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Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies

Volume 31 Celebrating Rāmānuja at 1000: The Heritage and Promise of the Study of Rāmānuja Article 24 in a Christian-Hindu Comparative

2018

Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of Rāmānuja

John B. Carman Harvard Divinity School

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Recommended Citation Carman, John B. (2018) "Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of Rāmānuja," Journal of Hindu- Christian Studies: Vol. 31, Article 24. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1701

The Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies is a publication of the Society for Hindu-Christian Studies. The digital version is made available by Digital Commons @ Butler University. For questions about the Journal or the Society, please contact [email protected]. For more information about Digital Commons @ Butler University, please contact [email protected]. Carman: Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of R?m?nuja

Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of Rāmānuja

John B. Carman Professor of Comparative Religion, Emeritus Harvard Divinity School

ABSTRACT: In the last century there has been version of the . Christian studies a remarkable expansion of studies of continue to expand their treatment of Rāmānuja by scholars outside the Śrīvaiṣṇava Rāmānuja, examining not just his great community. This paper concentrates on the commentary on the Vedanta Sutras but also all contributions of some Christian scholars. the other writings that his community Many of the earlier studies focused on ascribes to him. In addition, some scholars are Rāmānuja’s opposition to Śaṇkara’s looking at the devotional traditions before and interpretation of the Vedanta, with Roman after him, especially the hymns of the Tamil Catholic scholars tending to favor Śaṇkara and poet-saints, composed before, and the Protestant scholars Rāmānuja. The Belgian commentaries on those hymns, written in the Jesuit Pierre Johanns argued for a Christian first centuries after him. Such expansion of reinterpretation of the Vedanta that would Christian interpretation requires greater merge the truths in the different Hindu interpretation among scholars, both Christian schools, giving primary importance to and Hindu. Christian learning from another Śaṇkara, but modifying the Hindu teaching religious position begins with noticing through the distinctive Christian doctrine of something similar though not the same as that “creation out of nothing.” Later his fellow in their own religion. Thus far, in the case of Jesuit Richard De Smet reaffirmed the primary Rāmānuja, there is no agreement as to which value of Śaṇkara’s own genuine teachings for similarities are more significant and how they Christian theology. Current studies relate to some specific version of Christian represented in this issue affirm the positive theology. There may be instances of partial value for Christian theology of Rāmānuja’s convergence where it is impossible for a

John B. Carman is the Parkman Professor of Divinity and Professor of Comparative Religion, Emeritus at Harvard Divinity School, where he was a faculty member from 1963 to 2000. Before that he spent five years in South under the auspices of the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society. His recent publications are, “The Dignity and Indignity of Service: Further Reflections on Ramanuja’s Interpretation of the Sesha-seshin Relationship in Vedarthasangraha,” (in Sri Ramanuja’s Sahasrabdi Volume 2017-18) and, with Chilkuri Vasantha Rao, Christians in South Indian Villages, 1959-2009: Decline and Revival in Telangana (William B. Eerdmans 2014).

