-calcareous slips (0.6-1.2 wt%), but other compositional differences separate these two groups (Table
6.4). SCG2 is characterised by the SiO2 range 58.9-62.8 wt% with correspondently high Al2O3 values ranging between 28.2-31.9 wt%. Na2O is also slightly higher than for SCG1 (0.9-1.5 wt%). It is associated with Slip A except in BG181 where Type B is identified. All slips of SCG2 are white.
Similarly to SCG1, the slips of SCG2 show a range of differences compared to the ceramic bodies they are coated over (Table 6.5). The slips are less calcareous and have
208 higher contents of Al2O3, SiO2, K2O as well as lower MgO and Fe2O3. Thus, it can be suggested that a distinct clay, compositionally close to kaolinite, was used for the preparation of the slip. This is additionally supported by the spot analysis of clay minerals present in the slips and the ceramic bodies (Table 6.6).
Slip compositional group 3 (SCG3) includes non-calcareous slips (0.4-0.6 wt%) rich in PbO (4.6-5.2 wt%) (Table 6.4). This content of PbO, and even higher, is reported in some works on Medieval and Post-medieval Glazed Slipware in the Mediterranean as the result of PbO diffusion from the glaze into the body (Capelli and Cabella, 2007; Brianese et al., 2008). However, in this study, SCG3 is related to at least one sample of Type B (Table 6.4), which indicated that lead did not diffuse from the glaze. Therefore, the results suggest that this slip is made by addition of a lead compound into the clay. The same suggestion is made in the study on Glazed Slipware from
Medieval Uzbekistan (Henshaw et al., 2007). In terms of SiO2/Al2O3 ratio, SCG3 is close to SCG1. The SiO content is ranging between 66.3-70.4 wt% while Al2O3 is between 16.9-20.1wt% with correspondingly low Na2O (0.5-1 wt%). It is associated with both Slips A and B. All analysed examples are brown.
Compared to the ceramic bodies, the slips of SCG3 have slightly higher contents of
Al2O3, SiO2 and K2O as well as lower values of Na2O, MgO and Fe2O3 (Table 6.5). Although the contrast is not as big as in the cases of SCG1 and SCG2, the data do suggest the use of distinct clay for the production of SCG3. The addition of lead compounds perhaps could be related to the use of a specific pigment.
Slip compositional group 4 (SCG4) includes the slips made of FeO-rich clay with the addition of a lead compound (Table 6.4). The content of FeO is between 4.4 and 5.5 wt%, which is higher than that measured for the previous three groups. Other differences include the higher content of MgO (1.3-1.6 wt%), higher alkalis (3.8-5.3 wt%), and higher CaO (0.9-1.2 wt%). Similar to SCG3, SCG4 contains PbO (1.7-7.0 wt%). All three analysed slips belong to Slip B, additionally supporting an assumption of intentionally added lead.
Comparison between the slips and the ceramic bodies reveals that the compositional differences are minor (Table 6.5), indicating the same type of clay was used for both recipes. However, the high content of PbO in the slip suggest that a lead compound was added, too.
209 Comments
The presented results of the slip analysis suggest the existence of diverse recipes in Belgrade’s assemblage. In three cases - SCG1, SCG2 and SCG3 - the composition of slips differs from that of the ceramic bodies, suggesting the use of different clays. This is especially relevant for vessels that contain more than one type of slip (samples BG179, BG259, BG278). This mixture of slips brings to light the complexity of technological procedures.
6.4.4 The microstructure of glazes (optical microscopy and SEM-EDS)
The microstructural features that are important for the understanding of the glaze technology and its application methods include the thickness of the glaze, the presence and sorting of inclusions, and the nature of the ceramic-glaze interface (Molera et al. 2001; Tite et al. 1998).
The thickness of the glazes varies between 40 and 200 µm, and they are unevenly applied over slips/ceramic bodies (Table 6.7, Fig. 6.48). The variability in the glaze thickness is important when interpreting the analytical results. Potentially, small compositional differences could be obtained between glazes of different thickness. In some cases, the only available scanning area in thin glazes could be too close to the ceramic-glaze interface and/or the weathering layer, thus impacting the procedure of obtaining the glaze matrix composition.
Figure 6.48 The SEM photomicrographs (BSE) of polished block sections taken from BG168 (left) showing a thin glaze layer with corrosion and BG156 (right) showing unevenly applied glaze.
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Glaze thickness Interface thickness Sample Inclusions (µm) (µm) BG97 100-120 5 quartz BG99 70-100 7-10 no inclusions BG100 70-100 10-15 no inclusions BG101 50-100 5 no inclusions BG135 50-70 25-40 quartz BG156 (side 1) 50-100 5-7 quartz BG156 (side 2) 50-70 5-7 quartz BG165 50-80 20-40 quartz BG167 70-100 5-10 quartz BG168 40-50 5 quartz BG169 60-80 5-10 no inclusions BG170 70 5 quartz BG171 70 15-25 quartz BG174 120-200 120-200 quartz BG179 100 5 quartz BG181 150 5 quartz BG182 70-110 15-20 quartz and Fe-rich BG183 110 3 quartz BG186 70-100 3 no inclusions BG190 100-120 10 quartz BG199 (side 1) 80-100 5-10 quartz BG199 (side 2) 60-80 5-10 quartz, Fe, Mg, Ca-rich BG208 (side 1) 80 5 quartz BG208 (side 2) 80 NA quartz BG213 80-100 5-10 no inclusions BG221 50-60 10 quartz BG226 60-70 10 no inclusions BG258 150 20 no inclusions BG259 120 7 no inclusions BG268 80-100 10 quartz BG275 200-220 10 quartz BG278 100-120 7 quartz BG311 60-80 15-20 no inclusions
Table 6.7 The microstructural features of glazes observed with SEM-EDS.
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The textural differences are another important microstructural trait for the study of glaze technology, with two groups emerging in the assemblage. The first group includes glazes with homogenous matrices, free of any inclusions (Table 6.7; Fig. 6.48 right). The second and more populated group includes glazes with quartz inclusions freely distributed throughout the layer (Table 6.7, Fig. 6.49). Quartz crystals can be large (50-100 µm) to small-sized (10-20 µm), and well to poorly sorted (Fig. 6.49). Besides quartz, a few samples also contain other particles, including those with Ca- rich, Fe-rich and Pb-rich compositions (Table 6.7; Fig. 6.50). The occurrence of undissolved crystals in the glaze indicate that the optimum firing temperature for glaze formation was not achieved.
Newly formed crystals developed at the ceramic-gaze interface also contribute to the heterogeneous structure of the glaze. The thickness of the interface varies significantly indicating different reactions between glazes and ceramics (Table 6.7). The majority of samples have a thin interface layer (Fig. 6.51 right), but in some samples (BG135, BG165 and BG174) the newly formed crystals cover the entire glaze layer (Fig. 6.51 left).
Figure 6.49 The SEM photomicrograph (BSE) of polished block sections taken from BG208 (left) showing the texture with coarse inclusions of quartz and BG170 (right) showing the most common texture in Belgrade’s assemblage containing scarce inclusions of quartz located in various zones.
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Figure 6.50 The SEM photomicrograph (BSE) of polished blocks sections taken from BG208 (left) showing inclusions of quartz and Ca-rich component and BG182 (right) showing Fe-rich inclusions.
Figure 6.51 The SEM photomicrographs (BSE) of polished block sections taken from BG174 (left) showing the interface crystals developed throughout the entire glaze; and BG169 with a thin interface (right).
6.4.5 The composition of the high-lead glazes (SEM-EDS)
All 30 glazes analysed with SEM-EDS are of the high-lead type as defined by Tite et al. (1998), characterised by varying amounts of PbO and Al2O3 (Table 6.8). Apart from BG174 that can be interpreted as an intra-group outlier, the rest of the analysed samples show common compositional features. They are characterised by a content of
PbO that ranges between 50.3 and 73.5 wt%. The content of SiO2 varies between 21.0 and 36.0 wt% and is broadly inversely correlated with PbO. The Al2O3 content shows high variations, ranging between 0.6 and 6.2 wt%. The total alkali content (Na2O +
K2O) is low in all samples (<1.1 wt%), and the same is true for MgO (<0.8 wt%). The
213 content of CaO shows significant variations, ranging between below detection limit to a maximum 3.2 wt%. The content of TiO2 is low in all samples (< 0.7 wt%).
Sample BG174 stands out as an intra-group outlier. The PbO content in this sample is
44.5 wt%, which is below the range measured for the other samples (Table 6.8). SiO2 is 33.6 wt% despite the low value of PbO. Contrary to that, Al2O3 (9.6 wt%), MgO (1.8 wt%) and total alkalis (1.9 wt%) contents are higher than for the rest of the assemblage.
The presence of CuO and FeO is related to colourants (Table 6.8). The glaze colours of all the analysed samples can be seen in Appendix A.2. In the green glazes, the content of CuO (0.3-5.3 wt%) is higher than FeO (0.2–2.1 wt%). The exception is BG199, whose content of FeO (1.8 wt%) is slightly higher than CuO (1.6 wt%). The composition of the brown glazes shows the opposite ratio between the two colourants. The brown glazes have higher values for FeO (0.4–3.7 wt%) than CuO (0.4-0.8 wt%). An exception in this case is BG275 that has a higher content of CuO (0.8 wt%) than FeO (0.4 wt%). The yellow glazes follow the same pattern as the brown glazes. The content of FeO (1.9-3.7 wt%) is significantly higher than for CuO (<0.6 wt%). Similar to these two colours, in BG213 with the polychrome glaze, the content of FeO (3.8 wt%) is higher than the content of CuO (0.4 wt%). Both samples with black glazes contain high FeO (3.9-4.2 wt%) compared to CuO (0-1.1 wt%), leaving a possibility that these glazes were supposed to be brown or yellow but problems with the colouring or firing occurred. Sample BG99 has a shiny brown colour that looks deteriorated. The SEM-EDS analysis showed that this glaze is characterised by 1.6 wt% of CuO and 0.7 wt% of FeO, which places this sample closer to green glazes.
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Glaze Colour Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO CuO PbO
BG97 green - 0.1 0.7 26.9 0.2 0.3 - 0.2 3.1 68.5
BG156 green - - 1.1 25.3 - - - 0.2 1.8 71.5 side 1 BG156 green - 0.1 0.9 26.9 - - - 0.2 2.0 69.7 side 2
BG165 green 0.3 0.7 6.2 32.7 1.2 0.7 0.5 2.1 2.9 52.7
BG167 green - 0.2 2.4 26.5 0.3 1.0 0.3 0.6 2.4 66.2
BG168 green - - 2.2 28.7 0.4 0.5 - 0.4 2.0 65.9
BG169 green - 0.2 2.8 21.8 - 0.3 - 0.4 3.1 71.3
BG170 green - - 0.6 25.5 - 0.2 - 0.2 3.1 70.3
BG171 green - 0.3 2.4 30.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.3 1.7 62.3
BG179 green - - 1.8 32.2 - - 0.3 0.4 1.9 63.3
BG181 green - - 0.7 25.3 - - - 0.2 0.3 73.5
BG183 green - - 0.7 27.9 0.2 0.3 - 0.2 0.6 70.2
BG199 green 0.3 0.5 4.4 35.1 0.5 1.6 0.3 1.8 1.6 54.0 side 1 BG199 green 0.2 0.5 4.0 35.1 0.4 1.7 0.3 1.8 1.4 54.8 side 2 BG208 green - 0.4 1.5 28.4 0.4 1.0 - 1.5 2.0 64.7 side 1 BG208 green - 0.4 1.6 27.9 0.4 1.0 - 1.6 2.0 65.1 side 2
BG258 green - 0.2 1.8 24.7 0.3 0.7 - 1.1 1.7 69.4
BG278 green - 0.5 3.3 34.8 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.9 2.1 56.6
BG311 green - 0.3 2.9 26.7 0.3 0.9 0.2 1.0 5.3 62.7
BG99 brown - 0.3 3.5 24.6 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.7 1.6 68.4
BG135 brown 0.3 0.8 6.2 26.0 0.7 0.6 0.4 2.8 0.4 61.8
BG226 brown 0.2 0.4 4.0 31.3 0.5 1.3 0.3 3.4 0.7 57.9
BG268 brown 0.3 0.5 5.6 36.0 0.8 1.8 0.3 3.7 0.5 50.3
BG275 brown - - 0.7 28.6 - 0.4 - 0.4 0.8 69.1
BG100 yellow - 0.3 4.3 21.0 0.2 0.9 0.2 2.7 - 70.5
BG101 yellow - 0.3 4.8 24.9 0.1 0.8 0.2 3.3 0.3 65.3
BG186 yellow - 0.3 2.5 26.5 0.4 2.0 - 3.7 0.5 64.1
BG190 yellow 0.3 0.4 4.4 34.5 0.8 2.1 0.3 3.5 0.2 53.6
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Glaze Colour Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO CuO PbO
BG221 yellow 0.2 0.4 5.8 35.4 0.7 1.3 0.5 2.7 0.5 52.4
BG259 yellow - 0.2 3.8 30.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 1.9 0.3 62.5
BG213 polych 0.2 0.5 3.3 32.9 0.5 0.7 0.3 3.8 0.4 57.4
BG174 black 0.5 1.8 9.6 33.6 1.4 3.2 0.5 3.9 1.0 44.5
BG182 black - 0.2 4.0 29.2 0.6 0.4 0.2 4.2 - 61.2 Table 6.8 The chemical composition of the glaze determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for below detection limit.
For the analysis of the glaze inclusions abundant in samples BG182 and BG208, spot analysis was used (Table 6.9). Fe-rich inclusions in both samples (38.9-44.3 at%) are probably related to undissolved colourants. Other inclusions in BG208 have different compositions, rich in Mg and Ca.
Glaze O Na Mg Al Si K Ca Ti Fe Co Cu Pb inclusions
BG182 51.3 - - 0.7 2.3 0.1 - 0.1 44.3 - - 1.4 Fe-rich
BG208 52.6 - - 0.7 4.8 0.1 0.2 - 38.9 0.2 0.2 2.4 Fe-rich
BG208 59.8 0.4 6.4 2.1 18.8 0.4 5.8 - 2.2 - 0.5 3.7 Mg, Ca-rich Table 6.9 The chemical composition of various inclusions in samples BG182 and BG208, determined through SEM-EDS analysis and given in at%. All values normalised to 100 at%. ‘-‘ stands for below detection limit.
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6.4.6 Manufacturing methods of glazes
Of special importance for the reconstruction of technology is the identification of the methods of glaze preparation and application. For that purpose, several aspects of the glaze manufacturing will be discussed in detail.
6.4.6.1 Glaze recipes
For determining a glaze recipe, Tite et al. (1998, pp. 249–252) suggest considering differences between the compositions of high-lead glazes and their ceramic bodies. For that to be done, the contents of PbO and colourants must be subtracted from the glaze compositions, and the remaining oxides recast and normalised to 100 wt%. In general, if the body and the recast glaze compositions are close in values, then a pure lead oxide compound was used to form the glaze. In contrast, if the compositions do not match, then a lead-silica mixture was used for glazing. Special attention should be paid to the higher content of Al2O3 in high-lead glazes, because it can be a consequence of added clay. Following this methodology, the recast and normalised compositions of the glazes and bodies or slips respectively, are compared after subtraction of PbO, CuO, and FeO (Appendix D.2, Table 1).
In most of the analysed samples, there are significant differences between the glaze and the body compositions (Appendix D.2 Table 1). This implies the use of a lead- silica mixture as part of the glaze recipe. However, the variability in the content of
Al2O3 indicates a certain heterogeneity of this group. In this context, higher values of
Al2O3 are a good indicator of intentional clay addition into the lead-silica mixture (Tite et al., 1998, p. 252; Waksman et al., 2007). Although drawing a clear border between lower and higher contents of Al2O3 is challenging and questionable, a comparison can be made between samples that contain similar values of Al2O3 in the glaze and the body. Table 1 in Appendix D.2 lists samples based on the content of Al2O3 in the body, starting from low (16.2-19.2 wt%), to medium (20.2-23.3 wt%) and high (27.6-30.6 wt%). In samples for which the use of a lead-silica mixture with added clay is suggested, not only the content of Al2O3 but also K2O and CaO are higher, compared to the group of samples for which a pure lead-silica mixture is assumed. In the former case, the value of Al2O3 ranges between 4.8-16.0 wt% while in the latter case this range is between 2.3-5.3 wt%. Therefore, the results suggest two different glaze recipes
217 within this group of high-lead glazes. Interestingly, samples of both sub-groups are double-fired (Chapter 6.4.6.2).
The second recipe refers to the use of a pure lead oxide compound and has been identified in four cases (Appendix D2 Table 2). In this group, the contents of Al2O3,
SiO2, K2O and CaO in the body and the glaze match, with small variations. Samples BG135, BG165, BG174, and BG221 were single-fired, and similar to the previous group, there is a clear association between the number of firings and glaze recipe (Chapter 6.4.6.2).
The comparison made between the ceramic bodies and glazes suggest that three glaze recipes can be distinguished. Although all glazes are of the high lead type, they were prepared in different ways. The majority of samples show compositional differences between the ceramic bodies and the glazes, suggesting the use of a lead-silica mixture.
Differences in Al2O3, K2O and CaO between the bodies and the glazes suggest that in some cases clay was added. In four cases no compositional differences between the ceramic bodies and the glazes were observed, suggesting pure lead oxide was applied.
6.4.6.2 Single and double firing of ceramics
Experimental works on high-lead glazes presented by Molera et al. (2001) and Tite et al. (1998) show that the thickness of the ceramic-glaze interface and the diffusion of elements from the body to the glaze and vice versa can give insight onto whether ceramics were single-or double-fired. The diffusion of K, Al, Ca, Fe, and Si from the body into the glaze and Pb from the glaze into the body is of special importance for the understanding of this process (Molera et al. 2001, p.1120). Regardless of the body preparation prior to glazing, the diffusion of these elements occurs, but at different rates and resulting in different compositions. In general, when the glaze is applied over a raw body, the diffusion process is much stronger due to the increased reactivity of clay minerals in contact with the melt. Therefore, the presence of elements from the clay body is higher in the glaze (Molera et al. 2001, p.1127). For the same reasons, Pb- rich feldspar crystals that form at the interface are bigger, although this will also depend on the firing temperatures and cooling rates (Molera et al. 2001, p.1121). Following these criteria, two methods of the ceramic body/slip preparation can be distinguished in Belgrade’s assemblage.
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The glazed slipware shows a common technological pattern that suggests a consistent approach to firing. Compared to the rest of the assemblage, this pottery has a relatively thin interface, 5 µm in average (Table 6.6), which is an indicator of double firing (Molera et al. 2001, p.1121). The exceptions are samples BG171, BG258 and BG311 with larger PbO-rich feldspars crystals developed at the interface. This can be the result of slower cooling rates, as suggested by Molera et al. (2001, p. 1122). The Al2O3 content in the glaze is between 0.6 and 4.4 wt%, which is the lower range for the analysed assemblage (Appendix D.2, Table 3). Beyond the interface zone, the content of Al2O3 drops down significantly, especially when values measured for the lower glaze (i.e. the glaze near the interface to the body) and the glaze matrix are compared.
For example, in BG97 the content of Al2O3 in the lower glaze is 4.5 wt% while in the glaze it is only 0.7 wt%. The diffusion of other elements follows a similar trend, although differences are less telling. The presence of FeO, however, cannot be taken as relevant because this oxide was added as a colourant. Importantly, this group shows no diffusion of PbO from the glaze into the slip. Therefore, considering diffusion of elements and the thickness of the interface, the ceramic body with the slip was most likely biscuit-fired before the glazing and then fired again.
Several glazed samples without a slip presented in Table 4 of Appendix D.2 show a pattern similar to that of slipware. The interface, consisting of PbO-rich feldspars, is 5-10 µm thick (Table 6.6). The diffusion of elements can be seen well on the example of Al2O3 the concentration of which gradually drops with increasing distance from the interface into the glaze (Appendix D.2 Table 4). However, in contrast to slipware, samples of this group have an increased presence of PbO in the upper body (1.1-2.4 wt%). Nevertheless, the presence of PbO does not disprove the double-firing hypothesis (Molera et al. 2001, p.1127). Samples BG100 and BG101 probably belong to this group as well. These two samples have no PbO diffusion into the upper body.
Several glazed samples without a slip presented in Table 5 of Appendix D.2 show a different technological pattern compared to the above-described. This glazed pottery has a thick interface (20-200 µm), and sometimes large crystals of Pb feldspars are covering large parts of the glazes (Table 6.6), suggesting a strong reaction between the clay body and the melt. Excluding BG174 that is an intra-group outlier (Chapter 6.4.5),
BG135, BG165 and BG221 have an Al2O3 content in the glaze between 5.8 and 6.2 wt% and with similarly high values in the lower glaze. BG174 has an Al2O3 content of
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9.6 wt% in the glaze and 12.8 wt% in the lower glaze. The same pattern of diffusion can in all cases be followed for MgO, K2O, and CaO. This means that the diffusion process lasted longer (Molera et al. 2001, p.1121). These four samples also contain significant amounts of PbO in the upper body (i.e. part of the ceramic body closer to the glaze) (1.6-6.6 wt%), indicating diffusion from the glaze into the body. Considering these two parameters, the ceramic bodies of the four samples were most likely not fired prior to glazing and it is suggested that only one firing took place.
Other glazed samples without a slip have more complex technological traits (Appendix
D2, Table 6). Glazes with a content of Al2O3 between 4.0 and 5.6 wt% (samples BG182, BG190, BG226, BG268) have a medium-thick interface (10-20 µm) and a positive presence of PbO in the upper body (1.6-3.4 wt%). While Al2O3 values gradually drop from the interface toward the glaze matrix, other elements do not show a clear pattern. Probably these four samples were double-fired, but perhaps the firing temperature was higher and the cooling rate slower than in the previous group, resulting in a thicker interface. Another unclear case concerns samples BG275, BG208 and BG213. They have a low-medium content of Al2O3 (0.7-3.3 wt%), which drops from the interface into the glaze. Also, the growth of PbO-rich feldspars in the interface is limited to 5-10 µm of thickness. However, these samples show a very strong presence of PbO in the upper body (5.1-9.8 wt%). Therefore, it is unclear whether a single or two firings were applied.
A careful analysis of diffusion rates and growth of crystals in the interface suggests different technological approaches to the preparation of the clay body prior to the glazing. The majority of analysed samples were double-fired, including all the glazed slipware and some of the glazed wares without a slip. They were biscuit-fired after the application of a low-calcareous slip on the clay body, where relevant. Following the first firing, the glaze coats were applied, and then the vessels were fired for the second time. In contrast to this group, several samples had a single firing and glazes were applied over the raw bodies. For a number of samples, the results are not straightforward, and it is much harder to reconstruct this aspect of technology based on the SEM-EDS results.
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6.4.7 Comparative assessment of compositional groups with slips and glazes
In Phase 2, three out of four analysed glazed samples are associated with the jugs of CG4 (Table 6.10). They were not coated with a slip and the glaze was applied directly over the previously fired ceramic body. The glaze was prepared as a lead-silica mixture with a clay, and a compound of iron oxide was used for colouring. The only exception in Phase 2 is Sample BG97 that is identified as part of CG7.
In Phases 3 and 4, slips and glazes were used for the decoration of bowls, jugs, dishes, pitchers to storage jars and stove pots identified as CG7 and CG8. Both compositional groups include samples with slips and glazes of mixed traits, and no clear pattern that relates one CG with particular slips or glazes can be observed. However, both groups include samples with some similar details.
All samples of glazed slipware show double-firing, and, except for BG221, show a glaze of lead-silica mixture with or without added clay. The slips of CG7 are of SCG1, although this picture may be misleading as only two examples of slips were analysed. CG8 includes slips of all four chemical compositions, which shows that different clay recipes were used for the preparation of slips coated over a single ceramic paste. This diversity of slip chemical compositions is related to their colours (white and brown), and, in some cases, the way the slips were used for decoration of the vessels. While some slips are foundations for the glaze layer (Slip A), others were used for decoration of the outer walls of vessels (Type B).
Glazed ceramics without the slip coatings of CG7 and CG8 form a heterogeneous group. Again, it seems that all double-fired samples contain a glaze made of a lead- silica mixture with or without addition of clay. All the samples of CG8 for which a single-firing was suggested contain glaze made of a pure lead compound that was probably applied directly over the ceramic body. In all cases, iron and copper compounds were used as colourants.
Finally, two analysed samples are defined as Outliers (Table 6.10). In the case of BG165, compounds of lead and copper were applied over the raw body, and then fired resulting in a green glaze. BG182 contains a glaze of a lead-silica mixture applied over a probably previously fired ceramic body.
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Slip Slip Glaze CG Samples Firing compositional Glaze recipe Form colour group (SCG) CG4 BG99 double-fired NA NA lead-silica with clay brown
BG100 double-fired NA NA lead-silica with clay yellow
BG101 double-fired NA NA lead-silica with clay yellow
CG7 BG97 double-fired Slip A SCG1 lead-silica green
BG179 double-fired Slip A SCG1 lead-silica green
BG275 double-fired (?) NA NA lead-silica brown CG8 BG135 single-fired NA NA lead compound brown BG156 double-fired Slip A SCG2 lead-silica green BG167 double-fired Slip A SCG1 lead-silica with clay green BG168 double-fired NA NA lead-silica with clay green BG169 double-fired Slip A SCG2 lead-silica green BG170 double-fired Slip A SCG2 lead-silica with clay green BG171 double-fired Slip A SCG1 lead-silica with clay green BG174 single-fired NA NA lead compound black BG181 double-fired Slip A, B SCG2 lead-silica with clay green BG183 double-fired NA NA lead-silica green BG186 double-fired NA NA lead-silica with clay yellow BG190 double-fired (?) NA NA lead-silica with clay yellow BG199 double-fired Slip A SCG3 lead-silica with clay green BG208 single-fired (?) NA NA lead-silica with clay green BG213 single-fired (?) NA NA lead-silica with clay polych BG221 single-fired Slip B SCG4 lead compound yellow BG226 double-fired (?) NA NA lead-silica with clay brown BG258 double-fired Slip A SCG1 lead-silica with clay green BG259 double-fired Slip A, B SCG1 and SCG4 lead-silica with clay yellow BG268 double-fired (?) NA NA lead-silica with clay brown BG278 double-fired Slip A, B SCG1 and SCG4 lead-silica with clay green BG311 double-fired Slip A SCG1 lead-silica with clay green Outl BG165 single-fired NA NA lead compound green BG182 Outl double-fired (?) NA NA lead-silica with clay black Table 6.10 Technological traits of slips and glazes integrated with compositional groups (CG).
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Comments
All the glazes analysed by SEM-EDS are of the high-lead type, but despite this compositional commonality, other measured parameters show different approaches to glazing. One part of the analysed samples contains compositional features that indicate double-firing of ceramic bodies, with or without slips, prior to glazing. Double-firing seems to be related to a glaze recipe that combines lead and silica, sometimes with addition of clay. On the other hand, single-fired ceramics were not coated with a slip but only with a glaze that was prepared as a pure lead-compound applied over the raw ceramic bodies.
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Chapter 7 Discussion
In this chapter, arguments concerning the production technology and the craft organisation will be used to support an archaeological interpretation of Ottomanisation. In the first section 7.1, the chaînes opératoires of Belgrade’s pottery will be reconstructed using the analytical results. The provenance of the raw materials is also discussed in this section. In the next section 7.2, technological traditions local to Belgrade and communities of practice attached to them are defined. The organisation of ceramic production in Belgrade will be discussed in the third section. In the final section 7.4., an Archaeology of Ottomanisation will be proposed and discussed in the light of current evidence.
7.1 The reconstruction of chaînes opératoires and the provenance of raw materials
The reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires of Belgrade’s pottery provides insight into the choices made by potters regarding the selection of raw materials, paste preparation, forming methods, application of slips, glazes and other decoration, as well as firing and function of pots. Situated within their archaeological and historical contexts, these choices reveal the potters’ cultural understanding of technology and environment.
7.1.1 Coarse wares of Phases 1 and 2
Coarse wares of Phases 1 and 2 are divided into five compositional groups – CG1, CG2, CG3, CG5 and CG6 that represent different pastes (Fig. 7.2-7.6). CG1 and CG2 are documented only at Dorćol while CG3, CG5 and CG6 were found exclusively at the Lower Town’s site. Besides different pastes, the pottery classified into these five compositional groups also shows a range of differences regarding modelling techniques and firing properties. A local origin is suggested for CG1, CG2 and CG3, while CG5 and CG6 were probably imported.
Exploitation of raw materials. Petrographic and chemical analyses of coarse wares indicate the exploitation of at least five distinct sources. The paste of CG1 is non- calcareous and micaceous while the pastes of CG2 and CG3 are calcareous, where the
224 former is more calcareous than the latter (Chapter 6.3). The fabrics included in all three compositional groups contain a mixture of coarse and fine non-plastic inclusions of different petrology, suggesting that the clays can be characterised as secondary or sedimentary. CG5 and CG6 are non-calcareous to weakly calcareous pastes that contain coarse inclusions of a single rock, granite and gneiss with opaques respectively, which suggests that the clays used for their preparation are residual (Rice, 2015, p. 44).
Raw material sources. The petrographic assessment suggests that the inclusions of CG1, CG2 and CG3 can be related to the local formations available at several locations around Belgrade (Fig. 7.1).
The main inclusions of CG2 are limestone, quartz (mono- and polycrystalline/quartzite), and chert (Appendix B). The combination of these rocks matches sedimentary geological formations of different age stretched between Belgrade and Avala, where carbonates are commonly mixed with chert (Fig.7.1). Thus, it is difficult to narrow down a zone of potential exploitation, and a wider area of Belgrade has to be considered.
Another local calcareous paste, CG3, contains a bigger variety of non-plastic inclusions. Besides abundant sedimentary rocks - chert and limestone - CG3 also contains serpentinites, polycrystalline quartz/quartzite and two types of igneous rock (Appendix B). The strong presence of serpentinite in the majority of samples is a good provenance indicator, because this metamorphic rock is associated with the slopes of Avala (Fig.7.1). Other inclusions also point to Avala’s surrounding. The chemical analysis of ceramics showed a positive correlation between CaO and Mn, probably related to limestone (Chapter 6.3). Chert, limestone and marl are often mixed with manganese minerals in the Late Jurassic sediments of the so-called diabase-chert formation documented in the valley of Topčiderska reka (Marković et al., 1985, p. 51). A volcanic segment of this formation consists of diabase and spilite dikes cut into the sedimentary rocks. The intermediate volcanic rock identified in CG3 could be related to these two fine-grained rocks. Alternatively, the intermediate volcanic rock of CG3 could be related to dacite or andesite that are part of the Late Cretaceous volcanic formation cut across serpentinites and the rocks of the diabase-chert formation (Vasković and Matović, 1996, p. 252). Andesite/dacite is positively identified in F14 that is included in CG3. The second igneous rock identified in the samples of CG3 is
225 similar to granite, but the small size of the inclusions prevents a more detailed identification. Plutonic rocks of Kosmaj’s granitoids, particularly lamprophyre, are detected in Ripanj, a village in the valley of Topčiderska reka (Pavlović, 1980, p. 20). Thus, the raw materials used for CG3 possibly come from the valley of Topčiderska reka. This river is a 30 km long tributary to the Sava river that connects Kosmaj and Belgrade. Considering the secondary nature of clay used for CG3, raw materials could potentially have been exploited at a location closer to Belgrade, and not necessarily in the Avala area.
CG1 contains inclusions of polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, chert, serpentinite and rocks that are probably andesite and serpentinized andesite (Appendix B). The matrix of F13 included in CG1 is micaceous and non-calcareous, which is the opposite to CG2 and CG3. Thus, although CG1 contains inclusions of similar petrology as CG3, the formation of the micaceous matrix suggests different sedimentary processes of clay accumulation. These rocks could also be related to Avala’s environment (Fig.7.1).
CG5 is characterised by the inclusions of granite. The absence of other inclusions prevents further discussion of provenance, but this pottery can probably be considered as imported. The same conclusion applies to CG6, that contains inclusions of gneiss with opaques that are not part of the local geology.
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Figure 7.1 Potential areas used for the raw materials exploitation for local coarse wares dated to Phases 1 and 2 proposed based on the petrographic evidence. Map modified after Stevanović (1974, p.3).
Paste Preparation. All pastes under consideration are characterised by unimodal to weakly bimodal grain-size distribution (Appendix B). The weak bimodality probably can be related to the natural occurrence of inclusions and not to sand tempering. Clay mixing is suggested for some samples of F14, included in CG3, that contain large inclusions of clay pellets (TFs 2) with properties different to the surrounding matrix. In all other cases, the presence of clay pellets is common (TFs 1), but they are related to natural clay inclusions deposited in the environment (Whitbread, 1986, pp. 83–84). Hence, it can be suggested that all five pastes were prepared without additional treatments of raw materials, except for some samples of CG3.
227 Forming. During the macroscopic examination of sherds and whole vessels dated to Phases 1 and 2, two forming methods were documented (Appendix A.1; Appendix E). The pottery of CG2, CG3, CG5 and CG6 was formed by wheel-throwing, which left identifiable marks on the interior walls. Contrary to them, CG1 was formed by a combination of wheel and hand, both leaving marks that are documented.
