Volume 6, Issue 11(5), November 2017 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 48-12-3/7, Flat No: 302, Alekya Residency Srinagar, Visakhapatnam – 530 016 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Associate Professor, Institute of Education Mettu University, Metu, Ethiopia.
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Founder and President Research Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Mumbai Lima Peru
Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Prof. Igor Kondrashin Vice Chancellor, Patna University The Member of The Russian Philosophical Former Director Society Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Studies, New Delhi & The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Vizianagaram Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr. N.S. Dhanam Russian Philosophical Society Department of Philosophy Moscow, Russia Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Department of Mechanical Engineering Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education GITAM University University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Department of Computer Science Coordinator University of Pune,Pune A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering Dr.S.Kannan University of Novi Sad, Serbia Department of History Annamalai University Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of English Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India GITAM University Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Hyderabad Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences Dr.K.Chaitanya University of Sapienza, Rome Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Technology Al-Mustansiriyah University People’s Republic of China College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics Dr. Bipasha Sinha University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Prof. N Kanakaratnam Kalasalingam University Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi
Dr. K. John Babu Assistant Professor Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Department of Sahitya Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
Dr.T.V.Ramana Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Department of Economics, Andhra University Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Campus, Kakinada Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
Volume 6 C IssueO N T 1 E1( N5) T S November 2017 S. Pg.
No No 1. A Systematic Design Methodology of Asynchronous SAR 1 ADCS S.V.K.Sai Pratyusha, Ch. Sudeepti and P.S.N.Bhaskar
2. Political and Socioeconomic Development of Africa: 28 Potentials and Challenges Neville D'cunha
3. Does Media Instigate Sexual Violence? 35 Puja Raj
4. Cattle and Camel Production and Marketing in Fafen 48 Zone of Somali Regional State: The Opportunities FOR Enhancing Agro-Pastoralist Livelihoods and the Constraints Thereof Abreham Mengistu
5. Practices and Challenges of Early Childhood Care and 75 Education Programme in Iluababor Zone, Ethiopia Dimo Didana Dinie, Kassahun Tadesse Mamo and Tekalign Minalu Tirfe
6. Role of English Language Teachers in Supporting 103 Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Learners J. Damayanthi
7. Public Private Partnership in Urban Development 112 Kommu Shekar
8. Implementation of Right to Education in India P.Kurumaiah
9. Shivaji Diplomatic Relations of Golconda Kingdom 129 Chatla Chittibabu
10. Efficient Communications Using Dynamic Concentric 150 Rings Infrastructure in Wireless Sensor Networks Mandapalli Premakumar, Ch. Sudeepti and Valli Balaji 11. Effect of Neuro feedback Therapy on Cognitive Function 175 of Diabetic Patients Shivani Tomar and Anand Pratap Singh
12. High-Speed and Energy-Efficient Carry Skip Adder 192 Operating Under a Wide Range of Supply Voltage Levels Madhireddi Bhaskar, Nihar Ranjan Panda and Rupalin Nanda
13. Teacher’s Role in Protecting the Environment 219 K. Manjulamma
14. Socio-Doctrinaire Rhythms of Minicoy Island: A Cultural 226 Study Manzoor.B.P
15. Impact of Dairy Business on Socio-Economic Development 245 of Smallholder Dairy Producers Ashok Raj Thakur and N. Sambasiva Rao 16. 255
Emani Uma Gowthami
17. Prevalence of Urinary Tract Infection: Bacterial 263 Etiologies, Drug Resistance Profile and Associated Risk Factors in Pregnant Women Attending the Antenatal Clinic of Mettu Karl Hospital Southwestern Ethiopia Eshetu Chilo, Raja Kumar Parabathina, J.Caroline Sangeetha and Raja Kumar Parabathina
18. Burnout as a Crisis Among Teachers with Respect to 283 Occupational Self-Efficacy Madhu Gupta and Surekha Rani 19. 302
T.K.Vamsi Kumara Sarma
20. Religious Tourism: A Holy Trek or Leaving the Mess? 308 Puja Raj
21. A Random Access Protocol for Pilot Allocation in Crowded 317 Massive MIMO System M.V.Krishnaveni, S.Venkata Anand and P.Bhaskar 22. Agriculture Financing by Commercial Banks In India 344 A.Nagaraju and K.Ramakrishnaiah
23. Jahaho-the Land of Bharat : A View 359 Dr.P.Venkata Subba Rao
24. 363
ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Dr. K. VICTOR BABU Impact Factor :5.818 (2017) M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Associate Professor, Institute of Education & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Mettu University, Metu, Ethiopia.
Editorial……
It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect. The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action. The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
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A SYSTEMATIC DESIGN METHODOLOGY OF ASYNCHRONOUS SAR ADCS
S.V.K.Sai Pratyusha, Ch. Sudeepti, P.S.N.Bhaskar
Reg.No:315232940013. M.TECH (VLSI Design),Sanketika vidya parishad Engineering college, Andhra university,visakhapatnam college, Andhra university, Visakhapatnam
Abstract - Successive approximation register (SAR) analog-to digital converters (ADCs) are widely used in biomedical and portable/wearable electronic systems due to their excellent power efficiency. Analog to digital converters are the key building blocks between the analog and digital domains. However, both the design and the optimization of high-performance SAR ADCs are time consuming, even for well experienced circuit designers. For system designers, it is also hard to quickly evaluate the feasibility of a given specification in a process node. This project presents a systematic sizing procedure for asynchronous SAR ADCs based on design considerations.
A sizing tool based on the proposed design procedure is also implemented, the sizing results of which are highly competitive in comparison with other state-of-the-art manual works. Moreover, the sizing time is relatively short due to the efficient and effective search algorithms employed. Comparator is one of the fundamental building blocks in most analog-to-digital converters (adcs). Many high speed adcs, such as flash adcs, require high-speed, low power Comparators with small chip area. High-speed comparators in ultra deep sub micrometer (UDSM) CMOS technologies Suffer from low supply voltages. This project presents a systematic sizing procedure for asynchronous SAR ADCs based on comparator design considerations.
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Introduction
Modern communication systems employ complex systems-on-chip (SoCs) to perform a multitude of operations. Analog-to-digital (A/D) converters are an integral part of such a communication signal chain. Integration of the ADC with the digital backend is usually desirable, since then a single digital CMOS die can be used to implement the entire signal processing chain. This puts the onus on circuit designers to realize the required A/D converters in advanced CMOS processes, making them suitable for SoC integration.
Recently, SAR ADCs have attracted substantial research interest, thanks to their good power efficiency and technology scaling properties. However, the power efficiency of a SAR ADC, which uses a serial conversion algorithm, deteriorates at high conversion speeds (> 100 MS/s) as the constituent blocks are pushed against the process technology limit. This work investigates the design of high-speed SAR ADCs to identify circuit techniques that improve their conversion speed while maintaining low power dissipation. Moreover, it proposes a modified pipelined- SAR architecture, which uses two switched- capacitor DACs in the frontend. This allows SAR ADCs to penetrate into the design space that is more commonly occupied by conventional multi-stage pipeline ADCs (~12-bit resolution, sampling frequency >100 MS/s) with significantly better power efficiency.
Analog-To-Digital converters (ADCs) are the key building blocks between the analog and digital domains. Because the performance of a whole system is often constrained by ADCs, they play an important role in many mixed signal systems. Due to the prevailing applications of green electronics, consumer electronics, and biomedical electronics, low power consumption has become a critical and essential target for circuit design. Among the various architectures of ADCs, the successive approximation register (SAR) ADC has attracted more attention in recent years due to its excellent power efficiency and
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suitability for medium-to-high-speed applications. Numerous related papers have been presented in major integrated circuit design conferences.
Successive Approximation Register A/D Converter
A. Basic Operation:
As the name suggests, SAR ADCs convert an analog input to its digital equivalent by a series of successive approximation steps, usually using a binary search algorithm. A simple block diagram representing this process is shown in Fig. 1.1. The DAC output voltage is compared to the input signal and the result of this comparison is fed back to the DAC, thereby closing the successive approximation loop. The control logic is designed to perform a feedback subtraction and brings the DAC voltage closer to the analog input with every comparison (see Fig. 1.1). As a result, the converter’s resolution depends on the number of successive approximation cycles (serial operation). In addition, the resolution is primarily limited by the sensitivity of the comparison block and the accuracy of the D/A converter.
Figure- Basic SAR ADC block diagram and operation
Literature Survey
Why SAR ADCs?
After the first published MOS implementation, commercial single-channel SAR ADCs typically was slow, accurate (16-bit) converters. Research interest in SAR A/D converters was initiated once
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again by the work of [10], which interleaved eight, 6-bit SAR ADCs to demonstrate a 10 mW, 600 MS/s A/D converter. Since then, the number of publications on SAR ADCs at the International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC) and the VLSI Circuit Symposium have steadily grown (see Fig. 1.5). This increase in research activity has led to significant improvements in SAR ADC performance, which is depicted by plotting the trend in their conversion speed (single-channel) over the last 7 years (see Fig. 1.6). This observed boost in performance stems from the inherent digital-like architecture of a SAR ADC, which scales well with process and achieves very good energy efficiency. Specifically, a conventional SAR ADC (Fig. 1.4) comprises of a comparator, MOS switches, digital logic and capacitors, all of which benefit from process scaling. For example, smaller channel length result in improved MOS switches as well as comparator speed. It also reduces the digital gate delay, thereby speeding up the SAR logic. Moreover, improvements in lithography with every CMOS generation have made it possible to realize small on-chip capacitors with good matching characteristics, which are used to implement the CDAC in a SAR ADC
Latched comparator
Some comparators have built-in latching facility. Upon receiving an active signal at the latch pin the current output state of this comparator is frozen in a latch flip-flop and is held indefinitely until the arrival of a new latch command. This feature is particularly useful in some ADC applications as well as microcomputer interfacing.
Dynamic Comparator
A dynamic latch is a memory unit which stores charge on gate capacitance of the inverter.
The following diagram represents a simple dynamic latch.
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Figure- Dynamic Comparator
The clock drives the circuit. When the clock is equal to 1 then transmission gate is closed, therefore latch acts transparent, and the inverter is directly connected to input. When the clock is equal to 0 then transmission gate opens and inverter’s output is determined by the node. We have to consider the setup and hold times which are determined by the transmission to have proper operation of latch i.e. it stores sufficient level of voltage on the gate capacitance of the latch.
Pre-Amplifier
The pre-amplifier is a common source differential amplifier connected to active loads. Pre-amplifier is connected to a small circuit which are used for two main functions. First one is used to avoid “kick back effect” from latch to input signal. Kick back is noise detected at input signal which is produced due to high voltage variations at regenerative nodes of latches and is coupled to input through the parasitic capacitances of transistors
Speed of the Comparator
Speed of the comparator is mainly depending on regenerative time constant of latch. The latch can be redesigned with two inverters connected in a loop configuration with positive feedback. The time required for amplification is dependent on initial voltage difference “V-
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diff” which is produced by pre-amplifier in the form of slight charge disturbance at reset phase.
The time required for regeneration is given by:
t ( ) ( ) comp = ln( ) Where “A” is the small signal gain of inverters. From this above equation, we can understand that time for comparison depends upon time constant RC, gain of inverter and initial voltage difference.
Regenerative comparators
Comparator Circuits with positive feedback are known as Schmitt Triggers or Regenerative Comparators. They admit only two stable states +Vsat, and –Vsat. All intermediate states are unstable because the circuit has the natural tendency to saturate. Depending on the side at which we apply the external input, a Schmitt trigger can be of the inverting or the non-inverting type.
Advantages of Schmitt Triggers over The Conventional Comparators
Because of the presence of positive feedback the speed of response
of a Schmitt Trigger is higher than that of an Open loop comparator. By adjusting the values of upper trigger level VUT and lower trigger level VLT it is possible to adjust the duty cycle of the square wave output voltage of the Schmitt trigger. This is not possible in the
open loop comparator. The monolithic Schmitt Triggers are generally uncompensated op-
amps. Hence they have higher speed of operations. However as a Schmitt Trigger does not respond in its hysteresis range to any change in input voltage the sensitivity of the Schmitt trigger decreases with increase in hysteresis this is the drawback of the Schmitt Trigger.
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Recent Advancements in SAR ADCs
It is evident that recent designs cover a wide performance spectrum (conversion speeds from sub-MS/s to several GS/s) and achieve very good power-efficiency at low to moderate conversion speeds (< 100 MS/s). This can be attributed to the recent advancements in SAR ADCs, which are described below. First, the improvement in photolithography has resulted in fine line CMOS processes with 8-10 metal layers. The width and spacing of these metal layers is accurately controlled (lateral dimension), which is exploited to realize small lateral-field metal-oxide-metal (MOM) capacitors1. Second, there has been a significant amount of research on reducing the CDAC’s switching energy. Capacitance splitting, monotonic switching.
The works take steps in this direction by time-interleaving two 125/205 MS/s pipelined SAR ADCs. However, in both of these designs, the SNDR at Nyquist input frequency is limited to 56 dB.
The final goal of this research was to explore circuit techniques that extend the performance of SAR based A/D converters to conversion speed of > 150 MS/s with an SNDR of over 65 dB, while maintaining a small full-scale range and power dissipation to make it suitable for SoC deployment. Fig. 2.5 shows our targeted ADC design space.