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68 John B. Carman

Christian either to affirm or deny the truth of Śaṇkara, with Rāmānuja recognized as his Rāmānuja’s teaching. Here it may be most formidable opponent. They gave important to recognize what is often intellectual and religious reasons for their considered an aesthetic judgment: preference. We might also note certain appreciation. One example is a later historical and social factors. The Smarta Brahmins, who often claimed Śaṇkara as their Śrīvaiṣṇava estimate of Rāmānuja himself, primary teacher, often had a high social status. that he fulfilled the “prophecy” of the poet- The Bengali reformer Rammohan Roy saint Nammalvar, being the one who initiated recommended a rather theistic version of the end of our age of darkness and the return Śaṇkara’s teaching, followed by a more of the golden age. monistic interpretation advocated by Swami Going Beyond Rāmānuja’s Opposition to Vivekananda and the Math and Śaṇkara Mission. Also important for Christians was the It is remarkable that anyone outside support for Śaṇkara’s teachings by the Bengali Rāmānuja’s particular Hindu community, the Brahmin convert to Roman Catholicism, Śrīvaiṣṇava Sampradaya, would celebrate his Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya. thousandth birth anniversary. Such This preference continued in the recognition shows the growth of our modern Twentieth Century among a number of Roman international scholarly culture. It is also a sign Catholic missionary scholars but was of the growing interest of Christian scholars in somewhat modified by the Belgian Jesuit Rāmānuja, scholars who relate their work to Pierre Johanns.3 In a series of journal articles that of Hindu scholars and the many Western stretching out over more than a decade he students who separate their own religious argued for a merger of the truths in different identity from their religious study.1 Vedantic positions, starting with Śaṇkara and This essay is not a comprehensive survey Rāmānuja. This merger would produce an of recent scholarship. It will touch briefly on Indian Christian theology compatible with both objective and subjective aspects of Thomism. However, one important change Christian contributions to the study of would have to be made: the acceptance of the Rāmānuja. Many of the contributors have Christian doctrine of creatio ex nihilo, which regarded him as the most important scholar of he held was given only in Revelation and theistic Vedanta. Those belonging to other therefore could not have been known by any bhakti communities would dispute this, but of the great Vedantic teachers. many recognize his importance in an early Two generations later, Johanns’ fellow stage of what modern Hindu scholars have Jesuit in the Belgian Chapter, Richard De Smet, called the “Bhakti Movement.”2 honored Johanns’ memory by helping to Many scholars in modern times, both arrange for the publication of the journal Indian and European, have considered their articles in book form.4 However, De Smet’s study of Hindu intellectual systems to be interpretation of the Vedāntic schools was “philosophy” rather than “theology.” rather different: only Śaṇkara’s version of the Whatever the rubric, both European and Vedanta was compatible with the Christian Indian scholars generally gave most attention theology of Aquinas, while Rāmānuja’s version to the Brahminical tradition of Vedanta, and was fatally flawed by his “pantheism,” his the Vedāntin considered most important was central doctrine that the universe is the body

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol31/iss1/24 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1701 2 Carman: Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of R?m?nuja

Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of Rāmānuja 69

of God. The compatibility of Śaṇkara and This issue of the Journal shows how a Aquinas does depend on an understanding of number of scholars have taken up the Śaṇkara’s teaching that does not require the comparable challenge of Rāmānuja’s Vedanta illusory character (maya) of the world. De for Christians. In previous writings a number Smet found this by focusing on what he of them have continued the practice of other considered Śaṇkara’s genuine writings, as scholars who have compared Rāmānuja’s opposed to later works falsely attributed to thought with that of a single Christian him, as well as interpretations of his teaching theologian.6 To these comparisons we can now by many of his later disciples. With this view add those with Augustine, Aquinas, Luther of Śaṇkara different from that of many of his and, implicitly, modern process theologians. modern followers, De Smet was able to affirm Martin Ganeri’s recent book provides a link that God is indeed pure consciousness and that with the previous debate by challenging the this is in agreement with the Thomist previous interpretation of Aquinas that Christian doctrine of the Divine “simplicity.” seemed to bring his theology much closer to Some recent and current Roman Catholic Śaṇkara than to Rāmānuja.7 scholars of Hindu thought and ascetic practice Ganeri has usefully suggested that have followed De Smet or Johanns, Rāmānuja and Aquinas share a common emphasizing the positive connections in scholastic method, both recognizing the doctrine and/or ways of meditation between superior truth of Scripture along with the Vedanta and Christian spirituality. This was need for rational demonstrations, which are also true of the late Jacques Dupuis, who spent especially necessary when arguing with those much of his life teaching in India. His last two who do not accept the authority of Scripture. books were concerned with the modern He summarizes Jose Cabezon’s proposal to development of Roman Catholic doctrine recognize a “scholasticism” common to concerning all other religions. He sidestepped different cultures and religious traditions.8 the issue of how Catholic theologians should The fact that such scholastic thinking is assess Śaṇkara and Rāmānuja in what seems to present in Indian Buddhist philosophy does, me a curious way. About “Advaita Experience however, raise the question of whether and ’ Consciousness,” he writes, “We shall theistic systems share something more crucial pause to consider what may be viewed not as than their method of systematic thinking: a the most widespread current of Hindu faith doctrine of God based on authoritative and theology, which, undoubtedly, must be scriptures and the Divine revelation assumed found in bhakti , but as the most to underlie them. Do we need an expanded challenging view for Christian mystics – the view of Rāmānuja’s theology in order to advaita experience rooted in the undertake such theological comparison? and elaborated by the Vedanta theologians.” Expanding the Scholarly Focus Dupuis seems to be referring to Śaṇkara’s In the early twentieth century Christian interpretation of the advaitic experience scholars generally recognized that Rāmānuja and/or to the elaboration of Vedanta by was the leading teacher of one branch of Śaṇkara’s successors, but he does not say so. Vaishnavism, but scholarly study was often He thus cannot discuss whether Śaṇkara’s confined to his commentary on the Vedanta version of Vedanta is “most challenging” for Sutras, with most attention given to his effort 5 Roman Catholic Christians. to refute Śaṇkara, especially in the lengthy