Finishing. Vessels of CG2 and CG3 contain diverse base marks, ranging from wheel and string marks, a modelled sign that depicts the cross in a circle to smoothed bases. This diversity suggests different choices made by potters. The vessels of CG1 have smoothed bases, suggesting they have been cleaned on some surface (stone or leather) after being removed from the wheel. The vessels of CG5 contains splayed base marks while CG6 has identifiable marks of wheel and string. Thus, contrary to vessels of CG2 and CG3, the vessels of CG1, CG5 and CG6 contain uniform base marks.
The final decoration of all pots is simple, and, in most cases, consists of incised lines, usually located below rims. Vessels of CG2 and CG3 have incised parallel lines while vessels of CG1 have incised wavy lines. Rims of CG6 are stamped, probably presenting a workshop signature.
Firing. All coarse wares of Phases 1 and 2 were used for cooking in open hearths, frequently exposed to fire. This significantly affected the colour of the walls. The macroscopic and petrographic examinations showed that the colour variations are visible in the sections as well (Appendices A.1 and B). A core/margin colour differentiation is documented in thin sections of all five compositional groups, suggesting a short-lasting firing that was insufficient to burn the carbon from the core of the ceramics (Quinn, 2013, p. 200). Vessels of CG2 and CG3 have predominately red-orange tones, which indicated an oxidising atmosphere of firing. On the other hand, the samples of CG1 are mostly grey but there are red variations as well (see W22, W22 and W24 in Appendix A.1). This pottery was probably fired in an oxidising atmosphere. The pottery of CG5 and CG6 is macroscopically grey, although thin sections showed that some samples are orange. They were probably fired in a reducing atmosphere with occasional fluctuations of oxygen. Petrographic examination of CG1, CG5 and CG6 showed that the matrices are optically active and that an equivalent firing temperature can be estimated to around 800-850 °C. CG2 and CG3 have inclusions of well-preserved limestone, suggesting the firing temperature was below 750 °C (Rice, 2015, pp. 98–100).
228 Finally, the reconstruction of the firing regime remains challenging. The observed variations in the atmosphere of firing, short-lasting firing and relatively low temperatures leave all options open, from an open fire to kilns. The large quantities of CG3 in the assemblage would speak in favour of kiln firing.
Function and Typology. The dominant paste CG3 was used for the manufacture of cooking pots with everted rims and rounded walls, classified into several types by Bikić (1994), as well as stove pots that decorated the two large stoves in the Lower Town’s household (Fig. 7.4). The cooking pots of CG2 and CG3 have the same morphological features (Bjelajac, 1978), but different distributions. The cooking pots of CG2 were found at the extra muros settlement at Dorćol. Some of these cooking pots (with a flat base) show typological similarities to vessels of CG1 (Fig, 7.1), also used for the preparation of food in open hearths (Bjelajac, 1978). Vessels of CG5 and CG6, also identified as cooking pots, show distinct typological features, not similar to CG1, CG2 and CG3. Cooking pots of CG5 have wide diameters and rounded walls, as well as flat and elongated necks (Fig 7.5), while those of CG6 have everted stamped rims (Fig. 7.6).
Figure 7.2 Cooking pots of CG1 dated to Phase 1 at Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
229 Figure 7.3 Cooking pots of CG2 dated to Phases 1 and 2 at Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
Figure 7.4 Coarse wares of CG3 dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
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Figure 7.5 Coarse wares of CG5 dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
Figure 7.6 Coarse wares of CG6 dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
7.1.2 Tableware of Phase 2
Phase 2 is characterised by a few samples of tableware. Three glazed jugs of CG4 (Fig 7.7) and three unglazed beakers defined as Outliers (Appendix E) will be discussed below in more details. They are documented at the Lower Town only, and their provenance is unknown.
Apart from these vessels, Phase 2 is also characterised by tableware made of pastes CG7 and CG8 that are typical for the Ottoman Phases 3 and 4. While one bowl is glazed (BG97), the jugs are unglazed. They are documented at both sites and are the only link between the two sites in Phase 2. Considering problems with the stratigraphy at Dorćol, it is unclear whether the dating is correct. However, two samples at the
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Lower Town are well-dated, but considering their modest presence they will be discussed together with the other pottery of CG7 and CG8 in section 7.1.3.
Exploitation of raw materials. Six samples under consideration here do not contain enough inclusions for their precise characterisation of raw materials. Two fabrics - F2 and F3 - are low calcareous and considering their low porosity (< 5% of voids), the matrix properties and the general microstructure, probably secondary clays were used for their production.
Raw material sources. Considering the poor distribution of inclusions in the coarse fraction of F2 and F3, it is not possible to discuss their provenance. It is suggested, based on the results of WDXRF analysis, that all three analysed samples are Outliers. BG99 of CG4 is significantly different from everything else in Belgrade’s assemblage, which could imply a non-local provenance but without reference groups this cannot be verified. BG102 and BG103 are Outliers as well, but they are compositionally close to CG3. As in the previous case, no firm suggestion can be made.
Paste Preparation. The paste of beakers BG102, BG103 and BG104 is described as very fine (F3 Appendix B). Petrography indicates that the clay was refined, potentially levigated. Paste CG4 contains more inclusion that have unimodal distribution, suggesting that additional treatments of the original clay were not practiced.
Forming. All six samples belong to vessels that were formed by wheel-throwing, as established by the macroscopic study (Appendix A.1).
Finishing. The tableware of Phase 2 does not have preserved bases, and therefore an assessment of base marks cannot be made. The opposite is true for the decoration of the walls. CG4 stands out for its glaze decoration, truly rare in pre-Ottoman Belgrade. All three samples are coated with a high-lead glaze, which was applied on a biscuit- fired ceramic body as a lead-silica mixture with a little added clay (Appendix D2, Table 4). The other samples are unglazed and do not contain any other type of decoration.
Firing. For the tableware of Phase 2 different firing modes can be suggested. The pottery of CG4 is characterised by a buff to grey colour. The chemical analysis of sample BG99 showed a relatively low Fe2O3 (3.2 wt%) and high Al2O3 (23.5 wt%) content, which is consistent with the buff colour. The pottery was double-fired in a potentially reducing atmosphere. The opposite is true for the unglazed beakers that
232 have a red colour without a core/margin colour differentiation, suggesting an oxidising atmosphere and stable firing conditions.
Function and Typology. Glazed jugs (Fig 7.6) and unglazed beakers were used for food and liquid consumption. Due to the fragmentation of the vessels, it is hard to reconstruct potential typological differences between them.
Figure 7.7 Glazed jugs of CG4 dated to Phase 2 at the Lower Town, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
7.1.3 The pottery of Phases 3 and 4
Following the Ottoman conquest of Belgrade in 1521, patterns of production technology changed. Previous local compositional groups CG1, CG2 and CG3 ceased to be produced and new ones appeared. The new local production is represented by CG7, CG8 and CG9, a fact that shows continuity between Phases 3 and 4. These three compositional groups are associated with each other, and, excluding pastes, show a range of technological similarities (Fig. 7.9, 7.10 and 7.11). All three were used for the production of typologically associated tableware, cooking and storing pots. Excluding cooking pots, the majority of vessels made in these three compositional groups are glazed, which is a novelty in Belgrade. Their manufacture introduced a new way of pottery making in Belgrade.
For another two compositional groups of Phase 4 - CG10 and CG11 - provenance cannot be suggested (Fig 7.12 and 7.13). They substantially differ from CG7, CG8 and CG9 in almost all segments of the chaînes opératoires. One sample of each compositional group is dated to Phases 2 and 3, respectively, but considering their statistical insignificance it is difficult to claim continuity. Thus, both compositional groups are representative of Phase 4.
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Exploitation of raw materials. As discussed in Chapter 6.3, CG7 and CG8 are the two low-calcareous and micaceous pastes that share some common mineralogical and chemical characteristics. They contain a mixture of igneous and metamorphic, and to a lesser extent sedimentary rocks, of different coarseness, which suggest that types of sedimentary or secondary clays were used (Rye, 1981, p. 44). CG9 is also a low- calcareous paste that contains coarse inclusions of igneous rocks, suggesting that the raw materials were formed closer to parental rocks, but still they can be considered as secondary. CG10 and CG11 are both calcareous pastes, which indicates the use of sedimentary clays.
Raw material sources. CG7, CG8 and CG9 have common inclusions of polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, plagioclase feldspar and two igneous rocks. This mixture of rocks indicates that all three types of clay were exploited in the same geological environment which could be associated with the Cretaceous and the Neogene geological formations located on Avala’s slopes and/or in the valley of Topčiderska reka (Ivković, 1975; Marković et al., 1985; Vasković and Matović, 1996) (Fig. 7.8). The intermediate volcanic rock could be identified as andesite, dacite or any other volcanic rock that appears in veins around Avala. The second igneous rock is close in appearance to granite, but its small size in thin sections prevents a positive identification. It may be related to granitoids, or particularly to lamprophyre documented in the foothills of Avala, in the village of Ripanj. Metasandstone, that can be related to sedimentary polycrystalline quartz or metamorphic quartzite is also documented on the slopes of Avala, together with muscovite schist, chert and feldspars. All three compositional groups have a poor presence of limestone, which along with marl is abundant around Avala. Thus, this could be indicative of their provenance from a location in Avala with poor exposure to limestone and other carbonates. At the same time, the poor presence of carbonates is a major differentiating factor between CG7, CG8 and CG9 on the one side and CG1, CG2 and CG3 on the other.
Despite compositional similarities, CG7, CG8 and CG9 also contain inclusions of different petrology. CG7 is abundant in serpentinite and contains more sedimentary rocks (chert and limestone) than the other two compositional groups (Appendix B). Serpentinite is a good provenance indicator because it links the clay source with Avala’s deposits. Unlike CG7, CG8 has Very rare to Absent serpentinite but muscovite
234 mica is Common in some samples. Both compositional groups have a relatively high content of Mn (608-1084 ppm) that is not correlated with CaO as it was the case for CG3. Thus, it seems that in this case Mn is not associated with limestone, but with some other rock present in both compositional groups. CG8 shows mineralogical and chemical compositional variability, and it is unclear whether one source with natural heterogeneity or several related sources were exploited. In any case, the raw materials are associated with Avala’s environment, but not with areas rich in carbonates within said environment. CG9 is slightly different from CG7 and CG8, because it contains only the inclusions of two igneous rocks and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite in the coarse fraction. Furthermore, the content of Mn is lower (242-607 ppm).
Although the provenance of slips and glazes was not the subject of this research, they were probably produced from locally available raw materials considering the local origin of ceramics. Lead ores used in the production of lead and silver metals were easily accessible around Avala, as well as copper and iron compounds used as colourants.
CG10 contains no inclusions in the coarse fraction and it is not possible to suggest a plausible provenance. The same applies to calcite tempered variants of CG11 that contain almost no other inclusions apart from the temper. The two variants of CG11 have different chemical compositions, which suggests that two sources of raw materials were exploited.
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Figure 7.8 Potential areas used for raw materials exploitation for local medium-coarse and fine wares of Phases 3 and 4 proposed based on the petrographic evidence. Map modified after Stevanović (1974, p.3).
Paste Preparation. Based on the petrographic assessment, two variants of CG8 are distinguished. CG8a includes samples of fine texture while CG8b is described as medium-coarse. Considering the common source of the raw materials, it can be suggested that the fine texture of CG8a is the result of refinement, potentially clay levigation. CG8b, on the other hand, was not additionally treated, and neither were the pastes of medium-coarse CG7 and coarse CG9.
Raw materials were modified in the cases of CG10 and CG11. CG10 includes samples of very fine texture that was probably achieved through the refinement of clay, potentially levigation. Raw materials of CG11 were probably also refined before tempering with calcite. Scarce inclusions other than calcite in both coarse and fine 236 fractions support this interpretation. Before tempering, calcite crystals were probably crushed, producing an angular shape, and then added to the clay. Mega voids indicate that some organic matter was added into the clay as well.
Forming. Two forming techniques are documented during the macroscopic study (Appendix A). The vessels of CG7, CG8, CG9 and CG10 were formed using the wheel-throwing method, which left identifiable marks on the inner walls. Calcite- tempered baking pans and cooking pots were formed on a hand-turning wheel.
Finishing. The majority of CG7, CG8 and CG9 vessels have base marks that can be related to the use of a string for the separation of pots from the wheel. Some bowls have added ring and pedestal foots of standardised sizes while some jugs have traces of slips and glazes or have intentionally glazed bases. A clear pattern that links one compositional group with a single base mark cannot be observed.
The vessels of CG10 mostly contain smoothed bases, suggesting they were cleaned after the removal from a wheel. CG11 has bases modelled with the sign of the cross in a circle with variations. This sign was used in Phases 1 and 2, on the vessels of CG2 and CG3.
The most common type of final decoration in Phases 3 and 4 is the combination of slips and glazes that are documented on the vessels of CG7, CG8 and CG9 (Fig 7.7, 7.8 and 7.9). Slips were used in two different ways – as an underglaze layer that in combination with the glaze creates a polychrome effect or as a type of paint on outer walls. Slips of white and brown colours were used. The SEM-EDS analysis distinguished four slip recipes (SCG). For three of them (SCG1, SCG2, SCG3), clays compositionally different to the ceramic bodies were used, mostly non- to low- calcareous varieties of kaolinite (Chapter 6.4.3). Glazes were applied over the slips or the ceramic bodies that were in some cases previously fired (Chapter 6.4.6.1). In all analysed cases, the glaze is of a high-lead type (Chapter 6.4.5). However, different recipes with a lead compound were used for the glaze preparation (Chapter 6.4.6.2). The majority of samples have the glaze prepared as a lead-silica mixture with or without added clay. In four documented cases, the glaze was applied as a pure lead compound. Iron and copper oxides were used as colourants in all analysed cases. Green colour of glazes was achieved with the addition of a copper oxide into the lead glaze, using the oxidising firing atmosphere (Rice, 2015, pp. 337–338). This was the most
237 popular colour in Phases 3 and 4. An iron oxide was used as a colourant for brown and yellow glazes, which is a common choice in a combination with lead glazes and an oxidising atmosphere of firing (Rice, 2015, pp. 337–338).
CG10 was used for the production of Grey-Polished Ware that has shiny and smooth surfaces (Fig 7.10). This effect could be achieved with burnishing, carried out on dry clay by rubbing the surface of the vessel with a stone or wooden tool (Quinn, 2013, p. 182). Some jugs also have incised decoration. The vessels of CG11 are not decorated (Fig.7.11).
Firing. The pottery of CG7, CG8 and CG9 mostly has orange/red walls, suggesting an oxidising atmosphere of firing. Core/margin colour differentiation is relatively rare taking into account the total number of samples (Appendix B). Several samples are characterised by grey ceramic walls, probably caused by fluctuating air during the firing. The optical activity of all samples suggests that the temperature peak was around 850 °C, and probably the temperature range was between 800 and 850 °C.
For some glazed vessels double-firing was suggested based on the diffusion of elements from the glaze into the slip/ceramic body and vice versa as well as the size of crystals in the ceramic/slip-glaze interface (Chapter 6.4.6.1). The first firing of the unglazed body or biscuit firing can occur at the same or different temperature as the second one (Rice, 2015, p. 99). In general, ethnographic and experimental studies show that a temperature in the range of 800-1050 °C is needed for a high lead transparent glaze to reach a proper viscosity and maturity (Tite et al., 1998, p. 252). Although Belgrade’s glazes are coloured, the suggested temperature range is in line with the petrographic assessment that estimated an equivalent firing temperature around 800-850 °C.
The pottery of CG10 has a distinctive grey colour without a core/margin colour differentiation, which indicates a reducing atmosphere in well-controlled firing conditions. The grey colour could also be related to the high iron content (Fe2O3 is 6.7- 7.3 wt%) exposed to a reducing atmosphere (Velde and Druc, 1999, p. 127). The optical activity of the matrix is weak, suggesting that the temperature reached at least 900 °C or more.
Finally, the pottery of CG11 is fired in an oxidising atmosphere, as the orange/red walls of pots imply. Although most of the samples have a homogenous matrix colour,
238 some have grey cores. These differences could be related to short firing during which carbonaceous material cannot be entirely burned out from the middle of pots, leaving a darker core. Considering the well-preserved crystals of calcite, not deformed by firing, the pottery of CG11 was probably fired at temperatures that did not exceed 750 °C (Rice, 2015, pp. 97–99).
Based on the evidence provided by the macroscopic study, the majority of pottery was fired in kilns. Some of the glazed bowls of CG7 and CG8 bear tripod marks from the interior side, a recognisable sign of kiln firing. A form of updraft kilns, similar to those found in Kruševac (Minić, 1979) can be suggested (see Chapter 7.3). A well-controlled reducing atmosphere of firing in the case of CG10 also suggests the use of kilns. The pottery of CG11 shows the same features as the above-mentioned compositional groups, and kiln firing can also be envisaged. However, the firing of this pottery did not require a high temperature and the use of open hearths cannot be excluded.
Function and Typology. CG7, CG8 and CG9 are associated with a range of pots. The vessels of CG8 are the most numerous in the assemblage and were used for cooking, baking, serving, food and liquid consumption, storing and stove decoration (Fig 7.10). CG7 includes a similar range of functionally different pots (Fig 7.9), while a minor CG9 mostly includes cooking pots and bowls (Fig 7.11) (Appendix E). Although the majority of forms were introduced in Phase 3 (cooking pots, bowls, dishes, jugs, beakers), Phase 4 testifies to a greater diversity. For example, storing jars with two handles, glazed stove pots and baking pans were introduced only in Phase 4 (Appendix E). No particular functional category or type can be related to a compositional group.
CG10 was used for the production of Grey-Polished jugs (Fig 7.12) and one glazed bowl. Kitchen wares, including cooking pots, lids and baking pans, were made in CG11a and CG11b (Fig 7.13). The cooking pots are typologically diverse (Marjanović-Vujović, 1973), but again, no particular type can be related to a single paste.
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Figure 7.9 The pottery of CG7 dated to Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
Figure 7.10 The pottery of CG8 dated to Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
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Figure 7.11 The pottery of CG9 dated to Phases 3 and 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaîne opératoires.
Figure 7.12 The pottery of CG10 dated to Phase 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
Figure 7.13 The pottery of CG11 dated to Phase 4 at the Lower Town and Dorćol, reconstruction of the chaînes opératoires.
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7.2 Defining local technological traditions and communities of practice
Technological traditions, taken as ‘specific sets of procedures, gestures, tools, materials, finished products, and beliefs and attitude toward actors and materials’ (Gosselain, 2008, p. 152) can be defined based on the pottery’s chaînes opératoires. Technological patterns included in one tradition are meaningful not merely for the understanding of production, but offer an insight into the long-term process of learning. The process of learning informs us about ‘communities of practice’ (Wenger, 1998), which brings the interpretation of analytical results to the meso-scale of human interaction (Knappett and Leeuw, 2014).
Technological traditions suggested in this research are at a different level than those proposed by Bikić (1994; 2003b) who advocates a macro-scale model of zones of influence that links Belgrade’s ceramics with the space of Serbian overlords, the Central European space under the political dominance of the Hungarian Kingdom or the Ottoman realm. Although this research does not dismiss the importance of vessels’ morphology, it does show that the technological perspective gives a significantly different view on the production and agency behind it. This research proposes that the local technological traditions, as defined below, cannot be interpreted as monolithic products shaped by influences defined on the abstract macro-scale. The undisputable typological parallels of Belgrade’s pottery with the archaeological material documented to the north and the south of Belgrade could be seen as the response of local potters to new consumption tastes. Ethnographic examples show that the introduction of new shapes and decorative styles might be merely a result of visual copying of finished objects available to the local community (Gosselain, 1998; Gosselain and Livingstone Smith, 2005). To avoid confusion with ethnic affiliations, the technological traditions proposed below will remain nameless, marked simply by capital letters.
Overall, three local technological traditions (TTA, TTB, TTC) hold the key for the understanding of Ottomanisation in Belgrade. Other technological traditions are of unknown or non-local origin, and although they played an important role in Ottomanisation, they give a different perspective on this process of cultural change compared to the local technological traditions.
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Technological tradition A (TTA) refers to the production of cooking pots of CG1 paste, made locally and formed by the combination of wheel and hands (Fig 7.1). This is Belgrade’s oldest technological tradition analysed in this research that can probably be dated to the 14th century (Phase 1). It is documented at Dorćol only. In her paper on Dorćol’s Medieval pottery, Bjelajac (1978, Table 1, Type II/19) interpreted this pottery as representative of the local tradition in Belgrade because its forming method and decorative styles match the morphology of Medieval pottery in the Central Balkans (Bajalović - Hadži-Pešić, 1981).
Technological tradition B (TTB) is the major local pre-Ottoman technological tradition in Belgrade that includes the coarse pottery of CG2 and CG3. In terms of morphology, this is a heterogeneous group that encompasses cooking pots of Group 1 and Group 3 as defined by Bikić (1994, pp. 75–77). Group 1 refers to the cooking pots of the Hungarian tradition (Types II/2, II/3, II/4 and II/14) while Group 3 is defined as the Serbian tradition (Types II/16 and II/19) (see Chapter 2.3.2). However, these two morphological sub-groups could not be distinguished by the analyses conducted in this research. In addition, stove pots of different types are also included in TTB.
The current evidence suggests that the coarse pottery of Groups 1 and 3 was made in both pastes CG2 and CG3. These two pastes are compositionally different, but at the same time they share several common traits. Firstly, they are both calcareous, made of raw materials that have abundant inclusions of sedimentary rocks, exploited in the local environment at locations between Belgrade and Avala. Furthermore, it was emphasised in the petrographic assessment that the two pastes have similar textures (Appendix B). The pottery made of these two pastes was formed by wheel-throwing. They also have the same variety of base marks and decorative styles. Thus, it can be suggested that apart from different pastes, all other technological stages are the same.
What marks a difference between the pottery of CG2 and CG3 is the intra-urban distribution. Namely, the pottery of CG2 is documented only at Dorćol, and dated to Phases 1 and 2. On the other hand, the pottery of CG3 appears only at the Lower Town in Phase 2. This is an interesting pattern that will be discussed further in Chapter 7.3.
It is unclear whether the local technological traditions TTA and TTB coexisted, or they belonged to different historical phases. TTB is well dated at the Lower Town to the second half of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century (Phase 2). At Dorćol, the
243 pottery of these two traditions chronologically overlap, but this can be due to the lack of precisely defined archaeological contexts (Bjelajac 1978; Popović 1978a). Unfortunately, the recent excavations conducted in 2018 at the Old Synagogue site at Dorćol (Bikić pers. comm) have not shed more light on this question because the pottery of TTA has not been documented. The pottery of TTB on the other hand is attributed to both phases at Dorćol, although at the Lower Town it appears only in Phase 2.
Whether the productions were co-existing or not, the two traditions are substantially different and embedded in the practice of different communities. The main difference concerns the application of two forming techniques that reflect diverse approaches to learning and practice. Furthermore, differences are visible in the selection of raw materials and final looks of vessels. Thus, the evidence suggests that Belgrade’s production prior to the Ottoman conquest was characterised by a plurality of technological choices. Different communities of practice carried out the production of coarse wares, and they had unequal access to the local consumption market.
Technological tradition C (TTC) refers to the local pottery of Ottoman Phases 3 and 4. It includes the pottery made in the major paste CG8 as well as CG7 and CG9. Several samples of Phase 2 made in CG7 and CG8 are also included in TTC (Appendix E). This tradition includes a range of functionally and typologically different vessels used for cooking, baking, serving, storing and stove decoration (Fig 7.9, 7.10 and 7.11). Compared to Phase 2, there are fewer cooking pots and more tableware that are decorated with white and brown slips as well as green, yellow, brown and polychrome glazes. According to Bikić’s (2003b) typology, the pottery of TTC is divided into the Serbian, Hungarian and Ottoman traditions. As in the case of TTB, the analysis undertake in this research cannot confirm these divisions. For example, the analysis showed that the cooking pots of II/2 (the Serbian tradition), jugs of III/3 (the Hungarian tradition) and bowls of I/2 (the Ottoman tradition) were all made of CG8 paste.
As discussed in Chapter 7.1, CG7, CG8 and CG9 are low-calcareous pastes that contain non-plastic inclusions of igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is suggested that the raw materials were probably exploited in the same geological area, probably around Avala. Other production sequences cannot be distinguished. The pottery of all three pastes was formed by wheel-throwing and contains the same variety of base marks, slips and glazes (analysed for CG7 and CG8). Kiln firing in an oxidising
244 atmosphere was practiced, and some glazed wares were fired twice. Thus, it is clear that the pottery of these three pastes belongs to the same technological tradition.
TTC introduced a new set of skills and knowledge to the local pottery-making in Belgrade. It shows a clear break with the previous local traditions, visible in almost all segments of the chaînes opératoires. The potters who belonged to this community of practice shared the same idea of appropriate raw materials, the use of wheel-throwing, and kiln firing, and were familiar with the morphology of vessels typical of Ottoman urban centres. They had different approaches to paste preparation and slip and glaze recipes. However, this variety did not affect the final appearance of vessels. The community of practice that stood behind this production dominated over Belgrade’s local market throughout the 16th-17th centuries as the low number of Outliers demonstrate (one for CG7 and one for CG8). The pottery they produced was used in various households of intra and extra muros settlements regardless of the religious or ethnic affiliation of consumers.
Apart from TTC, two other technological traditions of unknown provenance can be singled out for Phase 4. Technological tradition D (TTD) refers to the production of Grey-Polished Ware of CG10. This unglazed class of tableware stands out in the assemblage of Phase 4, especially when it is compared to the glazed tableware of TC. The analyses demonstrated distinctive production features of CG10 such as the use of high-calcareous and refined clay for the preparation of the paste that was fired in a reducing atmosphere and at well-controlled conditions. TTC and TTD have a common forming method, but all other stages are different, which questions a degree of relation between them. It has been suggested in the literature that Grey-Polished Ware was produced by specialised workshops (Bikić, 2003b, pp. 147–150), implying the existence of a distinct technological knowledge. The chemical analysis of the ceramics showed that at least one glazed vessel (morphologically similar to the vessels of TTC) was made in CG10 paste and at least one Grey-Polished jug was produced in CG8. Although the evidence is modest, this suggest that the productions were somehow related. That does not diminish the existence of specific skills that the potters of TTD demonstrated in the production of Grey-Polished Ware, and thus they will be treated as a separate technological tradition.
Technological tradition E (TTE) refers to the production of calcite-tempered pots dated to Phase 4 and found only at the Lower Town. At least two pastes (CG11a and
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CG11b) have been distinguished in Belgrade’s assemblage, used for the production of typologically diverse cooking pots and accompanying lids, as well as baking pans found in a single household of Phase 4 at the Lower Town. Baking pans found in other households (Contexts 5 and 6) are also part of this tradition. These pots have almost no technological similarities with the pottery of TTC and TTD. As already emphasised, at least two sources of calcareous clay have been used for the production of the paste with the same petrographic features. These clays were probably refined prior to calcite tempering. Pots were formed on a hand-turning wheel and the exterior of the bases were marked with a symbol that depicts the cross in a circle (or variants of this symbol). There is no doubt that a community of potters different to those of TTC and TTD was in charge of this production. First of all, these potters were trained to use a hand-turning wheel, which is a skill almost incompatible with wheel-throwing (Arnold, 2008).
Other classes of pottery also belong to distinct technological traditions, but they are less significant for the discussion of Ottomanisation. The pre-Ottoman productions characterised by pastes CG4, CG5 and CG6 represent distinct technological traditions as shown in Chapter 7.1.
7.3 The organisation of ceramic production in Belgrade
An important question for the understanding of Ottomanisation in Belgrade is whether the Ottoman rule brought a change in the local craft organisation. To discuss this question, this research relies on the pottery chaînes opératoires, reconstructed in Chapter 7.1. The focus here is on the development of the local production in the cultural and geographic coordinates of Belgrade. This is the bottom-up approach to the question of craft organisation that advocates the interpretation of archaeological datasets without labelling them according to a priori constructed typological frameworks (Duistermaat, 2017).
The reconstruction of the production organisation without production sites sets certain limits to the interpretation. Without the evidence of these sites, it remains impossible to point production units on the map. Potential zones of raw material exploitation are indicative in this regard, but they do not necessarily overlap with the places of production themselves.
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Written documents of the 16th century are an important source for the reconstruction of the production organisation, at least in Phase 3. These are the records from the Ottoman cadastral tax surveys (tahrīr defterleri) that present a valuable source of information about the local population and artisans in the formative years of the Ottoman rule (see Chapter 3). Since the scientific results demonstrate a production continuity between Phases 3 and 4, it can be assumed that the two phases also have a common mode of production organisation. The defters were official documents of the Ottoman central administration that was above all concerned with the efficiency of the tax system, and thus the picture they give about the artisans should not be taken as complete. Also, in Belgrade, the defters are not supplemented with records of qadis’ court (sijills) that historians use as the primary source for the study of guilds (e.g. Yi, 2004). Despite these constraints, the 16th century defters for Belgrade will be integrated into the following discussion on the production organisation.
7.3.1 The organisation of ceramic production in Phases 1 and 2
As suggested in Section 7.1.2, TTA and TTB represent the two different local productions in Belgrade attached to different communities of practice. Drawing on the patterns of production technology, it can be suggested that different workshops operated in Belgrade in the 14th-15th centuries, but as emphasised before, it is unclear whether they co-existed. Due to the lack of written sources that could be informative for this question, the production organisation will be discussed in the light of current results.
For the cooking pots of TTA dated to the earliest Phase 1 at Dorćol, Bjelajac (1978, p. 137) suggested they were produced in a single workshop that did not last for a long time. The analytical results support this observation. The mineralogical and chemical characteristics of CG1 stand out in the assemblage while a specific forming technique that combines wheel and hand is not repeated later. The production that is limited to cooking pots of similar morphological characteristics, the preparation of one paste and a firing process that potentially could be done in open hearths are traits that suggest this workshop did not require large facilities. Perhaps, a household type of workshop was the base of this production.
The production technology of TTB shows a significantly different pattern than TTA. For the production of TTB pottery, two local sources of raw materials were exploited
247 and used for the preparation of distinct pastes (CG2 and CG3). Considering the different intra-urban distribution of the morphologically associated coarse wares made in CG2 and CG3, it can be suggested that at least two workshops operated in the town. These workshops were run by potters coming from the same community of practice and were specialised for the production of coarse wares. The existence of several base marks may suggest that the work was carried out by several potters.
The distribution pattern related to the TTB pottery indicates a degree of control over the production. It would be otherwise difficult to explain why not a single sherd of CG2 appears at the Lower Town and of CG3 at Dorćol considering that both were used for the production of morphologically associated wares (see typology in Appendix E). The current evidence indicates that a separate production existed for the inhabitants of the Fortress in the 15th century, populated by the elites who held the political power. The household in the Lower Town probably commissioned stove pots used for the construction of two large stoves in advance from the same workshops that supplied them with the cooking pots. Stove pots were made in six different formats adjusted for the stoves in the household interpreted as the Metropolitan Palace (see Popović and Bikić, 2004). The inhabitants of the extra muros settlement consumed the same cooking pots, but from a different supplier. Thus, there is a possibility that the production and distribution networks were politically attached. The presence of imported cooking pots and tableware in the Lower Town’s household further document the privileged status of the elites over the inhabitants of Dorćol.
It is difficult to reconstruct the scale of production units. Similar to TTA, the production of TTB is limited to cooking and stove pots fired in an oxidising atmosphere and under fluctuating conditions. Anything from household-based to individual workshops could be proposed.
The location of the local workshops cannot be precisely identified due to the lack of production debris. Raw materials were exploited in the rural areas between Belgrade and Avala. Potentially, sources closer to the town, in the valley of Topčiderska reka can be considered. A discussion about the location of production activities in the town or countryside will follow.
Villages in the close vicinity of Avala had intense industrial activity in the second half of the 15th century, focused primarily on the smelting of silver-rich lead ores. There
248 was a well-developed mining network in this area that included Avala’s mines and smelting installations in Ripanj (Simić, 1957). In this area, the 15th century mining settlement Rudište (the toponym Rudište refers to a mine) had a central square (trg) and a market. Although modest in scale compared to other mining centres of the Balkans (such as Novo Brdo and Rudnik), the involvement of Ragusan merchants boosted the production and the export of silver from Rudište, and it therefore was important for the local economy (Hrabak, 1956). Rudište and Avala’s areas were involved in a network that connected the towns and mining centres in the region.
Ceramic workshops could be part of this production setting. However, the relevant question to be asked is whether these potential workshops supplied the town considering the great distance and turbulent historical circumstances in Belgrade’s countryside during the second half of the 15th century that eventually disrupted the connection between the elites in the Fortress and the mining settlement in Rudište. For a while, Rudište was in the possession of the Orthodox church (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, p. 91) and the household in the Lower Town analysed in this research is interpreted as the Metropolitan Palace (Popović and Bikić, 2004). Thus, there is a link between places of consumption and potential production, at least in the case of the CG3 pottery. However, according to sources, this area was conquered by the Ottomans in the middle of the 15th century and by 1476/8 the Ottoman tax system was in force (Šabanović, 1964). Consequently, the industrial complex with the centre in Rudište was not politically tied to Belgrade anymore. Ragusan documents show that Rudište developed closer relations to Smederevo instead (Hrabak, 1956, p. 102). In 1476/8 the village of Rudište had a weekly market and its reaya paid taxes to the Sultan in silver, which suggest that the production was still active. Several decades later, in 1516, Rudište is mentioned as an abandoned village (Šabanović, 1964, p. 18). These events did not influence the consumption of TTB pottery in the town, something that raises questions about a rural-based production of ceramics. The Palace is dated to the second half of the 15th century and at least one context analysed in this research (Context 4) was dated to the phase of the Palace’s destruction in 1521 (Popović and Bikić, 2004). If ceramic workshops were situated in Avala’s area, then the political shift did not affect the distribution network.