Figure- Plot of ADC bandwidth vs. SNDR showing targeted design space in this research
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This chapter presents a systematic study of the mismatch characteristics of small on-chip capacitors, realized using a single metal layer, and is structured as follows. Section 2.2 discusses the properties of the single-layer MOM capacitors considered in this work. Next, we review prior-art methods for capacitor mismatch measurements using custom test structures in Section 2.3. Sections 2.4Mismatch Characterization of Small MOM capacitors 11and 2.5 describe the proposed characterization technique along with its circuit realization and a discussion of error sources.
Prior Art Mismatch Measurement Techniques
While the matching properties of integrated capacitors have been studied previously, most of the available measurement data is for relative large capacitors on the order of 1 pF and designers tend to estimate the mismatch of smaller capacitors indirectly, from the measurements of larger circuit blocks. For example, the work uses even order harmonics in a DCO’s tuning characteristic to infer the mismatch among small MOS tuning bank varactors. Similarly, the work uses static linearity measurements of a 10-bit SAR ADC to estimate the capacitance mismatch for MOM capacitors as small as 2 fF. Such indirect methods have several disadvantages. First, the circuits tend to be large, which makes it difficult to obtain sufficient statistics with a limited number of parts or chip area. Second, extracting the desired information needs relatively sophisticated measurement setups. Consequently, there has been some prior work to devise dedicated test structures in order to extract capacitance mismatch information.
Most of the published works on dedicated test structures translate the capacitance mismatch information into another domain where it is easier to measure. This is because the presence of pad capacitances and the limited resolution of bench top measurement equipment make the direct probe-based measurement of small
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capacitances impractical. Prior art techniques can be broadly divided into two categories:
(a) voltage-based measurements and
(b) frequency-based measurements.
A. Voltage-Based Measurement
A voltage ramp is applied at node A when B is grounded (and vice- versa), so that the mismatch informationis contained in the difference of the output slopes for the two cases (S1 andS2. This technique is plagued by the analog nature of the measurement,and the experimental data will typically be impaired by a variety of noise sourcesand noise coupling mechanisms.
B. Frequency-Based Measurement
identified the shortcomings of voltage-based measurements and proposed a mismatch characterization method based on frequency. The key idea is to translate the relative mismatch between two capacitors to a relative change in frequency of oscillation. Fig.3.2 shows the circuit that was used to characterize mismatch of capacitance values down to 8 fF. While this approach is substantially more robust and provides a “quasi-digital” readout, it requires undesired de-embedding of circuit parameters that lead to measurement uncertainty. First, it needs reliable simulation data to account for the loading effects of large resistances that are added to the amplifiers in the ring oscillator (Fig. 3.2) to suppress switch mismatch. Second, this simulation data must be combined with measurements from an unloaded replica of the structure to scale the observed values.
A. Comparator Implementation
It comprises of a resistively loaded differential pair (preamplifier) followed by a regenerative latch. The regenerative latch design is similar to that in and together with the preamplifier, it reduces the
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comparator kickback to insignificant levels. The comparator offset calibration setup is also depicted. An additional differential pair driven by DAC1 is employed to tilt currents in the appropriate direction to minimize the comparator offset.
Figure- Typical N-bit asynchronous SAR ADC
Figure- Timing diagrams of (a) synchronous and (b) asynchronous control schemes.
The typical architecture of an SAR ADC is shown which consists of a comparator, a differential digital-to-analog converter (DAC) with an embedded sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit, and an SAR control logic circuit.
Asynchronous SAR ADC
Basic Operations
As shown in Fig. 3.7, the analog-to digital conversion of an N-bit SAR ADC can be separated into a signal sampling phase (blue region) and N bit-conversion phases (green, orange, and pink). In the signal sampling
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phase, the top plates of the capacitor arrays DACp and DACn connect to the input voltages (VINP and VINN), while the bottom plates connect to either the positive reference voltage (VREFP), the negative reference voltage (VREFN), or the common-mode voltage (VCM) according to the DAC-switching scheme. At the end of signal sampling phase, the top-plate switches are turned OFF, and DACp and DACn hold the input signals on the top plates. In each bit-conversion phase, the comparator compares the voltages on the top plates (VtopP and VtopN) during the positive period of the comparator clock signal (CLKC), the result of which determines each bit value. During the negative CLKC period, the comparator resets to the initial condition, and the DAC simultaneously generates a new VtopP and VtopN for the next comparison. This new voltage is generated according to the comparison result and DAC-switching scheme. The operations of the remaining bits are executed in sequence.
Synchronous SAR ADC versus Asynchronous SAR ADC:
There are two types of control schemes for SAR ADCs:
1) Synchronous and
2) Asynchronous.
The differences between these two schemes include the time interval of the internal signal and external clock, timing constraints, and the verification process of the sizing results, as elaborated in the following.
Time Interval of Internal Signal and External Clock: The main difference of these two control schemes is the time interval length of the CLKC (Tclkc). The Tclkc value of the synchronous scheme is constant in each bit cycling, while the Tclkc value of the asynchronous scheme is unequal. The synchronous control circuit generates an equal time interval CLKC according to the external clock signal (CLKEXT).
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Despite the comparison/reset of the comparator being complete before the end of the positive/negative period, the next operation (i.e., reset/comparison) does not continue immediately, but waits until the transition edge of CLKC.
By contrast, CLKEXT only controls the time interval of the sampling phase (TSample) in the asynchronous scheme, where TSample is determined by the duty cycle of CLKEXT, the driving strength of the input signal, and the pulse width modulator of the clock generator in the system. The asynchronous control circuit generates CLKC according to the comparator state rather than CLKEXT. Once the comparator determines the value of bit i after a certain amount of comparison time, say Tcmp,i, it sends a valid signal to the SAR control circuit, and then pulls down CLKC with a delay time Tf. Subsequently, the falling CLKC resets the comparator in Trst,i, sending a trigger signal to the SAR control circuit, which pulls up CLKC with a delay time Tr. Since each operation executes immediately after the previous one is finished, the conversion speed of an asynchronous SAR ADC is generally faster than a synchronous one.
Timing Constraints: As abovementioned, after sampling the input signal, N clock cycles are needed to finish the conversion for a synchronous N-bit SAR ADC. In each bit-conversion phase, the comparator operates during the positive period of CLKC. During the negative CLKC period, the comparator resets to the initial condition, and the DAC generates new VtopP and VtopN according to the comparison result. Thus, Tclkc can be formulated as
Tclkc =Tconv,syn/N (1) Where Tconv,syn is the period of conversion phases. If the duty cycle of the CLKC is 50%, the operating speed of the synchronous design is dominated by the longest time among the comparison time,
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the comparator reset time, and the required DAC settling time. That is, the timing constraint can be formulated as,
Where Tcmp,i and Trst,i denote the comparison time and the reset time of bit i , respectively, while TDAC, idenotes the required settling time of bit i . Tcmp,iis strongly related to the compared voltage (Vcmp) of the comparator. A smaller voltage difference for the comparator results in a longer comparison time. The longest Tcmp,iis easy to determine via a single simulation, as in. Trst, ialmost remains constant and is usually shorter than Tcmp,i. If the fifth comparison in requires the longest time, then Tcmp,5 should be shorter than half of Tclkc. In contrast, the asynchronous scheme generates CLKC according to the feedback signal from the comparator. This results in an unequal CLKC time interval in each bit conversion. The total conversion time of the asynchronous SAR ADC (Tconv,asyn) is calculated by the following equation:
Sizing Solution Verification:
A synchronous SAR ADC satisfies the speed requirement if its comparator can indicate the polarity of Vcmp within half of Tclkc. The condition of the longest comparison time can be obtained by a single simulation under the given small voltage difference and the smallest overdrive voltage of the comparator input pair.
Compared with a synchronous SAR ADC that verifies the sizing results by checking the longest single comparison time in a bit cycling, an asynchronous SAR ADC checks the longest total comparison time in the N conversion phases. To satisfy the speed specification of an asynchronous SAR ADC, _Tcmp,i should be shorter than the given time budget for comparison (αcmp × Tasyn,conv, 0 < αcmp<1).However,
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the longest _Tcmp,iis difficult to obtain through a single simulation, because it is related to the complex combination of Tcmp.
An intuitive approach is to record Tcmp with respect to all possible Vcmp in a lookup table, and calculate the total comparison time from the look uptable based on the voltage differences during the successive conversion processes. However, constructing such a lookup table is rather time consuming and memory intensive. For example, if the minimum voltage step of Vcmp is set to 1/kof the least significant bit voltage (VLSB) during evaluation of the comparison time Tcmp, there are k × 2N possible Vcmp to be evaluated. Accordingly, k × 2N simulations are required to obtain their comparison time. Moreover, when the common-mode voltage is changed during the bit conversion for some DAC-switching schemes more simulations and memory space are needed to construct the lookup table. For example, if the common- mode voltage of Vcmp is changed after the first bit, k × 2N simulations are required in the first bit, and k × 2N−1 simulations in the remaining bits, since the voltage range of Vcmp is scaled down gradually in atypical SAR ADC. If the common-mode voltages of Vcmp are all different in bit conversions, it will take k × (2N+1 − 2)simulations (i.e., k × 2N + k × 2N−1 + · · · + k × 2). For a10-bit SAR ADC, assuming k = 8, 16 368 SPICE simulations are necessary, which may take more than 7 h for checking onlyone sizing result. Clearly, this is not a practical way to size a comparator. Accordingly, this bottleneck must be resolved ifa feasible sizing tool is to be implemented.
Overview of the sizing procedure
This project presents a systematic sizing methodology for asynchronous SAR ADCs. The execution flow is shown in Fig. 3. First, the process data and the specifications are prepared. Second, the time budget and the specification for each sub block are given. Third, an initial solution
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of each sub block is obtained. Finally, steps 2 and 3 are repeated to obtain a better solution after a few iterations.
Time Budget of Comparator
In order to meet the design constraints in (3) and (4), the longest total comparison time (_Tcmp,i) should be found, where _Tcmp,iis related to the input voltage of the SAR ADC. Moreover, the tool must find a specific input voltage that results in the longest _Tcmp,i, yet guarantee that its _Tcmp,Iis still shorter than the time budget. If it is not possible to find a solution under the initial time budget, the time budget will be increased gradually. Because the comparison/reset control circuit is simultaneously realized during sizing of the comparator, the remaining parts in (4), i.e., _(Tr+Tf+Trst), can also be obtained. It can be generally estimated as a constant time period. The summation of this constant period and time budget for comparison must be shorter than Tconv,asyn; otherwise, the sizing procedure will be stopped.
Sizing of the Remaining Building Blocks (Previous work)
The remaining blocks are the S/H circuit and the capacitive DAC, which have one common device—the capacitor. Hence, the next step is to determine a proper capacitance and build a capacitor array (CAP). Once the capacitance is determined, the sampling switch (SWS) and the reference switch (SWR) are sized for ensuring satisfactory accuracy and speed. During these steps in sizing the CMP and SWR, the size of the SAR control logic gate is modified simultaneously (SAR) to ensure the proper driving strength. Finally, an entire ADC is designed (ADC) upon the completion of the previous steps. Going through the sizing steps, HaSAST either generates an initial solution for an SAR ADC that satisfies the requirements, or it returns a failed result with a report describing the design bottleneck.
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Figure- Typical latch-based dynamic comparator( previous work)
Optimization
The next step is to find a better solution. The initial solution is obtained under a given time budget for comparison (αcmp × Tasyn,conv), which may remain a redundant time budget. Thus, a longer time budget (larger αcmp) is set in the next iteration to slow down the comparator speed. In this optimization process, HaSAST selects a narrower range from the record (called data-reusing technique), which approaches the new design target. As such, the new solution in this narrow range is obtained in a shorter time. Details of the optimization are illustrated in Section III-A2. Moreover, all new solutions are recorded in comparison with the previous solutions; finally, the best solution is selected according to the user-defined cost function. If the specifications are loose, the initial solution may be sufficient without optimization; in such cases, users can turn OFF this option to save execution time.
Finally, because control logic circuits are the comparator loadings, a larger sized comparator would be needed. Again, a larger size of comparator increases the requirement for a larger DAC capacitance. In such cases, the solution may diverge and be difficult to obtain.
Design considerations and sizing procedures
Here individually presenting the function, operations, design considerations, and design procedure of each building block.
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Comparator
The comparator converts the analog input voltage into the digital domain in an SAR ADC. Because the latch-based dynamic comparator consumes less power than the amplifier-based comparator, it has been more widely adopted in recent years.
Various latch-based dynamic comparator structures have been proposed shows a typical comparator structure, which can be classified into four parts, including the input pair, latch, reset switch, and current source. Its operation scan be roughly divided into reset and comparison phases. In the reset phase, it turns OFF the current source; hence, the current paths from the VDD to ground are cutoff. According to the comparator structure, the output nodes are then reset through the reset switches by connecting them to either VDD, ground, or each other. Fig. 3.8 shows an example of resetting to VDD. In the comparison phase, the current source is turned ON. Then, the input pair amplifies the input voltage, and the latch pushes and pulls the output of the amplifier to the rail-to-rail level. Finally, the polarity of the input signal is obtained.