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comment on the first sutra. There was also These links between Rāmānuja and the some attention to Rāmānuja’s commentary on Śrīvaiṣṇava traditions before and after him are the Bhagavadgita, but with the exception of important for understanding him, not only as Rudolf Otto, Protestant scholars joined more a commentator on the Vedanta and as a secular interpreters in a non-theological systematic thinker, but also as a worshiper in approach. A more expanded and intensive Vaishnava temples and the head of a growing study was heralded by Hans van Buitenen’s Śrīvaiṣṇava community. The many recent dissertation on Rāmānuja’s Gita Commentary publications on these topics may also be in 1951 and his translation of Rāmānuja’s first considered a valuable expansion of Rāmānuja work, the Vedarthasangraha, in 1957. In the studies. previous year two other English translations Gopal Gupta’s essay in this issue invites us of the same work appeared in India, authored to develop another dimension: comparisons of by Śrīvaiṣṇava scholars.9 About this same time Christian theology with other theistic schools another Śrīvaiṣṇava scholar, Agnihotram of Vedanta. There have been modern studies Rāmānuja Tatacharya, challenged Rāmānuja’s of the various theistic schools, both Vaishnava authorship of the shorter theological works and Saiva, but we need successors to Pierre attributed to him. His view was accepted by Johanns, who almost a hundred years ago tried my Yale student colleague, Robert Lester.10 to link the other Vaishnava interpretations of The consequence of this denial of authorship the Vedanta to the Christian discussion about was an interpretation of Rāmānuja’s teaching Śaṇkara and Rāmānuja. Such a new effort as being sharply different than that of later might well require cooperation among a Śrīvaiṣṇavism. Since I was writing my number of scholars, for each version of dissertation on Rāmānuja at this same time, I Vedanta is related to a rich variety of was drawn into a controversy that I did not traditions, expressed both in and in have the means to settle. I thought that the various Indian vernaculars, and articulated in liturgical works were genuine and that they distinctive ritual practices. Christians in South were a link between Rāmānuja’s philosophical India are also drawn to comparative study of writings and the later positions of his different schools of Saivism, especially Saiva followers. However, I concluded that the Siddhanta in Tamilnadu and Jaffna, and judgment of historically minded scholars Virasaivism in Karnataka and Andhra. would depend on further study of the writings All these expansions in our study of of Rāmānuja’s immediate followers. A number Rāmānuja face what should be an obvious of these studies have now been done. I believe problem: the limits of a single scholar’s that they make the genuineness of all of the capacities. Medicine and the Natural Sciences writings attributed to Rāmānuja even more have realized for some time that there are likely. These studies also illuminate the important research projects far too large and obscure links between Rāmānuja and the complicated to be undertaken by a single Tamil side of the Śrīvaiṣṇava tradition, which scientist. The Humanities in general have been include the poetry of the Alvars, the many slow to recognize the same fact. This is commentaries on the poem-cycle of certainly the case in both theology and the Nammalvar, the Tiruvaymoli, and many history of religion. The more we recognize the doctrinal treatises.11 many important facets of the study of Rāmānuja, the more obvious it should become

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol31/iss1/24 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1701 4 Carman: Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of R?m?nuja

Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of Rāmānuja 71

that a greatly increased cooperation is “surrender” or śaraṇāgati) and my lack of required among scholars. This certainly instruction by a qualified teacher (ācārya). applies to the relation of scholars inside and Christians have different grounds for outside the Śrīvaiṣṇava community. excluding outsiders; usually only baptized Opening the Tradition to Outside Inquiry Christians are allowed to participate in Holy Behind much of the interest in Communion. The Christian scriptures are comparative theology is the hope for an ideal open to non-Christians because it is hoped dialogue or colloquy in which all the that hearing or reading these sacred words participants are well informed about the might lead to their conversion. Earlier religious positions being discussed. Only Protestant missionaries in India drew the line rarely is this actually the case. The meeting at a different point. Many who supported place of “” in modern Indian translating the Bible into modern Indian universities may have hidden the problems, languages and training pastors to preach in which are somewhat different for Śrīvaiṣṇavas those languages firmly believed that than they are for Christians. Only in modern “advanced” theological study had to be times have the and Upanishads, along conducted in English (or in some cases, with other Sanskrit scriptures, both in the German). original and in translation, been available for It is quite remarkable that in India many all to read. Instruction in these sacred texts Protestant theological students, many of has been even more restricted. Many outside whom are of Dalit background, should be his own community know the story about required to include some study of “” Rāmānuja going up on the temple balcony and in their seminary curriculum. Anything shouting out the secrets with which he had approaching a dialogue with Hindus, however, just been entrusted.12 The modern version is often thwarted by caste differences – or may be even more “democratic” than earlier simply by a lack of interest in a subject that ones, but perhaps it is just as important to note seems so irrelevant to their future ministry. how exceptional this behavior was. It did not Many seminary professors do recognize that end “secrets” or the practice of passing these Indian Christian theological language includes “secrets” on, with great solemnity from one many terms from Vaishnava and Saiva generation to the next, only to qualified sources, some of them frequently occurring in 13 disciples. Christian hymns. In modern times, however, Śrīvaiṣṇava Such use of Hindu terms is inevitable scholars have shared their translations and when scriptures, catechisms, and hymns are in interpretations with many students outside Indian languages. It may have been increased the community. I have received generous help by the frequent participation of Hindu 14 from several of them. Only once has my access scholars in Protestant Bible translations. to such knowledge been challenged, and this Ever since the first translations Christians was not because of being a foreigner or a non- have debated which words should be used for Brahmin. While visiting the remarkable shrine key Christian names and concepts, starting of Nammalvar in Bangalore maintained by with the names for God. For example, Indian lower caste Śrīvaiṣṇavas, a monk did object to Christians differ as to whether avatāra is an my studying Nammalvar’s hymns on two appropriate designation for Jesus. Reaching a grounds: my lack of initiation (ritual decision is made more difficult by the different

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meanings of the term for different Hindu A Missed Opportunity in a Previous Encounter communities. For Śrīvaiṣṇavas, it does not At an early stage in writing my mean the illusory appearance of God in a dissertation on Rāmānuja’s theology, I went human (or animal) body but Lord Vishnu’s with Prof. M. Yamunacharya of Mysore to descent to earth in a real body of “pure meet with scholars at the Śrīvaiṣṇava temple matter.”15 in Melkote, renowned for sheltering Rāmānuja Outside of South Asia, Christians who want for several years from persecution by the to learn about Rāmānuja or other teachers in a Chola king, a fanatic devotee of Lord Siva. bhakti tradition do not already have Hindu Before signing the guestbook we were shown words embedded in their theological some signatures from a previous page, 33 vocabulary. For the few who are interested, years before. The first was that of my host’s there is much to learn from current discussion grandfather, A. Govindacharya, a civil among Indian Christians. For those of us who engineer who retired very early, spending the do not think in an Indian language, it is still rest of his life translating into English and possible to recognize both important commenting on Śrīvaiṣṇava texts, many of similarities and evident differences between them written in Manipravalam, the form of Rāmānuja’s teachings and one or more types Tamil full of Sanskrit words that developed of Christian theology. Can Christians learn about the time of Rāmānuja. Govindacharya from differences as well as perceived also wrote a book in English on the varieties of similarities? It could be argued that to learn mysticism, including and his own means to accept something new, something Tengalai Śrīvaiṣṇavism.17 we do not already know or have previously The next signature was that of believed. In practice, however, interreligious Govindacharya’s guest, Rudolf Otto, the learning that is less than conversion to the German Lutheran theologian and Indologist. other faith begins with noticing a doctrine, He wrote under his signature, “When I return ritual or moral rule that seems similar to to Germany I shall write a book on Rāmānuja.” something in one’s own religion, but not quite I was thrilled to see his signature and the the same. Closer acquaintance and further comment that followed because the book that reflection may cause us to modify or enlarge he wrote two years later, while not mainly our previous conception. This learning might about Rāmānuja, was for me as a college lead us to move from one past Christian freshman, my introduction to Hindu bhakti. position to another. In Jon Paul Sydnor’s case, Hugh Nicholson has introduced this book and this might mean a move from classical theism some of Otto’s other writings in his paper.18 to process theology, perhaps assisted by his The first part of Otto’s book presents the earlier comparison of Rāmānuja with theistic devotion of Rāmānuja and other Schleiermacher.16 Martin Ganeri, on the other Vaishnava teachers as real religion, in hand, considers Rāmānuja’s view of Divine contrast to the monistic mysticism of Śaṇkara, embodiment more compatible with the which previous European scholars of Indian theology of Aquinas. Both Sydnor and Ganeri, religion had favored. In contrast, in the second along with other contributors to this issue, part of the book Otto tries to demonstrate that focus on similarities that modify previously even this type of Hinduism, the closest to emphasized differences in Christian Christianity, has a doctrine of salvation that is discussions.