The second and more plausible interpretation is that the ceramic workshops of Phases 1 and 2 that supplied Belgrade with common pottery were located in the town or its
249 outskirts. If sources of raw materials were located on the norther edges of Avala, closer to the town, then the distance to workshops could be fewer than 10 km, which approximately fits into the Arnold’s threshold model (1985, pp. 35–37).
Another possibility to be considered is the plurality of production modes that configurated together in political economy. Ceramics of technological traditions TTA and TTB are different in almost all segments of their chaînes opératoires, and potentially they could be associated with different production modes.
7.3.2 The organisation of ceramic production in Phases 3 and 4
As emphasised before, the implementation of the Ottoman political system in Belgrade brought a change in the consumption and the production of ceramics. The local technological traditions of Phases 1 and 2 ceased to exist after the Ottoman conquest. They were replaced by TTC that brought a new set of knowledge and skills. An important question to be asked is whether the shift in technological traditions was tied to the change in the production organisation. In historiography, the emergence and implementation of the Ottoman-style guilds in newly conquered urban centres is a process linked to Ottomanisation (see Chapter 3). This process is mostly seen through lenses of the top-down influence that the Ottoman state had on the urban economy. Generally, it is unclear how the guilds were formed in newly conquered towns. Did they include the local potters? This research cannot argue for an association between technological patterns and the guilds, because this question requires a number of comparative case studies and a cross-disciplinary approach. Instead, the discussion of technological patterns will be used to highlight some aspects of organisation and to define a mode that may have existed in Belgrade during the 16th-17th centuries.
Drawing on technological patterns, it is challenging to suggest how many workshops operated in Belgrade during the 16th-17th centuries. Unlike TTB, the pottery of TTC was equally distributed in the town. Looking at the chaînes opératoires, it is only the difference in pastes that could be indicative of multiple workshops, but then the pastes do not match other technological choices. For example, one source of raw materials is linked to two pastes (CG8a and CG8b), both used either without any coating or with slips and glazes. The potters used different recipes and methods of applications for the slips and glazes. Some glazed vessels were fired twice, others only once. The absence
250 of a clear technological pattern for both Phases 3 and 4 suggests that the number of pastes may not be indicative of the number of workshops after all.
Two interpretations regarding the number of workshops and their organisation can be suggested. It is possible that several associated workshops operated in Belgrade at the same time or that one large-sized workshop gathered a heterogeneous group of potters. In either case, the potters created a new community of practice that had a common understanding of what pots should look like. Considering the continuity of TTC that spans two centuries, there is no doubt that more than one generation of potters was involved in the production. This implies that once the new workshop/s was/were established in Belgrade, it/they continued to produce not only pottery but also to train the potters who carried out the 17th century production.
In the absence of direct evidence for the ceramic production in Belgrade, the workshop discovered in Kruševac and dated to the 16th-17th centuries can be used as an important analogy (Minić, 1979). This workshop was excavated within the Medieval walls of Kruševac, but Minić (1979, p. 163) suggested this was not a densely populated part of the town in the 16th-17th centuries. Nevertheless, this workshop was situated in the urban core and located just next to the Orthodox Lazarica church. Similar distribution of workshops in the urban core can be found in Iznik, a famous centre for the production of fritware in the Ottoman Empire (Atasoy and Raby, 1989, p. 21), showing that this was not an unknown practice. The workshop in Kruševac consisted of a main rectangular-shaped building, a pavement made of stone blocks on which traces of kaolinite clay were found, and two updraft kilns (Fig. 7.14). The smaller kiln (1.60x1.50m) had an oval shape and was built of mud. The larger kiln (2.04x1.80m) was constructed of bricks, which resulted in a square shape. Both kilns consisted of a firing pit that was separated from the main updraft chamber with a slotted platform. Despite differences in sizes and construction, pottery of the same properties was found next to both kilns, which suggests that they had the same function (Minić, 1979, p. 157). Minić (1979, p. 157) suggested that perhaps the kilns were not constructed at the same time, but at some point they started being used together because of their clear association with the rest of the workshop. Next to both kilns, pits with a large number of wasters were found. The vessels described as wasters were coated with slips and belong to common types of cooking pots, jugs and bowls found in Kruševac and Belgrade (Minić, 1979, Fig. 4 and 5).
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Figure 7.14 The plan and section of the larger kiln (left) and the smaller kiln (right) found at Kruševac (Minić, 1979, pp. 155-156, Fig. 2 and 3).
This example illustrates how Belgrade’s workshop/s could have looked like. Following the same analogy, the workshop/s was/were probably situated in the town or outskirts considering the proposed provenance of the raw materials. Namely, the comparison made between the petrographic data and geological maps suggests that the non-plastic inclusions of CG7, CG8 and CG9 could be related to geological formations around Avala. The distance between Avala and the town (c. 15 km) does not fit the threshold model (Arnold, 1985, pp. 32–34), but raw materials could be collected and stocked around workshops. Although different by the nature of production, Iznik workshops received the clay in large quantities from areas out of the town (Atasoy and Raby, 1989, p. 51). Quinn (2013, p.119) notes that in some early industrial production systems, bulky raw materials were transported on some distances for purposes of large- scale production. Another possibility to be considered is a closer distance to raw material sources. Belgrade’s clays are secondary and considering the landscape dominated by rivers and creeks, perhaps clay deposits formed much closer to the town. However, without a survey of available clay deposits, the current data cannot further contribute to this question.
Written sources, although indirectly, also indicate that the production of common pottery was situated somewhere in the town. The only potters mentioned in the
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Ottoman tax registers for the 16th century lived in villages stretched between Kosmaj and the Danube bank (Šabanović, 1964). These potters were primarily farmers because agriculture was the main source of their revenue. The pottery making was not taxed, suggesting it was not a primary source of income. This makes them part-time specialists. In terms of their social identity, they were all Christians coming from the Vlach pastoral and the Serbian sedentary communities. While the Vlachs were settled by the Ottomans as auxiliary forces, the Serbian Orthodox community probably lived there longer. Although currently there is no ceramic material coming from these villages, it is possible to suggest that this group of rural-based potters supplied the rural market rather than the town.
Villages around Belgrade were densely populated. In 1528, the total number of taxed households was 1946, which gives around 10,000 people spread across 156 villages. In 1536, that number had increased to more than 15,000 people (see Table 3.1). This means that more people lived in the countryside than in the town. They also needed earthenware for everyday use, which implies that the potters mentioned in the sources (and probably many more omitted from official documents) supplied this population. Some of these villages had weekly or monthly markets that provided opportunities for trade.
If the ceramic production was situated in the town, as the example from Kruševac and the written sources suggests, then probably a guild of potters was involved in this production. The guilds of potters were explicitly mentioned in Istanbul (Yi, 2004) and Jerusalem (Cohen, 2001) in the 17th century. Although the guild of potters does not appear in tax registers for Belgrade, two headmen of guilds were listed among the artisans who payed taxes in 1560 (Šabanović, 1964, p. 441). This fact, and also the presence of the potters’ guilds in 19th century Belgrade formed after the Ottoman- model (Vučo, 1956) would suggests as a possibility that common pottery was also produced by the guilds.
It is interesting to compare some variables associated with a guild-type production and the technological patterns of Belgrade’s pottery. Strict rules of conduct, equal access to raw materials, standardised quantities, controlled quality and prices are some of the characteristics of the Ottoman guilds (Faroqhi, 2006a, pp. 340–350). In other words, this production could be described as standardised. There is an impression that the pottery of TTC is standardised in terms of morphology and volume, which was
253 discussed by Bikić (2017). However, looking at the full chaînes opératoires, there is nothing particularly standardised about the pottery of TTC. The use of various sources, preparation of different pastes and slips, different preparation methods of high-lead glazes and different firings could not be described as part of a standardised process. However, there was a consensus among the potters about the final look. Thus, some of the postulates pictured by the written sources should be re-examined. Clearly, further research dedicated to these questions should be carried out.
The production organisation for the other technological traditions of Phase 4 was probably to some extent different. Their provenance remains unknown, which limits this discussion. However, several important things can be emphasised. Grey-Polished Ware of TTD shows a standardised production that could not be observed for the pottery of TTC. Although different sources of high-calcareous clay were used, presumably by different potters, there was a standardised procedure of what should be done with these clays. It is possible to suggest that several workshops, some maybe local to Belgrade, produced this kind of pottery. This hypothesis is based on the use of chemically different pastes.
The coarse pottery of TTE is a distinct case in Belgrade’s assemblage. Based on the use of a hand-turning wheel, the pottery of TTE was almost certainly not produced by the potters of TTC or TTD. Still, this case also shows a standardised technological procedure despite the use of different clay sources. Ethnographically, the production of calcite-tempered pots is related to a rural-based production (Tomić, 1983) and is carried out to this day in the village of Zlakusa in western Serbia (Djordjević, 2013). Here, it is produced by several potters coming from different households. Although the same cannot be claimed for the archaeological pottery, it is evident that the production organisation differs from the dominant mode.
7.4 Towards an Archaeology of Ottomanisation
The available written sources agree that the imposition of Ottoman rule in Belgrade in 1521 brought a cultural and population change often labelled as Ottomanisation in historiography. A model of change was already attested before in the Balkans and elsewhere in the Islamic world. It included a series of urban modifications and imposition of monumental public buildings that aimed to display a new political order.
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In Belgrade, the Ottoman architectural style was imposed by Ottoman elites whose endowments (waqfs) transformed the urban fabric. Mosques, tekkes, bazaars, hans, caravanserais, imarets and fountains composed the new urban landscape. The elites who financed these projects were the members of the Osmanli class, military and political leaders who represented the ‘Ottoman way’ in the name of the Sultan. Some of these projects preceded the settlement of the Muslim civil population and can be seen as political statements of border commanders that the conquest of Belgrade was permanent.
This top-down model of change describes the macro-scale political influence of the Ottoman state on its new subjects. Although this model started being re-defined (see Watenpaugh, 2004), it is still broadly used to depict cultural change as a monolithic and pre-defined set of rules being imposed on various cultures. Standing monuments and other architectural remains documented across the vast Ottoman space stretching from the Arabian deserts to the Balkans have been used to support the top-down model. However, mechanisms of change remain vague and it is usually unclear whether a building of the ‘Ottoman style’ is a product of local or foreign architects and craftsmen. The top-down model struggles to explain how architectural concepts formed in Istanbul’s central offices would have materialised in the provinces.
Although rarely used to support arguments for Ottomanisation, pottery, along with architecture, is an important medium that shows the spread of the ‘Ottoman way’. Except for Iznik Ware whose production shows a degree of political attachment, the production of common wares used in households across the Ottoman Empire was not subjected to direct influence from the central authorities. Still, a new repertoire of vessels was usually introduced in the newly conquered territories. Especially indicative are classes of Monochrome Glazed, Slip Painted and Sgraffito tableware that show changes in dining habits introduced after the Ottoman conquest (Vroom, 2000). This range of techniques and styles was already used in states of the Byzantine commonwealth (Bikić 2003a; Papanikola-Bakirtzis 1999), and thus it often seems that they were simply incorporated into the Ottoman production. In provinces where the Byzantine cultural stratum did not directly precede the Ottomans, such as the Middle Danube, the introduction of new repertoire and consumption trends brought even more pronounced changes. Soon after the conquest, the entire Danube region produced and
255 consumed these wares, and direct typological parallels can be drawn between Belgrade, Smederevo, Osijek, Buda and Bač.
The Balkan cities were multi-cultural environments created through the mixing of various Christian communities and the new population whose settlement was often enforced by the Ottoman central authorities. The local communities who spoke Serbian and Hungarian were mostly forced to leave after 1521 due to their long-lasting resistance to the Ottoman sieges (Mijušković-Kalić, 1967, p. 262). The leaving population migrated together with objects that were identity markers (Deroko, 1953), which illustrates how severe the break was. The scale of de-population is unknown, but it is reasonable to suggest that only a fraction of this population remained in the town. The first Ottoman defters show a deserted civilian settlement (varoṣ) with several Christian households. In the Fortress, the first Muslims who settled were members of the military class. The Muslim reaya started occupying varoṣ about two decades after the conquest and in the second half of the 16th century they formed the prevailing majority in the town as a result of Islamisation (see Chapter 3). The Muslims formed a heterogeneous majority; some were newcomers of different ethnic and language backgrounds, but the largest group included converts coming from the local Christian population. Christians, Jews and Roma were the minority and lived in varoṣ.
The interaction and co-living of these diverse groups that formed a new urban community in Belgrade is central to the understanding of the bottom-up approach to Ottomanisation that has not been picked up by historiography. The archaeological approach suggested in this research is based on the pottery that gives a rare glimpse of Ottoman Belgrade due to the scarcity of Ottoman-era architecture in the city. Regardless of their origin and religious affiliations, the urban community of Belgrade consumed pottery as part of their everyday activities. Unlike public buildings, the common pottery was not there to display state power and it can be suggested that the potters who produced it made a choice to participate in the ‘Ottoman way’. Although direct political influence on the potters can almost certainly be disregarded, this does not imply a lack of social pressure. The presence of a new population, particularly the military garrison in the Fortress after 1521, with dietary preferences is an obvious source of social and economic pressure that could have driven a change. However, although the initial consumption of new vessels can be associated with the Muslim newcomers settled in the Fortress (Phase 3), the continuity of this consumption implies
256 the participation of the broader community. Archaeological excavations in the extra muros part of the town showed that the consumption of common pottery in Phase 4 can be related to the Jewish community. Thus, it seems that by the 17th century, the local urban community was actively involved in the cultural change. The potters, as part of this community, were agents of change, and reconstructing their choices and motives to act in certain way sheds more light on the society they belonged to.
Drawing on successful archaeological attempts that addressed similar questions of Minoanisation, Mycenaeanisation and Islamisation, this research proposes a bottom- up approach to the cultural change that questions the existence of direct pressure of political power on local communities. Although a large set of comparative data is not available in this case, the current evidence does offer a possibility to unfold a likely scenario of interaction between the two communities of potters (TTB and TTC) that is at the core of Ottomanisation.
The local production that directly precedes the Ottoman conquest is marked as TTB. The potters associated with TTB exploited locally available sources of calcareous clays probably in the valley of Topčiderska reka. Their production is marked by coarse wares used in the households located in the intra and extra muros settlements. However, two pastes included in this tradition show different distribution patterns, which indicates a degree of political influence in the processes of production and distribution. It is suggested that the ceramics of Phase 2 at the Fortress can be related to the Serbian Orthodox church. The social identity of the potters is not mentioned in the sources of the 15th century, but it can be assumed that they belonged to the Christian population that spoke either Serbian or Hungarian. They lived and produced pottery in the turbulent decades of the second half of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, when Belgrade was at the centre of long-lasting warfare between the Hungarian Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans eventually managed to take control over Belgrade’s countryside by fortifying the top of Avala. The current evidence suggests the production and distribution of common pottery was not disrupted by these events, which means the potters were free to collect raw materials out of the city walls. This is a rare glimpse into the activities other than warfare that took place in the second half of the 15th century in Belgrade, showing the free movement of craftsmen in a politically divided environment.
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If future archaeological investigations focus on the villages around Belgrade, there is a possibility that archaeological ceramics of the second half of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries from this area would modify the image of abrupt change that happened in the town of Belgrade after 1521. Potentially, the Ottoman system was already in power at that time around the Avala fort. Traces of this system can be found not merely at the military fort, but also on the impact it had on the socio- economic life. Thus, the Ottoman authorities managed to settle the semi-nomadic Vlach population to serve as border auxiliary forces. Furthermore, they imposed the tax system around 1476/8, which means that the previous system of land ownership was changed as well. The export of silver was stopped, which influenced the mining community. All these historical circumstances suggest that the Ottomans included the Avala region into the existing Balkan network while preparing for the final conquest of Belgrade. This also raises the possibility that this network included the potters in the Danubian hinterland who took over the production in Belgrade after 1521. This hypothesis will be discussed further below.
Drawing on the current ceramic evidence, Belgrade’s production technology and consumption changed following the conquest in 1521. Belgrade got a new community of practice that was skilful to produce the ‘Ottoman style’ wares with the locally available raw materials. TTB ceased abruptly to exist and was entirely replaced by TTC that continued to be produced until the end of the 17th century. For the interpretation of Ottomanisation, it is relevant to discuss how different TTB and TTC are. The reconstructed chaînes opératoires show that the pottery of these two traditions differ in almost all technological sequences. New clay sources were found and exploited for the preparation of several pastes, and the application of slips and glazes as well as double-firing were introduced. At first glance, the emerging technological pattern suggest that the potters who produced the pottery of TTB vanished to be replaced by a new group of potters who migrated to Belgrade with the rest of the population mentioned in the sources. However, a closer look at some technological traits gives to some extent a different picture.
Potters of both traditions, TTB and TTC, exploited raw materials from sources associated with Avala’s geological formations. Relatively nucleated exploitation of raw materials can be associated with the ‘locational environmental knowledge’ (Rockman, 2003, p. 4) that describes the familiarity of a community with its resources.
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However, in this environment each community searched for raw materials that fitted their understanding of an ‘appropriate clay’ (see Gosselain and Livingstone Smith, 2005, p. 34). The potters of TTC tended to choose sources containing clays that are generally less calcareous than the clays that were used in the production of the TTB pottery. Nevertheless, there was a common knowledge of where to search for these clays, which is a link between the two groups of potters.
This knowledge continues until the present day as potters from a local market in Belgrade testify (potters Đorđević and Tošić from the Kalinić market, pers. information 2016). They prefer Avala’s deposits, known for their malleable and plastic clays that can be combined easily with more sand-rich clays. However, the potter Tošić mentioned several more locations around Belgrade, some located at Karaburma, at a distance of less than 4 km from the historical town (pers. information 2016). In the past, sources located in close vicinity of the town must have been even more important due to transportation restrictions. Thus, the decision to use Avala-associated raw materials was not exclusively environmentally determined but presented a conscious and culturally shaped idea that appropriate clays can be found in this area.
The second common point between the potters of TTB and TTC is the use of the wheel- throwing technique. As ethnographic studies show (Arnold 2008; Gosselain 1998; Gosselain 2000; Wallaert 2008), the forming technique is the most recognisable trait of technological (and cultural) continuity because its embeddedness into the sub- conscious muscular performance resists instant changes. It gives insight into the learning and apprenticeship in a community of potters. Unlike the Bronze Age Levant and Aegean (Abell & Hilditch 2016; Roux & Corbetta 1989), the use of the wheel was not a new invention in the Medieval Balkans, and hence its continuity cannot be used a priori to support cultural continuity. Nevertheless, the potters of both communities were trained to use the same forming technique, meaning they had the ability to adjust their production according to the new circumstances.
Finally, Phases 3 and 4 contain vessels whose shapes are typologically associated with those of the previous phases but made in the new technology. Bikić (2003b) associates these wares with Serbian and Hungarian traditions. Vessels of Type II/2 (Samples BG134, BG135, BG136 and BG137) are among the rare examples of cooking pots in Phase 3. The same applies to the unglazed jugs Type III/3 (BG174, BG175, BG176, BG177). The paste CG8 was also used for the production of baking pans, which is a
259 form previously associated with the calcite-tempering technology. All mentioned examples demonstrate the production of old vessel shapes in the new technology. Although ethnographic examples show that vessel forms and styles can be easily copied (e.g. Gosselain, 2000), Belgrade’s case is interesting because it shows that some potters of TTC produced vessels in the way of the former community of practice.
These three points can be used as arguments to support an ‘integration’ hypothesis. Namely, it is possible to suggest that some potters of TTB were integrated into the TTC community of practice. If the potters of TTC were entirely foreign to Belgrade, they would probably experiment for a while with locally available sources, not necessarily associated with Avala, which would leave a sign in the technology of Phase 3. This, however, was not the case in Belgrade. All technological choices were already well-defined in Phase 3 and continued to be used without any changes in Phase 4. This pattern shows that the information about the Avala-associated clays was communicated to the TTC community. Furthermore, the potters of TTB possessed a wheel-throwing skill, and potentially they could easily be incorporated into the new community. Finally, the continuity of some vessel shapes characteristic for TTB is a peculiar case. It shows there was a continuing consumption and production community familiar with this kind of pottery.
The ‘integration’ hypothesis cannot, however, explain the technological change. The TTC community of practice introduced a range of new technological choices that speak for the presence of new potters. Each of these technological options contains a plurality of choices, from the exploitation of raw materials, paste preparation, vessel shapes and firing to decoration. The new set of knowledge and skills was not introduced gradually but appeared suddenly as a full package of already defined technological choices soon after the Ottoman conquest in 1521. As such it continued to be transmitted vertically to the next generations of potters. In this context, it is not convincing to claim that the local potters of Phases 1 and 2 who produced the pottery of TTB simply adopted the new technological set in response to the new consumption market. A new group of potters knew how to make the ‘Ottoman style’ pottery, from the exploitation of raw materials to its morphology. Their work is characterised by a plurality of choices, which could raise the question of whether they came as an already formed community or as individual potters. Nevertheless, the lack of clear
260 technological patterns suggests that these people worked together and formed a new community of potters in Belgrade.
The new Belgrade’s community of potters should not necessarily be seen as culturally foreign but rather different to that of Phases 1 and 2. Towns and villages in the vicinity of Belgrade were integrated into the Ottoman network from the middle of the 15th century onwards. The extension of this network to Belgrade, which was by far the largest market in the region, invoked waves of migration, some also forced by the central authorities. Craftsmen settled in the varoṣ, and potters were probably among them. The contact between the ‘old’ and ‘new’ potters suggest they spoke the same language, probably one of the Slavic varieties. The potters from the rural areas mentioned in the tax registers all had Slavic names (Šabanović, 1964). Even if the ‘new’ potters were Muslims, they could still belong to the Slavic-speaking population.
The potter/s of TTB were a part of the population that remained a minority in Belgrade, with limited access to urban resources (i.e. the Fortress) due to their religious identity. The number of customers who were familiar with their vessels also decreased. Moreover, they were part of the defeated fraction that was witnessing a major transformation of their town. Over the course of one generation, the local population lost important urban landmarks, which must have influenced people’s perceptions (see Baer 2008, p.82). The social pressure put on this population was increasing. The military corps stationed in the Fortress had a different consumption taste and their dietary needs required different vessels. The presence of Iznik Ware in the first household units (Context 5) speak for these preferences (Živković, Bikić and Georgakopoulou, 2017). Thus, the potters needed to adjust their production to the new consumption demand. There could be an institutional framework, such as a guild, that facilitated their integration into the new production. All Balkan towns faced similar processes, and there were probably some state instructions that enabled a smooth transition of the production. The potters of the TTB community already had formed motor skills needed in the new production, and during horizontal peer to peer learning they could learn how to prepare and apply slips and glazes on the existing repertoire of vessels. This ‘old’ repertoire of vessels is mostly present in Phase 3, while it almost vanished in Phase 4. However, it is obvious that the TTC community was dominant and they imposed a new understanding of appropriate raw materials, vessels shape and decorative styles.
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To summarise, what has been proposed in this research is that Ottomanisation can be related to a form of social pressure that exerted in a particular historical material context defined by a) a strong presence of the Ottoman state in urban, religious and social institutions, but which, however, did have little involvement in the organisation of production; and b) by the arrival of new settlers who replaced large sections of the former population but not all of it. Due to the historical events they witnessed, the potters of Belgrade found themselves, with the rest of their community, in a new cultural environment to which they started contributing. In a process of horizontal transmission of knowledge, which could have been facilitated by some form of Ottoman institutions, they managed to integrate their knowledge of the environment and technology into the new production system. A new group of potters that arrived in Belgrade after 1521 was skilful in manufacturing Ottoman urban pottery, designed to meet the dietary and aesthetic requirements of the urban population in the Ottoman Empire. Their unfamiliarity with the local environment was overcome by interaction with the previous community of potters. In the local environment, they searched for low-calcareous clays that suited their production standards. In addition to that, they probably also used local resources for the preparation of slips and glazes. Some of the TTB potters probably decided to participate in the new production and started coating their vessels with slips and glazes. Once the workshop/s was/were established, the TTC community continued dominating the local market in Belgrade until (at least) the end of the 17th century. The proposed interpretation offers an explanation for the changes that took place. Ottomanisation was not a pre-developed cultural package delivered to Belgrade and the Middle Danube, but it was a process that unfolded within the local conditions and with the involvement of the local community.
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Chapter 8 Conclusion
This study has produced an archaeological interpretation of Ottomanisation through the study of the technology of ceramic production in Belgrade between the 14th and 17th centuries. By emphasising the agency of potters, it has argued that Ottomanisation should not necessarily be seen as politically enforced by the Ottoman elite on the local population in the Middle Danube region. Instead, it suggests that this cultural change was actively shaped by various social groups subjected to the new polity.
The archaeological interpretation of Ottomanisation proposed in this research is close to some recent attempts in historiography and art history that highlighted the impact of local pre-Ottoman social strata on the process of cultural change (Watenpaugh, 2004). This approach addresses the mechanisms of change by emphasising artisans who carried out the work, rather than assuming that the change happened according to a model designed in Istanbul. It is suggested in this research that the local population of Belgrade actively participated in the process of cultural change. This is important because Ottomanisation is easily understood as a process alienated from the local population of the Balkans, something that happened in parallel to their traditions of living. The dominant historical discourse, often tied with nationalism, is that the Ottomans and their material culture are foreign elements in the Balkan history, and, as such, they had no influence on the local population (Antov, 2016; Todorova, 2005, 2009). However, Ottomanisation is central to the understanding of plurality of modern Balkan identities. By addressing the agency of local communities in the Middle Danube region, this research wanted to re-think their role in the formation of material culture after the Ottoman conquest.
In the absence of comparative case studies, a local-scale view on technology has been chosen in order to provide in-depth understanding of cultural change in an important and influential urban centre in the Middle Danube region. This was a first attempt at the scientific study of Belgrade’s ceramics that aimed to contribute to the understanding of technology, provenance and production organisation of ceramics in Belgrade over the course of four centuries. These three fields of inquiry were obscure in the archaeological scholarship on Medieval and Post-medieval periods, not only in Belgrade, but also elsewhere in the Balkans.
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The research relied on the results of ceramic petrography and WDXRF analysis for the reconstruction of ceramic technology and provenance as well as SEM-EDS for the understanding of slip and glaze technology. The analytical data illustrated a plurality of local technologies used in the production of common earthenware. Several sources of raw materials were exploited around Belgrade containing clays of different properties that were further processed into texturally different pastes. It has been suggested that the long-term exploitation of malleable clays associated with Avala was culturally defined. Equally heterogeneous are vessel shapes and decorative styles, as well as firing regimes. What seems to be a common technological trait in the local production is the use of the wheel-throwing forming technique. The glaze and slip technology, representative of Phases 3 and 4, also shows a number of technological choices. All analysed glazed samples contain a high-lead glaze, but the lead-bearing component has been used in different ways, often mixed with silica and clay. The slips are also associated with four recipes, some compositionally different from the ceramic bodies they coat. The workshops that manufactured these ceramics were probably located in the town or its outskirts and could have been structured in several modes of craft organisation that are discussed in this text.
The findings of this research suggest that Ottomanisation was a process of cultural change that did not necessarily involve a direct state influence. Using the example of potters, it has been argued that the involvement in the Ottoman political network exposed the remaining local population in Belgrade to a social pressure to integrate. The pace of architectural transformation that preceded the population change indicates that the Ottoman central authorities acted rapidly to include Belgrade into the existing Balkan network. For this to happen, the Ottomans needed new people to restore the socio-economic life in a de-populated town. As the first tax registers show, some of the newcomers were Muslims of various ethnic and linguistic origins, but there were also Christians, Roma and Jews. This heterogeneous group of people entered Belgrade as citizens of the Ottoman Empire that were familiar with the ‘Ottoman way’ in the Balkans. However, they were unfamiliar with the local resources that they needed to use in order to carry out the construction and production activities. The evidence presented in this thesis suggests they encountered and interconnected with the local community. This interaction was perhaps facilitated by a guild form of organisation that subjected different craftsmen to a given rule of conduct. Nevertheless, the
264 technology for pottery making brought by the new potters prevailed from the start. It appeared as a full package of well-defined technological choices in the first archaeological context of Ottoman Belgrade (Context 5), and as such it continued to be reproduced to the end of the 17th century (Contexts 6, 7 and 8). In the 17th century, some new forms were introduced, and the production grew together with the expansion of the town, the greatest in the pre-industrial era.
This research suggested that the meaning of Ottomanisation should be extended to include various forms of agents, materials and social meanings. The agents of change were not only the members of the Osmanli class, but also artisans that were part of reaya. The pottery they produced while interacting with the environment and other members of their community is telling for the process of cultural change. The bottom- up archaeological approach shed new light on this important topic and opened new possibilities for further studies.
Suggestions for future research
For the further study of Ottomanisation, it is important to define a relevant set of comparative case studies that would enable a regional-scale approach. In the Balkans, urban centres of different regions experienced the process of cultural change in different historical phases, which is an important fact to consider. Taking Belgrade as a reference point, the urban centres of the Middle Danube conquered in the first half of the 16th century should be taken as relevant comparative cases. These are particularly the towns located in Srem and Slavonija included in the study of Moačanin (2005) and beyond, that were conquered immediately after Belgrade. Some of these towns have either published (Osijek and Bač) or unpublished material (Zemun, Slankamen, Sremska Mitrovica, Šabac) that requires further attention. It is important to mention that efforts have already been made by Hungarian scholars to investigate the ceramics from this region using the methods of materials science (Kreiter and Panczel, 2016). Some of the preliminary findings indicate a degree of common technological choices related to Ottoman-style pottery production. These commonalities deserve to be further investigated, because they imply, as was argued in this thesis, the existence of common technological knowledge linked to the appearance of the ‘Ottoman style’.
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An interesting question that emerged in this research is related to the craft organisation in Ottoman towns. What are the archaeological traits that can be related to the guild mode of organisation? Particularly, how can we use the technology of ceramic production to answer this question? Similarly to Ottomanisation, an archaeological study of guilds requires comparative case studies. It would be interesting to compare Belgrade’s mode of production with that of other towns and to observe similarities and locally conditioned differences. A good starting point would consist of archaeological sites with direct evidence for production, such as Kruševac, or those that have historically attested guilds of potters.
Finally, in order to get a more complete picture of the production in Belgrade, it remains necessary to obtain archaeological data for villages around Belgrade and to explore further the dynamics between town and countryside. This type of research would have to conduct surveys in the villages around Avala, in order to document archaeological ceramics and potential traces of production. Furthermore, geological samples from potential clay sources should be taken for microscopic analysis and compared to the archaeological pottery. It would also be interesting to investigate links between the coexisting productions of ceramics and metals in these villages, and to shed more light on the industrial activities of Early Modern Belgrade.
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Glossary
Modern Turkish spelling has been used for all terms and names relevant to the Ottoman Balkans. These words have been marked in italics and explained in the text, but their meaning will be listed in this Glossary as well. Words that have entered English such as ‘qadi’ or ‘dervish’ have been spelled as in standard dictionaries.
Akhi
Fütüvvet corporation consisting of artisans and merchants.
Beylerbeylik
A large administrative entity within the Ottoman Empire.
Caravanserai
An inn and a commercial place.
Ҫanakçılar
Makers of earthenware pots.
Ҫarṣi
Commercial part of an Ottoman city.
Cemaat
Community of people.
Ҫırak
An apprentice in a guild.
Ҫömlekçiler
Earthen pot-makers.
Ҫömlekciyân
Potters.
Ҫömlekçi
Potters.
Devşirme
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Youth levy in the Ottoman Empire. The state forcibly alienated Christian boys from their families in the Balkans and raised them to serve the Sultan.
Dervish
A member of a Sufi fraternity.
Dibekkârân
Potters.
Eṣnāf
A guild.
Fütüvvet
Islamic code of noble conduct closely linked to Sufism.
Ghazi
A Muslim religious warrior.
Hammam
A public bath.
Hane
Household.
Imaret
A public kitchen.
Madrasa
A school.
Mahalla
Neighbourhood in cities.
Martolos
Urban militia that consisted of Christian men.
Masjid
A prayer place.
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Mustahfiz
Territorial militia that consisted of Muslim men.
Nahiye
Sub-area of sancak.
Kethüda
A headman of a guild.
Kalfabaşı
Kethüda’s assistant.
Kenarcıyân
Edge-decorators of pottery.
Külliye
A complex of buildings that includes a mosque as well as madrasa, kitchen, bath and others. It can be part of a waqf and it is managed from one place.
Qadi
A judge.
Reaya
Tax-paying class of the Ottoman society of all religions.
Rumeli
Province (beylerbeylik or eyalet) of the Ottoman Empire, coincides with a large part of the Balkans
Sancak
Administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire
Sancak-bey
A high-ranking officer appointed to the military and administrative command of a sancak.
Sijills
Records of the qadi court. Primary source.
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Sipahi
Calvary corps that had a right to hold timar.
Ṣehir
A fully developed city.
Tahrīr defter (plural defterleri)
Tax register and land cadastre in the Ottoman Empire. Primary source.
Tekke
A dervish monastery.
Timar
A land granted in tenure, not in property, by the Ottoman Sultan.