Input Pair: The input pair is sized first, because there solution of the comparator is determined by the voltage offset (VOS), and VOS can be determined after the differential input pair size is determined. VOS is impacted by process variation, which can be formulated as follows:
VGS is the gate-to-source voltage of the input pair, while S and _Sare the physical dimension and its mismatch between the input pair, respectively. R is the load resistance and R its mismatch. VOS is usually a normal distribution, and its standard deviation is denoted by σ offset. Where VFS is the full-scale input swing voltage of the ADC, and N is the ADC resolution. It should be noted that there may exist a multistage structure of comparators. In a multistage comparator, the
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input pair size of the latter stage can be scaled down according to the estimated gain of the previous stages. These estimations can be verified by simulation in the last step.
Latch: The latch provides a positive feedback loop. In most cases, small transistor sizes are enough to satisfy the speed requirement of the comparator. However, once the process variation is considered, their size is usually enlarged. To prevent mismatch, the latch size is usually set to the similar order as the input pair.
Reset Switches: The reset switches must reset the comparator to the initial condition before the end of reset phase. Because the loadings of the reset switches include input pair and latch, the reset switches are sized after sizing the input pair and the latch.
Figure- Probability function of comparator noise
In general, the reset switches are all controlled by the clock signal from the digital control circuit; however, a part of the reset switches is controlled by its internal comparator rnodes. Moreover, the order of the sizing process is determined by the order of the reset process.
B. S/H Circuit
The S/H circuit samples the analog input signal in thesampling phase of the SAR ADC, and then holds this signalin the capacitor array for the succeeding bit conversions. TheS/H circuit is composed of sampling switches (SIN) and acapacitor array, which is integrated into the DAC. Fig.10shows a 3-bit capacitive DAC with an embedded S/H circuit.
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Digital-to-Analog Converter
Due to several advantages, such as lower power consumption and better device matching, capacitive DACs have become more common in recent years. By switching its reference switches, the DAC generates voltage levels to comparator in bit-conversion phases. The 3-bit DAC shown in Fig. 10consists of a capacitor array (Ci,i = 0–3) and reference switches (SiR, i = 0–3), which select reference voltages among VREFP, VREFN, and VCM.
1) Design Considerations: There exist three main concerns in designing the DAC, namely, the gain error, in complete settling, and capacitor mismatch. However, capacitor mismatch is strongly related to the physical design.
2) Incomplete Settling: Too slow settling behavior leads to an imprecise voltage level and thus an incorrect decision at the next comparison phase [29].Moreover, in complete settling is generated using an improperly sized reference switch without considering parasitic capacitors. Incomplete settling leads to differential nonlinearity (DNL) and integral nonlinearity (INL) errors.
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Figure- DAC provides different voltage levels on the top plate during bit conversion.
a) Initial input test signals for testing the reference switch without considering the gain error. (b) Example of the adjustment of (MSB−1) the input test signal by considering the gainerror. To enhance accuracy, these parasitic capacitors induced by the comparator and sampling switch should be included in the simulations during sizing reference switches. Thus, the DAC should be sized after the comparator and the S/H circuit has been sized.
After the gain error is obtained, the input signal swing is adjusted to size the reference switches. Reference switches select reference voltages, and is controlled by the SAR control logic to perform the search algorithm.DAC incomplete settling happens if the transistor width of the switch is too small or large because of large ON-resistance or large intrinsic parasitic capacitors. Besides, Cp Bi slows down the settling speed, since it increases loading on the reference switches. The reference switches are sized un derthese considerations.
Design Methodology (SWR): The proposed reference switches (SWR) sizing methodology optimizes the power and area of the DAC. There are also some implementation techniques in this section, which reduce the simulation time and enhance accuracy. A DAC has to generate the correct voltage level for comparison within the given settling time for each bit k. Hence, our target is to determine the proper size of reference switch SkR one by one such that it can completely settle in the given settling time.
The voltage change on the top plates of the DACp and DACn must be measured after SkR switching (denoted by _Vktop). _Vktop is equal to (V ktop –VktopN)−(VtopP,sample − VtopN, sample), where VtopP,sample−VtopN, sample and V ktop –VktopN are the differential
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voltages of the DAC at the end of the sampling phase and after SkR switching, respectively.
To check whether SkR completely settles in the given time, our method enters critical input test stimuli [see Fig. 3.14 (a)] to the ADC. At first, the value of V ktop − V ktopN is positive, but becomes negative with a small difference in VLSB (i.e., −VLSB However, as shown in Fig. 3.14(b), _V ktop decreases from _Vktop,Mto _V ktop,MG due to the gain error, where_Vktop,M= (1−2k−N )×VFS if the binary-weighted capacitor array is used. _VkGerr is the voltage difference between_Vktop,Mand _V ktop,MG. The expected zero crossing would not happen if |_VkGerr| is larger than VLSB. To resolve this problem, the critical input test stimulus must be reduced by the value of _VkGerr. Step 2: Input the stimulus obtained from Step 1, and check the settling behavior. The width of SkR is gradually increased until its settling behavior is acceptable, where k is from N − 1 to 1 (i.e., MSB−1 to LSB). SAR Control Logic In comparison with analog circuits, digital circuits are usually seen as the easier part of sizing. Fixed-size transistors may satisfy the function, but it may also result in poor speed performance or inferior power efficiency. Moreover, the power consumption and the occupied area of the control circuit might become the major part as the analog circuits are optimized. In this tool, SAR modifies the size of the logic www.ijmer.in 21 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 gates in eachiteration of CMP and SWR to provide the suitable driving strength for the new loadings. Implementation in mentor graphics Figure- Double tail Comparator schematic design Figure- SAR ADC Circuit Figure- Voltage and power wave form www.ijmer.in 22 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Figure- Input and output waves with clock cycle Figure- Frequency Figure- Comparator noise Conclusion Comparator is one of the fundamental building blocks in most analog-to-digital converters (adcs). Many high speed adcs, such as flash adcs, require high-speed, low power Comparators with small chip area. High-speed comparators in ultra deep sub micrometer (UDSM) CMOS technologies Suffer from low supply voltages especially when www.ijmer.in 23 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 considering the fact that threshold voltages of the devices have not been scaled at the same pace as the supply voltages of the Modern CMOS processes. The proposed design flow and the search procedure result in fast search speed and good performance. The proposed methodology is not limited to a single-circuit structure; rather, it can be applied to various comparator structures and DAC-switching schemes. Here presented a comprehensive delay analysis for clocked dynamic comparators. Two common structures of conventional dynamic comparator and conventional double-tail dynamic comparators were analyzed. Also, a new dynamic comparator with low-voltage low- power capability was proposed in order to improve the performance of the comparator. Post-layout simulation results in 0.13μm CMOS technology confirmed that the delay of the proposed comparator is reduced to a great extent in comparison with the conventional dynamic comparator and double-tail comparator. From simulation results shows that proposed comparator gives less delay compared to conventional comparators. In the future by using Auto zeroing techniques one can reduce power consumption and noise response. By reducing the size of each transistor one can get less power dissipation, high speed, matching accuracy. References [1] B. Murmann. ADC Performance Survey 1997–2015. [Online]. Available: http://www.stanford.edu/~murmann/adcsurvey.html, accessed Jun. 2015. [2] F. A. E. Rocha, R. M. F. Martins, N. C. C. Lourenço, and N. C. G. Horta, “State-of-the-art on automatic analog IC sizing,” in Electronic Design Automation of Analog ICs Combining Gradient Models With Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag, 2014. www.ijmer.in 24 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 [3] S.-W. M. Chen and R. W. Brodersen, “A 6-bit 600-MS/s 5.3-mW asynchronous ADC in 0.13-μm CMOS,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 41, no. 12, pp. 2669–2680, Dec. 2006. [4] W.-Y. Pang, C.-S.Wang, Y.-K.Chang, N.-K.Chou, and C.-K. Wang, “A 10-bit 500-KS/s low power SAR ADC with splitting comparator for bio-medical applications,” in Proc. IEEE A-SSCC, Nov. 2009, pp. 149–152. [5] C.-C. Liu, S.-J.Chang, G.-Y.Huang, and Y.-Z. Lin, “A 10-bit 50-MS/s SAR ADC with a monotonic capacitor switching procedure,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 731–740, Apr. 2010. [6] V. Hariprasath, J. Guerber, S.-H.Lee, and U.-K. Moon, “Merged capacitor switching based SAR ADC with highest switching energy efficiency,” Electron. Lett., vol. 46, no. 9, pp. 620–621, Apr. 2010. [7] G.-Y. Huang, S.-J.Chang, C.-C.Liu, and Y.-Z. Lin, “10-bit 30-MS/s SAR ADC using a switchback switching method,” IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst., vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 584–588, Mar. 2013. [8] C.-P. Huang, S.-J.Chang, G.-Y.Huang, and C.-W. Lin, “A powerefficientsizing methodology of SAR ADCs,” in Proc. IEEE ISCAS, May 2012, pp. 365–368. www.ijmer.in 25 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Author’s Bibliography S.V.K.SAI PRATYUSHA, Pursuing Masters in VLSI Design from Sanketika vidya parishad engineering college , Affiliated to Andhra University Visakhapatnam. CH. SUDEEPTI is currently working as Assistant professor in Electronics and communication engineering department in Sanketika vidya parishad engineering college , affiliated to Andhra university , Visakhapatnam.She did her master’s from ANITS college, Visakhapatnam. www.ijmer.in 26 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 P.S.N BHASKAR received his M.Tech in VLSI from the Andhra University and is working as Asst.professor in the Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering in S V P Engineering College (Alwardas Group) in Visakhapatnam. He has a vast 16 years teaching experience. He is a Life member of IRED, SDIWC, SCIEI, WAYS, ISEIS , EA, IAENG, ISQEM, ISDS, and MISTE. His prime area of interest is on “Floor planning of algorithm Techniques” in VLSI design”. www.ijmer.in 27 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 POLITICAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA:POTENTIALS AND CHALLENGES Neville D'Cunha Professor of Social Sciences Universal Tutorials Navi Mumbai Introduction The continent of Africa is the second largest continent in the world after Asia. The total size of the continent is approximately 11.60 million square miles with a population of 1.257 billion as of 2017. In fact, Africa has fifty-four different States, recognized by the United Nations. On the whole, Africa has lagged far behind the rest of the world in terms of both political and socioeconomic development. Making matters worse, Africa's place in the global economy has been eroded, with declining export shares in traditional primary products, little diversification into new line of businesses, and massive capital flight and loss of skills to other regions. Now the Continent stands in danger of being excluded from the information revolution sweeping the world. The most ancient Continent in the second decade of the 21st Century holds the dubious distinction of having many of the world's poorest countries. In many of these countries, the average per capita is lower than at the end of the 1960s. Incomes, assets and access to essential services are unequally distributed and the region contains a growing share of the world's absolute poor, who have little power to influence the allocation of resources. Moreover, many development problems have become largely confined to Africa. They include lagging primary school enrollments, high child mortality, and endemic diseases www.ijmer.in 28 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 - including malaria and HIV/AIDS - that impose costs on Africa at least twice those in any other developing region. These poor socioeconomic experiences have been accompanied by severe political instabilities, deadly civil wars, and violent excesses on an appalling scale. One African in five lives in countries severely disrupted by conflict. The misery that affects vast parts of Africa seems never ending and beyond comprehension. The objective of this short article is to give a brief understanding of African political and socioeconomic challenges and potentials in a highly competitive cutthroat globalizing flat world. Political and Socioeconomic Status of Africa Today Recent experiences have shown that Africa is one of the most violent regions in the world. The experience of the international community in places like Somalia, Libya, Egypt and Sudan made it clear that breakdown of the State and the fragmentation of civil societies can trigger violent conflicts or make them insoluble. Yet, many African countries have made important economic reforms, improving microeconomic management, liberalizing markets and trades, and widening the space for private sector activities. Even as parts of the region are making headlines with wars, genocides and human-made ecological disasters, and other parts are making headway with rising interest from domestic and foreign businesses and higher investments. But the political responses has not been sufficient to overcome years of falling incomes or to reverse other adverse legacies from the long period of economic decline - including deteriorated capacity, weakened institutions, and inadequate infrastructure. Major changes are needed if Africans are to make an impact on the world stage. With the region's rapidly growing population, 5 percent annual growth is needed simply to keep the number of poor from rising. Halving severe poverty by 2025 will require innovative political visions, sustained annual growth of more than 7 percent, along with a more www.ijmer.in 29 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 equitable distribution of incomes. Moreover, Africa will not be able to sustain rapid growth without investing in its people. Many lack the health, education and access to inputs needed to contribute and benefit from high growth. Women and children are the worst affected thus threatening the social fabric in almost all countries. Africa's Potentials and Challenges Africa thus faces an immense, multifaceted development challenges. But the new millennium offers a window of opportunities to reverse the marginalization of Africa's peoples and of Africa's governments, relative to donors, in the development agenda. Improving governance and resolving conflicts is perhaps the most basic requirement for faster development. Widespread civil conflicts impose enormous costs, including neighbouring countries. Africa's conflicts are driven by poverty, underdevelopment, and lack of economic diversifications, as well as by political systems that marginalize large part of populations. But conflicts perpetuate poverty, creating a vicious circle that