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol31/iss1/24 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1701 6 Carman: Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of R?m?nuja

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decisively different from that of Christianity; Govindacharya did take Otto to visit this it runs on a different axis. temple. Could they go further inside together, It was the first part of the book that or were they, like Prof. Yamunacharya and me, aroused my interest in Hindu bhakti and in content to visit the school room at the Rāmānuja. I didn’t need to learn that even this temple’s edge? Hugh Nicholson’s paper type of Hindu religion was different from suggests possibilities of what some Protestant Christianity, but Otto had imaginative looking back might mean in going convinced me that the two religions were forward. worth comparing. Refining the Christian inquiry Much later I thought more about the first There are only a few Christian scholars signature on the page: A. Govindacharya. Prof. who have had the wide range of competence Yamunacharya told me that his grandfather to be both Indologists and systematic had resigned from Mysore government theologians, thus far more Roman Catholics service as a bridge builder because the than Protestants. In addition to the practical Maharaja of Mysore had ordered him to do obstacles to gaining such double competence, obeisance to the head of the monastic there is the division in the potential audience establishment in the Śaṇkara tradition. He for the scholar’s writings, a widening divide, refused because he was a strict follower of perhaps, in our increasingly secular academy. Rāmānuja. For the rest of his life we might There are still many conservative consider him an intellectual “bridge builder” theologians reluctant to concede much of between Tengalai Śrīvaiṣṇavism and European theological interest for Christians in Hindu scholarship. We may presume that this is why “philosophy.” That situation is changing for he and Otto became acquainted and why he the better, not only for Roman Catholic invited Otto to visit him during Otto’s trip to scholars, but also for Protestants. In terms of India in 1927-28. They may have had extended our particular topic, there is more recognition conversation over several days, or they may of similar beliefs and common concerns. There have mainly seen the sights together. It is not may even be willingness to consider points surprising that there is no record of their where Rāmānuja’s teachings are close enough ”interreligious dialogue”, but it is surprising to Christian doctrines for Christians to learn, that their writings after they met don’t reveal not only from what is similar, but also from that they learned anything from one another what is different. that would have at least given more nuance to Christian theologians do formulate each one’s understanding of the other’s various distinct doctrines. Comparing these religion, either in doctrine or in personal with somewhat similar doctrines in other experience. religious systems often leads them to find This historical speculation is presented, greater similarity with regard to some not to criticize these two giants in their fields doctrines than with others. Sometimes a more from whom I have learned so much, but to general distinction is drawn between a note a rare opportunity for scholarly and knowledge of God the Creator, universally religious exchange that seems to have been available through sincere piety and missed. In different historical circumstances, intellectually grounded through rational what opportunities are we missing? Perhaps it inquiry, on the one hand, and knowledge of is more important to know that God the Redeemer, on the other. The latter is