Usta
A master in a guild.
Varoṣ
A suburb or a Christian part of the town. In Belgrade’s context extra muros settlement.
Waqf
Pious foundation in the Ottoman Empire.
Yiğit Başı
A kethüda’s assistant.
270
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Appendix A
The results of macroscopic analyses
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Appendix A.1 Ware Phase Colour Inclusions Modelling Base Function MNI of rims EVE of rims Remarks
W1 P1, P2 orange- coarse and fine wheel wheel and cooking P2 LT=406 P2 LT=5825 ceramics black; core- quartz-looking; throwing string marks; pots; P1D=10 P1D=221 feel rough margin white splayed; stove pots; P2 D=24 P2 D =326 under colour mineral/rock; smoothed; one jug fingers differentiati brown, rounded stamped on is particles present in some samples
W2 P1, P2 orange-red; medium-fine wheel wheel and cooking P2 LT=19 P2 LT=539 related to core- quartz looking throwing string marks; pots; P1=1 P1=13 W1 margin splayed; jugs, P2 D=2 P2 D=97 colour stamped beakers; differentiati one bowl on is present some samples W3 P2 grey- coarse quartz- wheel splayed cooking P2 LT=36 P2 LT=487 wheel traces orange looking; throwing pots are not very medium mica- clear, some looking fragments have finger marks from inner sides
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Ware Phase Colour Inclusions Modelling Base Function MNI of rims EVE of rims Remarks
W4 P2 dark grey- coarse and fine wheel splayed cooking P2 LT=8 P2 LT=266 Pots have black quartz-looking throwing pots or stamp storage pots marks on rims
W5 P2 light-grey fine quartz- wheel wheel and tableware P2 LT=1 P2 LT=3 only one looking throwing string marks sherd
W6 P2 beige very-fine quartz- wheel wheel and beakers P2 LT=1 P2 LT=100 only one looking throwing string marks P2 D=1 P2 D=17 sherd
W7a P4 grey not visible wheel smoothed and jugs P4 LT=2 P4 LT=128 also known throwing splayed P4 D=0 P4 D=0 as Grey Polished Ware
W7b P2, P3, grey very find quartz- wheel NA jugs P2 LT=0 P2 LT=0 also known P4 looking throwing P3 LT=1 P3 LT=0 as Grey P4 LT=0 P4 LT=0 Polished P4 D=0 P4 D=0 Ware. Coarser than W7a
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Ware Phase Colour Inclusions Modelling Base Function MNI of rims EVE of rims Remarks
W8 P3 strong fine quartz- wheel wheel and tableware P3 LT=6 P3 LT=144 it looks orange-red looking throwing string marks similar to W1 and W2
W9a P4 orange medium-coarse hand turning- wheel and cooking P4 LT=33 P4 LT=1363 calcite-looking; wheel string marks; pots well-sorted splayed; smoothed; stamped W9b P4 grey medium-coarse hand turning- stamped cooking P4 LT=8 P4 LT=419 version of calcite-looking; wheel pots; W9a with poorly-sorted lids different distribution of inclusions W10 P3 orange fine quartz- wheel ring-foot and bowls P3 LT=19 P3 LT=196 it is similar looking, throwing pedestal-foot to W1 and rounded brown; W8 white limestone- looking
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Ware Phase Colour Inclusions Modelling Base Function MNI of rims EVE of rims Remarks
W11 P3, P4 orange medium and wheel wheel and cooking P3 LT=89 P3 LT=2248 related to fine quartz- throwing string marks; pots; P4 LT=69 P4 LT=3283 W2, W8, looking; splayed; bowls; rounded ring-foot and jugs; P4 D=8 P4 D=244 W10 and brown; pedestal-foot; dishes; W15. elongated slip coating; storage white glazed pots; limestone- pitchers; looking stove pots
W12 P3 grey medium wheel NA cooking P2 LT=2 P2 LT=35 similar to quartz- throwing pots W3 but with looking; much fine elongated texture mineral/rock (maybe mica) white limestone- looking W13 P2, P3, orange-brown coarse hand-turning no marks baking pans P2 LT=1 P2 LT=13 P4 inclusions of wheel P3 LT=2 P3 LT=123 shiny calcite- P4 LT=4 P4 LT=41 looking inclusions
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Ware Phase Colour Inclusions Modelling Base Function MNI of rims EVE of rims Remarks
W14 P3, P4 orange-brown coarse and wheel NA pithos P3 LT=1 P3 LT=25 medium-size throwing P4 LT=0 P4 LT=0 white, brown and silvery minerals/rocks W15 P4 orange-red fine quartz- wheel wheel and bowls; P4 LT=11 P4 LT=346 similar to looking; throwing string marks; jugs P4 D=2 P4 D=47 W10 but round brown ring-foot and without mineral/rock pedestal-foot limestone- looking inclusions W16 P4 grey coarse and wheel NA bowls P4 LT=4 P4 LT=44 medium throwing quartz- looking; platy mineral/rock W17 P4 pale orange- fine quartz- wheel wheel and tableware P4 LT=0 P4 LT=0 the fabric beige; core- looking throwing string marks; feels dusty margin colour splayed under the differentiation fingers
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Ware Phase Colour Inclusions Modelling Base Function MNI of rims EVE of rims Remarks
W18 P4 orange-grey; well-sorted wheel NA ? P4 LT=0 P4 LT=0 core-margin fine quartz- throwing colour looking; differentiation a few coarse quartz-looking
W19 P4 grey; fine quartz- wheel NA ? P4 LT=0 P4 LT=0 core-margin looking; throwing colour coarse white differentiation
W20 P4 orange-brown large voids hand-turning NA baking pans P4 LT=2 P4 LT=23 wheel
W21 P4 grey; core- medium wheel NA baking pan P4 LT=1 P4 LT=25 margin colour quartz- throwing differentiation looking; white and silvery minerals/rocks W22 P1, P2 orange and coarse brown; wheel and smoothed; cooking P1 D=18 P1 D=290 grey; core- orange hand smoothed with pots P2 D=1 P2 D=19 margin colour rounded; modelling a concave differentiation coarse to fine recess in the is present quartz-looking middle of the some samples base
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Ware Phase Colour Inclusions Modelling Base Function MNI of rims EVE of rims Remarks
W23 P2 grey and dark coarse brown wheel and NA cooking P2 D=1 P2 D=16 grey; core- and black; hand pots margin colour fine quartz- modelling differentiation looking is present some samples
W24 P1 orange-grey coarse and fine wheel and smoothed cooking P1 D=2 P1 D=58 similar to brown; hand pots W22 white modelling limestone- looking; coarse quartz- looking; coarse grey mineral/rock W25 P1 grey and dark coarse white wheel and smoothed cooking P1 D=3 P1 D=113 similar to grey; core- limestone- hand pots W1 with margin colour looking; modelling abundant differentiation quartz-looking limestone- is present looking some samples inclusions Table 1. Information about wares deriving from the macroscopic study of Belgrade’s assemblage. LT stands for the Lower Town, D for Dorćol and P for Phase.
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Appendix B
The description of fabrics
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Fabric 1: Coarse sedimentary with polycrystalline quartz/quartzite and serpentinite Samples of Phase 2 Lower Town: BG 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96 Inclusions 25-30%. el & eq. sa-r. Close- to double-spaced. Weak alignment to margin of samples. Unimodal to weakly bimodal (samples BG 57, 59, 60, 71, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 96) grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 60-70%, 3-0.24 mm Frequent to Common: Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 1.1 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. This rock consists of quartz crystals which elongated axes tend to follow the same direction. Boundaries between quartz crystals are sutured, but sometimes a mixture of sutured and straight boundaries can be found in a single piece (samples 58, 78, 79). It can contain elongated crystals of muscovite (samples BG 51, 55, 61, 66, 70, 71, 79, 80, 83, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 96). Commonly, a fine-grained brown inclusion (in PPL and XP) appears with quartz, probably altered mica. Monocrystalline Quartz; eq & el. sa-sr. < 1.2 mm, mode = 0.34 mm. Chert; el & eq. sa-sr. < 1.75 mm, mode = 0.75 mm. In most of the cases, chert consists of fine-grained and well-sorted microcrystalline quartz. Examples of chalcedonic chert are identified in samples BG 54, 57, 78, 80, 86, 95. Chert can contain micaceous (samples 53, 77, 78, 96) or micritic (samples BG 52, 53, 60, 61, 72, 78, 83, 92) crystals. Some samples (BG 54, 62, 70, 77, 78, 79, 81, 83, 92, 95) contain also a fine-grained brown inclusion (in PPL and XP), that have the same properties as the fine-grained brown inclusions in polycrystalline quartz. In most of sections they appear intermixed, but there are examples of lamination (Sample 81). Frequent to Absent: Limestone; el & eq. r-sr. < 3 mm, mode = 0.65 mm. Limestone is micritic with occasional inclusions of fine-grained quartz. Some examples contain the skeletal components of various microfossils. In samples BG53, BG76, and BG88 microfossils
341 have internal plates with pores filled with carbonate cement. Samples BG 79, 80, and 83 contain voids with rims composed of secondary calcite within the micritic limestone, which could be a trace of microfossils whose morphology cannot be identified. Occasionally, remains of foraminifera are documented (samples BG72 and BG93). Limestone is present in samples BG 50, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96. Serpentinite; el & eq. r-sr. <0.7 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It appears as a rock of yellow and green colours (in PPL) with a diffuse mesh texture. In XP serpentine can be yellow, green, red and brown. In some samples, serpentinite has the intense red to deep brown colour with clear boundaries and oval shape (BG 53, 60, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 82, 86, 87). Sometimes the core is darker than margins (sample BG75), but also there are cases where one part of the mineral is darker and the other is lighter (sample BG75). It can be surrounded by voids (samples BG 74, 86, 87). Sample BG81 has an example of serpentinite of red/brown colour (in XP and PPL) with quartz grains, relic of an altered ultramafic rock that was serpentinized. It is present in samples BG 50, 51, 53, 59, 60, 61, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 81, 82, 86, 87, 91, 93. Common to Few: TFs type 1; el & eq. r-sr. < 1.8 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. They present inclusions of dark brown colour (in PPL and XP), sharp to merging borders, high relief and high to neutral optical density relative to the surrounding matrix. They can contain inclusions such as fine quartz, fragments of igneous rocks, polycrystalline quartz, limestone, plagioclase, and muscovite mica (samples BG 55, 77, 78, 79, 81, 89, 92). Common to Absent: Intermediate volcanic rock; el & eq. sr-r. < 1 mm, mode = 0.36 mm. This rock consists of randomly-orientated laths of plagioclase feldspar set in a fine-grained groundmass. It probably can be identified as dacite or andesite. This rock is present in samples BG 53, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 96. Plagioclase Feldspar; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.8 mm, mode = 0.26 mm. It shows several different forms of alteration; calcareous rim (samples BG 56, 61, 86, 87); inclusions of fine-grained calcareous crystals (samples 50, 64, 70, 72, 81); inclusions of micaceous crystals (Sample BG58); inclusions of fine-grained brownish particles (samples BG 53, 74, 77); crystals that have a cloudy look (samples BG60 and BG73).
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It is present is samples BG 50, 53, 56, 58, 60, 61, 63, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 81, 85, 86, 87, 93, 95. Very Few to Absent: TFs type 2; eq & el. r-sr. < 3 mm, mode = 2 mm. This type of TFs is composed of calcareous to non-calcareous clay, ranging in colour between orange, red, and brown (in PPL and XPL). They are characterised by neutral to low optical density and low relief. Although the matrix of TFs type 2 is similar to the surrounding matrix, they contain only inclusions of fine quartz. In most of cases, they are separated from the rest of the matrix by voids. They are present is samples BG 61, 66, 76, 83, 80, 88, 91, 92, 96. Sandstone; el & eq. r-sr. < 1.75 mm, mode = 0.6 mm. This is a type of coarse-grained poorly sorted sandstone dominated by monocrystalline and polycrystalline quartz, mica, and calcite grains set in fine-grained calcareous groundmass. In sample BG62, it consists of altered quartz, feldspar and altered mica connected with cement. In some cases, (samples 66, 72, 76), sandstone consists only of monocrystalline quartz set in a groundmass and can be classified as quartz arenite. It is present in samples BG 57, 62, 66, 67, 72, 73, 76, 77, 81, 82, 85, 92, 93. Igneous rock fragments; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.86 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. This rock shows equigranular texture and consists of quartz and feldspar crystals. It is probably a rock of plutonic origin, close to granite. It appears in samples BG 52, 56, 58, 60, 62, 72, 73, 74, 75, 83, 86, 87, 89, 93. Rare to Absent: Muscovite Mica; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.95 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It is present in samples BG 54, 57, 60, 63, 77, 83, 95. Fine Fraction 30-40%, 0.24-0.01 mm. Predominant to Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz Few to Absent: Plagioclase feldspar and Muscovite mica Very Rare to Absent: Microcline. It is present only in samples BG76 and BG89. Matrix 55-60%. The matrix is calcareous. It is yellow to orange in PPL and yellow, red and brown in XP. The matrix is mostly heterogenous with distinctive differences in colours between margins and the core. In most of the cases, margins are orange, yellow, or red
343 while the core is brown (in PPL and XP). The matrix in samples BG60, 77, 78, 81, 83, 86, 89, 90 is homogenous. All samples contain optically active matrices. Voids 5-10%. Voids appear in a range of different shapes and sizes. They consist of meso- and macro-vughs (present in all samples) as well as meso- and macro-planar voids (samples BG 50, 53, 54, 55, 57, 61, 62, 68, 70, 73, 75, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89. Also, meso-vesicles are documented (samples 66, 71). Voids show strong (samples BG 62, 73, 83, 86, 89, 92, 95) to poor (sample BG81) alignment to margins of samples. Comments This is a heterogeneous fabric, characterised by coarse inclusions set in the calcareous matrix. The fabric has consistent occurrence of mono- and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, chert and TFs type 1, while the content of other inclusions varies. Two types of igneous rocks are documented; one is intermediate volcanic that probably can be identified as dacite or andesite, while the other is close to granite. In both cases, the precise identification of rocks is made difficult by their small size. Apart from these two igneous rocks, inclusions of sub-angular monocrystalline quartz are probably associated with igneous rocks. Sedimentary rocks are present in forms of clastic and carbonate rocks and they make the most abundant segment of inclusions in the majority of samples. Among them, cherts and limestones (with and without microfossils) could be singled out as the most representative for this fabric. The presence of the metamorphic rock serpentinite indicates the occurrence of a metasomatism in the environment where the rock came from. Another type of metamorphic rock is quartzite, that is more abundant than serpentinite, suggest the presence of a process of low-grade metamorphism in the environment where the rocks came from. Therefore, the compositional variation together with alterations of inclusions suggest a degree of geological complexity in the environment that can be characterised as predominantly sedimentary, with some low-degree metamorphism in the geological history of the region. In this context, igneous and metamorphic rocks appear intermixed with sedimentary rocks. The optical activity of the matrix suggest that an approximate equivalent firing temperature was around 800-850 °C. The ceramics of this fabrics were fired in an oxidising atmosphere, but the core/margin colour differentiations suggest uneven firing conditions. Voids are present in a variety of shapes and sizes, indicating the presence of organic inclusions.
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Related to Fabric 1: Sample BG64
Sample BG64 differs to F1 for the absence of chert. Other inclusions characteristic for F1 are also present in this sample: mono and quartzite, serpentinite, TFs of types 1 and 2, and limestone. The matrix is calcareous, optically active and heterogeneous. It shows the core/margin colour differentiation where margins are yellowish-red in PPL and XP while the core is dark grey in PPL and XP. The types of voids are the same as in F1.
Fabric 2: Quartz-rich and non-calcareous Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 99, 100, 101 Inclusions 20-25%. el & eq. sa-sr. Single-spaced or less. Weak alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 30-40%, 1.15-0.24 mm. Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.75mm, mode = 0.25 mm. Common to Few: Altered rock similar to serpentinite; eq & el. r-sr. < 0.52 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. This rock is characterised by red to brown colour (in PPL and XP), clear borders high optical density and high relief relative to the surrounding matrix. TFs type 1; eq & el. r-sr. < 1.15 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. This is an inclusion of beige (PPL) and green or grey (XP) colours with clear boundaries. Its matrix is non- calcareous to calcareous (Sample BG99) and optically active. TFs type 1 can contain inclusions of quartz and be intersected with voids. This is the most abundant type of TFs in this fabric. TFs type 2; eq & el. < 0.75mm, mode = 0.25 mm. This type of TFs is characterised by brown colour (in PPL and XP) and inclusions of monocrystalline quartz. They have diffused borders, high optical density and neutral relief. Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 1mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It is composed of different-size quartz crystals that have straight to sutured borders. Very Rare to Absent: Chert: el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.5 mm.
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Fine Fraction: 60-70%. 0.24 – 0.01 mm. Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz Rare: Mica Matrix 65-70%. The matrix is non-calcareous to weakly calcareous. The colour is buff in PPL and grey in XP. The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity is related to TFs. The matrix is optically active in all samples. Voids 1-5%. Voids consist mostly of meso- and macro-vughs while planar voids are documented in Sample 99. They have weak to moderate alignment to margins of sections. They can be associated with the TFs, because they intersect the TFs or surround them. Comments This fabric is characterised by inclusions of quartz set in the non-calcareous to weakly calcareous matrix. It is poor in inclusions, out of which quartz, the altered rock close to serpentinite and the TFs are representative of the coarse fraction. The matrix is optically active, which suggests that the approximate equivalent firing temperature was around 800-850°C. The pottery of this fabric is fired in a reducing atmosphere.
Fabric 3: Low-calcareous and very fine Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 102, 103, 104 Inclusions 10-15%. eq & el. r-sr. Single spaced or less. Weak alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse Fraction 5%, 0.7-0.24 mm. Common: TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 0.7 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. These TFs are inclusions of brown to red colour (in PPL and XP) with diffuse borders, high optical density and high relief. Occasionally, they include fine inclusions of quartz and mica. Very Rare to Absent:
346
Polycrystalline quartz; < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. It is composed of quartz crystals of varied sizes having sutured boundaries. Only one piece is present in Sample 104. Micritic calcite; < 0.7 mm, mode = 0.7 mm. Only one example is present the in Sample 104. Fine Fraction 95%, 0.24 - 0.01 mm. Common: Monocrystalline Quartz and Mica. Very rare to absent: Plagioclase (Sample 132) Matrix 75-80%. The matrix is low calcareous, buff in PPL and reddish-grey XP. It is homogenous and the only inhomogeneity is related to TFs. The matrix is optically active. Voids 2-5%. They consist mostly of meso-vughs, moderately aligned to margins of samples. Comments This very fine fabric contains TFs set in a low calcareous matrix. Other inclusions, polycrystalline quartz and micritic calcite appear only in BG104. The matrix is optically active suggesting an equivalent firing temperature <800-850°C. Voids are rare and consist of meso vughs.
Fabric 4: Coarse and granite-rich Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121 Inclusions 45-55%. el & eq. a-sr. Close- to single-spaced. Weak alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 50-60%. 3.5 – 0.24 mm. Dominant to Frequent: Granite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 2.6 mm, mode = 1 mm. Granite consists of alkali feldspar, quartz, plagioclase feldspar with additions of biotite and/or muscovite mica, and alkali feldspar (including microcline). Boundaries between crystals are straight. In some
347 cases, fine-grained brown inclusions appear in granites (samples BG105 and BG106), probably alterations of mica. Common to Few: Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. a-sr. < 2.35 mm, mode = 0.75 mm. Microcline feldspar; el & eq. sa-sr. < 1 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 3.5 mm, mode = 0.75 mm. They have clear to diffuse borders, ranging in colour from grey/brown to orange/red in both PPL and XP. TFs contain fine-grained inclusions of quartz and mica and in some cases micrites (Sample BG115). Few: Muscovite mica; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.86 mm, mode = 0.44 mm. Mica can be altered, appearing as white or grey in XP or in other cases as brown in XP (samples BG 105, 107, 118). Polycrystalline quartz; el & eq. sa-sr. < 1.5 mm, mode = 1 mm. It consists of quartz with straight and sutured boundaries. Sample 105 contain an example with mica. Serpentinite; el & eq. sr-r. < 0.44 mm, mode = 0.44 mm. It has brown to yellow colour in PPL and XP. It is identified only in BG118. Fine fraction 40-50%. 0.24 - 0.01 mm. Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz Few: Biotite Very Rare: Serpentinite. It appears as brown in PPL and red in XP. It is present only in BG105. Matrix 25-35%. The matrix is a non-calcareous to weakly calcareous (samples 106, 113, 115, 118). The colour ranges between light brown to beige in PPL and is grey in XP. Calcareous samples are yellowish in PPL and orange to yellow in XP. Samples BG 105, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, and 121 have a homogenous colour of the matrix while other samples show a core/margin colour differentiation. Sample BG106 has the matrix with layers of grey and orange colour (in PPL and XP). In samples BG 109, 110, and 115 one margin is grey while the other margin is orange/yellow (in PPL and XP); Sample BG120 has light grey margins and darker grey core (in PPL and XP). Secondary calcite is present in Sample BG106. Distinct
348 colours and textures of the clay are especially visible in PPL (Sample BG107). The optical activity ranges from weak to strong. Voids 5-10%. They consist of meso- and macro planar voids and meso- to macro vughs. They show good alignment to margins of sections. Voids can be associated with TFs, surrounding them or being part of them. Comments This homogenous fabric is characterised by granite and associated minerals, set in a weakly to non-calcareous matrix. Some samples show a core/margin colour differentiation, indicating uneven firing conditions. Based on the optical activity of the matrix, the equivalent firing temperature was approximately around 850 °C.
Fabric 5: Coarse with opaques Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131 Inclusions 50-60%. el & eq. a-r. Close- to single-spaced. Good (samples BG124 and BG126) to weak (samples BG123 and BG127) alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 40-50%. 4.75 – 0.24 mm. Dominant: Opaques; el & eq. sr-sa. < 1.3 mm, mode = 0.75 mm. Opaques appear as inclusions of black colour in PPL and XP. Crystals have tabular and elongated shapes. They are associated with other minerals in this Fabric. These associations will be described separately. Frequent to Common: Gneiss with opaques; el & eq. sa-sr. < 4.75 mm, mode = 1.5 mm. This rock consists of microcline and alkaline feldspars, quartz, and opaques. Sample BG130 contains examples of gneiss with amphibole and a brown colour mineral (in PPL and XP) that could be altered mica. In Sample BG126 boundaries between feldspars are sutured while opaques have elongated shapes. In samples 128 and 130, tabular opaques,
349 orientated in different directions, are more abundant than feldspars. This rock can probably be identified as graphite gneiss. Common to Few: Microcline Feldspar; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.8 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. It can be associated with opaques. Amphiboles; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.35 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. a-sa. < 1 mm, mode = 0.75 mm. Polycrystalline quartz; el & eq. sa-sr. < 2.25 mm, mode = 0.75. Boundaries between quartz crystals are straight to sutured. Common to Absent: Serpentinites; el & eq. sr-r. < 1.65 mm, mode = 1 mm. TFs have the yellow colour in PPL and grey/brown in XP. They have diffused to clear boundaries. They can be surrounded by voids. They are present in samples BG 124, 125, 126, Rare to Absent: Micritic calcite; el & eq. sr-sa. < 1mm, mode = 0.45 mm. It is documented in Sample BG123. Fine fraction 50-60%. 0.24 – 0.01 mm. Dominant: Opaques Frequent: Monocrystalline quartz Few: Amphiboles Matrix 25-35%. The matrix is weakly to strongly (Sample BG130) calcareous. The colour of the matrix ranges between yellow, brown and greyish in PPL to yellow and grey in XP. The matrix is homogenous. Optical activity ranges from weak to strong (Sample BG130). Voids 5%. Rare voids consist of meso- (samples BG128 and BG130) and macro-vughs (samples BG 126, 127, 129). They show moderate alignment to margins of samples. Comments This homogenous fabric is characterised by the presence of opaques associated with the gneiss set in a low calcareous matrix. Gneiss could be characterised as graphite gneiss and includes various minerals described above. Other minerals identified in this fabrics, such as quartz and microcline are related to gneiss. The matrix is homogenous.
350
The pottery of this fabric was fired in even conditions and probably the reducing atmosphere. The optical activity suggest that the equivalent firing temperature was around 850 °C.
Fabric 6: Fine and micaceous with TFs Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG152, 165, 166, 167, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190, 191, 192. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 203, 205, 206, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 215, 218, 219, 220, 226, 227, 228, 257, 258, 259, 262, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 270, 276, 277, 278. Samples of Phase 4 from Dorćol: BG284, 308, 311, 313, 318. Inclusions 15-20%. el & eq. Close- to double-spaced. Well- to moderately-sorted inclusions. The alignment to margins of sections is moderate to strong. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 5-7%. 0.95-0.24 mm. Frequent to Common: TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 0.94 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. They can be characterised as brown, rounded inclusions (in PPL and XP). Borders are diffused while the optical density is higher in comparison to the surrounding matrix. They can contain inclusions of fine- grained quartz and mica. Common to Absent: Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.65 mm, mode = 0.25 mm. Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sa-sr. <0.7 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. Boundaries between crystals can be both straight and sutured. Samples BG 199, 210, and 220 contain polycrystalline quartz with mica. Rare to Absent: Limestone; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.85 mm, mode = 0.32 mm. It is present in samples BG 192, 198 and 220. Serpentinite; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.9 mm, mode = 0.28 mm. It is present in samples BG 167, 186, 191, 210, 265. Very Rare to Absent:
351
Sandstone; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.4 mm, mode = 0.36 mm. It consists of quartz crystals set in a fine-grained matrix. It is present in samples 167, 226, and 228. Igneous rock fragments; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.36 mm, mode = 0.36 mm. It consists of plagioclase feldspar and quartz. The origin of the rock is probably plutonic, close to granite. It is detected in samples BG 165, 196, 197 and 210. Muscovite Mica; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.44 mm, mode = 0.28 mm. It is present in samples BG198 and BG209. Siltstone; el & eq. < 0.7 mm, mode = 0.26 mm. It is present in samples BG184 and BG226. Fine fraction: 93-95%. 0.24 – 0.01 mm. Predominant-Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz Frequent-Common: Muscovite Mica Few: Chert and Plagioclase feldspar Rare: Limestone and Serpentinite Matrix 65-70%. The matrix is weakly calcareous to non-calcareous, and micaceous. Most of the samples have yellow to orange colours in PPL and red to orange colours in XP. Several samples (BG 209, 215, 227, 270) have distinctive grey to brown colours in PPL and grey colour in XP. Only several samples (BG 184, 220, 227, 270) show a core/margin colour differentiation while others have a homogenous colour. Sample BG184 has one brown margin (in PPL and XP) while the other is yellow (in PPL and XP). Samples BG220 and BG227 have one brown margin (in PPL and XP) while the other is grey (in PPL and XP). Sample BG270 contains layers of different colours; in PPL these layers have light brown, dark brown, and yellow colours while in XP they appear as grey, dark brown, and orange colours. Secondary calcite is found in samples BG186 and BG213.The matrix is weakly to moderately active. A slip, applied between the body and the glaze, is identified in samples BG 166, 167, 171, 187, 190, 191, 192, 197, 198, 199, 203, 209, 210, 211, 212, 219, 220, 227, 228, 258, 262, 276, 277, 311 (both sides), 318. A slip is made of the grey-colour clay (in PPL and XP). The average thickness of the slip is 0.1 mm. Voids 5-10%. Predominantly, voids consist of vughs ranging in size between meso and mega. Meso-vesicles are identified in samples 166, 218, 227, and 268 while planar voids are
352 detected in samples 172, 190, and 276. They are moderately aligned to the margins of the samples.
Comments
This is a fine-grained fabric, characterised by the presence of quartz and mica in the fine fraction, set in a weakly-calcareous to non-calcareous matrix. Inclusions in the coarse fraction are not abundant, which makes their characterisations with respect to their geological origin difficult. The samples of this fabric share the same texture and distribution of their main inclusions, but potential differences cannot be identified by ceramic petrography. The scarce presence of limestone, chert, siltstone and sandstone indicates the occurrence of sedimentary rocks in the environment. Equally scarce are inclusions that can be related to the igneous petrology, such as an igneous rock compositionally close to granite and plagioclase feldspar. Quartzite and serpentinite show the presence of different types of metamorphic rocks. Thus, scarce inclusions indicate to a mixed environment. The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity is related to TFs. The colour differentiation between margin and core is detected only in several samples. The weak to moderate optical activity indicates that the equivalent firing temperature can be estimated at around 850°C. The slip can be distinguished from the body in a number of samples of this group, visible as a layer of different colour and texture beneath the glaze.
Sub-group of Fabric 6: Medium-fine and micaceous
Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 135, 139, 174, 177, 181. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 200, 204, 208, 217, 260, 261, 274. Samples of Phase 4 from Dorćol: BG 304, 309, 310. Inclusions 20-25%. el & eq. Close- to double-spaced. Well- to moderately-sorted inclusions. The alignment to margins of sections is moderate to strong. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 10-15%. 1.4– 0.24 mm. Frequent to Common: Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.65 mm, mode = 0.4 mm.
353
Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.55 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It consists of quartz crystals which elongated axes are arranged in the same direction. Boundaries between quartz crystals are sutured. It can contain mica (samples BG 177, 181, 204, 208). Common to Absent: Chert; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It consists of well-sorted microcrystalline quartz. In some cases, (sample BG177), chert grains include fine- grained brown particles. It is present in samples BG 139, 174, 177, 200, 208, 217, 260. Few to Absent: Granite?; el & eq. sr-sa. < 1.05 mm, mode = 0.25 mm. It consists of quartz and feldspar, whose crystals are elongated. Samples BG 200, 217, and 304 include crystals of mica. Sample BG174 contains microcline. This is a rock of granitic type. It is present in samples BG 135, 174, 177, 217, 200, 260, 304. Intermediate volcanic rock; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.44 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It consists of randomly orientated plagioclase laths set in a fine-grained matrix. This rock probably can be identified as dacite or andesite. It is present in samples BG 135, 174, 177, 200, 217, 261, 310. Very Few to Absent: TFs; eq & el. r-sr. <1.4 mm, mode = 0.45 mm. TFs are rounded inclusions that appear brown in PPL and XP. Borders are clear to merging and the optical activity is high. Some TFs contain inclusions of fine-grained quartz and mica. TFs are present in samples BG 174, 177, 200, 208, 261, and 274. Mica; el & eq. sr. < 0.65 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It appears as elongated, tabular and thin mineral. It is colourless in PPL and, therefore, probably can be identified as muscovite mica. It is present in samples BG 135, 181, 204, 208, 217, 261, 274, 304. Rare to Absent: Limestone; el & eq. sr-r. < 1.25 mm, mode = 0.35 mm. It consists of micritic crystals, sometimes mixed with quartz, mica and fine-grained brown crystals. It is present in samples BG 174, 261, 274, 304, 309. Fine fraction 85-90%. 0.24-0.01 mm. Predominant-Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz Frequent: Mica Few: Plagioclase feldspar
354
Matrix 55-65%. The matrix is weakly calcareous to non-calcareous and micaceous. The colour ranges from yellow, brown and grey in PPL to yellow, red and grey in XP. Only the sample 174 shows a core/margin colour differentiation; the core is deep brown in PPL and black in XP while the margins are orange in PPL and XP. The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity is related to TFs. The secondary calcite is present in sample 204. The optical activity is moderate. A slip is detected in samples 181 (both sides), 204, 310 as a separate layer of clay of grey colour with an average thickness of 0.1 mm. Voids 5-10%. Predominantly, voids consist of vughs ranging in size between meso and mega. Planar voids are present in samples BG 135, 177, and 204. They are moderately aligned to the margins of the samples. Comments This sub-group is different to F6 in several ways. Firstly, inclusions of the coarse fraction are more abundant, which creates a different texture than in F6. However, this abundance does not affect the distribution of inclusions, which can still be characterised as unimodal. Therefore, it is not clear whether this difference between F6 and its sub-group is related to the natural occurrence of coarser inclusions or to a slightly different approach to the selection/procession of clay. Also, two types of igneous rocks detected in this sub-group make a difference to F6. Despite these differences, the inclusions show the same mixture of igneous and sedimentary rocks as in F6. The coarse fraction is dominated by monocrystalline quartz and quartzite while the fine fraction is characterised by the presence of quartz and mica. The matrix is weakly calcareous to non-calcareous as in F6. The moderate optical activity suggest that the equivalent firing temperature can be estimated on approximately 800°C.