can be reversed only through special development efforts - including long-term peace building and political reforms. Investing in people is also essential for accelerated poverty reduction. Many countries are caught in a trap of high fertility and mortality, low education, high dependency ratios, and low savings. In addition, greater political commitment is urgently needed to fight HIV/AIDS scourge that afflicts most parts of the vast continent. Increasing competitiveness and diversifying economies must be the key focus if Africa is to claim the new millennium. Job creation is slow not because of labour market rigidities but because of the high perceived risks and costs of doing business in Africa. These need to be lowered by improving the pace of reforms and delivering business services more efficiently - with less corruption, better infrastructure and financial services, and increased access to the information economy. Africa trails the world on every dimension of www.ijmer.in 30 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 these essentials. Lowering these barriers require new approaches, including more participation by the private sectors and by local communities, a more regional approach to overcome the problems posed by small African economies and federal governments shift to regulating and facilitating services rather than providing them. Though Africa's agriculture has responded to limited reforms, it remains backward and undercapitalized, the result of policies deliberately aimed at impoverishing its most important sector. The major bottlenecks of agriculture in attaining sustainable levels of growth are based on farming activities. Recapitalizing the sector will require maintaining and improving price incentives, channeling more public spending and foreign aid to rural communities and tapping into the saving potentials of farmers. These changes are also needed to create incentives to reverse severe environmental degradation. Public- private partnerships can make a contribution, especially in agricultural research and extension, where a regional approach would also help. The economic and food problems characterizing under development is a product of both internal and external factors; which aggravated since the latter half of the 20th Century. Food security in Africa has substantially worsened since 1970. A long-term research and analytical perspective reveals malnourished persons in Sub-Saharan Africa stagnating within the 33-35 range. Even more discouraging, the absolute number of malnourished people in Africa has increased substantially with population growth, estimated to over 300 million. The worsening food security situation in Africa makes forecasting based on important scenarios a very important and crucial task. The food security challenges in Africa needs renewed and efficient interventions. Since the late 1960s, Africa's loss of world trade has cost it almost $70 billion a year, reflecting a failure to diversity into new, dynamic products as well as falling market share for traditional goods. www.ijmer.in 31 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Africa's trade reforms have mostly been negotiated with donors as part of adjustment programs. Reforms still need to be embedded in a development strategy that is export oriented, anchored on competitive and stable real exchange rates and enable exporters to access imported inputs at world prices. Reducing aid dependence and strengthening partnerships will have to be an important component of Africa's development strategies. Africa is the world's most aid-dependent and indebted region. Concessional assistance is essential if Africa is to grow rapidly while also increasing consumption to reduce poverty. But aid, particularly when delivered in a weak institutional environment by large numbers of donors with fragmented projects and requirements, can weaken institutional capacity and undermine accountability. The major challenge facing the Continent is its nations dominate the lower reaches of the UN Human Development Index (HDI). Infant mortality is high, while life-expectancy, literacy and education are all low. The UN also lowers the rankings of African states because the Continent sees greater inequality than any other region. Recurrent catastrophes of different kinds have caused deadly periods of great shortages. The most damaging are the famines that have regularly hit the Continent, especially the Horn of Africa. These have been caused by disruptions due to warfare, years of drought, and plagues of locusts. Most African states saw inflation of around 10 percent per year. The nature and determinants of underdevelopment of Africa are the impact of globalization including the debt crisis on the Continent and challenges of economic growth from other regions. Increased level of conflicts for scarce resources is making the region a hotbed of human misery. Environmental issues are reaching unsustainable levels. There is rapid spread of deserts by an average of 100 kilometers in the last 40 years, a loss of almost 12 percent forest cover in the last 15 years and to make matter worse, overgrazing www.ijmer.in 32 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 damaging fragile soil. Ignoring these environmental issues will ensure that some political and socioeconomic problems remain unsolvable and even likely to worsen, as environmental degrading mounts with rapid population increase detrimental to development. The employment scenario is also showing dismal performance. Africa has slightly reduced its unemployment rate but not enough to improve its high incidence of working poverty. In addition, the HIV/AIDS pandemic is placing enormous pressure on the quality of the labour markets. This, together with the continuing 'brain-drain' is depriving the region of much needed human capital. Skeptics are predicting that Africa is a long-way from meeting its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Conclusion The quest for an African model of development should start from the historical influences during the colonial period. The European colonialism experience had a significant impact on the political and socioeconomic development of the Continent resulting in the predominance of illegitimate states and institutional structures. State- building and socioeconomic development are twin goals and intimately related tasks, sharing many of the same problems, confronting many of the same challenges, and interrelating at many levels of public policy and practice. Post-independent African countries under African leaderships are yet to show the resilience to be innovative and use local genius to solve developmental problems. The ideologies that influence the political, social and economic establishments are not conducive for transforming the nations that are desperately in need of progressive ideas. To empower their citizens African countries should take concerted programs to acquire the institutions, infrastructure, economy, and social cohesion of more advanced nations. www.ijmer.in 33 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 It would seem that the future of Africa is dependent on two important factors, one socioeconomic and the other political, and they are interlinked. First, there must be significant investments in rural development and physical infrastructures necessary to support that development. Second, creating sound political institutional structures for constraining the ruling elites. This system need to be democratic and pluralistic. That is, the ruling elites must be subject to political competition, transparency and accountability such that the pursuit of socioeconomic development is perceived as the best means toward maintaining authority. The challenge pose an insurmountable barrier to future socioeconomic development but the potentials that Africa as a whole holds can enable it to surmount all these challenges. References Friedman, Thomas (2005) The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the 21st Century. England: George Allen. Grabowski, Richard, Sharmistha Self & Michael P. Shields (2005) Economic Development: A Regional, Institutional and Historical Approach. New York: M.E. Sharpe. Jochen Hippler (Ed.) Trans. Barry Stone (2005) Nation-Building: A Key Concept for Peaceful Conflict Transformation. London: Pluto Press. Nair, Reji D. (2009) Emerging Africa, Potentials and Challenges: Africa in the New Millennium. New Delhi: Concept Wilson, Amos (2014) Blueprint for Black Power: A Moral, Political and Economic Imperative for the Twenty-First Century. New York: Afrikan World InfoSystems. www.ijmer.in 34 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 DOES MEDIA INSTIGATE SEXUAL VIOLENCE? Puja Raj M.Phil Research Scholar Department of Philosophy University of Delhi, Delhi, India Abstract In the progressive world of digital technology, mass media and communication, it is very challenging to establish moral and ethical values. Media influence society as much as society reflects media content. Any crime and violence are now being linked up with the role of media, as media is the flag-bearer of information in the society. However, there is no direct-harm link between media content and violence in society. My paper is to contend that media alone does not stand culpable for what happens in society or otherwise. Keywords: - Sexual Violence, Sex and Violence, Human Behavior, Pornography, Media, Moral Responsibility. 1. Introduction From western societies to eastern societies, from early media to contemporary one, it is the portrayal of sexual violence which has been one of the important issues which have received the greatest attention and created the greatest controversy. These controversies are primarily based on two assumptions: either portrayal of sexual activities or sexual exposure in media instigates societal violence and crime, or it demeans and degrades the social and ethical values. Based on these assumptions, government or state intervenes and imposes censorship on films, TV shows, books, music, news and other media. There have been claims that with increasing number and exposure of media sources and their accessibility, the representation of sexual exposure and issues related to sexual violence have become more prominent nowadays. Thereby, it has been argued by some thinkers that it leads to an increase in the number of crimes in www.ijmer.in 35 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 society. On the basis of these claims, media have already been blamed and found responsible for instigating violence in society. However, there is a crucial distinction between ‘sexual violence’ and ‘depiction of sexual violence’. According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, one of the primal risk factors for sexual violence is ‘exposure to sexually explicit media’.1 What is amiss in blaming media as one of the sole reasons for increasing number of sexual crimes is that whatever media presents as sexual violence is the only depiction of sexual violence. The blame should rather lie upon the interpretation of that portrayal. This paper is an attempt to unfold and uphold the various researches done on media and its influence on society, especially with regard to sex and violence. Although many researchers have come up with different results against media being one of the reasons behind societal crimes, nevertheless there has been no definite link or evidence between watching a particular film and carrying out a particular act out of it. Many researchers have claimed that the representation of sexual violence in media is a mere reflection of society. Despite having the claim of contributing to crime, the representation of sexual violence in films has also grasped the attention of religious groups as ‘Blasphemy’, ‘Indecency’, ‘Obscenity’ and, ‘Profanity’ (by using vulgar language). However, with some pieces of evidence, the representation of sex or violence in media could be regarded as liberating rather than corrupting. Television, films, and the internet aren't the only way one encounters sex and violence but seem convenient enough to blame for. That's where it prompts questions like: "Were there murders before television existed? Was there child abuse when there were no daily 1 Centers For Disease Control and Prevention; (https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/riskprotectivefactors.h tml ) Accessed on 09-03-2017 www.ijmer.in 36 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 newspapers?"2 The answer, evidently, seems to assert the situation with YES. The debate revolves around the idea whether the representation of Sex and Violence in media is a mere reflection of society or is it Sex and Violence in media which influence the society towards its imitation. Analogously, we land up with the dilemma of the chicken and the Egg. 2. Sex And Sexuality In Media The representation of sex and sexuality is one of the most controversial issues in media ethics. With regard to sex and sexuality represented in media, there have been certain reactions by society and the state: a) Most people claimed to feel embarrassed or offended. b) Some claimed it to be demeaning and degrading. c) Others claim it as a harm or threat to society, particularly to the behavior of vulnerable ones. d) Also, the representation of explicit sexual act is regarded as ‘immoral'. However, these claims stand frail to blame Media as solely responsible for instigating sexual crimes such as rape or adultery. Firstly, if someone is being embarrassed or offended by certain sexual content presented in media, it cannot be a vigorous reason against the media content unless it is there without the consent of the person involved. For instance, sexual videos of someone's private moments going viral is a case of embarrassment. Secondly, about sexual content being demeaning, to this Matthew Kieran says, "What constitutes the degradation is the delight taken in another person merely as a sexual object... that treating others merely as a sexual object is fundamentally dehumanizing."3 In this case, most are treated as a mere sexual object which allure the viewers and thus distort their individual value. This 2Gordon, A. David, John Michael Kittross, John C. Merrill, Carol Reuss, Controversies in Media Ethics, New York, Addison-Wesley Longman Educational Publishers, 1998, page 183 3 Kieran, Matthew; Media Ethics: A Philosophical Approach; London; Praeger Publishers; 1997; page -88 www.ijmer.in 37 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 emphasizes the ‘interpretation' of the portrayal of sex and sexuality in media. Hence, media content itself cannot be culpable, rather the interpretation of it can be. Thirdly, regarding causing harm and threat to society, representation of sexual content in media on its own cannot be blamed; rather the portrayal of it in a violent and sadistic form (like in SOME videos of pornography) is blameworthy. However, the pornography itself is not wrong but the wrong way (sadistic and violent) of it portrayal is. As mentioned by Matthew Kieran, “Andrea Dworkin claims that ‘pornography...’ to an extent ‘...functions to perpetuate male supremacy and crimes of violence against women, to use women, to hurt women.”4 But there comes the fact about Human Psychology and the way one receives media contents. According to Matthew Kieran, “For it to be true that exposure to pornography inevitably leads to sexually motivated and harmful behavior, it must be true that we necessarily imitate the behavior of what we are most frequently exposed to. But what fundamentally distinguishes humans from animals is our self-consciousness.”5 On this very basis of rationality and self-consciousness, human beings are presumed to be superior to animals. And thus media itself cannot be solely responsible for sexual crimes in society. And lastly, if we are to believe that the representation of sexual act is regarded as immoral, then sexual act in normal circumstances would also be held immoral. Moreover, the portrayal of sexual content in any form, be it sculpture, literature, music, images, verbal-sex and more particularly in human behavior and sexual instincts would also be undertaken as immoral. After all, human behavior is bound to get attracted towards sexual acts. Thus, media alone cannot be held blameable for sexual crimes in society. However, it is hard not to believe that media, to an extent, does shape the execution of some actions. Nevertheless, there has to have certain instinct or aggression in one's subconscious mind pertaining to 4 Ibid, Page-89 5 Ibid, Page- 89 www.ijmer.in 38 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 some behavior to instigate the crime. Likewise, to learn how to dance, or how to play an instrument, one has to have ‘pre-formed or natural taste and capability' to learn the ability, which plays an important role in life. Also, in case of alcohol, drinking alcohol as such is not immoral, but being outrageous and committing crime and violence in the flow of that, is. Representation of sex and sexuality in media, in some cases, might help in shaping the imitation of the act but does not certainly leads to harmful effects. Instead, in certain cases, “Sexually explicit material might liberate the sexually repressed and thus enhance the lives of many.”6 Some researchers have regarded the attitude to sexual conduct induced by sexual content presented in media as enlightening rather than mortifying. There is a common thinking that ‘proliferation of pornographic images leads to an increase in the real incidence of such actions’. But what is overlooked here is that there were as number of crimes in early days as now, but media being uncommon in those days, the news about those real incidents and crimes were unnoticed and unidentified. Thus, there is no direct-harm link between ‘what we watch’ and ‘how we act’ in case of the representation of sex and sexuality in media. To this Matthew Kieran says, Hence even if we judge we have reason to do something because we watched a certain program, the responsibility for what we do lies with us and not the television program. The mere representation of females or sex or the discussion of sexuality may be blamed by some for playing a causal role in sexual crimes. But this may be a reflection of the criminal's disturbed state rather than the harmful nature of sexual representation, whether they be pornography, sex manuals, commercials, safe-sex posters, nude portraits or classical sculptures.7 6 Ibid, Page- 92 7 Ibid, Page-90 www.ijmer.in 39 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 However, media, to an extent, are liable for their content and the way they portray sexuality and contents related to that. Although there is no direct-harm link between the representations of sexual acts in media and crimes in the society, there is, indeed, a subtle link between them. It might embrace a problematic attitude towards the opposite sex. A sense of inferiority, lust, disgrace and the acceptance of stereotypical roles might be cultivated, especially towards women by the representation of such sexual contents in media. 2.1 Sex As Taboo As in India, sex is taboo outside marriage and before marriage. The institution of marriage has been established as to officially give permission and also an enforcement to get involved in sexual activities primarily for reproduction. Whether it is the depiction of sexual activities in media or reality, it is presumed not to be discussed. Hence, censorship is more attentive toward the sexual contents in media than to violence. For example, movie ‘Bandit Queen' (1994) was banned by Censorship board of India because this movie presented explicit sexual contents; whereas ‘Gangs of Wasseypur’ (2012) got the consent of censor board. Presumed claims, entail that the representation of sex and sexuality in media is one of the reasons for an increase in sexual violence in the society like rape, molestations, marital rape, and physical abuse etc. Like in the several rape cases, reports have come up blaming sexual content shown in movies. However, if in India, where sex is predominantly considered to be a taboo, sexual violence is primarily because of this, then why sexual violence is prevalent in western societies too where the exposure of and discussion over sex and sexuality is not that secreted. Representation of sexual activities and issues related to that in media is not the sole reason behind the sexual crimes in a society and thus banning or restricting sexual activities in media may not be the appropriate solution to minimize these crimes. www.ijmer.in 40 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 2.2 Portrayal Of Sex Sex in media is a common appetite of human lust, and Pornography is one common form. Above all the arguments for or against the depiction of sex and sexuality in media, it is still very prevalent and worldwide because there is a demand for that. The portrayal of Pornography or sexual activities in media are not inherently immoral, rather it is the depraved mentality of people and questionable associations with sex and sexuality which is immoral. ‘Pornography is the portrayal of sexual subject matter for the purpose of sexual arousal.'8 But Media, in order to commercialize sex, established pornography as an "...institute of male dominance that sexualizes hierarchy, objectification, submission, and violence."9 This kind of portrayal of sexuality constitutes sexual inequality. What needs to be blamed is not the representation of sex in media but the portrayal of it in wrong and violent way. According to Matthew Kieran, although pornography is degrading women and their individual values, with increasing number of demands on men's physical appearance, the abuse has not remained confined to the woman, rather it ‘constitute a case of person abuse'. To depict anyone solely as a sexual object is demeaning and distortive. Sex depiction in media or Pornography has also been defended by some as a form of art. From aesthetical standard, sex in media triggers the natural proclivity in human behavior. More specifically in entertainment media such as movies and TV shows, sex and sexuality are used to titillate, allure and arouse the viewers, but in a way, it also educates us or makes us aware of certain facts. Yet, undoubtedly, gratuitous sex would have a flip side as well. Thus there lies some responsibility with media also. 8 Wikipedia, https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pornography ; Accessed on 2017- 03-14. 9 Kieran, Matthew; Media Ethics: A Philosophical Approach; London; Praeger Publishers; 1997; page-95 www.ijmer.in 41 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 2.3 Liability Of Media Media has been given the freedom of expression as the first amendment right. Media, being the vital source of information and one of the key tools of expression, are also legally responsible for their contents. Media- ranging from being a source of entertainment to informative one holds the responsibility to inform or to enlighten the audiences. As a medium of education, media requires to wipe away the false bigotry and presumptions about sex and sexuality and make us aware of the actual understanding and meaning of sexual behavior. The depiction of sex in media can have positive as well as negative effect on sexual knowledge and sexual health. According to Jane D. Brown, "Despite increasing public concern about the potential health risks of early, unprotected sexual activity, most of the mass media rarely depict three C's of responsible sexual behavior: Commitment, Contraceptives, and consideration of Consequences."10 Explicitly, media should take their the liability issue of their contents as their responsibility with freedom. 3. Violence Alike sex, the portrayal of violence is also a staple part of media culture. A number of films, TV shows representing violence are increasing day by day. However, it would be hard and dubious to put forth the same claims and arguments for violence which were made for sex representation in media. Regarding violence in media, libertarian view adheres that violence in media is a mere reflection of the world. It is truly said that ‘violence begets violence'11 but what is shown in entertainment media is the mere portrayal of violence, being different from violence. According to libertarian view, we have a remarkable history of violence, cruelty, 10 Brown, Jane D.; “Mass Media Influence on Sexuality”;2002; Taylor & Francis Ltd., pp 42-45, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3813422 ; Accessed on 10- 03-2017; page-42 11 Kieran, Matthew; Media Ethics, London and New York, Routledge, 1998, page-156 www.ijmer.in 42 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 bloodshed, massacres, and rapes in the world even before media became a tool of information and depiction. The Jewish massacre by Nazis during Second World War, genocide by Pol Pot in Cambodia, bloodshed and violence in Rwanda and many more instances happened beyond and without the representation of violence in media. Hence, the representation of violence in media now can be regarded as a mere reflection of the worldly events. Communitarians disagree with this view of violence as mere reflection and not shaping crimes. Although it is true that there has to have certain liking or instinct in oneself for the proliferation of violence by being influenced by media violence, but some researchers revealed that “media violence increases the likelihood of aggressive and violent behavior in both immediate and long-term contexts.”12 And, later, these aggression leads to physical assaults, spouse abuse, cruelty towards animals and fellow people. According to some research, violence in media mostly triggers the vulnerable mind, specifically children. According to child psychology, most children learn about the social and moral values chiefly by examples and experiences. To this, media representation deepens their imaginative sense of the world, its functionality, and activities. According to Bandura, as mentioned by Patrick Lee Plaisance, children have the natural tendency ‘to imitate whomever they observe.’13 Thereby, when children observe certain form of violent actions in media, they presume it to be pleasure giving and then imitate it. These kinds of behavior have the potential for aggression which later becomes violent in nature. National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence 12 Anderson, Craig A., Leonard Berkowitz, Edward Donnerstein, L. Rowell Huesmann, James D. Johnson, Daniel Linz, Neil M. Malamuth and Ellen Wartella; “The Influence of Media violence on Youth, 2003, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40059680 , pp. 81-110; Accessed on 27-02-2017 , page no.-81 13 Wilkins, Lee and Clifford G. Christians, The Handbook of Mass Media Ethics, 2015, New York and London, Routledge Publishers, Page no.-165 www.ijmer.in 43 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 advised that violence in media can and does have a harmful effect on the viewers. However, they put blame directly to the media itself instead of its portrayal. Frequent childhood exposure to media violence does have a long-term effect on behavior. It may lead to Desensitization (reducing individual's normal negative responses to violence), acute inclination toward violent acts, negative and aggressive behavior toward others. However, media solely cannot be blamed for this, as this aggression of violence is also a result of Lack of parental supervisions, personality differences, violent parental roles, weak attachment to family and schooling, social environment and upbringing, etc. Yet, most certainly, not all these cases modify itself in form of violence in society. Although it does bring certain behavioural change in one's attitude but not positively instigate the crime. 3.1 Violence In Video Games And Cartoons Interestingly, the depiction of violence does hold certain fancy and thus has been exposed to almost every age group in the form of entertainment. Cartoons and games, more specifically Video games are the trends of childhood now. Children of age group 3-9 are most exposed to the cartoons. However, Cartoons, nowadays, has not been remained untouched from violence. Also, most popular video games are violence- centric which stresses upon killing as winning. When one loses in games, they feel disturbed and aggressive. In addition to that, when children spend a large amount of time playing these violent games, they implicate those action as real. However, according to new research at The University of Texas at Austin, despite all the aggression it causes, even children can distinguish between the cartoons as a fantasy from reality 14. 14 the University of Texas News; (https://news.utexas.edu/2006/11/27/psychology ) ; Accessed on 11-03-2017 www.ijmer.in 44 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 3.2 Violence In News And Entertainment Media Frequent exposure to violence in the name of news and entertainment has either turned to desensitize the viewers or to make them even more aware (both in negative and positive terms). According to Matthew Kieran, a lot of bloodsheds, gun-shots, killing, kidnapping and other violent scenes may trigger the viewers to cultivate proclivity to violence but made them passive to respond to its practice. Also, in some cases, showing violence and horrors of past may provide people with an awareness of what has happened in history. Moreover, on one hand, some people enjoy violent films and still not get instigated to violence. On the other, some people, even by seeing violence-related awareness programs (e.g., Savdhaan India, Crime Patrol) get new ways of criminal behavior. Moreover, there is a plausible chance of people getting enlightened or aware about some events through violence in news or T.V or films. Some people get more sensitized toward the cruelty in the world and become more humane. Yet, there is also a chance of people becoming inhumane. Hence, it would be inappropriate to generalize the case and blame media representation of sex and violence as the sole culprit for the crime in society. Violence can be shown in the form of natural disasters, animal's repulsiveness against human intervention in the forest, paranormal activities, and fear, alien's invasion on earth, upcoming natural catastrophes due to climate change etc. But most certainly these kinds of violence cannot be performed by an individual to raise crime in society. Thus, the definition of violence as presented by society to instigate crime is hard to pin down. However, the culpability depends on the interpretation of the portrayal or representation of media content. 4. Conclusion It is dubious to claim media as a passive participant in influencing the society toward sex and violence, but it is even improper to blame it solely. www.ijmer.in 45 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Yet with emerging accessibility of media, any news or updates regarding crime and violence can be noticed, covered and publicized soon enough, which induces us to think that crime and violence are gradually increasing. Human moral nature is in the continuous process of development, and thus it embraces the ability to analyze, rationalize, investigate and distinguish. However, ethical values in media compel it to be more responsible toward the portrayal of sex and violence as it should not dehumanize or degrade the individual value by treating someone as mere means rather than end in itself. Also regarding the influence of sex and violence in media on children and vulnerable ones, I believe, there should be monitored and guided parental supervision as it can help to reduce the effect of media violence. Educating and talking to children about media and it's adverse as well as favourable effects would also be beneficial. My paper, to an extent, tried to untie the blameworthy notion pertained to the representation of sex and violence in media. As the representation does not wholly inhere in the reality of the world, the impact of such media contents depends on the interpretation of the representation. ------ References A. David Gordon, John Michael Kittross, John C. Merrill, Carol Reuss. Controversies in Media Ethics. 2nd. Edited by Donna Erickson. New York: Addison-Wesley Longman Educational Publishers Inc., 1999. Brown, Jane D. "Mass Media Influence on Sexuality." Taylor & Francis ltd, 2002: 42-45. Craig A. Anderson, Leonard Berkowitz, Edward Donnerstein, L. Rowell Huesmann, James D. Johnson, Daniel Linz, Neil M. Malamuth and www.ijmer.in 46 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Ellen Wartella. "The Influence of Media Violence on Youth." Association for Psychological Science, 2003: 81-110. Kieran, Matthew. Media Ethics. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. —. Media Ethics: A Philosophical Approach. London: Praeger Publishers, 1997. Plaisance, Patrick Lee. "Violence." In Tha Handbook of Mass Media Ethics, by Lee Wilkins and Clifford G. Christians, 162-176. New York and London: Routledge Publishers, 2015. Wikipedia. Wikipedia. 3 14, 2017. https://en.m.wikipedia.o rg/wiki/Porno graphy (accessed 3 14, 2017). www.ijmer.in 47 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 CATTLE AND CAMEL PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN FAFEN ZONE OF SOMALI REGIONAL STATE: THE OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENHANCING AGRO-PASTORALIST LIVELIHOODS AND THE CONSTRAINTS THEREOF Abreham Mengistu Lecturer Department of Economics Arsi University, Ethiopia Abstract Ethiopia ranks top of the list of African countries with a large livestock population. When compared to the large number of livestock population Ethiopia as a country or Ethiopian Somali as a region has, the contribution of the livestock sector to the economy falls yet short of its potential. To this, two recurrent complaints are commonly heard. The first is that peasants or Agro- pastoralists invariably complain that every year is a bad year to them. The second is that governments complain that Agro-pastoralists are not responsive to price or market incentives, to opportunities to adopt new technologies and modernization. With this backdrop, the cattle and camel production and marketing structures in Babile, Gursum and Jigjiga Woredas of Fafen Zone are scrutinizedwith the aid of both simple descriptive statistics and econometric techniques. The findings indicate that livestock productivity and take off are one of the lowest and factors like household size, alternative income sources, distance to marketing places, type of herd owned and household’s involvement in farming and trade activities have a significant effect on camel and cattle marketing. Small herd size, feed shortage, insufficient health care services, illegal trade and subsistence orientation are among the factors hindering production and take off whilst suitable land for forage production, the rapid rate of urbanization and proximity to the export markets are the opportunities to capitalize on. Key Words: Agro-pastoralists, Livestock, Production, Marketing, Fafen Zone www.ijmer.in 48 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 1. Introduction Ethiopia ranks top of the list of African countries with a large livestock population. There are 41.1 million heads of cattle, 23.6 million sheep, 18.6 million goats, 0.62 million camels, 34.2 million chicken, 1.7 million horses, 4.5 million donkeys, 0.33 million mules. Regionally, the Ethiopian Somali Regional State (ESRS) is among the high livestock resource potential areas in the country. Livestock rearing or Pastoralism is the dominant indispensable practice followed by little mixed farming in the higher altitude and valley areas of the region. Among the total livestock population, 40% of the cattle, 75% of the goat, 25% of the sheep, 20% of the equines and 99% of the camel population of the country are raised in the lowland areas of Somali region (CSA, 2010). Livestock continues to be a significant contributor to economic and social development in Ethiopia at both the household and national levels. At a national level, it contributes a significant amount to export earnings in the formal market (10 percent of all formal export earnings, or US$ 150 million per annum) and the informal market (perhaps US$ 300 million per annum). Moreover, livestock accounts for 15 to 17 percent of total GDP, and 35 to 49 percent of agricultural GDP. At the household level, livestock contributes to the livelihood of approximately 70 percent of Ethiopians. Livestock offers a particular package of benefits to pastoralists, for whom few alternative livelihoods exist (Ayele et al, 2010). In addition to the direct income benefits, livestock provides indirect benefits, including cash storage for those beyond the reach of the banking system, draught and pack services, milk and meat for household consumption, and manure for fuel and fertilizer. In addition to these non-market values, a thriving informal export trade in live animals further emphasizes the significance, albeit unrecognized by official statistics, of livestock (and particularly cattle) in the Ethiopian economy. This importance is pronounced in pastoral regions, and women’s crucial role is widely acknowledged: both directly in primary production, and indirectly through the contribution of livestock to household assets and food security (Belay, 2013). When compared to the large number of livestock population Ethiopia as a country or Somali as a region has, the contribution of the sector to www.ijmer.in 49 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 the economy falls yet short of its potential. This partly is the result of the resistant traditional culture of the pastoral community. Instead of converting cattle and camel asset in to cash, pastorals prefer to increase their number of herds as this is sought to be a source of honor and prestige. Thus, their livestock would likely perish when nature turns to be bad. The other reason goes to illegal cross boundary merchants and brokers as a result of which the nation loses a reasonable amount of income from the sector. Moreover, there are hardly any horizontally and vertically integrated centers of cattle and camel production and marketing in the country. So far the national development strategies of improving livelihoods is concerned, two recurrent complaints are commonly heard in societies with large pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. The first is that peasants or pastoralists invariably complain that every year is a bad year to them: every year is characterized either by labour bottlenecks if the weather is good or by food shortage if it is bad.The second is that governments complain that peasants are not responsive to price incentives,to opportunities to adopt new technologies and modernization (Sadoulet et al, 1991).If peasants are always pressed by labor or food shortage and thus, lead a life of instability in work and consumption, why do they then appear to governments as sluggish and unresponsive to incentives, research and development spillovers, and modernization opportunities?These two leitmotifs together with the hardly any up-to-date researches conducted in the region motivate this study. 2. 0bjectives Of The Study This study generally scrutinized the cattle and camel production andmarketing systems of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in Fafen Zone of the Ethiopian Somali Regional State. Specifically, the study aims at Assessing the current status of camel and cattle production and marketing Identifying the opportunities for scaling-up some selected livestock products Identifying factors affecting cattle and camel production and marketing schemes www.ijmer.in 50 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 3. Methods And Methodology 3.1. Description of the Study Areas Ethiopian Somali Region, being the second largest region in Ethiopia and being bordered by Djibouti in the north, Somalia in the east and north-east, Kenya in the south, Oromiya Region in the west and Afar Region in the north-west, has nine administrative zones: Fafen, Sitti, Nogob, Jarrar, Korahe, Dollo, Shabelle, Afder and Liban. Of these zones, the study areas are three Woredas(namely Gursum, Jigjiga and Babile ) of Fafen (formerly Jigjiga) Zone (see Figure 1.1 for the details). Figure 1.1: Study areas (Source: SC-UK, 2007) Encompassing eight Woredas, Fafan zone’s altitude ranges from 1500 to 1700 m.a.s.l. and receives an annual rainfall that varies from 500 to 700 mm. The area experiences bimodal type of rainfall classified as small and main rain seasons, the short rain season usually occurs from July to September and the main rain season occurs from March to April (JZOA, 2001as cited in IPS). As IPS (2002) reported there is no systematically recorded data on the overall rainfall of the low lying parts of the region. Different reports indicate that the rainfall condition in the region has been generally low, unreliable and unevenly distributed.The mean monthly minimum temperature varies from 5.8oC in November to 14oc in July to September and mean monthly maximum temperature varies from 25oC in July to 29oC in March to April. Frost hazard exists above 1400m www.ijmer.in 51 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 elevations from October to January and Causes considerable crop damage above 1800m. 3.2. Source and Study Population All households in the study area are taken as the source population. The study population consists of those households who are sampled from the source population fulfilling the inclusion criteria. 3.2.1. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Only household heads are included in the study. Other members of households are excluded so as to do away with the possibilities of receivingof wrong answers. 3.3. Data and Methods of Data Collection In this, sub-section, source and type of data, the sampling procedures, data management and data analysis techniques are presented. 3.3.1. Data Type and Data Source The studyemploys both primary and seconday data sets. The primary data are collected through field observations,self administered questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGDs) and Key Informant Interview (KII).The secondary dataare obtained from the Livestock, Cop and Rural Development Bureau of ESRS, the Central Statistical Agency and the Ethiopian Customs Authority. 3.3.2. Study Design and Sampling Procedure A cross-sectional study design is employed for conducting the study. In the design, Group discussion was made with key informants such as elders and experts. The information generated was used for the preparation and development of a questionnaire for a formal survey. The questionnaire was pre-tested and modified as necessary. Finally, the formal survey was conducted by trained enumerators under close supervision and participation of the researchers. During the formal survey, all the required data were collected for the period 2014. Preliminary survey was conducted in the rural kebeles in order to obtain the total number of households that have cattle and/or camels). Five kebeles that have potential for marketing and production, i.e. Harores, Hadow, Lemadega, Fafen and Dhandhamawere selected using www.ijmer.in 52 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 purposive samplingprocedure. The number of farmers from each rural kebele was determined usingProportional Probability to Size (PPS) approach. The overall sample size is determined by using proportional sample size determinationtechnique since it was so difficult to obtain the total number of agro-pastoralist households from the woredas included in the study. This technique requires determining population proportion (π) through pilot study. For this reason, werandomly selected 20 persons from around Jigjiga woreda for it is true that most of the study population dwells in this woreda as compared to other woredas of our study sitesand asked them whether they frequently produce and market cattle and camel.45 percent of them replied that they produce and market cattle and camel frequently, and thus the population proportion (π) is 0 .45.Once this figure is obtained, the sample size (n) is determinedto be 380 households by the following formula as π(1 − π)z n = D . 45(1 − .45)(1.96) n = = 380.318 (0. 05) Where, Precision level or D= ±0.05 Population proportion or π= 0.45 Confidence level= 95% Z value associated with the confidence level= 1.96 3.3.3. Data Management Questionnaires are checked for completeness and consistency. They are then classified as unfilled, partially incomplete, item missed and complete. Totally unfilled and partially filled formats are excluded from the analysis. Only fully filled questionnaires are used for analysis. To cross-check that participants are giving a representative and socially acceptable responses, FGDs of groups of participants who do not participate in the questionnaire are turned to while feeding the data to packages. www.ijmer.in 53 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 3.4. Data Analysis Procedures The collected data are analyzed using both simple descriptive and econometric techniques. The primary data gathered with the help of questionnaire is analyzed using logistic regression with the help of STATA while the data obtained from FDGs and KIIs are thematically presented. The secondary data are presented using tables and figures. 3.4.1. The Econometric Model The logit model is used to identify the factors that affect market participation. The proposed factors were household size, herd size, market price, distance to markets, alternative income In a logit model, the discrete dependent variable (Y) will assume only two values 0 and 1: Y= 1 if the ith household is participating in selling camel and cattle 0 if the ithhousehold is not participating in selling camel and cattle In terms of probability, a class of binary response models can take the form PXG(Y 1 ) (0 1 X 1 2 X 2 .... k X k ) G (X )...... (1.12) where Gis a function taking on values strictly between zero and one: 0G (z) 1, for all real numbers z. This ensures that the estimated response probabilities are strictly between zero and one. and . X 0 1 X 1 2 X 2 .... k X k Various nonlinear functions have been suggested for the function G in order to make sure that the probabilities are between zero and one. In the logit model, G is the logistic function: eX G(z) exp(z)/[1 exp(z)] (z) ...... (1.13) 1eX which is between zero and one for all real numbers z. This is the cumulative distribution function (cdf) for a standard logistic random variable. www.ijmer.in 54 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Here, the response probability PYX( 1 ) is evaluated as: eX PPYX( 1 ) 1 eX Similarly, the non-response probability is evaluated as: eX 1 1PPYX ( 0 ) 1 1eX 1 eX Note that the response and non- response probabilities both lie in the interval [0 , 1] , and hence, are interpretable. For the logit model, the ratio: e X X P PX(Y 1 ) X X X X 1 e e e0 1 1 e2 2 ... e k k 1PPX (Y 0 ) 1 1 e X is the ratio of the odds of Y 1 againstY 0 . The natural logarithm of the odds (log-odds) is: P . Thus, the log-odds is a linear ln 0 1XXX 1 2 2 ... k k 1 P function of the explanatory variables. Given modern computers, from a practical perspective, the most difficult aspect of logit or probit models is presenting and interpreting the results. The coefficient estimates, their standard errors, and the value of the log-likelihood function are reported by all software packages that do logit and probit, and these should be reported in any application. Assessing magnitude is trickier in logistic regression. The coefficients give the signs of the partial effects of each Xj on the response probability, and the statistical significance of Xj is determined by whether we can reject H0: at a sufficiently small significance j 0 level.However, the magnitude of the estimated parameters ( dZ/ dX ) has no particular interpretation. We care about the magnitude of ( )/ . www.ijmer.in 55 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 From the computer output for probit or logit estimation, we can interpret the statistical significance and sign of each coefficient directly. Suppose that the odds is calculated to be = 2. The interpretation of this is that the probability of participating in the market is twiceas likely as not participating given the household characteristics . 