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held to be available only through scriptural those who find it impossible to answer such revelation, whether individually discerned or hard questions, there may be a middle ground interpreted by the Church’s teaching office. between understanding another religious Many Christians trying to share the Gospel position and affirming or denying its truth. with those in another culture than their own This is appreciation, the valuing of some have had to use some words shaped by other practice or vision of reality apart from its religious traditions. For some theologians, the truth or even its practical utility. We may words for God in any language imply a think of this as only an aesthetic category, but knowledge of God already present among it may be something more. Do we not admire those to whom the Christian message is something in another person, or family, or addressed, and the beliefs utilizing and country that we would not want to adopt for explicating those words point to theological ourselves? If religious belief can be conceived similarities that need to be explored. For as a series of discrete doctrines, it is easier to Christian theologians who emphasize the agree with one and reject another. But if the uniqueness of the saving knowledge in the beliefs form a seamless whole requiring a total Gospel, similarities to comparable teachings of commitment, any alternative cannot be other religions are more of a problem than affirmed. It might, however, be appreciated or similarities in the acknowledgement of God admired. In the midst of a tradition rich in the Creator. For many conservative poetic expression, Rāmānuja appears to have Protestants, it is only the truth of the Christian written no poetry, but there are many faith as an indivisible whole that counts.19 emotional expressions in his prose, and the The articles in this issue touch on only a later tradition credits him with oral comments few of the many disagreements and on the sacred poem-cycle of Nammalvar, the unresolved questions. Is Rāmānuja’s “Holy Word of Mouth.” Frank Clooney has interpretation of Divine embodiment closer to shown how a Christian scholar can appreciate Aquinas’s doctrine of creation or to the both the poems and the commentaries and can process theology differently articulated by fruitfully compare them with the Whitehead, Hartshorne and Cobb? What commentarial tradition on the Song of Songs.20 difference does convergence in some The Śrīvaiṣṇava Estimate of Rāmānuja doctrines make if the affirmations about We would not be recognizing and even incarnation or salvation greatly diverge? Even celebrating Rāmānuja’s thousandth birthday if if Christian and Śrīvaiṣṇava scholars could the Śrīvaiṣṇava community had not held him reach agreement on some points, what in such high esteem. In a paper I contributed difference would that make to the great to a conference on “Faith and Narrative,” I majority of lay people? argued that far from lacking a sense of history, We may hope that such unresolved India’s religious communities have often had a questions will not prevent Christian scholars double sense of history. from continuing the various lines of inquiry The first sense of history is cosmic and pursued by the contributors to this issue of the generally pessimistic: the awareness of Journal. It may be easier to agree on certain the great cycles of cosmic time and their points of doctrine than to face the own participation in the worst of the four implications of choosing between two ages: the age under the demon Kali when different and rival religious communities. For human beings are scarcely able any longer

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to act rightly and to work toward their ways in which Rāmānuja is treated as a teacher liberation from this cosmic [time]. The and leader with a special role in the second sense of history is more Śrīvaiṣṇava tradition. His own ritual surrender paradoxical and more optimistic: the to Lord Vishnu-Narayana brings assurance of confidence that within their own his disciples’ salvation. community of devotees, their God has I argue in that article that the released them from the imprisonment of hagiographies contain many stories that help this evil age and instituted, or at least set us to comprehend Rāmānuja as a historical the stage for, the return of the righteous figure in our modern sense of history. In age.21 addition, the extravagant praise of Rāmānuja One set of Nammalvar’s verses in the in the hagiographies, as well as in the poems Tiruvaymoli refers to the end of the present and commentaries, opens up for us the evil age. While the verses seem to describe a Śrīvaiṣṇava “sacred history” in which present reality, it is not surprising that they Rāmānuja plays such a central role. Christians were also interpreted as a prediction of the might be reminded of the claim in the New future. The earliest author of a surviving Testament that the greatest defeat in secular commentary, Pillan, who was Rāmānuja’s history leads to the greatest victory in God’s disciple and cousin, paraphrased the final own time. If Christians cannot affirm the truth verse of the set as “The Lord . . . has the nature of the claims for Rāmānuja, they should be of graciously changing Kaliyuga to able to appreciate them and respectfully Krtayuga,”22 in Western terms, moving from discuss them with Śrīvaiṣṇavas. They might the Age of Iron to the Age of Gold. read together and ponder this first verse of The first ode in praise of Rāmānuja is Nammalvar’s poetic vision: attributed to Amudanar, considered an Rejoice! Rejoice! Rejoice! immediate disciple. Three of the hundred The persisting curse of life is gone, verses connect Rāmānuja’s coming to end the the agony of hell is destroyed, Kaliyuga. One verse reads, “When Rāmānuja death has no place here. appeared in the world, the righteous path The force of Kali is destroyed. became straight, the ‘six religions’ Look for yourself! disintegrated, and cruel Kali died.”23 This The followers of the sea-colored Lord sounds like the exaggerated praise often swell over this earth, singing with melody, heaped on Indian kings. Indeed, one of dancing and whirling [with joy]. Rāmānuja’s titles was Yatiraja, “King of We see them.24 Ascetics.” Such poetic praise is but one of the