Fabric 7: Medium-coarse and serpentinite-rich Sample of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG97. Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 305,307. Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 142, 143, 145, 147, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159, 160, 161, 163, 179, 188. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 214, 275. Inclusions 355
20-25%. el & eq. a-r. Close- to single-spaced. Moderately- to poorly-sorted inclusions. The alignment to margins of sections is moderate to strong. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 10-20%, 1.25-0.24 mm. Dominant to common: Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. a-sr. < 1 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. It consists of quartz crystals that are elongated and orientated in the same direction. Boundaries between quartz crystals are sutured, but sometimes a mixture of sutured and straight boundaries exist in a single rock. Commonly, quartzite contains also inclusions of muscovite mica (samples BG143, 153, 155, 163, 188) or fine-grained brown crystals that could be weathered mica crystals (samples BG 153, 154, 157, 160, 163, 179, 188). Frequent to common: Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.65 mm, mode = 0.26 mm. Serpentinite; el & eq. sr-r. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It appears as a rock of yellow, orange, red (PPL and XP) and green to brown colour (XP). Samples BG143 and BG145 contain serpentinite with opaque crystals. Few: Plagioclase feldspar; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. In some samples (BG143 and BG155), plagioclase looks weathered. TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 1 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. TFs are clay-rich inclusions of brown colour in PPL and XP, low optical density and clear to merging borders. They contain inclusions of fine quartz and mica. Few to absent: Intermediate volcanic rock; el & eq. sr-r. < 1.25 mm, mode = 0.65mm. This rock consists of randomly orientated laths of plagioclase feldspar set in a fine-gained groundmass composed of feldspars that appear as yellow inclusions in PPL. Samples BG 97, 157, and 160 contain examples of this rock with altered groundmass that appears as red to brown in PPL and XP. This rock probably can be identified as andesite or dacite. It is present in samples BG 97, 143, 145, 154, 155, 157, 160, 163, 214, 275, 305. Chert; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.32 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It consists of microcrystalline quartz, sometimes replaced by fine-grained brown crystals. It is present in samples 142, 143, 145, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159, 160, 163, 179, 188.
356
Igneous rock fragments; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. This rock shows equigranular texture and consists of quartz and feldspar crystals. It is probably a granitic type of rock. It is present in samples BG 153, 154, 155, 163, 275. Very Few to Absent: Limestone; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.8 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It is composed of micritic calcite with inclusions of fine quartz and mica. Limestone is present in samples 145, 159, 161, and 188 and it is especially abundant in Sample BG188, which also contains microfossils. Very rare to Absent: Mica schist; el & eq. sr-sa. < 1 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It is present in samples 142 and 143. Muscovite mica; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.6 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It is present in Sample 307. Fine fraction 80-90%. 0.24-0.01 mm. Dominant: Monocrystalline and polycrystalline quartz Frequent: Mica Frequent to common: Plagioclase feldspar and Serpentinite Few: Pyroxenes Matrix 60-65%. The matrix is weakly calcareous to moderately calcareous (samples BG143 and BG161) and micaceous. The colour ranges from orange, red to brown in PPL and orange, red to grey in XP. The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity relates to TFs. A core/margin colour differentiation is present only in samples BG 142, 143, and 163. Sample BG143 has a dark brown core and light brown margins in PPL and XP while samples BG142 and BG163 have one margin brown (in PPL and XP) and the other one orange (in PPL and XP). The matrix is optically active. A grey- colour (XP) slip is identified in samples BG 97, 153, 154, 155, 157, 160, 161, 163, 179 (both sides), 188, 214, and 275. Its thickness ranges between 0.04 and 0.16 mm Voids 5-10%. The list of voids includes meso- to macro-vughs (samples BG 142, 143, 147, 154, 179, 188), meso-planar (samples BG147 and BG161). They are moderately to strongly aligned to the margins of the samples. Voids can surround TFs (samples BG154 and BG157) or limestone (Sample BG188). Comments
357
This is a homogenous fabric, characterised by the presence of quartzite and serpentinite set in a weakly calcareous and micaceous matrix. The presence of quartzite (with mica schist) and serpentinite indicate different low-grade and chemical metamorphic processes occurring in the environment where the inclusions generated. Among igneous rocks, two types can be singled out. One is intermediate volcanic rock, probably andesite or dacite. The second is probably a plutonic rock that consist of quartz and plagioclase. It is close to granitic rocks, but due to the fragmentation it is not possible to identify this rock more closely. Associated with these two rocks, probably the later type, are crystals of plagioclase feldspar that are common in both coarse and fine fractions. Among sedimentary rocks, chert and limestone are confirmed in some samples. The fine fraction is dominated by the inclusions of quartz and mica. The matrix is weakly to moderately calcareous. The optical activity suggests that the equivalent firing temperature can be estimated on around 850 °C.
Related to Fabric 7: Sample BG148
Sample BG148 is especially abundant in TFs. It contains quartzite and intermediate volcanic rock, which are inclusions common to F7. Other common inclusions include limestone and plagioclase feldspar. However, this sample lacks in serpentinite, an important inclusion of F7. The matrix is calcareous and optically active.
Related to Fabric 7: Sample BG98
Sample 98 contains all major inclusions of F7, except serpentinite. The list of common inclusions includes quartzite, monocrystalline quartz, an igneous rock of aphanitic to phaneritic texture, TFs, plagioclase feldspar. The fine fraction is dominated by quartz and mica. The matrix is calcareous and optically active.
Fabric 8: Micaceous with polycrystalline quartz/quartzite Sample of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG306 Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 137, 140, 150, 168, 169, 170, 180, 189, 193. Samples of Phase 4 from Lower Town: BG 202, 216, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 271, 272, 273. Inclusions
358
20-25%. el & eq. a-r. Single- to close-spaced. Good to moderate alignment to margins of samples. Moderately- to poorly-sorted inclusions. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 10-20%. 3.15 – 0.24 mm. Dominant to Common: Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. a-sr. < 3.15 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. It consists of elongated crystals of quartz aligned in a preferred direction. Boundaries between crystals are sutured. Samples 162, 169, and 170 contain examples of polycrystalline quartz with fine-grained brown material, probably weathered mica. Also, several samples (162, 168, 169, and 170) contain inclusions of mica. There are examples (samples 170) where both types of inclusions, mica and fine-grained brown material, are found together within polycrystalline quartz. Frequent to Common: Monocrystalline Quartz; el & eq. sa-sr. < 1 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 1.25 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. These are inclusions of brown colour (PPL and XP), with diffuse borders and high optical density. They contain inclusions of fine-grained quartz. Common to Absent: Intermediate volcanic rock; el & eq. sr-sa. < 1.3 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. This rock of porphyritic texture consists of laths of plagioclase set in a fine-grained groundmass that is partially altered and has red colour (in PPL and XP). It probably can be identified as andesite or dacite. It is present in samples 140, 168, 170, 180, 202, 216, 221, 222, 225, 271, 306. Igneous rock of aphanitic to phaneritic texture; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.6 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. This rock shows equigranular texture and consists of quartz and feldspar crystals. Sample BG168 contains an example with muscovite while Sample BG202 contains opaques. Samples BG168 and BG224 contain examples of microcline, plagioclase and quartz. This rock can probably be identified as granite. It is present in samples BG137, 168, 170, 180, 193, 202, 222, 223, 224, 225, and 271. Muscovite Mica; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It is present in samples BG 168, 169, 180, 222, 223, 224, 225, 271, 306. Mica schist; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.7 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. It is present in samples BG 137, 139, 170, 193, 221, 225.
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Plagioclase Feldspar; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.34 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It is present in samples BG 137, 180, 216, 202, 222, 223, 224, 225, 271, 273. Microcline Feldspar; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.38 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It is present in samples BG 137, 139, 140, 168, 170, 193, 216, 222, 223. Very rare to absent: Serpentinite; el & eq. sr-r. < 0.7 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. It is present in samples BG 137, 189, 224, 306. Limestone; el & eq. r-sr. < 0.7 mm, mode = 0.38 mm. It is present in samples BG 150, 180, 224, 273, and 306. Fine Fraction: 80-90%. 0.24-0.01 mm. Dominant: Monocrystalline Quartz Frequent: Muscovite Mica Common: Microcline and Plagioclase Common to Few: Biotite mica and hornblende Rare: Serpentinite Matrix 60-65%. The matrix is low calcareous and micaceous. The colour ranges from yellow to brown in PPL and orange to grey in XP. Sample BG279 has a matrix that is non- calcareous and the colour is beige in PPL and black in XP. The matrix in general is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity relates to TFs. A core/margin colour differentiation is present in sample BG193, which has a deep brown core (in PPL and XP), while margins are light brown in PPL and grey in XP. The matrix is optically active. A grey-colour slip is present in samples BG 168, 170, 189, 216, 222, 223, 224, 279 (both sides). Voids 5-10%. Predominantly, voids are meso- to macro-vughs and meso-to macro-plannar. They show good alignment to margins of samples. Comments F8 is a slightly heterogeneous group, characterised by the presence of mono and polycrystalline quartz set in a low calcareous and micaceous matrix. In several samples, polycrystalline quartz/quartzite appear together with muscovite and this is an important feature of this Fabric. The fine-grained brown material that appears in polycrystalline quartz could be a type of altered muscovite. Furthermore, muscovite
360 appears as an inclusion in mica schist and in an igneous rock of aphanitic to phaneritic texture. The matrix is homogenous and optically active, suggesting the equivalent firing temperature to be <850°C.
Sub-group of Fabric 8: Micaceous with muscovite mica and polycrystalline quartz/quartzite
Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 134, 149, 156, 158, 162, 164, 178, 183. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 248, 269. Sample of Phase 4 Dorćol: BG314 Appendix B; Fig.6.2.10 Inclusions 25-30%. el & eq. sa-r. Close- to double-spaced. Poor to moderate alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 40-60%, 2.5-0.24 mm. Dominant to Common: Monocrystalline quartz; eq & el. sa-sr. < 0.85 mm, mode = 0.26 mm. Frequent to Common: Muscovite mica; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.7 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It can appear as weathered, in which case it has the shape of mica, but the colour is deep brown (in PPL and XP). TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 0.8 mm, mode = 0.65 mm. TFs are inclusions of orange to brown colour in PPL and XP, clear to diffuse borders, high optical density, and neutral relief. They contain inclusions of fine quartz and mica. Also, voids can be found within TFs (sample BG178). Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. a-sr. < 2.5 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It consists of elongated crystals of quartz orientated in one direction or it contains crystals with straight boundaries. Boundaries between crystals are sutured. It usually contains mica (especially in samples BG 162 and BG248). Common to Few: Granite?; el & eq. sa-sr. < 1.3 mm, mode = 0.6 mm. This rock shows equigranular texture, and consists of quartz, alkaline and plagioclase feldspars, and muscovite mica. It is a rock of granitic type. Common to Absent:
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Plagioclase feldspar; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.8 mm, mode = 0.28 mm. It is present in samples BG 149, 158, 162, 164, 183, 248, 311. Very Few to Absent: Microcline; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.36 mm, mode = 0. 25 mm. It is present in samples 149, 158, 311. Mica schist; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.7 mm, mode = 0.4. It is present in samples 149, 158, 178, 311. Serpentinite; el & eq. sr-r. < 1.2 mm, mode = 1.2 mm. It is present in Samples BG158 and BG248. Very Rare to Absent: Sandstone; el & eq. sr-r. < 0.9 mm, mode = 0.9 mm. It is present in Sample BG134. Fine fraction: 40-60%. 0.24-0.01 mm Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz and Muscovite mica Few: Plagioclase, Amphibole and Biotite Rare: Opaques Matrix 55-60%. The matrix is low calcareous and micaceous. The colour of matrix ranges between orange, red and brown in PPL and XP. Sample BG178 has a heterogenous matrix, with two distinctive parts. While one part contains characteristic inclusions of this sub-group and it is micaceous, the other part has different texture of the clay with less abundant inclusions and less mica. Both parts are orange in PPL and XP. This is probably a sign of clay mixing. Other samples have the homogenous matrix and the only inhomogeneity relates to TFs. Samples BG162 and BG183 show a core/margin colour differentiation. Sample BG162 has one grey margin (in PPL and XP) while another one is brown to orange (in PPL and XP). Sample BG183 has a brown (in PPL) and dark grey (in XP) core while its margins are orange in PPL and XP. The matrix is optically active. A grey-coloured (in XP) slip is identified in samples BG156 (both sides; one glaze and one non-glazed), BG158 (both side non-glazed), BG162 (both sides; one glazed and one non-glazed), BG164 (both sides are glazed), BG178, BG183, and BG269 (both sides; one glazed and one non-glazed). Voids 5-10%. Voids mega-, macro- and meso-vughs, planar and channels. Channels are characteristic for BG314. They are moderately to well aligned to margins of samples.
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Comments
Sub-group of Fabric 8 has more muscovite mica and mica-bearing rocks (an igneous rock of phaneritic texture, polycrystalline quartz/quartzite, mica schist) than F8. Another difference is the stronger presence of igneous rocks in this sub-group. More abundant is an igneous rock of granitic type. Related to it are plagioclase, microcline and polycrystalline quartz of igneous origin. Amphibole and mica of fine fraction are potentially related to granite. Among metamorphic rocks, polycrystalline quartz/quartzite is identified, but it is less abundant than in F8. Serpentinite appears in only two samples. The matrix is a micaceous and homogenous, except in BG178 that shows signs of clay mixing. The optical activity of the matrix suggests that the equivalent firing temperature was < 850 °C.
Related to Fabric 8: Sample BG317
Sample BG317 is different to F8 because it contains mafic to intermediate volcanic rock composed of olivine or augite (a mineral characterised by green colour in PPL and high second birefringence order in XP) and plagioclase. The rock is probably close to diabase. All other inclusions of Fabric 8 are also present in Sample 317: mono- and polycrystalline quartz, plagioclase, muscovite, and TFs. The matrix is weakly calcareous, micacous and optically active. Voids are representative for F8.
Fabric 9: Coarse with igneous rocks
Sample of Phase 2 Dorćol: BG293
Samples of Phase 3 from the Lower Town: BG 136, 138, 141, 144, 151.
Sample Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG247.
Inclusions 30-35%. Close spaced. sa-r. el & eq. Well- to moderately-sorted inclusions. Poor alignment to margins of sections. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction: 30-40%. 1.5-0.24 mm. Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. a-sr. <1.5 mm, mode = 0.6 mm. Common:
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Intermediate volcanic rock; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.8 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. This volcanic rock consists of feldspar phenocrysts set in a fine-grained groundmass. Some examples of this rock contain amorphous inclusions that are too fine to be identified, but they have yellow colour in PPL and brown colour in XP (samples 144). Sample BG138 contains deep brown inclusions (in PPL and XP). It can probably be identified as andesite or dacite. Common to Few: Granite?; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.7 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. This rock shows equigranular texture, and consists of quartz, plagioclase and alkaline feldspars, and occasionally fine-grained brown particles that cannot be positively identified (in PPL and XP). This rock is probably granite. Few: Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.8 mm, mode = 0.6 mm. TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. These are inclusions of brown colour (in PPL and XP), characterised by the high optical density, diffuse to clear borders and inclusions of fine quartz and mica. Plagioclase Feldspar; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.4 mm, mode = 0.26 mm. Some examples of plagioclase contain inclusions with high birefringence (in XP). Fine fraction: 60-70%. 0.24-0.01 mm. Dominant: Quartz Common: Plagioclase feldspar Few: Amphibole; Biotite and Muscovite mica; Microcline Rare: Serpentinite; Opaques Matrix 55-60%. The matrix is low calcareous. The colour ranges from yellow to orange and grey to brown in PPL and XP. A core/margin colour differentiation is present only in samples BG141 and BG144. Sample BG141 has a brown (in PPL) and grey (in XP) core while its margins are orange (in PPL and XP). Sample BG144 has a grey core (in PPL and XP) while its margins are brown (in PPL) and orange (in XP). The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity relates to TFs. It is optically active. Voids 5-7%. Predominately, voids consist of meso- and macro-vughs and channels. They are poorly to moderately aligned with margins of sections. They can surround TFs.
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Comments:
F9 is characterised by the presence of igneous rocks set in a low calcareous matrix. The most abundant inclusions are two types of igneous rocks. One is a volcanic rock that is probably andesite or dacite. The other igneous rock is probably granite. Angular and coarse monocrystalline quartz as well as plagioclase can probably be associated with this plutonic rock. Besides igneous rocks, metamorphic quartzite and TFs are documented. The matrix is low calcareous and optically active, indicating that the equivalent firing temperature was about 800 °C. Related to Fabric 9: Sample BG298 BG298 is dominated by coarse mono- and polycrystalline quartz, which links this sample with F9. However, this sample lacks in inclusions of andesite/dacite and it contains serpentinite (Rare) and limestone (Rare). Despite these differences in their inclusions, the texture of BG298 is the same as F9. The characteristics of the matrix and the voids are the same as those of F9.
Fabric 10: Calcareous and very fine Samples of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG132. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 267. Samples of Phase 4 from Dorćol: BG 312, 319, 320 Inclusions 7-10%. eq & el. sr-r. Double- to open spaced. Strong alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 1-2%. 0.36-0.24 mm. Very rare to Absent: TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 0.36 mm, mode = 0.36. These inclusions are characterised by green to brown colour in PPL and brown colour in XP. They have sharp to merging borders, neutral relief and high optical density. TFs contain fine quartz and mica. They are present in Sample BG233. Limestone; el & eq. sr-r. < 0.26 mm, mode = 0.26 mm. It is present in Sample BG231. Fine fraction 98-99%. 0.24-0.01 mm. Dominant: Quartz
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Common: Limestone and Mica Rare: Opaques Matrix 80-87%. The matrix is calcareous. Its colour ranges from grey to orange (Sample BG267) in PPL and grey, green, brown to red (Sample BG267) in XP. The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity relates to TFs in Sample BG233. Secondary calcite is identified in samples BG229 and BG267. The matrix shows weak optical activity. Voids 2-3%. Voids are consisting of meso- and micro-vughs and meso-channels. Some of them have calcareous borders. They show moderate to strong alignment to margins of samples. Comments This homogenous and very fine fabric is characterised by inclusions of quartz in the fine fraction, set in a calcareous matrix. In the coarse fraction, only TFs and limestone are documented in two different samples. Apart from quartz, the fine fraction contains also limestone, mica and opaques. The matrix is homogenous, and the weak optical activity suggests that the equivalent firing temperature was around 850 °C.
Fabric 11: Calcite-tempered Sample of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG133. Sample of Phase 3 Lower Town: BG194. Samples of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 249, 252, 253, 254, 255. Inclusions 30-35%. el & eq. a-sr. Single- to closed-spaced. Poor alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 50-60%, 3.1-0.24 mm. Predominant: Calcite; el & eq. a-sr. < 3.1 mm, mode = 1.5 mm. Calcite crystals are coarse and angular, with clear cleavages and colours of the fourth birefringence order in XP. Few:
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TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 1.6 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. TFs are inclusions of orange to brown colour (in PPL and XP). They have clear to merging borders, round to oval shape, and neutral to low relief. They can be either homogenous or containing inclusions of quartz and calcite. Rare to Absent: Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. It consists of elongated quartz crystals, aligned in a preferred direction within the grain. Also, it can include muscovite mica (Sample BG244). It is present in samples BG240 and BG244 (abundant). Monocrystalline quartz; eq & el. sr-r. < 0.34 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It is present in Sample BG244. Very rare to absent: Intermediate volcanic rock; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. It consists of plagioclase laths set in a fine-grained groundmass. This rock can probably be identified as andesite or dacite. It is present in samples BG235 and BG244. Fine fraction 40-50%. 0.24 – 0.01 mm. Predominant: Calcite Few: TFs Matrix 50-55%. The matrix is calcareous. The colour ranges from yellow, orange to brown (in PPL) and orange, red to brown (in XP). A core-margin colour differentiation is present in samples BG 235, 236 and 244. Sample BG235 has yellow margins (in PPL and XP) and a brown core (in PPL and XP). Sample BG236 has one red margin (in PPL and XP), while the rest of the matrix is brown (in PPL and XP). Sample BG244 has orange margins (in PPL and XP) while the core is brown (in PPL and XP). The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity relates to TFs. It is optically active. Voids 5-10%. Voids consist of mega-, macro-, meso-vughs as well as meso-channels and macro-vesicles. They show weak to moderate alignment to margins of samples. Comments F11 is a homogenous fabric characterised by inclusions of calcite set in a calcareous matrix. Calcite appears in the form of course, mostly angular, crystals with well- preserved features such as colour and cleavages, which suggest firing has not modified
367 crystals. The predominance of calcite and the scarcity of other inclusions suggest that calcite was used as a temper. There are Few TFs and other inclusions appear only in several samples (mostly in BG244). Even the fine fraction does not contain many of inclusions. This suggests that the clay was probably refined and potentially levigated prior to the tempering. The optical activity of the matrices and the good preservation of calcite suggest an equivalent temperature to be around 700 °C. The variety of voids indicates the presence of various organic matters.
Related to Fabric 11: Sample BG250
Sample BG250 is also calcite-tempered, but unlike the calcite inclusions in F11, its crystals are smaller (< 0.55 mm, mode = 0.25 mm) and rounded. Apart from calcite, inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz are Frequent-Common. Other inclusions are TFs (same as for F11), plagioclase, an igneous rock of phaneritic texture and mica. The matrix and voids have the same properties as described for F11.
Fabric 12: Calcareous with limestone and quartz Samples of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG 280, 281, 282, 283 Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 296, 297, 300, 301, 315, 316. Inclusions 30-35%. el & eq. sa-r. Single to closed-spaced. Moderate to weak alignment to margins of samples. Weakly bimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction: 60-70%. 1.75-0.24 mm. Frequent: Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.65 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. Limestone; el & eq. r-sr. < 1.5 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. Most of limestones have oval or rounded shapes and are composed of micrites. In Sample BG315 elongated and thin limestones are identified, probably associated with microfossils. Sample BG282 contains foraminifera, Samples BG282 and BG283 contain limestone with inclusions of mono- and polycrystalline quartz as well as fine-grained brown particles. Common: Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sr-sa. < 1.25 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. It consists of quartz crystals that are usually elongated and aligned in one direction.
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Sample BG282 contains examples with muscovite mica and brown fine-grained particles that are probably altered micas. Chert; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.46 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. Few to Rare: TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 1.75 mm, mode = 0.75 mm. TFs are inclusions characterised by yellow (in PPL) and brown colour (PPL and XP), high optical density, neutral relief and diffuse to clear borders. They contain inclusions of fine mono- and polycrystalline quartz, mica, micrites and fine-grained brown particles. Few to Absent: Serpentinite; el & eq. sr-r. < 0.4 mm, mode = 0.3 mm. This rock has yellow to green (in PPL) and brown to green colour (in XP). It is abundant in Sample BG282. It is present in samples BG 281, 282, 283, 296, 300, 301, 315, 316. Plagioclase feldspar; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.58 mm, mode = 0.34 mm. It is present in samples BG 281, 283, 296, 297, 315, 316. Very Few to Absent: Intermediate volcanic rock; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.66 mm, mode = 0.38 mm. It consists of plagioclase laths set in a fine-grained groundmass. It can contain opaques. The rock can probably be associated with andesite or dacite. It is present in samples BG 281, 283, 296. Mica schist; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.32 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. It is present in samples BG 281, 282, 296, 297, 301, 315, 316. Rare to Absent: Muscovite mica; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.3 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. It is present in samples 296, 315 and 316. Very rare to absent: Igneous rock fragments; el & eq. sr-sa. < 1.25 mm, mode = 1.25 mm. This rock has equigranular texture, and it consists of alkaline feldspar, quartz and opaques. It is present in Sample BG283. Microcline; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.34 mm, mode = 0.34 mm. It is present in Sample BG315. Fine fraction 30-40%. 0.24-0.01 mm. Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz Frequent: Limestone Few: Mica
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Very rare to absent: Olivine (sample BG296) Matrix 45-55%. The matrix is calcareous. The colour ranges from yellow, orange to brown (in PPL and XP). Most of the samples show a core/margin colour differentiation. Samples BG 281, 282, 315, and 316 have a brown core (in PPL and XP) and yellow to orange margins (in PPL and XP). Sample BG283 has one orange margin (in PPL and XP) while the rest of the section is brown (in PPL and XP). The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity relates to TFs. The matrix is optically active. Voids 5-10%. They consist of meso- and macro-vughs, and macro-plannar and macro- channels. Plannar and channel voids show strong alignment to the margins of the sections while vughs are poorly to moderately aligned with them. Comments This heterogeneous groups is characterised by inclusions limestone that is fossiliferous in some samples and quartz set in a calcareous matrix. Among sedimentary rocks, limestone and chert are identified. Igneous rocks are present only in some samples, mostly intermediate volcanic rock (probably dacite or andesite). Also, minerals such as plagioclase and microcline can be related to igneous rocks. Characteristic metamorphic rocks of this fabric are quartzite, serpentinite and mica schist. The matrix is calcareous, optically active, and the well-preserved limestone suggest that the equivalent firing temperature was around 750 °C. The texture of this fabric is close to the texture of F1. They also share the abundance of sedimentary rocks and weak bimodality of inclusions. However, F12 contains significantly more limestone in all samples and rocks that are not characteristic of F1, such as mica schist. Related to Fabric 12: Sample BG295 Sample BG295 has more chert (Dominant) and less limestone (Few) in comparison to F12. All other inclusions, such as polycrystalline quartz and TFs are the same as in F12. The matrix is calcareous, homogenous and optically active. Voids are characteristic of F12 too.
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Fabric 13: Coarse micaceous with serpentinized volcanic rock with porphyritic structure, chert and serpentinite
Samples of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291.
Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 302, 303.
Inclusions 25-30%. el & eq. sa-r. Moderate to poor alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal to bimodal (Sample BG302) grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 25-45%. 5.75-0.24 mm. Dominant to frequent: Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. sr-sa. < 3.75 mm, mode = 1.25 mm. Frequent: Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sr-sa. < 1.5 mm, mode = 1 mm. It consists of elongated quartz crystals that show alignment in a preferred direction. Sample BG302 contains an example with muscovite mica. Sample BG289 contains examples of quartzite with fine-grained brown particles, probably weathered mica. Frequent to common: Serpentinized volcanic rock with porphyritic structure; el & eq. sa-sr. < 5.75 mm, mode = 1 mm. This rock consists of randomly orientated plagioclase laths that are either well-preserved (Sample BG285) or weathered (Sample BG291), set in a fine- grained groundmass that appears as yellow/orange/red/dark brown in PPL and XP. Sample BG303 contains phenocrysts of plagioclase and amphibole, probably hornblende. Chert; eq & el. sr-r. < 2.25mm, mode = 0.75 mm. Samples BG285 and BG303 contain chert which quartz is partially replaced with red particles (in PPL and XP), probably related to some of iron compounds. Common to few: Serpentinite; el & eq. r-sr. < 0.55, mode = 0.5 mm. It appears as a rock of yellow colour in PPL and brown to green colour in XP. Very few: TFs; el & eq. r-sr. < 1.6 mm, mode = 0.34. TFs are inclusions of brown colour in PPL and XP, high optical density, diffuse borders and neutral relief. They contain fine inclusions of quartz and mica. Sample BG287 contains an example that is yellow in 371
PPL and yellow to green in XP, has clear borders, high relief and contains inclusions of fine quartz. Few to absent: Plagioclase; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.6 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It is present in samples BG 285, 286, 287, 289, 291, 303. Limestone; eq & el. r-sr. < 1mm, mode = 0.45 mm. Limestone is composed of micrites. It is more abundant in Sample 288. It is present in samples BG 285, 286, 287, 288. Rare to absent: Intermediate volcanic rock; el & eq. sr-sa. < 1.4 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It consists of plagioclase laths set in the fine-grained groundmass composed of feldspars (yellow in PPL). Sample BG288 contains an example with mica. It is probably andesite or dacite. It is present in samples BG 286, 287, 288. Mica schist; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.65 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It is present in samples BG 285, 287, 288. Very rare to absent: Microcline; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.8 mm, mode = 0.6 mm. It is present in samples BG287 and BG291. Microcline-rich igneous rock; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. It consists of microcline and quartz, as well as brown fine-grained particles (probably weathered mica). Probably, this rock presents a type of granite. It is present in Sample BG289. Fine fraction: 55-75%. 0.24-0.01 mm. Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz and Mica Rare: Plagioclase Matrix 55-60%. The matrix is non-calcareous to low calcareous and micaceous. The colour is ranging from light brown, grey and yellow in PPL and grey to orange in XP. A core/margin colour differentiation is visible in samples BG289 and BG303. Sample BG289 has light brown (in PPL) and grey (in XP) core and yellow (in PPL) and orange (in XP) margins. Sample BG303 has one core light brown (in PPL) and grey (in XP) while margins are yellow (in PPL) and orange (in XP). The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity is related to TFs. The optical activity is moderate. Voids
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5-10%. Voids are consisting of meso- and maco vughs, meso- and macro-channels and meso plannar. They show poor to moderate alignment to margins of sections. Comments F13 is coarse-grained fabric characterised by the inclusions of serpentinized volcanic rock of porphyritic structure, chert, and serpentinite set in the micaceous matrix. The texture of this fabric is to some extent different to other fabrics in the assemblage. It is characterised by coarse rocks of various origins, set against a fine fraction dominated by quartz and mica. However, the distribution is still unimodal except in Sample BG302, which has a bimodal grain-size distribution. The range of rocks is wide, including igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are of the volcanic origin, probably andesite or dacite. Serpentinized volcanic rock has porphyritic structure and it could be related to andesite. Plagioclase is probably related to the volcanic rock. On the other side, microcline could be related to another igneous formation, identified only in sample BG289 (microcline-rich igneous rock). Sedimentary rocks are represented by chert and limestone. Chert appears as Frequent to Common, which is similar to F1. Among metamorphic rocks, quartzite, serpentinite and mica-schist are identified. Quartzite is either composed of only quartz or also with muscovite. Mica-schist is not abundant, and it appears in several samples. The matrix is micaceous and homogenous. The optical activity suggests an equivalent firing temperature of about 800°C.
Fabric 14: Coarse calcareous with igneous rocks
Samples of Phase 1 from Dorćol: BG292. Samples of Phase 2 from Dorćol: BG 294, 299. Sample of Phase 2 from the Lower Town: BG94. Sample of Phase 4 from the Lower Town: BG256. Inclusions 25-30%. el & eq. sa-r. Close- to double-spaced. Poor alignment to margins of samples. Bimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction: 60-70%. 3.25-0.24 mm. Dominant to Frequent: Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.95 mm, mode = 0.35 mm.
373
Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 2.5 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. It consists of quartz crystals that are elongated and aligned in a preferred direction. It can contain muscovite mica. Frequent to Common: Granite?; el & eq. sa-sr. < 1 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. This rock consists of alkali feldspar, quartz and plagioclase in different proportions. It can also include brown fine-grained particles, probably altered mica or some other type of ferromagnesian mineral. In Sample BG294, this rock consists of plagioclase and quartz. It is probably a type of granite. Andesite/Dacite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 1.3 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. It consists of plagioclase, some of which is zoned, amphibole and brown fine-grained particles set in a fine groundmass composed of plagioclase. It is best preserved in samples BG256 and BG294. In some other cases, only plagioclase and brown fine-grained particles can be observed. Common to Few: TFs type 1; el & eq. r-sr. < 2 mm, mode = 0.6 mm. This type of TFs is characterised by orange to deep brown colour in PPL and XP, diffuse to clear borders, neutral to high optical density and oval to rounded shapes. It contains inclusions of fine quartz and mica. It can be surrounded by voids (sample BG256 and BG292). Few: Plagioclase; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.48 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. Rare to Absent: Muscovite mica; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.6 mm, mode = 0.5 mm. It is present in samples BG256 and BG299. In Sample BG256, one example has the shape of mica, but the colour is deep brown in PPL and XP. It is present in samples BG256 and BG259. Serpentinized volcanic rock with porphyritic structure; el & eq. sr-r. < 1 mm, mode = 0.4 mm. This rock consists of altered crystals of plagioclase set in brown to green groundmass (in PPL and XP). It is present in Sample BG256. TFs type 2; el & eq. r-sr. < 3.25, mode = 3.25. This type of TFs is characterised by yellow colour in PPL and XP and it has the same clay properties as the surrounding matrix, but it contains only the inclusions of fine quartz and mica. It is surrounded from the rest of the matrix with voids. Very likely it indicates the clay mixing. It is present in Sample BG292.
374
Limestone; el & eq. sr-r. < 0.6 mm, mode = 0.6 mm. It consists of micrites. It is present in Samples BG256 and BG294. Fine fraction: 30-40%. 0.24 – 0.01 mm. Predominant-Dominant: Monocrystalline Quartz Common to Few: Mica Few: Plagioclase Matrix 55-60%. The matrix is calcareous. The colour ranges from yellow to brown in PPL and XP. The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity is related to TFs type 1, except in sample BG292, which contains also TFs type 2, suggesting clay mixing. A colour differentiation is present in sample BG299, one half of which is yellow in PPL and XP while the other half is brown in PPL and XP. The matrix is optically active. Voids 5-10%. Voids consist of macro- and meso-vughs, meso- and macro channels and macro plannar. They can be surrounding TFs type 1 and 2. They show moderate to good alignment to margins of samples. Comments F14 is characterised by inclusions of igneous rocks in the coarse fraction and quartz in the fine fraction set in a calcareous matrix. It shares the same texture with bimodal samples of F1. However, the nature of inclusions in this two groups is different. F14 contains coarse inclusions of igneous rocks of different origins. From one side, there is phaneritic igneous rock, close to granite by composition and texture. On the other side, the volcanic rock in this Fabric can be closely determined as either andesite or dacite, due to existence of coarse plagioclase phenocrysts. Also, both mono and poly- crystalline quartz/quartzite are present. The matrix is calcareous and optically active, setting the equivalent firing temperature on about 800 °C. Related to Fabric 14: Sample BG251 Sample BG251 is characterised by inclusions of granite, composed of alkaline feldspar, quartz, plagioclase feldspar and biotite and muscovite mica (Dominant). Furthermore, in the coarse fraction, it contains inclusions of microcline, quartz and mica. The occurrence of granite is the main difference between this sample and the samples of F14. The fine fraction is dominated by quartz. The matrix is calcareous and
375 optically active. A core/margin colour differentiation is visible; the core is brown in PPL and XP while the margins are orange in PPL and XP. It contains the same type of voids as the samples of F14.