4. Results And Discussion 4.1. Characteristics of Respondents All the surveyed households are male headed agro-pastoralists.The average family size is 7.Livestock plays a significant role in the agro- pastoral farming system of these study areas. Livestock types kept by the farmers include camel, cattle, sheep, donkey and goats. Oxen are kept to provide draught power, cows and female camels to provide farm households with milk and butter for consumption and sale, donkeys and male camels for transporting goods, while sheep and goats are mainly kept for sale as well as for their meat. The feed sources commonly used for livestock include natural grazing and crop residues. For most farmers in the study areas, keeping livestock is not only a source of income, but also is theirway of life and source of prestige which is closely correlated with the size of their herd. They consider livestock almost like a banking system especially camel. They enlarge their herd when they have surplus money and convert it to cash when they need money. The farming system in the Woredas is characterized by mixed agriculture. The woredas have black clay soil that is relatively fertile and retains moisture, and has positively contributed to the overall agricultural yields. Being mainly planted in April, Sorghum and maize are the main cereal and staplecrops in all the study areas. Khat is the main cash crop produced in Hadow kebele of Jigjiga woreda. Members of the household and relatives mostly provide labour. The average yield of sorghum and maize is estimated at 8 quintals per ha and 10 quintals per ha, respectively. The low amount and erratic distribution of rainfall, high evapo-transpiration, limited use or absence of drought tolerant crop varieties, army worm devastation and farmer’s inability to synchronize planting with the onset of the rains turns to be the major causes of crop failures. www.ijmer.in 56 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 4.2. The cattle and camel Production structure The IPS (2000) report uncovers that,in ESRS,the proportion of livestock species owned by a household consists of largenumber of cattle (58.1%) followed by goats (53.2%), sheep (45.3%) and camels 33.1%. The data obtained from ESRS bureau of livestock, crop and rural development shows that the cattle population is the highest in Afdher Zone while camel population is the highest in Liban Zone. Fafen Zone stands third next to Afder and Liban zone with a cattle population of 489,000. Fafen zone had a camel population of 29,000 which is the lowest (exceeds only the camel population in Shebelle zone) when compared to the camel population in others zones of the region. 5,000 4,500 4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 Equine 1,500 goat 1,000 500 sheep 0 Shabel Warde camel Fafen Jarar Sitti Nogob Korahe Liban Afdher e r cattle Equine 42,000 11,000 46,000 18,000 8,000 6,000 63,000 5,000 14,000 goat 548,00 574,00 776,00 672,00 636,00 719,00 1,874, 1,960, 788,00 sheep 1,316, 538,00 913,00 560,00 1,004, 1,150, 969,00 1,372, 1,231, camel 29,000 57,000 72,000 74,000 14,000 275,00 954,00 480,00 77,000 cattle 489,00 287,00 228,00 252,00 402,00 168,00 711,00 274,00 985,00 Figure 4.1:Zonal Distribution of Livestock In Fafen zone, the cattle population is the highest in Jigjiga woreda followed by Babile and Gursum Woredas respectively. And the camel population in Jigjiga woreda is the highest when compared to Babile and Gursum Woredas. www.ijmer.in 57 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 400,000 350,000 300,000 250,000 200,000 Jigjiga 150,000 Babile 100,000 Gursum 50,000 0 cattle camel sheep goat Equine Jigjiga 139,882 8,403 375,970 156,629 12,116 Babile 97,772 5,789 262,674 109,381 8,384 Gursum 59,986 3,446 162,391 64,483 5,051 Figure 4.2: Livestock distribution in Fafen Zone Though People in Jigjiga woreda own higher number of cattle than people in Gursum and Babile woredas, the distribution of livestock varies within centers in the Jigjiga woreda itself.According to 2013 record of Jigjiga Woreda office of Crop, livestock and rural development, there are,for instance, 9102 heads of cattle, 10978 sheep, 11410 goats and 2170 camels in Hadow kebele.This is a similar to the livestock distribution in Haroreys and Hare districts. Of all the 23 centers in Jigjiga Woreda,camel is mostly found in Sidan(13722),Buladarey(14810 heads),Horehawd(12042heads), Garasaley (11280 heads ),Baladka (9855 heads),Shabeley (6471 heads). And cattle (between 10,000-18,000 heads) is mainly found in Haroreys, Sidan,Hare, Garasaley, Buladarey, Dudahide, Yoosle,Elbahay, Harehawd,Daadhi. 4.3: Cattle and Camel Marketing Structure In the study areas, cattle and camelare usually sold to meet family needs for cash income, which in turn is used to buy fooditems and industrial products such as clothing, spaghetti, Oil, Macaroni. Occasionally, seasonal shortage of rainfall through itsimpact on feed www.ijmer.in 58 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 availability forces higher supply to market. To towns, supply is provided through market places. Off-take in Fafen Zone is low that many livestock holders prefer to keep their live cattle and camel for domestic use rather than sell them.Among others, supply is constrained by the inability of sellers to plan sales in accordance with market need (time and quality).As indicated in Table 4.1 below, 14040 camels were supplied, but only 6630 were sold. 44304 cattle were supplied, but ony 23,686 were sold. This clearly shows that there is a huge gap betweensupply and actual sales.It is commonly claimed that inconsistent supply of quality animals is a major constraint to commercialization, and this was repeatedly confirmed in the FGDs and KIIs. Table 4.1: Weekly livestock marketing performance S.N Jigjiga woreda Babile woreda Type of Offered Sold Av Offered Sold Av livestock .Price .Price 1 Camel 14040 6630 31140 12300 1.1 male 2184 1248 18000 7680 2940 16250 1.2 Immature 2964 1092 12500 9600 3780 9000 male 1.3 female 4680 2262 15250 5760 2040 14000 1.4 Immature 4212 2028 10850 8100 3540 8000 female 2 cattle 44304 23686 29340 10504 2.1 Ox 3120 2028 13750 7560 2544 11800 2.2 Bull 8580 5148 7250 7680 2760 5400 2.3 Cow 15600 8892 9500 6300 2400 8000 2.4 Heifer 17004 7800 6750 7800 2800 4500 3 Sheep 183768 90558 142200 57000 3.1 male 46800 23790 1350 41400 12000 1350 www.ijmer.in 59 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 3.2 Immature 35568 13884 625 34200 19800 7,00 male 3.3 female 66300 42120 1275 36000 13200 1100 3.4 Immature 35100 10764 625 30600 12000 600 female 4 Goats 184392 97292 153600 83400 4.1 male 39000 21216 1300 40800 19800 1480 4.2 Immature 27300 13104 613 37200 25800 700 male 4.3 female 76128 50700 1325 37200 19200 1275 4.4 immature 41964 12272 625 38400 18600 650 female Source: ESRS Bureau of Livestock, Crop and Rural Development The price of camel and cattle are relatively higher in Jigjiga woreda when compared to Babile woreda. A male camel has been sold for birr 18,000 in Jigjiga woreda and for birr 16,250 in Babile woreda. Likewise, an ox is sold for birr 13750 in Jigjiga woreda while the same ox is sold for birr 11800 in Babile woreda. In addition to the sales of live camel and cattle, milk is also marketable.From Hadow to Bombas, about three liters of milk is being sold for 40-50 birr. When one reaches around the town of Babile, the three liters of milk price rises to about birr 60-70. AroundHarores, the price of one liter of milk is 20 birr. Milk, especially that of camel, has been exported to the neighboring countries. The camel milk export during 2009, which was 753,100 liters, brought in a foreign exchange of USD 61,005.41.The camel milk export reached 2,366,732 liters in 2011 and brought in USD 191,705.29. This figure showed a slight decline over the years 2012, 2013 and 2014. www.ijmer.in 60 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 2801000 2,366,732 2401000 2,176,462 2,126,292 1,913,951 2001000 1601000 1,180,332 1201000 753,100 801000 401000 162,076.12 191,705.29 176,293.40 172,229.65 61,005.41 146,070.00 1000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Fiscal years in Ethiopian calendar Camel milk export (liters) Foreign exchange earning (USD) Figure 4.3: Camel Milk export off-take The same data from ERCA shows that 130 heads of camel were exported in the year 2009 fetching USD 43, 623 for the country. The live camel export showed a drastic rise from 130 heads in 2009 to 7,169 heads in 2010 and 13,472 heads in 2011. Afterwards, the camel exportdeclined and the minimum camel export was recorded in 2014 to 646 heads. Table 4.2: Live camel and milk export Year Camel Forex USD Live Forex milk earning per a camel Earning(U export (USD) liter expor SD) (liters) t(hea USD per ds) camel 2009 753,100 61,005.41 0.081 130 43,623. 335.5615 2010* 1,913,951 162,076.12 0.0846 7,169 2,972,425 8 414.6219 2011* 2,366,732 191,705.29 0.0809 13,47 5,604,352 9 2 416 2012 1,180,332 146,070.00 0.1237 8,713 3,624,608 5 416 2013 2,176,462 176,293.4 0.0809 2,469 1,090,486 441.6711 www.ijmer.in 61 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 9 2014 2,126,292 172,229.65 0.0809 646 504,500 9 780.9598 Source: Ethiopian Revenue and Customs Authority, Jigjiga Branch office 4.4. Camel and Cattle productivity The productivity can be approached from the viewpoint of milk and calf production. KIIs showed that a camel gives birth between the ages of 4 and 15.Within these years, it can give birth to 10 calves; each birth is delivered after 13months of pregnancy. The lactation length of both camel and cattle is almost the same. In Jigjiga woreda, the lactation period of both camel and cattle is twelve months.In Babile woreda (across 17 kebeles and 32 PAs), the lactation length ranges from 10 to 17 months and from 8 to 13 months for camel and cows respectively.This lactation length for camel is similar tothe 12 months findings of Yohannes et al (2007) for Babile and Kebribeyah woredas,and is in agreement to the 9 to 18 months results of Farah(1996) for Shinile camels and to the 13 to 15 months findings ofof Tezera(1998) for Jigjiga camels. But, the lactation length for camel in the present study is higher than the 6 to 8 months findings of Alemayehu (2001) for Afar and Kereyu camels of Ethiopia. In Jigjiga Woreda, camel gives about 8 and 2 liters of milk during wet and dry seasons respectively while a cow gives about 4 liters and 1 liter. In Babile woreda, camel gives about 8 and 4 liters of milk during wet and dry seasons while a cow produces about 3 and 1.5 liters of milk. 4.5. Gender roles in Livestock Production and Marketing The gender roles of animal production and marketing can be viewed from the dimensions of milking, feed collectionas well as sales of livestock and livestock products. The result indicates that milking cows is primary the responsibility of female members of the household; and only a few respondents indicated that males take part in milkingactivity if the cow is aggressive. Feed collection depends on the availability of feed nearby residences. If feed is not available inthe area, feed collection is the sole responsibility of the male membersof the households. But if there are if there are younganimals around the homestead, women take all the responsibility www.ijmer.in 62 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 to cut and carry thinning of sorghum and maizeand to collect stover from the field to feed calves that stay around the homesteadand also for other animals to feed at night when they return from grazing. This agrees with the findings of Coppock (1993) who reported that in Borana and Azage et al(2008) who reported that in Meiso district, responsibilities of women includes gathering cut-and-carry forage and hauling water for relatively immobile calves. While Milk marketing is a specialized activity for female members of the household,marketing of live animals is mainly the responsibility of the males. Around Bombas town of Gursum woreda (on the way to Harar) it is customary to see girls and women hanging on roads to sell milks to passengers. Respondents repliedthat milk and milk product marketing starts when young girls as early as age of 9-10 years. Similar to this finding, Coppock (1994) reports for the Borana plateau that milk processing and marketing is underthe control of women. 4.6. Constraints and Opportunitiesin livestock Production and Marketing DeHaan (2002) shows that meat production per head of livestock in Ethiopia is low by standards of other significant livestock-producing African countries: just 8.5 kg per head of cattle per year, significantly lower than in Kenya and Senegal (21 and 16 kg respectively). Likewise, there are low cattle and camel productivity and off-take or no large commercial operations in the study area. 4.6.1. Constraints The results from FGDs and KIIs show that there are several key causes of low cattle and camel productivity and off-take viz(i) small herd size; (ii) poor reproductive performance (iii) limited access to feed and water; (iv) lack of alternative assets in which to store or invest cash surpluses; (v) social factors discouraging sale; (vi) lack of functional animal health services; and (vii) demand for draught power for agro-pastoral systems competes with meat sales for young males, leading to predominant sales of aged, low-quality cattle. 1. Limited access to Water and Feed:-The contribution of natural pasture as sources of feed is very limited due to the extensive coverage of the land by crops. In a normal year, pasture is regenerated with each set of rains. This regeneration takes place within two weeks of the onset of rains. Thus, pasture is normally available from April-July www.ijmer.in 63 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 and August-December. This is supplemented by crop residues during two key periods. The first comes from the stalks of the short maturing maize crop (available from May-July) and is given primarily to the milking cows and oxen. The second comes from the crop residues from the second harvest. This is in two forms: (1) stocks which are stored as fodder during harvesting of main crops (used Jan-March) and (2) livestock are allowed to graze on remains from the field after harvesting takes place (October-November). March is the most difficult month in relation to pasture and fodder availability. As a result, livestock based farming is becoming reduced. On one hand, due to the ever increasing trend of population growth, even marginal lands are becoming under cultivation, the other cause for the reduction of animal population in the area is that farmers use traditional and extensive system of animal production that cannot cope up with the prevailing shortage of grazing land. The major livestock production constraints are disease and lack of feed. Shortage of animal feed is closely associated with the wide spread resource degradation in the area. Crop fields fail to produce adequate bio-mass that supports the existing livestock. Generally, Feed (grazing, crop residues, hay, grains and industrial by produtcs) shortages are reported to be pervasive and persistent. The field observation shows that the main fodder in the area is crop straw of maize and sorghum. The role played by open grazing is so minimal. Thus, pastoral herd size (including survival and reproduction) is fundamentally constrained by lack of grazing and water. The finding is similar to the MoARD’s 2008 Livestock Master Plan which indicates that nationwide, 64 million tons of feed (including forage and dry matter) are required annually to sustain the livestock population in Ethiopia. However, the same sources estimate that only about 37 million tons are currently available, so that the system satisfies just 58 percent of needs. Data from specific pastoral areas shows a similar picture with an estimated feed deficit of 30 percent in Afar Region (Yemane, 2001). 2. Subsistence-Orientation:-In areas like Hadow, there are a few peopleowning 300 goats while in areas like Harores there are many people owning as large as 250 sheep. The commonality is that these people are reluctant to sell livestock (and particularly cattle) beyond www.ijmer.in 64 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 that required to meet their immediate cash needs. This agrees to the argument that pastoralists are widely perceived to be “subsistence- oriented” rather than “market-oriented”. In addition to the widely cited social reasons, there are atleast two sound economic rationales to build herd.These are a) Lack of attractive alternative assets in which to invest - Savings accounts, which are seldom available, are seen as risky, and where they exist, savings fees erode an already low rate of return. The financial rationality of accumulating livestock in such a context has been observed by researchers. Moreover, excess cash is often more vulnerable to requests from relatives than is livestock. b) The importance of herd size to surviving and recovering from recurrent drought – many livestock producers typically have few animals for sale – small herd size often makes producers reluctant to sell. Producers with large land areas are also inclined retain animals to ensure sufficient draught power. For many households with livestock, motivation for sale is incidental household expenses (taxes, loan repayments, social and family obligations) rather than pre-planned commercial gain. This indicates that many livestock holders do not view their animals as commercial entities but rather as household assets that can be sold as needed. Pastoralists are therefore only somewhat responsive to price and timing, and market poorly – for example, there is often a supply glut of poor animals during the dry season. 