Notes the Vedantic Theology of Rāmānuja: A Study in His 1 This essay refers, not only to avowedly Use of the Self-Body Analogy (Madras, India: Christian interpretations of Rāmānuja, but also to Rāmānuja Research Society, 1976); Julius Lipner, studies by Christians who do not write as The Face of Truth: A Study of Meaning and systematic theologians, though they have strong Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Rāmānuja theological interests that are expressed in various (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986). articles. Among English-speaking scholars I would 2 John Stratton Hawley, A Storm of Songs: India note two in particular: Julius Lipner and Eric Lott. and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement (Cambridge, See especially: Eric J. Lott, God and the Universe in Mass. and London, England: Harvard University

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appearing as Poetry as Theology: The Śrīvaiṣṇava Press, 2015). See also Gopal Gupta’s essay in this Stotras in the Age of Rāmānuja (Wiesbaden: Otto issue. Harrasowitz, 1992). Among the many recent 3 P. Johanns, S.J., To Christ through the studies of the tradition after Rāmānuja, Frank Vedanta (in two volumes) (Bangalore, United Clooney’s comparisons of the Tamil hymns of the Theological College, 1996). Alvars and their commentaries with the Christian 4 De Smet acknowledged his indebtedness to commentaries on the Song of Songs stand out as Johanns in an unpublished article, “The Trajectory Christian interpretations. See especially: Francis X. of my Theological Activity,” which he prepared for Clooney, S.J., His Hiding Place Is Darkness: A Hindu- Bradley J. Malkovsky’s Introduction to New Catholic Theopoetics of Divine Absence (Stanford, Perspectives on . California: Stanford University Press, 2014). 5 Jacques Dupuis, Towards a Christian Further development of this type of scholarship Theology of Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll, New will need close collaboration between Śrīvaiṣṇava York: Orbis Press, 1997), p. 269. With respect to “the and Christian scholars, as well as contributions Hindu bhakti doctrine of avatara,” Dupuis does from the many scholars now writing without an make a more specific Christian evaluation: “the evident religious commitment. Comparison of worship of sacred images can be the sacramental forms of worship will be enhanced by field sign in and through which the devotee responds to observations and reference to liturgical texts. Cf. the offer of .” (p. 303) the studies of the Pancaratra tradition by Gerhard 6 I do not have a complete list, but they range Oberhammer and his students at the University of from Bonaventure to John of the Cross, Vienna. A unique study focusing on the Vaikuntha Schleiermacher, Teilhard de Chardin, and Borden Perumal temple in Kanchipuram is the Park Bowne. posthumously edited volume of D. Dennis Hudson, 7 Martin Ganeri, Indian Thought and Western The Body of God: An Emperor’s Palace for Krishna Theism: The Vedanta of Rāmānuja (London and in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram (Oxford: New York: Routledge, 2015). University Press, 2008). 8 Ibid, pp.36-46. 12 I have discussed this story of Rāmānuja’s 9 M.R. Rajagopala Ayyangar, Vedartha instruction from Tirukottiyur Nambi (Goshthi Sangraha of Rāmānuja. Translation with Purna) in The Theology of Rāmānuja: An Essay in introduction (Chromepet [Madras]: published by Interreligious Understanding (New Haven and the author, Jan. 1956); S.S. Raghavachar, Vedartha- London: Yale University Press, 1974) pp. 39-41. Sangraha of Sri Rāmānujacarya. Text and 13 Cf. Bror Tiliander, Christian and Hindu translation (Mysore: Sri Ramakrishna Terminology: A Study in Their Mutual Relations Ashrama,1956, 2nd ed. 1968). with Special Reference to the Tamil Area 10 Robert Lester, Rāmānuja on the , Adyar Uppsala:(Almqvist and Wiksell, 1974). Library Series 106 (Madras, India: Adyar Library 14 Cf. my article in the Hindu-Christian Studies and Research Centre, 1976). Bulletin, Vol. 4, 1991: “Protestant Bible 11 Vasudha Narayanan has written an Translations in India: An Unrecognized Dialogue?”, illuminating overview of the early Śrīvaiṣṇava pp. 11-20, https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1041; tradition up through three of Rāmānuja’s and the “Response to De Smet and Carman” by immediate disciples in The Way and the Goal: Francis X. Clooney, S.J. and Dennis Hudson, pp. 21- Expressions of Devotion in the early Sri Vaishnava 26, https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1042 and Tradition (Washington, D.C. Institute for https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1043. Vaishnava Studies and Harvard Center for the 15 See Chapter 10, “Avatar and Incarnation: Study of World Religions, 1987). A fuller study of Two Conceptions of Divine Condescension,” in my the theology in the poems of Rāmānuja’s Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of “secretary.” Kuresa, and Kuresa’s son Parasara Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God Bhattar has been written by Nancy Ann Nayar,