Fabric 15: Sample BG146 Inclusions 10-15%. el & eq. r-sr. Double- to open-spaced. Moderate alignment to the margins of samples. Unimodal to weakly bimodal grain size distribution. Coarse fraction 10-15%, 0.6-0.24 mm. Common: Monocrystalline Quartz; el & eq. sr-r. < 0.6 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. Polycrystalline Quartz; el & eq. < 0.3 mm, mode = 0.24. It consists of quartz crystals that are usually aligned in a preferred direction. In some cases, it contains muscovite. Limestone; el & eq. r-sr. < 0.42 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. Few: Microfossils: eq & el. r-sr. < 0.3 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. They can be identified as foraminifera. Fine fraction 85-90%, 0.24 mm-0.01 mm Dominant: Monocrystalline quartz Frequent: Microfossils Few: TFs Matrix 75-80%. The matrix is calcareous. The colour is orange in PPL and XP. The matrix is homogenous and optically active. Voids 3-5%. Voids are consisting of meso vughs and meso vesicles. Vesicles can contain calcite crystals on edges. Comments
This sample is characterised by inclusions of quartz, limestone and microfossils set in the calcareous matrix. The fine fraction is dominated by rounded quartz.
376
Fabric 16: Sample BG182
Inclusions
30-35%. el & eq. sa-sr. Single- to close-spaced. Poor alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal grain-size distribution.
Coarse fraction
30-40%, 0.6-0.24 mm.
Predominant:
Monocrystalline quartz; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.6 mm, mode = 0.3 mm.
Few:
Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.24 mm.
Very Few:
TFs; eq & el. r-sr. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. TFs are inclusions of grey to brown colour in PPL, clear to merging borders, and neutral relief. They may contain inclusions of fine quartz and mica.
Rare:
Microcline; el & eq. sr-sa. < 0.5 mm, mode = 0.5 mm.
Coarse igneous rock; el% eq. sa-sr. < 0.6 mm, mode = 0.6 mm. It consists of quartz and feldspars.
Fine fraction
60-70%, 0.24-0.01 mm.
Predominant: Monocrystalline quartz
Matrix
50-55%. The matrix is non-calcareous. The colour is ranging from beige and light brown in PPL to dark brown and grey in XP. A core/margin colour differentiation is present; the core is light brown in PPL and dark brown in XP while one margin is beige in PPL and grey in XP. The matrix is homogenous, and the only inhomogeneity is related to TFs. The matrix is optically active.
Voids
377
3-5%. Voids are consisting of meso- and macro vughs as well as vesicles. They show poor to moderate alignment to margins of samples. Comments:
Sample BG182 is characterised by inclusions of monocrystalline quartz set in the non- calcareous matrix. Apart from quartz, inclusions of polycrystalline quartz/quartzite as well as coarse igneous rock, probably a type of granite, and associated microcline are present. The optical activity of the matrix suggests the equivalent firing temperature can be estimated on approximately 800 °C. The grey colour of the matrix suggests BG182 was fired in a reducing atmosphere.
Fabric 17: Sample BG307
Inclusions
15-20%. el & eq. sr-sa. Double- to open-spaced. Poor alignment to margins of samples. Unimodal grain size distribution.
Coarse fraction
10-15%, 0.85-0.24 mm.
Common:
Polycrystalline quartz/quartzite; el & eq. sa-sr. < 0.85 mm, mode = 0.24 mm. It consists of elongated or rounded quartz crystals that show alignment in a preferred direction.
Fine fraction:
Dominant: Mono- and polycrystalline quartz
Matrix
65-70%. The matrix is calcareous. The colour is grey in PPL and XP. The matrix is homogenous. The optical activity is moderate.
Voids
5-10%. Voids are consisting of meso- and macro-vughs and channels. They show good alignment to margins of samples.
Comments
378
Sample BG307 is characterised by inclusions of polycrystalline quartz set in a calcareous matrix. Without other inclusions, it is hard to relate this sample with any other in the assemblage. The matrix is calcareous, homogenous and optically active, suggesting the equivalent firing temperature to be around 800 °C. The grey colour of the matrix indicates a reducing atmosphere during the firing.
379
Appendix C
The results of WDXRF analysis of ceramics
380
Appendix C, Table 1
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Cu Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd Pb Th LOI Sum wt% ppm % BG51 0.6 1.5 15.4 68.5 0.3 2.3 1.3 0.8 6.0 126 309 270 19 165 77 134 114 100 27 173 369 34 70 35 35 15 3.3 100.1 BG54 0.4 2.0 17.4 69.3 0.1 2.0 1.1 0.7 5.6 143 331 241 18 221 82 139 125 109 27 135 409 38 66 36 41 17 2.2 100.9 BG55 0.6 1.9 17.4 69.3 0.1 2.5 0.9 0.8 5.0 125 274 232 24 174 73 124 118 96 25 142 385 34 68 33 39 13 0.9 99.5 BG56 0.6 1.8 16.5 71.2 0.1 2.4 1.0 0.7 4.8 114 273 232 23 171 82 114 125 99 25 139 384 30 56 33 38 18 0.9 100.4 BG57 0.4 1.6 15.0 69.5 0.1 2.1 1.4 0.7 5.8 109 269 236 18 173 101 124 113 88 25 139 373 39 60 30 36 20 3.7 100.5 BG60 0.4 1.7 15.2 69.5 0.2 2.1 1.2 0.7 5.8 116 271 264 17 177 139 104 109 89 24 140 366 37 66 31 34 17 3.6 100.5 BG62 0.6 1.8 16.4 72.0 0.1 2.5 0.7 0.7 4.8 116 212 165 22 138 63 115 118 93 22 120 386 36 58 29 46 15 0.6 100.2 BG64 1.2 2.3 18.4 63.9 0.3 3.7 1.4 0.8 6.7 122 120 630 17 52 56 163 172 112 28 149 612 40 69 33 39 14 1.3 100.3 BG65 0.4 1.9 17.7 68.8 0.1 2.1 1.0 0.8 6.9 131 307 337 21 216 68 137 138 100 26 138 396 40 71 38 38 20 1.3 101.3 BG66 0.7 2.1 16.8 68.1 0.1 2.6 0.7 0.7 5.9 128 247 344 20 180 81 125 130 85 25 124 396 38 70 33 35 23 2.8 100.7 BG67 1.0 1.9 13.8 65.2 0.6 2.3 3.9 0.7 5.7 97 323 411 18 125 66 114 98 124 27 190 440 34 66 31 61 12 4.8 100.0 BG70 0.7 2.1 17.5 65.8 0.3 3.0 2.6 0.7 5.1 133 236 233 20 163 165 155 135 111 24 129 409 32 67 31 42 16 2.5 100.4 BG71 0.6 2.5 18.3 62.6 0.2 2.7 4.0 0.8 5.9 134 276 452 21 174 80 121 136 142 25 136 410 34 61 28 37 19 2.4 100.2 BG73 0.8 2.8 14.4 65.3 0.2 2.3 5.6 0.6 5.7 108 257 526 22 172 64 132 120 146 25 122 420 32 57 30 50 17 2.8 100.7 BG74 0.8 2.7 15.2 65.1 0.2 2.4 5.2 0.6 5.9 110 249 543 23 173 64 133 118 143 26 124 434 27 60 26 46 13 2.8 101.2 BG76 0.6 1.7 13.6 69.9 0.1 2.3 4.0 0.7 3.7 96 200 395 17 107 69 114 110 110 24 154 327 31 65 27 45 18 3.9 100.6 BG78 0.6 1.7 14.4 68.6 0.1 2.7 3.7 0.7 4.0 100 207 288 13 112 56 235 128 117 27 176 339 34 59 33 38 19 4.1 100.6 BG80 0.6 1.7 14.9 70.4 0.1 2.2 3.4 0.7 4.0 107 222 272 17 123 60 134 120 110 27 178 459 30 65 31 32 18 3.5 101.7 BG82 0.7 1.7 14.5 69.4 0.1 2.3 3.7 0.7 3.9 105 215 316 15 117 60 153 127 113 27 176 354 33 58 32 35 19 3.4 100.6 BG86 0.6 2.1 15.2 64.8 0.1 2.4 5.7 0.6 5.4 118 204 549 22 160 77 114 115 141 25 120 373 34 68 29 36 18 3.3 100.4 BG87 0.6 2.1 16.4 70.6 0.1 2.4 1.3 0.7 5.2 129 310 239 22 176 57 137 113 103 24 118 422 39 59 32 37 13 0.9 100.4 BG91 0.6 1.7 14.5 69.3 0.1 2.1 3.6 0.7 3.9 97 209 305 16 112 92 131 113 97 25 165 310 34 65 32 35 15 3.7 100.2
381
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Cu Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd Pb Th LOI Sum wt% ppm % BG95 0.9 1.8 13.9 69.5 0.2 2.4 2.3 0.8 5.4 101 329 536 16 127 67 119 113 101 26 177 376 32 64 30 50 15 2.8 100.2 BG97 1.5 2.2 15.5 68.3 0.2 2.5 1.3 0.8 6.3 105 272 926 23 166 57 112 115 128 30 249 490 36 71 34 191 18 1.6 100.5 BG98 1.3 2.4 17.0 64.4 0.2 2.8 2.8 0.9 6.5 116 234 1129 21 112 58 120 121 133 32 240 528 38 86 40 50 18 1.4 99.9 BG99 0.3 0.6 23.5 67.3 0.1 1.6 0.5 0.8 3.9 73 351 79 13 121 42 59 66 40 30 154 256 46 97 47 920 8 1.1 99.9 BG102 0.8 1.9 14.7 72.0 0.1 2.4 1.4 0.8 5.1 103 295 324 19 147 76 124 93 91 24 197 352 33 64 30 37 12 0.8 100.1 BG103 0.6 2.8 20.9 58.8 0.2 3.7 1.9 0.9 8.9 161 241 463 24 197 64 174 171 136 31 150 486 37 86 37 50 21 1.0 99.9 BG132 0.5 2.9 18.3 63.9 0.4 3.6 2.0 0.8 5.9 125 139 384 20 70 46 157 173 148 22 156 542 38 69 40 42 19 1.3 99.8 BG133 0.5 1.2 11.4 38.6 0.3 2.4 20.7 0.4 4.2 59 71 1065 12 41 56 116 94 65 16 102 424 20 58 23 45 12 17.5 97.4 BG134 1.0 1.9 15.4 68.1 0.2 2.1 1.2 1.0 6.7 114 342 293 22 209 47 104 95 95 34 245 463 30 74 32 276 13 2.4 100.3 BG135 1.4 1.8 16.4 67.5 0.2 2.7 1.2 1.0 6.2 116 132 863 19 62 34 99 110 124 38 315 550 44 94 45 89 12 0.9 99.6 BG136 1.7 1.4 14.1 72.5 0.2 2.4 1.3 0.8 4.5 89 196 245 18 84 43 102 107 166 30 309 527 36 77 33 42 18 1.1 100.4 BG137 1.6 1.4 14.0 72.1 0.1 2.4 1.4 0.9 4.8 84 180 817 16 77 30 70 105 139 32 337 520 43 83 40 104 13 1.1 100.1 BG138 1.7 1.4 14.2 72.4 0.2 2.3 1.4 0.8 4.3 86 195 242 19 84 37 75 89 159 30 296 547 34 68 30 50 11 1.0 99.9 BG140 1.5 1.3 13.6 69.1 0.2 2.6 1.8 0.8 4.7 87 164 608 16 75 35 84 106 140 27 298 513 33 66 30 200 11 3.8 99.7 BG142 1.4 2.0 14.7 64.7 0.3 2.6 1.4 0.8 6.1 107 234 924 23 158 36 96 106 133 32 247 534 41 65 33 40 12 5.6 100.0 BG143 1.4 2.4 15.4 63.7 0.3 2.6 2.6 0.8 6.5 118 251 962 24 173 41 114 105 152 31 230 493 39 74 38 113 12 4.1 100.0 BG144 1.3 1.3 12.8 72.7 0.4 2.3 1.5 0.7 4.6 83 272 607 17 101 34 75 99 151 28 272 530 35 67 34 35 13 2.5 100.2 BG145 1.5 2.5 16.0 65.8 0.2 2.6 1.4 0.8 7.1 116 325 1049 29 259 47 115 96 136 31 229 513 36 66 37 52 11 1.3 99.5 BG148 1.1 1.0 17.0 64.9 0.8 2.8 2.3 0.9 6.5 111 148 1555 23 79 53 152 135 287 33 267 860 52 110 46 439 18 3.6 101.3 BG149 1.2 1.4 17.3 60.2 0.6 2.3 1.8 1.5 8.9 153 138 532 30 76 47 109 86 128 36 275 561 42 81 41 58 14 4.4 99.7 BG151 1.6 1.4 14.8 72.1 0.1 2.2 1.2 0.7 5.0 97 98 441 16 48 33 78 97 133 27 243 513 35 61 30 150 11 1.0 100.3 BG152 1.4 1.7 14.8 71.3 0.2 2.5 1.0 1.0 5.7 99 237 930 17 67 38 117 121 112 42 407 478 49 97 38 137 25 1.0 100.8 BG153 1.5 2.3 15.5 68.5 0.2 2.4 1.4 0.8 6.4 109 262 951 22 163 41 94 100 134 30 243 512 40 73 38 207 12 0.8 100.0 BG154 1.5 2.3 15.9 68.6 0.1 2.5 1.2 0.9 6.7 119 259 1011 23 167 40 98 110 131 31 252 485 44 77 35 189 10 0.7 100.8
382
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Cu Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd Pb Th LOI Sum wt% ppm % BG155 1.4 2.3 15.6 67.7 0.2 2.5 1.3 0.9 6.6 117 260 1018 22 166 64 96 112 124 33 255 508 41 71 38 1384 13 1.0 99.8 BG156 1.1 1.9 19.0 62.0 0.1 2.5 1.3 1.1 8.3 135 179 570 21 90 57 103 131 101 32 269 548 41 78 37 574 17 2.9 100.4 BG157 1.4 2.3 15.8 68.1 0.1 2.4 1.2 0.9 6.7 117 266 1037 23 167 49 96 108 130 34 254 492 38 76 37 319 13 0.7 100.0 BG159 1.5 2.5 15.7 65.4 0.2 2.5 2.4 0.8 6.9 112 315 985 27 248 44 113 119 150 33 238 470 36 72 38 258 12 1.5 99.8 BG160 1.5 2.3 15.4 68.6 0.2 2.4 1.4 0.9 6.4 110 256 1000 24 167 38 95 104 140 33 256 507 34 74 30 113 13 0.7 100.0 BG161 1.4 2.5 16.0 65.5 0.3 2.7 2.3 0.9 6.7 118 251 1064 24 171 43 109 117 148 34 245 516 36 73 39 362 11 1.4 100.0 BG162 1.1 1.8 17.8 65.5 0.2 2.1 1.4 1.1 7.1 126 179 803 22 90 41 93 110 114 36 282 514 46 113 43 228 15 1.1 99.6 BG163 1.5 2.3 15.7 67.6 0.2 2.4 1.5 0.9 6.6 108 259 1015 24 176 40 96 97 141 33 243 516 38 71 31 209 13 1.1 99.9 BG165 1.1 1.3 16.5 72.0 0.1 2.4 0.5 1.1 4.3 103 160 190 10 46 44 88 121 86 36 364 531 52 87 47 89 21 1.1 100.5 BG167 1.4 1.8 15.6 68.1 1.1 2.5 1.7 1.0 6.1 100 133 769 15 53 50 109 124 143 41 369 496 46 101 46 136 21 1.5 100.9 BG168 1.6 1.6 15.5 69.0 0.1 2.4 1.2 1.0 5.8 107 123 836 20 57 43 89 101 122 39 367 506 47 98 44 180 15 1.1 99.6 BG169 1.6 1.8 15.5 68.7 0.1 2.5 0.9 0.9 6.2 110 107 939 18 51 52 84 111 124 38 272 524 45 72 38 301 13 1.7 100.1 BG170 1.7 1.9 16.3 66.8 0.1 2.4 0.9 1.0 6.6 113 119 924 21 62 39 94 109 125 39 272 545 46 82 32 143 11 2.2 100.1 BG172 1.4 1.7 14.8 69.7 0.3 2.4 1.2 1.0 5.7 98 287 852 17 79 34 99 105 114 41 394 458 51 105 46 369 14 1.7 100.0 BG176 1.5 1.9 16.5 68.3 0.2 2.6 1.1 1.0 6.1 121 154 930 20 68 50 114 115 117 38 322 529 46 87 42 77 19 0.9 100.4 BG177 1.0 2.4 19.4 64.1 0.2 3.0 1.2 0.9 7.7 138 193 1084 26 132 61 135 152 124 35 219 571 43 87 41 63 19 0.8 100.8 BG180 1.6 2.0 15.8 65.8 0.2 2.4 2.8 0.8 6.0 113 99 702 17 48 39 100 111 160 30 201 503 34 67 33 34 10 2.0 99.6 BG183 1.1 2.3 19.9 60.5 0.1 2.2 1.9 1.2 8.6 164 190 509 21 90 46 111 121 119 35 278 593 50 97 43 117 15 1.7 99.7 BG187 1.3 1.7 15.2 69.4 0.2 2.5 1.4 1.0 5.9 104 228 1044 20 73 45 98 105 107 40 373 494 50 93 48 177 13 1.0 100.0 BG189 1.5 1.6 14.8 71.4 0.1 2.5 1.0 1.0 5.5 97 211 807 18 77 30 84 118 126 36 355 484 39 96 37 467 14 0.7 100.2 BG192 1.4 1.7 15.2 70.4 0.2 2.5 1.0 1.0 5.9 106 234 959 19 72 32 111 115 112 44 401 482 53 103 40 512 16 0.4 100.1 BG193 1.7 2.0 17.1 65.5 0.3 2.9 1.5 0.9 7.3 132 112 658 20 58 43 120 123 138 33 233 577 40 74 38 34 18 0.8 100.2 BG194 0.2 1.1 8.4 22.2 0.3 1.5 30.6 0.3 3.2 75 120 558 9 70 41 57 71 472 9 54 164 14 16 14 18 10 27.4 95.3 BG195 1.3 1.8 15.8 68.5 0.2 2.4 1.7 1.0 5.6 105 118 802 17 62 41 90 111 119 41 364 516 44 86 50 212 15 1.5 100.1
383
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Cu Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd Pb Th LOI Sum wt% ppm % BG197 1.4 1.7 15.2 70.6 0.1 2.4 1.0 1.0 5.8 101 126 878 19 56 53 85 114 107 39 377 475 52 93 45 205 22 0.8 100.3 BG198 1.3 1.9 15.7 68.2 0.2 3.5 1.3 1.0 6.0 105 125 866 19 86 38 88 110 117 40 359 476 47 98 44 218 16 0.5 99.8 BG200 1.4 1.8 15.2 70.8 0.2 2.4 1.1 1.0 5.8 107 132 878 17 57 62 112 120 120 40 385 528 50 88 44 191 22 0.9 100.9 BG202 1.5 1.6 14.8 71.6 0.1 2.5 1.0 0.9 5.5 106 241 862 19 79 34 84 110 126 37 343 493 42 85 46 633 13 0.6 100.3 BG206 1.3 1.8 15.7 69.1 0.1 2.3 1.2 1.0 6.1 104 114 832 20 60 62 103 106 106 40 379 482 50 99 45 1004 16 0.9 100.0 BG209 1.6 1.9 15.6 68.8 0.2 2.4 1.8 1.0 5.8 115 133 852 16 57 53 121 114 129 38 371 499 50 97 47 629 19 1.1 100.6 BG210 1.4 1.7 15.6 69.9 0.2 2.4 1.1 1.0 5.9 107 131 728 18 55 46 92 117 114 40 376 517 48 94 48 186 21 1.0 100.5 BG211 1.5 1.9 16.2 69.0 0.2 2.5 1.4 1.0 6.1 110 129 898 19 60 57 102 113 115 40 367 507 51 94 47 400 16 0.6 100.7 BG212 1.5 1.8 15.4 67.8 0.2 2.6 1.2 1.0 4.8 100 128 671 16 58 51 101 109 105 37 359 467 46 102 42 152 19 3.8 100.4 BG213 1.4 1.9 15.4 68.5 0.2 2.4 2.0 1.0 6.0 99 140 782 17 61 38 101 121 124 41 378 482 45 94 45 127 22 1.6 100.8 BG221 1.4 1.6 15.0 68.8 0.1 2.5 1.1 0.9 5.7 95 207 803 19 88 36 85 113 124 33 293 490 42 80 35 212 12 2.4 99.8 BG222 1.4 1.7 15.2 70.4 0.1 2.5 1.2 0.9 5.7 101 195 882 21 96 37 86 114 126 33 304 513 41 82 44 319 15 0.5 99.8 BG223 1.4 1.6 15.1 69.9 0.1 2.5 1.2 0.9 5.7 97 196 835 20 94 40 86 106 124 32 297 497 41 80 39 534 11 1.3 100.0 BG225 1.4 1.6 15.0 69.6 0.1 2.5 1.2 0.9 5.8 102 285 820 19 112 45 85 113 128 33 302 504 41 79 40 291 14 1.4 99.9 BG228 1.4 1.9 15.9 68.6 0.2 2.4 1.3 1.0 6.2 107 123 823 18 59 32 101 101 115 40 363 510 45 88 47 88 14 1.0 100.2 BG229 1.1 4.2 17.8 56.1 0.4 3.4 7.6 0.8 7.0 142 133 957 19 62 51 156 142 217 27 158 544 40 81 36 49 15 0.9 99.6 BG231 1.2 3.9 18.8 58.7 0.3 3.4 6.0 0.9 7.3 151 131 1046 21 70 49 166 161 219 30 155 544 39 85 40 46 16 0.1 100.9 BG233 1.2 3.9 17.4 55.0 0.9 3.3 7.4 0.8 6.7 139 128 1022 20 68 82 170 137 252 26 151 630 43 77 30 64 16 3.3 100.2 BG234 1.1 4.1 17.4 56.7 0.2 3.4 8.2 0.8 6.8 138 124 985 19 59 61 132 144 219 30 160 496 36 79 35 33 16 1.5 100.5 BG235 0.4 1.4 15.5 38.5 0.9 1.8 18.9 0.7 2.3 95 225 142 18 172 50 156 73 272 20 89 253 28 49 25 42 11 18.8 99.5 BG236 0.4 1.9 15.0 39.0 0.5 2.5 18.5 0.6 5.9 136 204 573 17 148 59 105 117 497 18 101 268 28 54 26 26 11 15.6 100.0 BG237 0.3 1.6 14.5 39.2 0.1 2.2 19.6 0.7 5.5 129 199 1078 17 116 58 97 110 1112 22 103 261 29 49 28 29 13 15.6 99.5 BG239 0.2 1.2 10.1 27.0 0.1 1.6 29.1 0.4 4.0 83 137 492 11 95 41 67 69 280 11 71 177 16 30 14 21 8 24.6 98.4 BG244 0.9 1.5 16.0 50.2 0.1 1.9 12.0 0.8 5.5 117 140 185 12 64 47 157 81 129 27 182 386 32 62 34 50 12 11.2 100.1
384
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Cu Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd Pb Th LOI Sum wt% ppm % BG246 0.7 1.3 13.2 38.4 0.4 1.3 21.3 0.6 5.2 94 122 242 10 61 140 243 60 143 25 144 324 29 55 32 164 15 17.3 99.7 BG249 0.9 1.5 14.2 41.4 0.3 2.0 15.7 0.7 5.0 109 127 352 14 65 51 118 82 181 23 161 392 30 59 28 35 11 18.0 99.8 BG250 0.8 3.1 15.4 53.3 0.2 1.9 8.1 0.7 5.4 121 141 271 14 70 68 120 70 110 26 163 384 31 66 30 70 13 11.4 100.5 BG251 2.1 1.1 20.1 63.9 0.3 3.4 1.4 0.6 4.6 105 113 135 12 55 43 84 168 262 26 153 614 41 70 30 51 18 2.7 100.3 BG252 0.5 1.2 12.6 42.9 0.1 2.7 19.2 0.5 4.5 68 81 710 19 49 35 112 107 65 24 119 495 37 97 34 36 13 15.1 99.4 BG253 0.1 0.7 8.7 18.8 0.1 0.8 35.0 0.3 2.1 59 110 548 7 48 48 58 33 141 18 55 153 22 47 21 32 15 30.2 97.0 BG256 1.0 1.2 14.0 70.9 0.3 3.0 1.6 0.7 5.1 87 225 484 21 144 29 78 139 139 29 193 509 33 63 32 37 12 2.3 100.3 BG257 1.4 1.8 15.3 69.4 0.2 2.4 1.4 1.0 6.0 99 123 843 17 67 32 95 113 119 41 384 487 49 93 46 155 17 1.0 100.0 BG260 2.0 1.6 14.8 70.7 0.1 2.5 0.9 1.0 5.5 93 212 984 19 74 57 113 108 102 33 349 489 37 90 45 1582 20 0.7 100.1 BG261 1.3 2.1 16.9 66.6 0.2 2.8 1.5 0.9 6.5 108 182 1003 23 113 57 111 120 119 33 269 532 44 83 37 88 17 0.6 99.7 BG262 1.3 1.8 15.5 68.4 0.3 2.4 1.9 1.0 6.0 107 137 816 17 56 62 115 114 113 37 356 512 49 94 49 321 20 1.7 100.7 BG264 1.5 1.9 15.5 69.2 0.5 2.5 1.2 1.0 5.0 104 111 679 17 54 36 105 115 124 41 380 514 52 92 43 106 16 1.4 99.9 BG266 1.4 1.8 15.6 68.8 0.7 2.5 1.6 1.0 4.6 102 113 789 16 54 50 102 114 134 40 373 530 51 97 48 51 14 2.0 100.2 BG267 1.1 4.1 17.4 56.3 0.2 3.4 8.1 0.8 6.7 137 128 932 19 63 60 124 138 209 27 154 537 43 57 36 36 14 1.2 99.7 BG268 1.4 1.8 15.6 69.6 0.2 2.5 1.1 1.0 6.0 110 258 918 19 86 64 106 116 109 38 356 459 48 100 44 378 21 0.8 100.4 BG270 1.4 1.7 14.5 69.7 0.3 3.1 1.4 1.0 5.6 107 239 1041 19 67 36 100 119 118 42 396 466 48 105 42 125 15 0.9 99.9 BG271 1.6 1.6 15.5 70.2 0.1 2.4 1.2 1.0 5.7 103 123 804 19 54 41 87 107 125 37 331 527 46 80 40 213 15 0.7 100.2 BG276 1.4 1.8 15.9 69.5 0.1 2.3 1.3 1.0 6.1 114 141 866 18 60 84 110 113 105 39 377 499 51 92 48 272 21 0.9 100.6 BG279 1.9 1.9 16.8 67.3 0.2 2.2 0.9 1.0 7.3 126 108 1032 21 58 70 95 82 92 36 258 488 40 73 39 1108 9 0.2 99.9 BG280 1.1 1.8 13.0 70.4 0.3 2.4 2.5 0.6 5.2 86 94 530 14 44 38 85 109 136 27 156 471 33 62 32 35 12 2.4 100.0 BG282 0.9 1.9 12.9 63.4 0.9 2.4 6.3 0.7 5.2 96 204 616 17 84 32 120 107 155 28 196 436 30 66 28 180 11 5.0 100.0 BG284 1.4 3.2 14.8 58.3 0.4 2.9 7.2 0.8 5.9 102 147 817 20 91 32 141 85 163 32 222 529 37 75 34 50 10 5.6 100.7 BG287 1.0 1.0 15.7 71.6 0.2 3.0 0.9 0.8 3.1 91 197 89 9 81 19 76 130 84 27 218 513 38 72 35 27 14 2.7 100.1 BG288 1.3 1.9 15.7 67.8 0.2 3.0 1.7 0.8 4.1 122 213 351 18 92 27 93 126 116 28 218 532 38 67 34 31 13 3.2 99.8
385
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Cu Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd Pb Th LOI Sum wt% ppm % BG289 0.7 0.9 14.3 75.8 0.1 2.6 0.7 0.8 2.7 85 242 114 5 62 14 42 124 77 25 240 429 34 80 28 16 14 1.4 100.2 BG291 0.9 1.1 16.7 72.6 0.1 2.9 0.6 0.8 3.2 102 235 145 9 85 16 58 145 107 30 222 533 47 82 40 30 15 0.7 99.9 BG292 0.7 1.5 14.4 70.2 0.3 2.0 1.4 0.7 4.5 106 180 175 19 87 38 86 93 99 28 165 510 36 63 29 30 12 4.2 99.9 BG294 1.0 1.9 16.4 66.3 0.1 2.6 3.7 0.6 4.7 107 319 203 18 193 33 93 129 201 23 130 515 28 56 29 46 13 2.5 100.1 BG296 0.9 2.2 13.7 60.8 0.5 2.3 7.8 0.8 6.1 104 806 1066 23 105 37 133 116 216 27 182 503 38 78 31 80 11 4.5 100.0 BG297 0.9 2.3 16.4 65.0 0.2 2.6 3.5 0.7 6.2 124 188 429 22 141 39 113 132 151 28 142 482 32 63 26 38 13 2.2 100.2 BG304 1.5 2.8 16.6 62.9 0.3 3.1 2.8 0.9 6.2 120 112 807 19 59 37 150 142 150 34 245 466 40 82 32 31 13 2.6 99.9 BG306 1.4 2.7 17.2 65.4 0.2 3.2 1.3 0.9 6.2 124 117 689 18 58 40 119 145 133 34 221 500 42 72 37 28 15 1.5 100.1 BG309 1.5 1.7 15.0 69.1 0.2 2.4 1.3 1.0 5.8 99 115 837 17 56 40 122 108 113 42 390 489 47 90 44 637 16 1.5 99.9 BG311 1.5 1.8 15.1 69.5 0.2 2.4 1.3 1.0 5.8 99 115 874 17 57 43 106 110 117 40 378 468 45 104 42 202 16 0.9 99.7 BG312 0.9 3.5 15.9 55.2 0.2 3.2 9.7 0.7 5.3 116 112 451 12 62 29 124 154 261 28 171 474 35 64 36 28 15 5.2 100.0 BG315 0.9 2.2 12.9 60.3 0.7 2.4 7.1 0.6 5.6 95 136 549 16 109 39 98 104 215 25 143 469 28 54 27 31 11 7.5 100.4 BG316 1.1 2.3 13.6 59.5 0.5 2.7 6.1 0.7 5.5 97 144 612 17 106 44 120 117 169 26 163 444 35 61 25 63 11 7.8 100.0 BG318 1.6 4.1 17.4 55.5 0.2 3.4 8.2 0.8 6.8 131 109 1153 20 64 39 118 152 249 31 154 555 41 78 36 32 13 1.5 99.7 BG319 1.3 1.8 14.8 66.5 0.2 2.3 3.2 1.0 5.8 97 116 826 17 52 48 83 107 119 42 379 460 48 99 40 324 17 2.9 99.9 BG320 0.8 3.1 15.3 52.0 0.3 3.2 9.9 0.7 4.5 110 105 354 14 63 53 101 145 214 25 146 495 33 62 29 35 13 9.6 99.8 Appendix C Table 1. The chemical composition of ceramics determined through the WDXRF analysis, including all elements.