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol31/iss1/24 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1701 10 Carman: Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of R?m?nuja

Expanding and Refining Christian Interpretations of Rāmānuja 77

19 I have discussed these and related issues at (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, the end of the last chapter of The Theology of 1994) pp. 188-212. Rāmānuja, pp. 258-71. Rudolf Otto’s position is of 16 Jon Paul Sydnor, Rāmānuja and interest here. He maintains that in principle all Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive human beings are capable of knowing what Comparative Theology (Eugene, Oregon: Pickwick religion is (apprehending the Holy), but saving Publications, 2011). knowledge of God’s atonement through Christ is 17 A. Govindacharya Svamin, A Metaphysique only possible in Christian faith. This differentiation of Mysticism (Vedically Viewed) (Mysore, South is similar to an older Christian distinction between India, 1923). natural knowledge of God the Creator and revealed 18 Rudolf Otto, India’s Religion of Grace and knowledge of God the Redeemer. Christians in Christianity Compared and Contrasted, translated various cultures and theological traditions have by Frank Hugh Foster (London: Student Christian differed as to how or whether to build on the first Movement Press, Oct. 1930). The German original is kind of knowledge to reach the second. Mark Indiens Gnadenreligion und das Christentum: Heim’s approach might seem to reverse the Vergleich und Unterscheidung (Munchen: C.H. theological process by starting with Christian faith Beck’sche Verlag, 1930). In his Foreword to the in the Triune God. He explores the possibility for German edition, written in January 1930, Otto Christians to recognize the important but very thanks the Maharaja of Mysore, his official host to different ends of human life emphasized by whom the book is dedicated, and sends special different religions as encompassed within the greetings to various scholars and religious leaders, reality of the . See S. Mark Heim, The Depth including Govindacharya. Otto begins the of the Riches: A Trinitarian Theology of Religious Foreword by stating that the book is a revision and Ends (Grand Rapids, Michigan and Cambridge, U.K.: expansion of two earlier lecture series, a pastors’ William B. Eerdmans, 2001). conference in Kassel in 1924 and lectures at the 20 See Note 10 above. University in Uppsala and Oslo in 1926. A Swedish 21 John B. Carman, “Hagiography and Hindu translation of the Uppsala lectures were translated Historical Consciousness,” in Faith and Narrative, into English in India in 1929, with the title, edited by Keith E. Yandell (, Christianity and the Indian Religion of Grace. Otto 2001), pp. 139-40. writes in the Foreword to the 1930 book that his 22 Ibid. pp.143-44. visit to Mysore gave him the opportunity to deepen 23 Ibid. p.144. his acquaintance with bhakti religion, so that the 24 Vasudha Narayanan’s translation of earlier lectures were enlarged and several Tiruvaymoli V.2.1 in Carman and Narayanan, The appendices were added. The later book is Tamil Veda: Pillan’s Interpretation of the thoroughly rewritten and expanded, but the topics Tiruvaymoli (Chicago and London: The University of the four chapters remain the same, as well as the of Chicago Press, 1989) pp.210-11. theological movement from unexpected similarity to decisive contrast.

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