386
Appendix C Table 2
CG F/C Na O MgO Al O SiO K O CaO TiO Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd 2 2 3 2 2 2 wt% ppm
CG1 F13/ C8 Mean 0.9 1.0 15.6 73.3 2.9 0.7 0.8 3.0 93 225 116 8 76 59 133 89 27 227 492 40 78 34
RSD 15.4 8.7 7.8 3.0 6.8 16.9 2.1 9.5 9 11 24 30 16 29 8 18 9 5 11 17 7 18
MIN 0.7 0.9 14.3 71.6 2.6 0.6 0.8 2.7 85 197 89 5 62 42 124 77 25 218 429 34 72 28
MAX 1.0 1.1 16.7 75.8 3.0 0.9 0.8 3.2 102 242 145 9 85 76 145 107 30 240 533 47 82 40 Outl F13/ C1 Bg288 1.3 1.9 15.7 67.8 3.0 1.7 0.8 4.1 122 213 351 18 92 93 126 116 28 218 532 38 67 34 CG2 F12/ C6 Mean 1.1 2.4 13.6 60.4 2.6 6.7 0.7 5.6 98 158 649 18 98 120 103 176 28 181 470 33 64 29
RSD 20.2 23.6 6.4 3.6 9.1 8.3 10.9 5.1 3 20 18 10 12 15 13 15 11 19 9 13 14 6
MIN 0.9 1.9 12.9 58.3 2.4 6.1 0.6 5.2 95 136 549 16 84 98 85 155 25 143 436 28 54 25
MAX 1.4 3.2 14.8 63.4 2.9 7.2 0.8 5.9 102 204 817 20 109 141 117 215 32 222 529 37 75 28 Outl F12/ Outl Bg296 0.9 2.2 13.7 60.8 2.3 7.8 0.8 6.1 104 806 1066 23 105 133 116 216 27 182 503 38 78 31 Outl F12/ C2 Bg 297 0.9 2.3 16.4 65.0 2.6 3.5 0.7 6.2 120 112 807 19 59 150 142 150 34 245 466 40 82 32 Outl F12/ C3 Bg 280 1.1 1.8 13.0 70.4 2.4 2.5 0.6 5.2 86 94 530 14 44 85 109 136 27 156 471 33 62 32 CG3 F1, F14/ Mean 0.7 1.9 15.6 68.1 2.3 2.7 0.7 5.2 114 261 331 19 155 129 118 114 25 147 400 34 63 31 C1, C2 RSD 27.0 16.8 9.0 3.6 10.2 60.6 6.1 16.1 12 18 37 15 22 21 10 22 6 16 12 10 7 9
MIN 0.4 1.5 13.6 62.6 2.0 0.7 0.6 3.7 96 180 165 13 87 86 93 85 22 118 310 27 56 26
MAX 1.0 2.8 18.3 72.0 3.0 5.7 0.8 6.9 143 331 549 24 221 235 138 201 28 190 515 40 71 38
387
CG F/C Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd
wt% ppm
CG3 RF1/ C3 Bg 064 1.2 2.3 18.4 63.9 3.7 1.4 0.8 6.7 122 120 630 17 52 163 172 112 28 149 612 40 69 33
Outl F14/ C4 Bg256 1.0 1.2 14.0 70.9 3.0 1.6 0.7 5.1 87 225 484 21 144 78 139 139 29 193 509 33 63 32
Outl RF14/ Outl Bg251 2.1 1.1 20.1 63.9 3.4 1.4 0.6 4.6 105 113 135 12 55 84 168 262 26 153 614 41 70 30
CG4 F2/ Outl Bg99 0.3 0.6 23.5 67.3 1.6 0.5 0.8 3.9 73 351 79 13 121 59 66 40 30 154 256 46 97 47
CG7 F7, 100 Mean 1.4 2.3 15.7 66.6 2.5 1.8 0.9 6.6 113 269 24 182 105 109 138 32 244 502 38 73 36 RF7/ 4 C4 RSD 3.7 5.9 3.1 2.7 4.3 34.1 2.8 4.1 4 11 6 9 23 9 8 7 4 4 4 7 7 8
MIN 1.3 2.0 14.7 63.7 2.4 1.2 0.8 6.1 105 234 924 21 112 94 96 124 30 229 470 34 65 30
112 MAX 1.5 2.5 17.0 68.6 2.8 2.8 0.9 7.1 119 325 29 259 120 121 152 34 256 534 44 86 40 9 CG8 F6 SGF6F Mean 1.5 1.7 15.3 69.3 2.5 1.3 1.0 5.7 103 162 848 18 67 98 112 120 38 355 498 46 92 43 8 SGF8F RSD 8.4 7.8 3.8 1.8 8.6 30.7 4.7 7.5 7 33 10 8 21 13 5 8 9 10 5 9 10 10 10/C4, C3, C1 MIN 1.3 1.3 13.6 66.5 2.3 0.9 0.8 4.6 84 107 608 15 51 70 101 102 27 272 458 33 66 30
104 MAX 2.0 1.9 16.5 72.1 3.5 3.2 1.0 6.6 121 287 21 112 122 124 143 44 407 550 53 105 50 4
388
CG F/C Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd
wt% ppm CG8 SGF6/ C4 Bg 177 1.0 2.4 19.4 64.1 3.0 1.2 0.9 7.7 138 193 1084 26 132 135 152 124 35 219 571 43 87 41 SGF6/
C4 Bg 261 1.3 2.1 16.9 66.6 2.8 1.5 0.9 6.5 108 182 1003 23 113 111 120 119 33 269 532 44 83 37 RF8/C 4 Bg 279 1.9 1.9 16.8 67.3 2.2 0.9 1.0 7.3 126 108 1032 21 58 95 82 92 36 258 488 40 73 39
SGF8/ Bg 149 1.2 1.4 17.3 60.2 2.3 1.8 1.5 8.9 153 138 532 30 76 109 86 128 36 275 561 42 81 41 CG8 C4 SGF8/ Bg 156 1.1 1.9 19.0 62.0 2.5 1.3 1.1 8.3 135 179 570 21 90 103 131 101 32 269 548 41 78 37 C4 SGF8/ Bg 183 1.1 2.3 19.9 60.5 2.2 1.9 1.2 8.6 164 190 509 21 90 111 121 119 35 278 593 50 97 43 C4 SGF8/ Bg 162 1.1 1.8 17.8 65.5 2.1 1.4 1.1 7.1 126 179 803 22 90 93 110 114 36 282 514 46 113 43 C4
F8/ Bg 193 1.7 2.0 17.1 65.5 2.9 1.5 0.9 7.3 132 112 658 20 58 120 123 138 33 233 577 40 74 38 CG8 C3 F8/ Bg 306 1.4 2.7 17.2 65.4 3.2 1.3 0.9 6.2 124 117 689 18 58 119 145 133 34 221 500 42 72 37 C3 F8/ Bg 180 1.6 2.0 15.8 65.8 2.4 2.8 0.8 6.0 113 99 702 17 48 100 111 160 30 201 503 34 67 33 C3 SGF6/ Bg 304 1.5 2.8 16.6 62.9 3.1 2.8 0.9 6.2 120 112 807 19 59 150 142 150 34 245 466 40 82 32 C3 CG8 SGF8/ C1 Bg 134 1.0 1.9 15.4 68.1 2.1 1.2 1.0 6.7 114 342 293 22 209 104 95 95 34 245 463 30 74 32 Outl F6/ Outl Bg165 1.1 1.3 16.5 72.0 2.4 0.5 1.1 4.3 103 160 190 10 46 88 121 86 36 364 531 52 87 47
389
CG F/C Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd
wt% ppm CG9 F9/ C1 Mean 1.6 1.4 14.0 72.4 2.3 1.3 0.8 4.6 89 190 384 18 79 83 98 152 29 280 529 35 68 32 C3 C4 RSD 12.9 3.6 6.2 0.3 3.8 10.1 4.3 6.2 7 37 46 7 28 16 8 9 5 10 3 2 10 6
MIN 1.3 1.3 12.8 72.1 2.2 1.2 0.7 4.3 83 98 242 16 48 75 89 133 27 243 513 34 61 30
MAX 1.7 1.4 14.8 72.7 2.4 1.5 0.8 5.0 97 272 607 19 101 102 107 166 30 309 547 36 77 34 CG10 F10/ C6 Mean 1.2 4.0 17.7 56.4 3.4 7.6 0.8 6.9 140 126 1016 20 64 144 146 228 29 155 551 40 76 36
RSD 14.3 3.0 3.2 2.3 1.6 11.0 2.5 3.2 5 7 8 4 6 16 6 8 7 2 8 7 13 9
MIN 1.1 3.9 17.4 55.0 3.3 6.0 0.8 6.7 131 109 932 19 59 118 137 209 26 151 496 36 57 30
MAX 1.6 4.2 18.8 58.7 3.4 8.2 0.9 7.3 151 133 1153 21 70 170 161 252 31 160 630 43 85 40 Outl F10/ C6 Bg 312 0.9 3.5 15.9 55.2 3.2 9.7 0.7 5.3 116 112 451 12 62 124 154 261 28 171 474 35 64 36 Outl F10/ C6 Bg 320 0.8 3.1 15.3 52.0 3.2 9.9 0.7 4.5 110 105 354 14 63 101 145 214 25 146 495 33 62 29 Outl F10/ C1 Bg 132 0.5 2.9 18.3 63.9 3.6 2.0 0.8 5.9 125 139 384 20 70 157 173 148 22 156 542 38 69 40 CG11a F11/ C7 Mean 0.8 1.8 14.7 45.8 1.8 14.3 0.7 5.3 110 133 263 13 65 160 73 141 25 163 372 31 61 31
RSD 12.9 43.9 8.5 15.4 18.6 39.3 9.5 4.3 11 7 26 15 6 37 14 21 7 10 9 4 8 8
MIN 0.7 1.3 13.2 38.4 1.3 8.1 0.6 5.0 94 122 185 10 61 118 60 110 23 144 324 29 55 28
MAX 0.9 3.1 16.0 53.3 2.0 21.3 0.8 5.5 121 141 352 14 70 243 82 181 27 182 392 32 66 34
390
CG F/C Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 V Cr Mn Co Ni Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Ba La Ce Nd
wt% ppm
F11/ Mean 0.3 1.4 12.0 31.8 2.0 24.5 0.5 4.6 106 165 675 14 107 82 92 590 15 82 218 22 37 21 CG11b C9 RSD 41.6 26.2 27.2 27.0 24.8 25.7 29.2 27.0 29 26 40 31 31 28 28 61 40 29 25 36 47 37
MIN 0.2 1.1 8.4 22.2 1.5 18.5 0.3 3.2 75 120 492 9 70 57 69 280 9 54 164 14 16 14
MAX 0.4 1.9 15.0 39.2 2.5 30.6 0.7 5.9 136 204 1078 17 148 105 117 1112 22 103 268 29 54 28
Outl F11/ Bg 133 0.5 1.2 11.4 38.6 2.4 20.7 0.4 4.2 59 71 1065 12 41 116 94 65 16 102 424 20 58 23 C5 Outl F11/ Bg 252 0.5 1.2 12.6 42.9 2.7 19.2 0.5 4.5 68 81 710 19 49 112 107 65 24 119 495 37 97 34 C5 Outl F11/ Bg235 0.4 1.4 15.5 38.5 1.8 18.9 0.7 2.3 95 225 142 18 172 156 73 272 20 89 253 28 49 25 Outl Outl F11/ Bg253 0.1 0.7 8.7 18.8 0.8 35.0 0.3 2.1 59 110 548 7 48 58 33 141 18 55 153 22 47 21 Outl Appendix C Table. 2 The chemical composition of compositional groups (CG), given as Mean (% and ppm), Relative standard deviation (RSD) (%), Minimum (MIN) (% and ppm) and Maximum (MAX) (% and ppm) obtained through the WDXRF analysis. The samples of a CG that show compositional variations are separated with the dash line for purposes of comparison (see the text). Outliers are separated with solid lines. The table
also provides comparative information on petrographic (fabrics) and chemical data (clusters). Excluded oxides and elements are P2O5, Cu, Pb and Th.
391
Appendix D
The results of chemical analyses of slips and glazes
392
Appendix D.1 Sample Phase Colour Al Si P K Ca Ti Fe Ni Cu Zn As Sr Zr Pb BG97 P2 Green 0.6 8.0 2.4 0.3 2.5 - 0.1 - 1.2 0.1 - - - 17.2 BG99 P2 Brown 2.4 9.0 0.3 0.7 0.5 - 0.3 - 0.3 0.1 0.1 - - 9.1 BG100 P2 Yellow 12.7 16.6 1.7 0.7 1.6 0.5 2.4 ------0.4 BG101 P2 Yellow 1.4 8.6 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 1.0 - 0.1 0.1 0.2 - - 11.1 BG134 P3 Polych 1.3 9.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 - 0.2 - 0.1 - 0.3 - - 6.5 BG135 P3 Green 1.3 5.2 - 0.2 0.1 - - 0.7 - 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 6.8 BG148 P3 Polych 2.1 5.9 0.7 0.4 1.4 - 0.6 - 0.1 - 0.2 - - 10.5 BG151 P3 Polych 0.5 5.3 2.2 0.2 2.9 - 0.1 - - 0.1 - - - 11.4 BG152 P3 Yellow 1.7 6.8 2.7 0.6 3.1 - 2.4 ------10.9 BG153 P3 Yellow 0.9 4.1 2.8 0.6 6.0 - 1.0 - - 0.1 - - - 18.1 BG154 P3 Green 1.9 6.8 2.3 0.8 6.7 - 0.4 - 0.4 0.1 - - - 14.0 BG155 P3 Green 3.3 10.5 2.1 1.7 12.2 0.1 0.9 - 0.5 0.1 - - - 15.3 BG156 P3 Green 1.7 7.4 2.0 0.7 7.1 - 0.4 - 0.4 0.1 - - - 16.3 BG157 P3 Green 1.1 5.2 3.2 0.4 6.2 - 0.6 - 0.6 0.1 - - - 14.2 BG158 P3 Green 1.2 4.0 2.8 0.5 11.9 - 0.8 - 0.4 0.1 - - - 18.7 BG159 P3 Green 1.0 3.6 2.4 0.4 5.2 - 0.5 - 0.1 0.1 - - - 13.1 BG160 P3 Green 1.2 4.5 2.0 0.4 3.3 0.1 0.8 - 0.4 0.1 - - - 7.9 BG161 P3 Green 0.3 5.6 1.4 0.2 1.9 - 0.1 - 0.2 0.1 - - - 17.5 BG162 P3 Green 0.8 3.7 2.3 0.4 4.1 - 0.1 - 0.3 0.1 - - - 19.4 BG163 P3 Green 2.0 5.5 3.5 0.6 11.7 - 0.5 - 0.4 0.1 - - - 12.1 BG164 P3 Green 0.8 5.2 2.5 0.2 3.6 - 0.1 - 0.2 0.1 0.1 - - 12.3 BG165 P3 Brown 2.0 7.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.5 - 0.4 - 0.3 - - 3.3
393
Sample Phase Colour Al Si P K Ca Ti Fe Ni Cu Zn As Sr Zr Pb BG166 P3 Green 1.1 5.1 3.1 0.5 4.4 - 0.5 - 0.7 0.1 - - - 15.7 BG167 P3 Green 1.3 6.2 3.6 0.5 4.4 - 0.3 - 0.6 0.1 - - - 10.8 BG169 P3 Green 1.6 10.7 0.3 0.5 0.7 - 0.1 - 0.7 0.1 0.1 - - 11.1 BG168 P3 Green 1.2 4.3 2.2 0.2 2.7 - 0.1 - 0.2 - 0.2 - - 7.1 BG170 P3 Green 0.7 5.5 1.7 0.4 2.6 - 0.1 - 0.4 0.1 0.2 - - 11.0 BG171 P3 Green 1.6 11.9 1.0 0.4 1.0 - 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.1 - - - 9.8 BG172 P3 Yellow 2.6 7.6 0.1 0.4 0.9 0.1 1.3 - - - 0.2 - - 3.3 BG174 P3 Brown 2.8 8.8 - 0.5 1.0 0.1 0.9 - 0.2 0.1 0.1 - - 6.2 BG175 P3 Transp 2.3 7.6 - 0.3 0.3 0.1 - 0.8 - - - 0.3 0.3 5.6 BG176 P3 Brown 2.2 7.5 0.1 0.2 - 0.1 - 1.3 - - 0.1 - - 14.8 BG177 P3 Yellow 3.1 9.7 - 0.6 0.1 - 0.6 - - 0.1 - - - 8.7 BG178 P3 Green 4.6 10.2 2.8 0.7 5.9 - 0.5 - 0.1 0.1 - - - 15.3 BG179 P3 Green 0.7 3.5 2.5 0.2 3.7 - 0.1 - 0.4 0.1 - - - 9.8 BG181 P3 Green 1.5 4.4 2.8 0.7 7.5 - 0.4 - 0.1 0.1 - - - 19.4 BG182 P3 Black 2.3 11.7 - 2.1 1.1 - 1.7 - - 0.1 - - - 1- BG183 P3 Green 0.4 4.1 2.6 0.2 3.8 - 0.1 - 0.2 0.1 - - - 14.8 BG184 P3 Green 3.1 7.0 2.1 0.7 8.8 0.1 0.7 - 0.2 - 0.2 - - 2.8 BG186 P3 Green 1.1 7.3 0.3 0.2 0.7 - 1.0 - 0.1 0.1 0.2 - - 9.4 BG187 P3 Green 1.9 8.2 0.8 0.6 2.2 0.1 0.3 - 0.5 0.1 0.2 - - 10.2 BG188 P3 Green 2.1 6.7 2.4 0.6 6.1 0.1 0.6 - 0.1 0.1 - - - 12.8 BG189 P3 Yellow 2.7 9.0 2.4 1.4 6.0 0.1 1.5 - - 0.1 - - - 13.4 BG190 P3 Yellow 0.8 7.9 - 0.3 0.7 - - 1.6 - 0.1 0.1 - - 11.6 BG191 P3 Yellow 2.4 10.7 1.2 1.0 1.5 - 1.4 - 0.1 0.1 - - - 13.5 BG192 P3 Yellow 1.0 8.4 - 0.2 0.5 - 1.0 - 0.1 0.1 - - - 13.3 BG195 P4 Brown 1.5 7.0 - 0.1 0.2 0.1 - 0.8 - 0.3 - 0.3 0.3 4.5
394
Sample Phase Colour Al Si P K Ca Ti Fe Ni Cu Zn As Sr Zr Pb BG197 P4 Green 1.4 6.8 0.2 0.3 0.5 - 0.5 - 0.1 0.1 0.2 - - 9.4 BG198 P4 Green 1.6 8.0 0.1 1.2 0.5 0.1 0.2 - 0.9 - 0.2 - - 8.3 BG199 P4 Green 2.6 10.9 0.3 0.8 0.9 0.1 0.3 - 0.5 - - - - 11.3 BG200 P4 Green 0.8 8.5 - 0.2 1.0 0.1 0.6 - 0.2 0.1 0.2 - - 5.1 BG201 P4 Green 0.7 2.1 1.8 0.2 2.0 - 0.2 - 0.2 - 0.3 - - 4.2 BG202 P4 Brown 3.1 9.1 2.5 3.8 6.4 0.3 - 2.1 - - 0.1 - - 12.5 BG203 P4 Green 0.7 10.1 1.2 0.3 0.9 - 0.3 - 0.7 - - - - 12.1 BG205 P4 Brown 0.4 2.4 2.2 0.4 3.3 - - 1.5 - - 0.1 0.2 - 8.9 BG206 P4 Green 2.0 9.4 - 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.5 - 1.3 0.1 - - - 17.9 BG208 P4 Green 1.0 9.9 1.9 0.6 1.4 - 0.6 - 0.4 - 0.2 - - 6.8 BG209 P4 Green 3.6 12.6 0.4 2.0 1.5 0.1 0.3 - 0.3 - 0.2 - - 5.1 BG210 P4 Green 2.2 10.6 1.0 0.8 1.9 - 0.2 - 0.8 0.1 - - - 13.2 BG211 P4 Brown 1.5 6.1 1.9 0.5 3.5 - - 0.6 - 0.2 0.1 - - 9.1 BG212 P4 Green 1.7 13.7 - 0.6 0.2 - 0.2 - 1.1 - 0.2 - - 7.8 BG213 P4 Polych 1.0 7.6 0.3 0.2 0.5 - - 1.3 - 0.1 0.1 0.1 - 8.3 BG214 P4 Green 3.3 7.4 3.2 1.0 7.2 - 1.0 - 0.5 0.1 - - - 11.5 BG215 P4 Brown 4.4 12.9 0.2 2.2 1.3 0.2 - 1.5 - 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 14.1 BG218 P4 Green 1.8 7.9 0.8 0.5 1.4 0.1 0.6 - 0.9 - 0.2 - - 8.2 BG219 P4 Yellow 1.3 7.4 1.0 0.5 1.1 - 1.0 - - - 0.2 - - 1- BG220 P4 Green 2.5 10.2 0.2 0.5 0.4 - 0.2 - 0.8 - 0.3 - - 5.6 BG221 P4 Yellow 0.8 5.5 0.1 0.7 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.1 - 0.2 - - 4.9 BG222 P4 Brown 0.5 2.7 2.1 0.4 3.2 - - 1.1 - 0.1 - 0.2 0.2 7.2 BG223 P4 Brown 4.8 14.2 0.1 1.2 1.9 0.2 - 1.8 - 0.1 - 0.2 0.4 3.9 BG224 P4 Yellow 2.0 7.9 0.7 1.2 2.1 0.1 0.8 - 0.1 - 0.2 - - 5.2 BG225 P4 Brown 1.6 5.8 1.4 0.9 6.7 0.1 - 1.1 - 0.1 - 0.2 0.4 3.9
395
Sample Phase Colour Al Si P K Ca Ti Fe Ni Cu Zn As Sr Zr Pb BG226 P4 Brown 1.2 5.4 1.5 0.8 2.7 - - 1.3 - 0.2 0.1 0.2 - 9.5 BG227 P4 Green 4.9 10.8 0.1 1.8 2.4 0.2 0.8 - 0.2 - 0.2 - - 5.1 BG228 P4 Green 3.0 8.3 - 0.6 3.7 - 0.5 - 0.6 0.1 - - - 10.1 BG257 P4 Green 2.1 9.8 - 0.3 1.1 0.1 0.4 - 0.4 - 0.3 - - 6.9 BG258 P4 Green 5.3 14.2 1.7 1.9 15.9 0.4 2.2 - 0.5 0.1 - - - 18.5 BG259 P4 Green 1.3 9.6 0.1 0.3 - - 0.9 - 0.1 0.1 - - - 17.3 BG260 P4 Brown 2.5 9.4 0.2 0.6 0.8 - - 1.3 - - 0.1 - - 19.3 BG262 P4 Green 2.3 10.6 1.7 1.0 5.3 - 0.8 - 0.1 - - - - 12.2 BG263 P4 Green 1.6 11.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 - 0.2 - 0.4 - 0.3 - - 6.8 BG264 P4 Brown 1.7 7.1 2.2 0.8 2.8 0.1 - 1.9 - - - 0.2 0.4 2.8 BG265 P4 Green 2.4 14.4 0.2 1.2 0.4 0.1 0.3 - 0.8 - 0.2 - - 11.2 BG268 P4 Brown 0.8 5.8 - 0.5 0.5 - 0.7 - 0.1 0.1 0.2 - - 4.8 BG275 P4 Brown 0.4 2.1 2.3 0.2 3.5 - 0.5 - 0.1 - 0.2 - - 11.7 BG276 P4 Green 0.4 2.2 1.9 0.1 2.4 - 0.2 - 0.2 - 0.2 - - 5.9 BG277 P4 Green 4.0 11.7 0.2 1.1 1.5 0.5 2.5 - 0.2 - - - - 1.7 BG278 P4 Green 2.6 12.5 2.1 0.7 2.3 0.1 0.4 - 0.2 - 0.1 - - 4.1 BG309 P4 Green 2.5 5.9 2.5 0.7 5.0 - - 0.7 - - 0.1 - - 12.9 BG310 P4 Green 5.1 20.6 0.3 2.7 0.7 - - 0.5 - 0.2 - 0.3 0.5 3.9 BG311 P4 Green 3.0 14.6 1.1 2.0 2.0 0.1 - 0.7 - 1.1 0.1 - - 11.4 BG318 P4 Green 2.3 6.4 3.1 0.5 6.0 - - 0.6 - 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 5.5 Table 1 The results of pXRF analysis of glazes, using the Mining Plus method. ‘-‘ stands for bellow detection limits.
396
Appendix D.2
Sample Glaze recipe Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2
BG97 glaze lead-silica - 0.5 2.4 95.4 0.6 1.1 - BG97 slip 0.2 0.8 17.8 76.8 2.8 0.6 1.0 BG167 glaze lead-silica with clay - 0.7 7.8 86.4 1.1 3.1 0.9 BG167 slip 0.3 1.0 19.2 73.4 3.3 1.3 1.4 BG168 glaze lead-silica with clay - - 6.8 90.5 1.1 1.5 - BG168 body 1.5 1.7 17.3 74.0 2.9 1.4 1.2 BG171 glaze lead-silica with clay - 0.9 6.7 86.5 2.0 2.1 2.0 BG171 slip 0.3 0.9 19.2 74.0 2.8 1.6 1.1 BG199 glaze lead-silica with clay 0.6 1.2 10.2 82.5 1.2 3.7 0.7 BG199 slip 0.9 1.2 18.9 74.2 3.0 0.5 1.3 BG186 glaze lead-silica with clay - 0.9 7.9 83.8 1.2 6.2 - BG186 body 1.2 1.8 16.9 71.0 2.8 5.3 1.0 BG190 glaze lead-silica with clay 0.6 0.9 10.4 80.8 1.8 4.8 0.6 BG190 body 1.7 1.9 18.0 74.4 2.3 1.2 0.4 BG208 glaze (side 1) lead-silica with clay - 1.2 4.8 89.5 1.3 3.2 - BG208 body 1.5 1.9 16.7 74.2 3.3 1.6 0.9 BG208 glaze (side2) - 1.4 5.1 89.3 1.2 3.1 - BG213 glaze lead-silica with clay 0.6 1.3 8.7 85.6 1.4 1.7 0.7 BG213 body 1.4 1.8 16.4 74.9 2.8 1.4 1.4 BG226 glaze lead-silica with clay 0.6 1.1 10.5 82.3 1.3 3.5 0.7 BG226 body 1.3 1.9 17.8 73.0 3.1 1.8 1.1 BG258 glaze lead-silica with clay - 0.7 6.4 89.1 1.1 2.7 - BG258 slip 0.2 0.8 18.9 75.8 3.1 0.5 0.7 BG259 glaze lead-silica with clay - 0.6 10.9 85.7 1.2 1.0 0.6 BG259 body 1.4 1.7 16.2 75.7 2.7 1.2 1.0 BG268 glaze lead-silica with clay 0.7 1.2 12.3 79.2 1.8 4.0 0.7 BG268 body 1.5 1.9 17.1 74.0 2.9 1.6 1.0 BG275 glaze lead-silica - - 2.4 96.3 - 1.3 - BG275 body 1.5 2.5 17.5 72.0 3.3 2.2 1.0
BG278 glaze lead-silica with clay - 1.2 8.3 86.4 1.3 2.2 0.6 BG278 slip 0.4 1.0 20.2 73.1 2.9 1.3 1.0 BG182 glaze lead-silica with clay - 0.6 11.6 84.4 1.6 1.2 0.6 BG182 body - 0.5 23.3 73.0 1.7 0.8 0.7 BG179 glaze lead-silica - - 5.3 93.5 - 0.4 0.8 BG179 slip 0.3 1.0 20.4 72.9 3.1 1.2 1.0 BG183 glaze lead-silica - - 2.3 96.2 0.6 0.9 - BG183 body 1.2 2.4 22.3 69.0 2.5 1.5 1.2
397
Sample Glaze recipe Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2
BG311 glaze lead-silica with clay - 0.9 9.2 85.7 1.0 2.7 0.6 BG311 slip
0.3 1.0 22.3 71.7 3.2 0.6 1.0
BG99 glaze lead-silica with clay - 0.9 11.8 84.1 0.5 2.2 0.6 BG99 body 0.3 0.6 27.6 67.3 1.8 0.8 1.6 BG100 glaze lead-silica with clay - 1.1 16.0 78.4 0.6 3.3 0.6 BG100 body 0.3 0.5 28.0 66.7 1.4 2.3 0.7 BG101 glaze lead-silica with clay - 0.9 15.3 80.1 0.5 2.6 0.5 BG101 body - 0.4 30.6 65.8 1.3 1.0 0.9 BG156 glaze (side 1) lead-silica - - 4.0 96.0 - - - BG156 slip (side 1) 1.1 0.8 28.8 64.4 4.0 0.6 0.3 BG156 glaze (side 2) lead-silica - 0.2 3.3 96.0 - 0.5 - BG156 slip (side2) 0.9 0.8 29.2 64.4 3.5 1.0 0.4 BG169 glaze lead-silica with clay - 1.0 11.3 86.4 - 1.3 - BG169 slip 1.0 0.9 32.6 60.3 3.8 0.9 0.4 BG170 glaze lead-silica - - 2.5 96.7 - 0.8 - BG170 slip 1.5 0.7 29.0 64.0 3.3 1.0 0.5 BG181 glaze lead-silica with clay - - 2.7 97.3 - - - BG181 slip 1.3 0.8 30.8 62.1 3.4 1.2 0.5 Table 1. Types of glaze recipes associated with the lead-silica mixture. CuO and PbO are excluded and the remaining composition in normalised to 100 wt%. Determined through SEM-EDS. ‘-‘ indicates below detection limits.
Sample Glaze recipe Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2
BG135 glaze lead compound 0.8 2.4 17.7 74.3 1.9 1.8 1.2 BG135 body - 1.8 17.9 74.6 3.3 1.4 1.0 BG165 glaze lead compound 0.7 1.7 14.7 77.3 2.9 1.6 1.2 BG165 body 1.0 1.2 18.4 74.6 3.0 0.5 1.1 BG174 glaze lead compound 1.2 3.3 19.6 64.7 3.8 6.4 1.0 BG174 body 1.1 2.7 18.4 68.3 3.2 5.4 0.9 BG221 glaze lead compound 0.5 0.9 13.0 79.9 1.6 2.8 1.2 BG221 body 1.5 1.7 16.2 75.4 3.0 1.4 0.9 Table 2. Glazes made of a pure lead oxide compound. CuO and PbO are excluded and the remaining composition in normalised to 100wt%. Determined through SEM-EDS.
‘-‘ indicates below detection limits.
398
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO CuO PbO
BG97 glaze - 0.1 0.7 26.9 0.2 0.3 - 0.2 3.1 68.5 BG97 lower glaze - - 4.5 23.0 0.2 0.9 0.2 3.0 0.3 68.0 BG97 interface 0.3 0.6 17.1 36.6 4.6 0.6 - 1.1 0.6 33.9 BG97 slip Group 1 0.2 0.8 17.5 75.3 2.7 0.6 1.0 1.5 - 0.5 BG97 body 1.2 1.9 14.7 70.8 2.6 1.3 0.7 5.5 1.3 - BG156 glaze (side 1) - - 1.1 25.3 - - - 0.2 1.8 71.5 BG156 lower glaze - - 4.1 27.0 - 0.1 - 0.3 1.1 67.4 BG156 interface 0.7 0.6 22.5 36.1 3.1 0.5 3.2 1.7 0.3 31.1 BG156 slip Group 1 1.1 0.7 28.2 63.1 3.9 0.6 0.3 2.0 - - BG156 body 0.9 1.8 19.3 66.0 2.7 1.1 1.0 7.2 - - BG167 glaze - 0.2 2.4 26.5 0.3 1.0 0.3 0.6 2.4 66.2 BG167 lower glaze - 0.2 3.9 29.2 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.6 1.7 62.6 BG167 interface 0.5 1.0 17.9 51.6 4.1 0.9 0.6 2.9 0.4 20.1 BG167 slip Group 1 0.3 1.0 18.5 70.4 3.2 1.3 1.4 3.6 - 0.5 BG167 body 1.2 1.5 15.0 71.7 2.6 1.6 0.9 5.3 - - BG169 glaze - 0.2 2.8 21.8 - 0.3 - 0.4 3.1 71.3 BG169 lower glaze - 0.2 4.0 22.3 0.3 0.3 - 0.5 2.6 69.8 BG169 interface 1.1 0.3 22.2 34.4 3.5 0.4 - 1.0 0.7 36.6 BG169 slip Group 1 1.0 0.9 31.9 58.9 3.7 0.9 0.4 2.3 - - BG169 body 1.6 2.1 18.2 65.6 2.8 1.8 1.0 6.8 - - BG170 glaze - - 0.6 25.5 - 0.2 - 0.2 3.1 70.3 BG170 lower glaze - - 3.7 27.1 - 0.2 - 0.3 2.2 66.5 BG170 interface 0.5 0.4 18.5 32.5 2.7 0.4 0.3 1.2 0.8 38.0 BG170 slip Group 1 1.4 0.7 28.5 62.8 3.2 1.0 0.4 1.9 - - BG170 body 1.7 1.9 16.8 67.9 2.8 1.6 1.0 6.3 - - BG171 glaze - 0.3 2.4 30.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.3 1.7 62.3 BG171 lower glaze 0.2 0.3 3.3 31.9 0.9 0.6 0.2 0.7 1.3 60.2 BG171 interface 0.7 0.7 19.9 41.2 6.1 0.6 0.6 2.6 0.4 27.0 BG171 slip Group 1 0.3 0.9 18.8 72.5 2.8 1.6 1.0 2.0 - - BG171 body 1.3 1.8 16.4 69.1 2.8 1.6 0.9 6.1 - - BG179 glaze - - 1.8 32.2 - 0.1 0.3 0.4 1.9 63.3 BG179 lower glaze - - 5.4 33.6 0.7 0.2 0.4 0.5 1.2 58.0 BG179 interface 0.6 1.2 23.2 37.8 4.0 0.4 0.6 1.7 0.3 25.3 BG179 slip Group 1 0.3 1.0 2- 71.4 3.0 1.2 1.0 1.9 0.2 - BG179 body 1.2 1.9 17.4 67.4 3.0 1.7 0.8 6.6 - - BG181 glaze - - 0.7 25.3 - - - 0.2 0.3 73.5 BG181 lower glaze - - 9.6 28.8 1.0 0.3 - 0.5 - 59.8 BG181 interface 0.8 0.5 19.6 33.0 2.5 0.4 0.2 1.2 - 37.0 BG181 slip Group 1 1.3 0.7 30.1 60.7 3.3 1.2 0.5 2.3 - - BG181 body 1.5 2.0 19.8 63.6 2.9 1.4 1.0 7.8 - -
399
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO CuO PbO
BG199 glaze 0.3 0.5 4.4 35.1 0.5 1.6 0.3 1.8 1.6 54.0 BG199 lower glaze 0.4 0.4 6.0 36.6 0.7 1.5 0.3 1.7 1.1 51.3 BG199 interface 1.2 1.0 18.0 38.8 2.9 1.2 0.3 2.0 0.7 33.7 BG199 slip Group 2 0.9 1.1 17.4 68.5 2.8 0.4 1.2 2.6 - 5.2 BG199 body 1.5 1.7 15.5 69.4 2.7 2.1 1.0 6.1 - - BG258 glaze - 0.2 1.8 24.7 0.3 0.7 - 1.1 1.7 69.4 BG258 lower glaze - 0.3 3.2 26.7 0.5 0.8 - 1.2 1.3 66.0 BG258 interface 0.6 0.4 14.3 34.3 5.0 0.4 0.6 1.5 0.3 26.0 BG258 slip Group 1 0.2 0.8 18.6 74.6 3.0 0.5 0.7 1.6 - - BG258 body 1.6 1.7 15.5 70.8 2.8 1.0 1.0 5.6 - - BG259 glaze - 0.2 3.8 30.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 1.9 0.3 62.5 BG259 lower glaze 0.3 - 5.7 32.0 0.7 0.3 0.3 1.3 0.3 59.1 BG259 interface 1.0 1.0 25.5 34.0 4.0 0.4 0.5 1.7 - 19.3 BG259 slip Group 1 0.4 0.9 20.1 73.2 2.7 0.5 0.8 1.5 - - BG259 body 1.3 1.6 15.3 71.4 2.6 1.2 1.0 5.6 - - BG311 glaze - 0.3 2.9 26.7 0.3 0.9 0.2 1.0 5.3 62.6 BG311 lower glaze - 0.1 4.3 28.4 0.4 0.8 0.2 0.8 4.1 60.9 BG311 interface 0.6 0.6 18.9 37.6 4.7 0.6 0.3 1.8 2.0 32.9 BG311 slip Group 1 0.3 1.0 21.9 70.4 3.1 0.5 1.0 1.8 - - BG311 body 1.4 1.7 15.4 71.2 2.7 1.2 0.9 5.5 - -
Table 3. Glazed slipware that were double-fired. Comparison made between different analytical zones illustrates the diffusion of elements. Compositions are determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for below detection limits.
400
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO CuO PbO
BG99 glaze - 0.3 3.5 24.6 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.7 1.6 68.4 BG99 lower glaze - - 5.1 24.5 - 0.5 - 0.8 1.2 67.9 BG99 interface - - 22.9 35.5 2.3 0.5 - 2.5 - 36.4 BG99 upper body - - 27.3 64.6 1.7 1.0 - 3.1 - 2.4 BG99 body 0.3 0.6 26.4 64.4 1.8 0.8 1.6 4.1 - - BG168 glaze - - 2.2 28.7 0.4 0.5 - 0.4 2.0 65.9 BG168 lower glaze - - 4.3 29.9 0.6 0.4 - 0.5 1.4 62.9 BG168 interface 0.5 0.9 18.6 41.4 4.0 0.5 0.6 4.0 2.4 22.4 BG168 upper body 1.6 1.2 2- 67.7 2.7 1.5 0.6 2.9 - 1.8 BG168 body 1.4 1.6 16.2 69.6 2.7 1.3 1.1 6.0 - - BG183 glaze - - 0.7 27.9 0.2 0.3 - 0.2 0.6 70.2 BG183 lower glaze - - 4.7 28.3 0.5 0.2 - 0.3 0.4 65.6 Bg183 interface 1.0 0.6 24.6 41.8 2.7 0.6 0.3 2.2 - 23.4 BG183 upper body 0.8 0.7 32.5 57.9 3.2 0.7 0.4 2.4 - 1.4 BG183 body 1.1 2.2 20.5 63.4 2.3 1.4 1.1 8.0 - - BG186 glaze - 0.3 2.5 26.5 0.4 2.0 - 3.7 0.5 64.1 BG186 lower glaze - 0.3 4.1 28.6 0.6 1.8 - 3.0 0.5 61.2 BG186 interface 0.5 0.7 19.8 38.4 4.8 1.1 0.2 2.5 0.2 29.0 BG186 upper body 0.4 1.1 19.3 61.7 3.3 1.5 0.7 10.6 - 1.5 BG186 body 1.1 1.7 15.7 66.1 2.6 4.9 0.9 6.9 - - BG278 glaze - 0.5 3.3 34.8 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.9 2.1 56.6 BG278 lower glaze 0.3 0.4 5.2 35.5 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.8 1.6 54.3 BG278 interface 0.9 0.8 18.0 37.2 3.6 0.7 0.8 1.8 0.5 29.3 BG278 upper body 0.4 1.0 19.5 70.6 2.8 1.3 1.0 2.4 - 1.1 BG278 body 1.1 2.0 18.0 65.1 3.0 1.5 1.0 8.2 - - BG100 glaze - 0.3 4.3 21.0 0.2 0.9 0.2 2.7 - 70.5 BG100 lower glaze - - 5.1 20.8 - 0.9 - 2.6 - 70.6 BG100 interface 0.4 - 20.4 31.2 1.8 0.9 0.2 2.2 - 42.8 BG100 upper body 0.4 0.6 33.5 56.1 2.3 2.6 0.6 3.9 - - BG100 body 0.3 0.5 26.8 63.9 1.3 2.2 0.7 4.2 - - BG101 glaze - 0.3 4.8 24.9 0.1 0.8 0.2 3.3 0.3 65.3 BG101 lower glaze - 0.2 5.6 25.6 - 0.9 - 2.7 - 65.0 BG101 interface - - 20.9 31.4 1.6 0.9 - - 2.8 37.7 BG101 upper body - - 37.6 57.7 0.3 0.1 0.3 4.1 - - BG101 body - 0.4 29.0 62.3 1.2 0.9 0.9 5.0 0.2 - Table 4. Ceramics without the slip that were double-fired. Comparison made between different analytical zones illustrates the diffusion of elements. Compositions are determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for the below detection limits.
401
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO CuO PbO
BG135 glaze 0.3 0.8 6.2 26.0 0.7 0.6 0.4 2.8 0.4 61.8 BG135 lower glaze 0.3 0.9 6.1 27.8 0.6 0.7 0.4 2.9 0.3 60.0 BG135 interface 1.1 1.1 17.8 38.2 4.0 0.7 - 2.8 - 34.4 BG135 upper body 1.7 1.9 20.3 56.1 4.3 1.1 1.1 6.9 - 6.6 BG135 body - 1.7 16.8 7- 3.1 1.3 0.9 6.2 - - BG165 glaze 0.3 0.7 6.2 32.7 1.2 0.7 0.5 2.1 2.9 52.7 BG165 lower glaze 0.4 0.6 6.2 33.7 1.0 1.2 0.5 1.8 2.4 52.4 BG165 interface 1.0 0.3 18.1 41.2 5.3 0.5 0.2 1.3 0.7 31.4 BG165 upper body 0.7 1.4 21.5 63.0 4.0 0.4 0.9 4.1 - 3.8 BG165 body 1.0 1.2 17.7 71.3 2.9 0.5 1.1 4.3 - - BG174 glaze 0.5 1.8 9.6 33.6 1.4 3.2 0.5 3.9 1.0 44.5 BG174 lower glaze 1.0 1.6 12.8 40.5 2.9 3.4 0.5 3.7 0.5 33.0 BG174 interface 0.7 1.9 11.2 36.9 2.2 3.6 0.6 4.2 1.1 37.7 BG174 upper body 1.3 2.3 19.1 63.0 4.9 4.2 0.7 6.0 - 1.6 BG174 body 1.0 2.5 17.1 63.6 3.0 5.1 0.8 6.9 - - BG221 glaze 0.2 0.4 5.8 35.4 0.7 1.3 0.5 2.7 0.5 52.4 BG221 lower glaze 0.3 0.4 7.6 35.4 0.9 1.4 0.6 2.0 0.4 51.1 BG221 interface 1.0 1.1 22.4 36.6 3.3 1.0 1.0 2.4 - 22.1 BG221 upper body 0.5 0.9 14.6 77.6 - 2.3 0.7 1.1 - 2.3 BG221 body 1.4 1.6 15.2 70.8 2.8 1.3 0.8 6.1 - - Table 5. Ceramics without the slip that were single-fired. Comparison made between different analytical zones illustrates the diffusion of elements. Compositions are determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for the below detection limits.
402
Sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO TiO2 FeO CuO PbO BG182 glaze - 0.2 4.0 29.2 0.6 0.4 0.2 4.2 - 61.2 BG182 lower glaze - - 6.8 29.3 0.4 0.5 - 2.9 - 60.1 BG182 interface 0.7 0.5 21.6 33.4 2.0 0.5 0.3 2.5 - 38.4 BG182 upper body 0.3 0.5 29.2 59.3 1.8 0.8 0.7 4.0 - 3.4 BG182 body - 0.5 22.5 70.6 1.6 0.8 0.7 3.3 - - BG190 glaze 0.3 0.4 4.4 34.5 0.8 2.1 0.3 3.5 0.2 53.6 BG190 lower glaze 0.3 0.3 5.8 38.6 1.1 1.8 0.3 2.8 - 48.9 BG190 interface 1.2 0.9 22.4 43.9 4.3 1.2 0.9 1.8 - 23.3 BG190 upper body - - 11.4 81.7 1.9 0.5 0.3 2.6 - 1.6 BG190 body 1.7 1.8 16.8 69.7 2.2 1.1 0.3 6.5 - - BG226 glaze 0.2 0.4 4.0 31.3 0.5 1.3 0.3 3.4 0.7 57.9 BG226 lower glaze 0.3 0.4 5.5 33.7 0.8 1.2 0.3 3.0 0.5 54.3 BG226 interface 1.2 2.4 20.4 37.3 3.7 0.7 0.3 8.5 0.4 15.9 BG226 upper body 0.6 1.2 12.0 75.7 2.5 0.7 0.6 4.7 - 2.0 BG226 body 1.2 1.8 16.6 68.2 2.9 1.7 1.0 6.6 - - BG268 glaze 0.3 0.5 5.6 36.0 0.8 1.8 0.3 3.7 0.5 50.3 BG268 lower glaze 0.4 0.6 7.5 37.6 1.0 1.8 0.3 3.0 0.4 47.4 BG268 interface 1.3 1.2 18.5 40.1 3.2 1.5 0.5 4.5 0.3 19.9 BG268 upper body 1.2 1.5 14.1 65.5 2.3 4.3 3.5 4.9 - 2.9 BG268 body 1.4 1.7 16.1 69.7 2.7 1.5 1.0 5.9 - -
BG275 glaze - - 0.7 28.6 - 0.4 - 0.4 0.8 69.1 BG275 lower glaze - - 3.4 30.8 0.4 0.4 - 0.4 0.5 64.1 BG275 interface 0.7 1.1 19.6 35.7 3.6 0.7 0.5 1.5 0.2 27.4 BG275 upper body 0.3 1.1 17.0 69.6 2.5 1.8 0.6 2.0 - 5.1 BG275 body 1.4 2.3 16.3 66.9 3.1 2.0 1.0 7.1 - - BG208 (side 1) - 0.4 1.5 28.4 0.4 1.0 - 1.5 2.0 64.7 BG208 lower glaze - 0.4 2.8 30.1 0.6 0.9 0.2 1.6 1.4 62.0 BG208 interface 0.6 1.1 19.9 37.0 4.4 0.8 0.4 3.0 0.3 27.7 BG208 upper body 0.4 0.8 11.5 70.6 2.5 0.8 0.6 4.5 - 8.2 BG208 body 1.4 1.7 15.6 69.3 3.1 1.5 0.8 6.5 - - BG213 glaze 0.2 0.5 3.3 32.9 0.5 0.7 0.3 3.8 0.4 57.4 BG213 lower glaze 0.4 0.5 6.6 34.6 1.0 0.7 0.3 3.1 0.4 52.5 BG213 interface 1.1 1.0 20.4 39.1 3.5 0.6 0.4 3.2 - 30.7 BG213 upper body 1.2 1.6 20.0 57.3 3.7 0.9 0.5 4.9 - 9.8 BG213 body 1.3 1.7 15.4 70.4 2.6 1.3 1.3 5.7 - - Table 6. Ceramics without a slip coating that could potentially be either double- or single-fired. Comparison made between different analytical zones illustrates the diffusion of elements. Compositions are determined through SEM-EDS. All values are normalised to 100 wt%. ‘-‘ stands for the below detection limits.
403
Appendix E
Comparative assessment of analytical results
404
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG50 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG51 Phase 2 AC4 cooking p II/55 W1 F1 C1 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG52 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG53 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/4 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG54 Phase 2 AC3 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 C1 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG55 Phase 2 AC3 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 C1 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG56 Phase 2 AC3 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 C1 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG57 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/3 W1 F1 C1 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG58 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/3 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG59 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/3 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing CG3 Lower wheel BG60 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/3 W1 F1 C1 no no TTB Town throwing
405
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG61 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/3 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG62 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/3 W1 F1 C1 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG63 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG64 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/2 W1 RF1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG65 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 C1 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG66 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 C1 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG67 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 C2 no no TTB Town throwing CG3 Lower wheel BG68 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 NA no no TTB Town throwing CG3 (?) Lower wheel BG69 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 NA no no TTB Town throwing CG3 (?) Lower wheel BG70 Phase 2 AC4 cooking p II/2 W1 F1 C1 no no TTB Town throwing CG3 Lower wheel BG71 Phase 2 AC4 jug II/3 W1 F1 C2 no no TTB Town throwing CG3 Lower wheel BG72 Phase 2 AC1 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG73 Phase 2 AC1 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing
406
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG74 Phase 2 AC1 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG75 Phase 2 AC1 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG76 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG77 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG78 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG79 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG80 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG81 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG82 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/1 W1 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG83 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/11 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG84 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/11 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG85 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/11 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG86 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/7 W1 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing
407
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG87 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/7 W1 F1 C1 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG88 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/7 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG89 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/4 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG90 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/4 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG91 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/4 W1 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG92 Phase 2 AC4 stove p VI/4 W1 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG93 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/ W2 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG94 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/1 W2 F14 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG95 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/16 W2 F1 C2 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG96 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/16 W2 F1 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB Town throwing Slip A green Lower wheel BG97 Phase 2 AC3 bowl I? W2 F7 C4 CG7 white lead-silica TTC Town throwing SCG1
Lower wheel BG98 Phase 2 AC1 jug III? W2 RF7 C4 CG7 no no TTC Town throwing
408
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. brown Lower wheel BG99 Phase 2 AC1 jug III? W2 F2 Outl. CG4 no lead-silica / Town throwing with clay yellow Lower wheel BG100 Phase 2 AC1 jug III? W2 F2 NA CG4 (?) no lead-silica / Town throwing with clay yellow Lower wheel BG101 Phase 2 AC1 jug III? W2 F2 NA CG4 (?) no lead-silica / Town throwing with clay Lower wheel BG102 Phase 2 AC1 beaker XII? W2 F3 C1 Outl no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG103 Phase 2 AC1 beaker XII? W2 F3 C1 Outl no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG104 Phase 2 AC1 beaker XII? W2 F3 NA Outl (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG105 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG106 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG107 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing wheel Lower BG108 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p throwing II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town
409
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG109 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG110 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG111 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG112 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG113 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG114 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG115 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG116 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG117 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG118 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG119 Phase 2 AC3 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing
410
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG120 Phase 2 AC3 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG121 Phase 2 AC3 cooking p II/1 W3 F4 NA CG5 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG122 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/3 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG123 Phase 2 AC1 cooking p II/3 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG124 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/5 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG125 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/5 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG126 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/5 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG127 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/5 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG128 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/5 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG129 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/5 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing
411
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG130 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/5 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG131 Phase 2 AC2 cooking p II/5 W4 F5 NA CG6 (?) no no / Town throwing Lower wheel BG132 Phase 2 AC1 jug III? W7b F10 C3 Outl no no TTD Town throwing Lower hand- BG133 Phase 2 AC1 baking p ? W13 F11 C5 Outl no no TTE Town turning w. Lower wheel BG134 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/2 W11 SGF8 C1 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing brown Lower wheel BG135 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/2 W11 SGF6 C4 CG8 no lead TTC Town throwing compound Lower wheel BG136 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/2 W11 F9 C1 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG137 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/2 W11 F8 C4 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG138 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/7 W11 F9 C1 CG9 no yellow TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG140 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/7 W11 F8 C4 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG141 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/7 W11 F9 NA CG9 (?) no no TTC Town throwing
412
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG142 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/7 W11 F7 C4 CG7 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG143 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/7 W11 F7 C4 CG7 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG144 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/7 W11 F9 C4 CG9 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG145 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/16 W11 F7 C4 CG7 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG146 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/16 W11 F15 NA Outl (?) no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG147 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/16 W11 F7 C4 CG7 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG148 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/19 W11 RF7 Outl. Outl no brown / Town throwing Lower wheel BG149 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/19 W11 SGF8 C4 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG151 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/4 W11 F9 NA CG9 (?) no POL TTC Town throwing Lower wheel brown/yello BG152 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 F6 NA CG8 (?) no TTC Town throwing w Lower wheel Slip A yellow/yello BG153 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 F7 C4 CG7 TTC Town throwing yellow w Lower wheel Slip A BG154 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 F7 C4 CG7 green TTC Town throwing white Lower wheel BG155 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 F7 C4 CG7 Slip A green/green TTC Town throwing
413
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Slip A Lower wheel green/green BG156 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 SGF8 NA CG8 (?) white TTC Town throwing lead-silica SCG2 Lower wheel Slip A BG157 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 F7 C4 CG7 green TTC Town throwing white Lower wheel Slip A BG158 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 SGF8 NA CG8 (?) green TTC Town throwing white Lower wheel Slip A BG159 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 F7 C4 CG7 green TTC Town throwing white Lower wheel Slip A BG160 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 F7 C4 CG7 green TTC Town throwing white Lower wheel Slip A BG162 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 SGF8 C4 CG8 green TTC Town throwing white Slip A, B Lower wheel BG163 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 F7 C4 CG7 white, green TTC Town throwing brown Lower wheel BG164 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 SGF8 NA CG8 (?) no green/green TTC Town throwing green/green Lower wheel BG165 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W11 F6 Outl Outl no lead / Town throwing compound Lower wheel Slip B BG166 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/2 W11 F6 NA CG8 (?) green TTC Town throwing brown Slip A green/green Lower wheel BG167 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/2 W11 F6 C4 CG8 white lead-silica TTC Town throwing SCG1 with clay green Lower wheel BG168 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/2 W11 F8 NA CG8 (?) no lead-silica TTC Town throwing with clay
414
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. green Lower wheel Slip A BG169 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/2 W11 F8 C4 CG8 lead-silica TTC Town throwing white with clay Slip A Lower wheel green BG170 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/2 W11 F8 C4 CG8 white TTC Town throwing lead-silica SCG2 Slip A green Lower wheel BG171 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/2 W11 F6 NA CG8 (?) white lead-silica TTC Town throwing SCG1 with clay Lower wheel BG172 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/4 W11 F6 C4 CG8 no transp. TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG173 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/4 W11 F6 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC Town throwing black Lower wheel BG174 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/3 W11 SGF6 NA CG8 (?) no lead TTC Town throwing compound Lower wheel BG175 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/3 W11 F6 NA CG8 (?) no transp. TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG176 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/3 W11 F6 C4 CG8 no brown TTC Town throwing Lower wheel Slip A BG177 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/3 W11 SGF6 NA CG8 (?) yellow TTC Town throwing white Lower wheel Slip A BG178 Phase 3 AC5 dish V/7 W11 SGF8 NA CG8 (?) green TTC Town throwing white Slip A, B white Lower wheel green/green BG179 Phase 3 AC5 dish V/7 W11 F7 NA CG7 (?) brown TTC Town throwing lead-silica SCG1 SCG3
415
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG180 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/1 W11 F8 C3 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing Slip A, B green Lower wheel BG181 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I? W11 SGF6 NA CG8 (?) white lead-silica TTC Town throwing SCG2 with clay Lower wheel BG182 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II/1 W11 F16 NA Outl (?) no black / Town throwing Lower wheel Slip A green BG183 Phase 3 AC5 pitcher IX/3 W11 SGF8 C4 CG8 TTC Town throwing white lead-silica Lower wheel Slip B BG184 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/1 W8 F6 NA CG8 (?) green TTC Town throwing brown Lower wheel BG185 Phase 3 AC5 cooking p II? W8 F6 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC Town throwing yellow Lower wheel Slip B BG186 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W8 F6 NA CG8 (?) lead-silica TTC Town throwing brown with clay Lower wheel Slip A BG187 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W10 F6 C4 CG8 green TTC Town throwing white Lower wheel Slip A BG188 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W10 F7 green TTC Town throwing NA CG7 (?) white Lower wheel Slip A yellow/ BG189 Phase 3 Town AC5 bowl I/2 W10 F8 C4 CG8 TTC throwing white brown
416
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. yellow Lower wheel Slip A BG190 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W10 F6 NA CG8 (?) lead-silica TTC Town throwing white with clay Lower wheel Slip A BG191 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W10 F6 NA CG8 (?) yellow TTC Town throwing white Lower wheel Slip A yellow/ BG192 Phase 3 AC5 bowl I/2 W10 F6 C4 CG8 TTC Town throwing white yellow Lower wheel BG193 Phase 3 AC5 jug III/5 W7b F8 C3 CG8 no no TTD Town throwing Lower hand-turning BG194 Phase 3 AC5 baking p V/1 W13 F11 C9 CG11 no no TTE Town w. Lower wheel BG195 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/5 W11 F6 C4 CG8 no green TTC Town throwing Lower wheel Slip B BG196 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/5 W11 F6 CG8 (?) no TTC Town throwing NA brown Lower wheel Slip A green/ BG197 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/5 W11 F6 CG8 (?) TTC Town throwing NA white yellow Lower wheel BG198 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/5 W11 F6 no green TTC Town throwing NA CG8 (?) Slip A green/green Lower wheel BG199 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/5 W11 F6 brown lead-silica TTC Town throwing NA CG8 (?) SCG3 with clay Lower wheel BG200 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/5 W11 SGF6 C4 no green/green TTC Town throwing CG8
417
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG201 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/5 W11 F6 NA no green/green TTC Town throwing CG8 (?) Lower wheel Slip A BG202 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/17 W11 F8 C4 green/green TTC Town throwing CG8 white Lower wheel BG203 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/26 W11 F6 NA no green TTC Town throwing CG8 (?) Lower wheel Slip A BG204 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/26 W11 SGF6 NA green/green TTC Town throwing CG8 (?) white Lower wheel brown/ BG205 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/26 W11 F6 no TTC Town throwing NA CG8 (?) brown Lower wheel BG206 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II/26 W11 F6 C4 no green TTC Town throwing CG8 Lower wheel BG207 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II? W11 F6 NA no no TTC Town throwing CG8 (?) green/green Lower wheel BG208 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I/3 W11 SGF6 NA no lead-silica TTC Town throwing CG8 (?) with clay Lower wheel BG209 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I/2 W11 F6 C4 CG8 no green/green TTC Town throwing Slip A, B Lower wheel brown BG210 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I/2 W11 F6 C4 CG8 green TTC Town throwing and white Lower wheel Slip A BG211 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I/4 W11 F6 C4 CG8 brown TTC Town throwing brown Lower wheel Slip A BG212 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I/5 W11 F6 C4 CG8 green TTC Town throwing white
418
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. polych. Lower wheel Slip A BG213 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I/20 W11 F6 C4 CG8 lead-silica TTC Town throwing brown with clay Lower wheel BG214 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I? W11 F7 CG7 (?) Slip A green TTC Town throwing NA Lower wheel BG215 Phase 4 AC6 jug III/3 W11 F6 CG8 no brown TTC Town throwing NA Lower wheel BG216 Phase 4 AC6 jug III? W11 F8 CG8 Slip A no TTC Town throwing NA Lower wheel BG217 Phase 4 AC7 jug III? W11 SGF6 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing NA Lower wheel BG218 Phase 4 AC6 pitcher IX/4 W11 F6 CG8 no green TTC Town throwing NA Lower wheel Slip A BG219 Phase 4 AC6 pitcher IX/4 W11 F6 CG8 yellow TTC Town throwing NA brown Lower wheel BG220 Phase 4 AC6 pitcher IX/4 W11 F6 CG8 no green TTC Town throwing NA Slip B yellow Lower wheel BG221 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/1 W11 F8 C4 CG8 brown lead TTC Town throwing SCG4 compound Lower wheel Slip A BG222 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/1 W11 F8 C4 yellow TTC Town throwing CG8 brown Lower wheel BG223 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/8 W11 F8 C4 Slip A yellow TTC Town throwing CG8 Lower wheel BG224 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/1 W11 F8 NA Slip A yellow TTC Town throwing CG8 (?)
419
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG225 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/8 W11 F8 C4 no yellow TTC Town throwing CG8 brown Lower wheel BG226 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/1 W11 F6 NA no lead-silica TTC Town throwing CG8 (?) with clay Lower wheel BG227 Phase 4 AC7 stove p VI/1 W11 F6 NA no green TTC Town throwing CG8 (?) Lower wheel Slip A BG228 Phase 4 AC7 stove p VI/9 W11 F6 C4 green TTC Town throwing CG8 brown Lower wheel BG229 Phase 4 AC7 jug III? W7a F10 no no TTD Town throwing C6 CG10 Lower wheel BG230 Phase 4 AC7 jug III? W7a F10 NA CG10 (?) no no TTD Town throwing Lower wheel BG231 Phase 4 AC7 jug III? W7a F10 C6 CG10 no no TTD Town throwing Lower wheel BG232 Phase 4 AC7 jug III? W7a F10 NA CG10 (?) no no TTD Town throwing Lower wheel BG233 Phase 4 AC7 jug III? W7a F10 C6 CG10 no no TTD Town throwing Lower wheel BG234 Phase 4 AC7 jug III? W7b F10 C6 CG10 no no TTD Town throwing Lower hand-turning BG235 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 Outl. Outl no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG236 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 C9 CG11b no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG237 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 C9 CG11b no no TTE Town w.
420
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower hand-turning BG238 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 NA CG11 (?) no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG239 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 C9 CG11b no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG240 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 NA CG11 (?) no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG241 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 NA CG11 (?) no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG242 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 NA CG11 (?) no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG243 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 NA CG11 (?) no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG244 Phase 4 AC7 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 C7 CG11a no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG245 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 NA CG11 (?) no no TTE Town w. Lower hand-turning BG246 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/7 W9a F11 C7 CG11a no no TTE Town w. Lower wheel BG247 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/4 W9b F9 NA CG9 (?) no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG248 Phase 4 AC6 cooking p II/4 W9b SGF8 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG249 Phase 4 AC7 lid IV/8 W9b F11 C7 CG11a no no TTE Town throwing Lower wheel BG250 Phase 4 AC7 lid IV/8 W9b RF11 C7 CG11a no no TTE Town throwing
421
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG251 Phase 4 AC7 lid IV/8 W9b RF14 Outl. Outl no no TTE Town throwing Lower wheel BG252 Phase 4 AC6 baking p V/1 W13 F11 C5 Outl no no TTE Town throwing Lower wheel BG253 Phase 4 AC6 baking p V/1 W13 F11 Outl. Outl no no TTE Town throwing Lower wheel BG254 Phase 4 AC6 baking p V/1 W13 F11 NA CG11 (?) no no TTE Town throwing Lower wheel BG255 Phase 4 AC6 baking p V/1 W13 F11 NA CG11 (?) no no TTE Town throwing Lower wheel BG256 Phase 4 AC6 storage j II? W14 F14 C4 CG3 no no TTB Town throwing Lower wheel BG257 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I? W15 F6 C4 CG8 no green TTC Town throwing Lower Slip A green Town wheel BG258 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I? W15 F6 NA CG8 (?) white lead-silica TTC throwing SCG1 with clay
Slip A, B white, Sgraffito Lower wheel BG259 Phase 4 AC7 bowl I? W15 F6 NA CG8 (?) brown lead-silica TTC Town throwing SCG1, with clay SCG4
422
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel brown/ BG260 Phase 4 AC6 jug III? W15 SGF6 C4 CG8 no TTC Town throwing brown Lower wheel BG261 Phase 4 AC6 jug III? W15 SGF6 C4 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG262 Phase 4 AC6 jug III? W15 F6 C4 CG8 Slip A brown/green TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG263 Phase 4 AC6 jug III/2 W15 F6 no green TTC Town throwing NA CG8 (?) Lower wheel brown/brow BG264 Phase 4 AC6 jug III/2 W15 F6 C4 CG8 no TTC Town throwing n Lower wheel BG265 Phase 4 AC6 jug III/2 W15 F6 NA CG8 (?) no green TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG266 Phase 4 AC6 jug III/2 W15 F6 C4 CG8 no green TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG267 Phase 4 AC7 jug III/2 W15 F10 C6 CG10 no no TTD Town throwing brown Lower wheel BG268 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/1 W15 F6 C4 CG8 no lead-silica TTC Town throwing with clay Lower wheel BG269 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I? W16 RF8 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG270 Phase 4 AC6 jug III? W18 F6 C4 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG271 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I? W19 F8 C4 CG8 no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG272 Phase 4 AC6 baking p V/1 W20 F8 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC Town throwing
423
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Lower wheel BG273 Phase 4 AC6 baking p V/1 W20 F8 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel BG274 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I? W11 SGF6 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC Town throwing Lower wheel brown BG275 Phase 4 AC6 bowl I? W11 F7 NA CG8 (?) Slip A TTC Town throwing lead-silica Lower wheel Slip A BG276 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/8 W11 F6 C4 CG8 green TTC Town throwing white Lower wheel Slip A BG277 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/8 W11 F6 NA CG8 (?) green TTC Town throwing white Slip A, B white, green Lower wheel BG278 Phase 4 AC6 stove p VI/8 W11 F6 NA CG8 (?) brown lead-silica TTC Town throwing SCG1, with clay SCG4 Lower wheel Slip A BG279 Phase 4 AC6 jug VI/8 W19 F8 C4 CG8 no TTC Town throwing white wheel BG280 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W1 F12 C3 Outl no no / throwing wheel BG281 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W1 F12 NA CG2 (?) no no TTB throwing wheel BG282 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W1 F12 C6 CG2 no no TTB throwing wheel BG283 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W1 F12 NA CG2 (?) no no TTB throwing wheel BG284 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W2 F12 C6 CG2 no no TTB throwing
424
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. wheel and BG285 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W22 F13 NA CG1 (?) no no TTA hand wheel and BG286 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W22 F13 NA CG1 (?) no no TTA hand wheel and BG287 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W22 F13 C8 CG1 no no TTA hand wheel and BG288 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W22 F13 C1 Outl no no / hand wheel and BG289 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W22 F13 C8 CG1 no no TTA hand wheel and BG290 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W24 F13 NA CG1 (?) no no TTA hand wheel and BG291 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W24 F13 C1 CG1 no no TTA hand wheel and BG292 Phase 1 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/16 W25 F14 C1 CG3 no no TTB hand wheel BG293 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/19 W1 F14 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB throwing wheel BG294 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/12 W1 F14 C2 CG3 no no TTB throwing wheel BG295 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/3 W1 RF12 NA CG2 (?) no no TTB throwing wheel BG296 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/2 W1 F12 no no TTB throwing Outl. Outl. wheel BG297 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/46 W1 F12 C2 Outl no no / throwing
425
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. wheel BG298 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/16 W1 RF9 NA CG9 (?) no no TTC throwing wheel BG299 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/61 W2 F14 NA CG3 (?) no no TTB throwing wheel BG300 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/14 W2 F12 NA CG2 (?) no no TTB throwing wheel BG301 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/14 W2 F12 NA CG2 (?) no no TTB throwing wheel and BG302 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/14 W22 F13 NA CG1 (?) no no TTA hand wheel and BG303 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/24 W23 F13 NA CG1 (?) no no TTA hand wheel BG304 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 jug III/12 W1 SGF6 C3 CG8 no no TTC throwing wheel BG305 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 jug III/2 W1 F7 NA CG7 (?) no no TTC throwing wheel BG306 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 jug III/4 W1 F8 C3 CG8 no no TTC throwing wheel BG307 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 beaker XII/4 W6 F17 NA CG7 (?) no no TTC throwing wheel BG308 Phase 4 Dorćol AC8 storage j II? W11 F6 NA CG8 (?) no brown TTC throwing wheel BG309 Phase 4 Dorćol AC8 bowl I/17 W11 SGF6 C4 CG8 no green TTC throwing wheel Slip A BG310 Phase 4 Dorćol AC8 stove p VI? W11 SGF6 NA CG8 (?) green TTC throwing white
426
Arch Comp. Techn. Sample Phase Arch site Function Modelling Type Ware Fabric Cluster Slip Glaze context group Trad. Slip A, B green wheel BG311 Phase 4 Dorćol AC8 stove p VI? W11 F6 C4 CG8 white lead-silica TTC throwing SCG1 with clay wheel BG312 Phase 4 Dorćol AC8 jug III? W7a F10 C6 Outl no no / throwing wheel BG313 Phase 4 Dorćol AC8 jug III? W15 F6 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC throwing wheel BG314 Phase 2 Dorćol AC8 cooking p II/29 W1 SGF8 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC throwing wheel BG315 AC8 cooking p II/10 W1 F12 C6 CG2 no no TTB Phase 2 Dorćol throwing wheel BG316 AC8 cooking p II/9 W1 F12 C6 CG2 no no TTB Phase 4 Dorćol throwing wheel BG317 AC8 bowl I? W11 RF8 NA CG8 (?) no no TTC Phase 4 Dorćol throwing wheel BG318 AC8 jug III? W11 F6 C6 CG10 no green TTD Phase 4 Dorćol throwing wheel BG319 AC8 jug III? W7a F10 C6 Outl no no / Phase 4 Dorćol throwing wheel BG320 AC8 jug III? W7b F10 C4 CG8 no no TTD Phase 4 Dorćol throwing Table 1 Comparative assessment of analytical data obtained by different methods used in this research.
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