3. Unreliable Data:-One disappointing constraint is absence of reliable data on livestock. The Availabledata are either old or inconsistent. For Instance, the data recorded by Hadow Kebele Animal Health Post is 11,000 heads of cattle, 1000 heads of camel, 5000 shoats and 1500 donkeys in Hadow kebele while the data recorded by the Jigjiga woreda livestock office for the same area is 9102 heads of cattle, 2170 heads of camel, 10978 sheep and 11410 goats in 2013.Similarly, the records kept on livestock population by different entities is quite different. www.ijmer.in 65 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 4. Inadequate Animal Health services:-The thematic analysis of FDGs and KIIs revealed that camels and cattle commonly suffer from internal and external parasites. Next to these parasites are FMD,CCPP,CBPP as well as sheep and goat pox. One expert responded that a little effort is made by the concerned parties to curve animal health related problems. As indicated in Table 4.3 below, there are 22, 13 and 10 animal health posts in Jigjiga, Babile and Gursum woredas of Fafen zone respectively. It is quite interesting that there are atleast two Animal health posts in each kebeles of the study areas. But, the problems related to man power and drugs. One FGD respondent in Harores kebele said that ‘’ there are no drugs in the animal post and we usually travel 30 kms to Togo-Wuchale to buy drugs. Besides, animal health experts come to visit us most infrequently.”The data also confirms this. For instance, there is only one DVM in Jigjiga and Gursum woredas. Table 4.3: Animal Health Posts (AHP) and Man Power in Fafen Zone S/N Name of AHP Man power woreda DVM AHA AHT 1 Jig-jiga 22 1 16 36 2 Kabribayah 25 -- 9 6 3 Harshin 19 -- 4 8 4 Awbare 26 -- 16 10 5 Gursum 10 1 9 8 6 Babile 13 - 16 5 7 Tuli-guled 8 - 7 3 N.B: DVM= Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, AHA= Animal health assistant, AHT= animal health technician Source: Ethiopian Revenue and Customs Authority, Jigjiga Branch office In terms of vaccination and treatment, only 40,000 animals are treated (on average) in Babile woreda and 100,000 are vaccinated on yearly basis.In Lemadaga center of Jigjiga Woreda, only 6000 sheep,2500 goat and 2800 cattle were vaccinated in 2015. But, the data from Jigjiga woreda crop, livestock and rural development bureau show that total sheep, goat and cattle population in the area is 21960, 4978 and 9681 respectively www.ijmer.in 66 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table 4.4: Livestocks Treated and vaccinated Description Babile Gursum Fiscal Year Fiscal Year 2012 2013 2014 2012 2013 2014 Number of 50,000 10,000 60,00 186,36 158,76 178,789 animals treated 0 7 5 Number of 100,00 130,000 70,00 87,560 82,825 96,760 animals 0 0 vaccinated Source: Agricultural Bureaus of Babile and Gursum Woredas, 2014 5. Illegal Trade:-Available information indicates that Somalia exports up to 2 million heads of sheep and goats and 10,000 heads of cattle a year. Its major source of supply is believed to be the Ethiopian Somali Region, Eastern Hararghe and parts of Bale zones of Oromia. The neighbouring countries like Somalia get most of these exports via the illegal rout. Data from ERCA shows that 65 heads of cows were caught while being illegally exported in 2011.This figure reached 185 in the year 2014. Likewise, 73 heads of camel were caught while being illegally crossing Ethiopian borders in 2011.This figure was 204 in 2013 and dramatically dropped to 76 in 2014. One surprising finding is that no camel was legally exported in 2015(over nine months) but 28 heads of camel were found while illegally crossing the Ethiopian borders. Table 4.5: Illegal Livestock export volume Livestock Fiscal Years Type (in 2003/2011 2005/2013 2006/2014 2007/2015 numbers) Cows 65 185 141 Camel 73 204 76 28 Sheep 231 1799 193 1601 Goats 744 571 1092 1867 www.ijmer.in 67 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 4.6.2. Opportunities in camel and cattle production and marketing Apart from the constraints, there are untapped opportunities for camel and cattle production and marketing in the study areas. These include A) Suitable land for forage production:-Tacher(1986) finds that the proportion of unsuitable land for forage production in the Somali region is 23.05% or about 7,382,000 ha. Shinile zone is the most affected area with 86.4% followed by 40.4% in Afder and 19.1% Jarar, while Fafen is the least affected zone by 0.5%. B) Rapid Urbanization:-The population number in Fafen Zone is rising. The Ethiopian Somali regional state Bureau of Finance and Economic development projected of the total urban-rural population in the zone to be 1,158,307, 1,190,796 (257,556 urban), 1,223,079 (265,748 urban), 1,256,567 (273,941 urban )in the years 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2017.The urban population is rising; for instance Jigjiga town has the highest rate of urbanization in the country.The community in the region is a consumer society, which means it spends higher proportion of income for consumption. Remmitances in the study area are one of the highest in the country. These factors alltogether have risen the average purchasing power of consumers. C) Proximity to the export market:-Babile,Gursum and Jigjiga Woredas are very close to the Ethio-somaliland border. It is only 70 kms from Jigjiga to Togochale or to Awbare. 4.6: Factors affecting the marketing of camel and cattle The factors that are proposed to affect the marketing of camel and cattle by a household are participation in other economic activities like farming and trade, literacy level of household head, ownership of goats and sheep, household size, distance to marketing places, main heard type and food shortage in a household. www.ijmer.in 68 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table 4.6: The logistic regression result Do you sell your cattle B Std. Sig. Exp(B) Inverse and camel? Error Exp(B) no Intercept -1.376 .356 .000 [otheractvty=0] -1.081 .081 .000 .339 2.949 [otheractvty=1] 0b . . . [literateor=0] 3.511 .084 .000 33.485 0.0298 [literateor=1] 0b . . . [alterincome=1] -.621 .322 .054 .538 1.8587 [alterincome=2] -.021 .307 .944 .979 1.0214 [alterincome=3] 0b . . . [ownsheepgoat=0 .226 .085 .008 1.254 ] 0.7974 [ownsheepgoat=1 0b . . . ] [foodshortage=0] -.234 .091 .010 .791 1.2642 [foodshortage=1] 0b . . . [hhsize=1] -.733 .166 .000 .480 2.0833 [hhsize=2] -.008 .137 .955 .992 1.0080 [hhsize=3] 0b . . . [distmakt=1] .427 .122 .000 1.532 0.6527 [distmakt=2] .261 .146 .073 1.298 0.77041 [distmakt=3] 0b . . . [mainherd=1] .209 .091 .021 1.232 0.81168 [mainherd=2] 0b . . . The odds ratio for otheractvty(0) = 0.339 is less than one. The coding otheractvty(0) refers tohousehold is not engaged in farming and trade activity and the reference category otheractvty(1) is household is engaged in farming, the odds of household not engaged in farming and www.ijmer.in 69 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 trade activity to participate in marketing is smaller thanthat of household engaged in farming and trade activity. The inverse of Exp(B) is 2.949 implying that a household engaged in farming and trade activity is 2.949 times more likely to sell its camel and/ or cattle as compared to a household not engaged in farming and trade activities. The coding[alterincome=1],[alterincome=2] and [alterincome=3] refers to income from remittance, crop and petty trade respectively. [alterincome=1] is weakly significant while [alterincome=2] is insignicant. The finding shows that a household that receives remittance is 1.8589 (1/ .538) times less likely to participate is marketing than a household involved in petty trade. The odds ratio for literateor(0)=33.48 is greater than one.The coding literateor(0) stands for a household that reads and writes.The odds of household headed by a head that can read and write to participate in marketing aregreater thanthat of household headed with a household head who cannot read and write. A household that does not own goats or sheep is 1.254 times more likely to sell its camel or cattle than a household who owns sheep or goat.A household that is close to markets is 1.532 times more likely to sell its camel or cattle when compared to a household at distant places. Similarly, household with lower family size is less likely to sell its livestock. A household that owns more camel than cattle is 1.232 times more likely to sell its camel or cattle when compared to a household that owns more cattle. A household that faces food shortage is 1.2642 times more likely to sell its camel or cattle a family without a food shortage (see Table 4.6 for the details) 5.Conclusions And Recommendations 5.1. Conclusion In this study, it is found Fafen Zone stands third next to Afder and Liban zone with a cattle population of 489,000 and the zone has a camel population of 29,000 which is the lowest (exceeds only the camel population in Shebelle zone) when compared to the camel population in others zones of theSomali region. Within the study areas, People in Jigjiga woreda own higher number of cattle than people in Gursum and Babile woredas, the distribution of livestock varies within centers in the Jigjiga woreda itself. According to www.ijmer.in 70 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 2013 record of Hadow kebele Animal health post, there are,for instance, 11,000 heads of cattle, 1000 heads of camel, 5000 shoats and 1500 donkeys in Hadow kebeles. On the other hand, in LegemedanAnimal post of Jigjiga woreda, there are 6000 sheep, 2800 heads of cattle, 2500 goats and no camel. This is a similar to the livestock distribution in Harores. The constraints to the camel and cattle production are small herd size, subsistence-orientation, and water and feed shortages, insufficient health care services. On the other hand, presence of suitable land for forage production and the rising demand for animal products are the untapped opportunities in the sector. Camel and cattle off-take in Fafen Zone is low that many livestock holders prefer to keep their live cattle and camel for domestic use rather than sell them. Even, those who bring their livestock to markets could not sell all of what they took to the market. The factors that are affecting the market take off of camel and cattle are distance to market places, involvement in other economic activities, herd composition, literacy, household size, Small ruminants (sheep and goats ownership) and alternative income sources. 5.2. Recommendation The findings of the study clearly showed that the livelihood of the agro- pastoralists with small herd size is highly dependent on the cash income derived from livestock and livestock products especially milk. Alleviating constraints to marketing, market information and marketing infrastructures as well as issues related to productions like forage shortage willpotentially increase the welfare of smallholder producers and nearby urban consumersand improve the national balance of payments. This is to mean that the more producers are aware of themarket demand and price, the higher will be their bargaining power that couldimprove their income through getting a larger share of the consumer spending. For this to happen, the following actions shall be taken. Develop Market infrastructural and institutional set-ups: This will improve the access of producers to potential markets whereby they could supply more volumes with higher share of the end market price. These improvement measures will raise the household income and purchasing power of producers and local traders, which in turn will www.ijmer.in 71 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 create positive impacts on the local economy. On the other hand, when income of the producers increase through better access to information, market and infrastructure, they could improve production, both in terms of quantity and quality, thereby benefiting consumers. Develop modern techniques of forage production and conservation: One way of overcoming dry season feed problem is to conserve the excess forage during the rainy season. The excess forage could be conserved in the form of hay at the end of the main rainy season in July or August. Trainings in hay making techniques and provisions of appropriate tools or any logistic support to agro- pastoralist can dramatically diminish the problem of feed shortage during the dry season. One way is assisting producers to improve sorghum and maize Stover conservation and enhance utilization by chopping, and treating with urea molasses. This would improve food and/ or income security or the livelihood of the agro-pastoralists Develop and implement appropriate rangeland management systems. For effective planning, the Zone’s livestock resources should be studied in detail so that the type, breeds and their geographical distribution could be known for policy. Introduce and develop improved forages as sole crops or integrated with cereal crop production (sorghum or maize system). Consider the possibility of selection and crossbreeding for dairy production in locations where it is feasible with improved feeding, health care and proper management systems. Improve animal health services with staff training and drug supply services with close monitoring and supervision and strengthen community diseases surveillance and reporting system. Establish milk collecting and processing unit by examining the possibility of credit provision for improved dairy production, processing and marketing. References Ayele, S., Derek, B., Amare, S. and GebreMariam, S., 2010. Diagnostic study of live cattle and beef production and marketing:contraints and Opportunities for enhancing the www.ijmer.in 72 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 system. Addis Ababa: The Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Belachew, H. et al., 2003. Livestock marketing in Ethiopia: A review of structure, performances and development initiatives. Socio- economic and Policy Research Working Papers 52(International Livestock Research Institute). Belay, D., 2013. Smallholder Livestock Production and Marketing Systems in Haramaya District, Eastern Ethiopia. Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review ISSN 2315-6880, Vol. 2(6), pp.122-29. CSA (2010). Livestock and livestock characteristics; Private peasant holdings; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. DeHaan (2002) Diagnostic trade integration study – livestock and meat sector: challenges and opportunities. Agriculture and Rural Development Department, The World Bank: Washington DC, USA. Farah Z(1996) Camel Milk properties. Swish Federal Institute of Technology,ETH-Zentrum IPS (International Project Service). 2000. Resource potential assessment and project identification study of the Somalia Region: Socio-economics assessment. Investment Office of the SomaliaRegional State. Research Report Vol. III. Jijiga, Ethiopia. Livestock Master Plan (2008) Livestock Development Master Plan Study - Phase 1 Report: Data Collection and Analysis. Volume H-Animal Nutrition Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Ethiopian (MoARD), 2006. Livestock development master plan, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tacher, G.,1986. Prospects of livestock production in the future and its relation to sufficient food supply. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Livestock Production and Diseases in the Tropics. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. www.ijmer.in 73 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Sadoulet, E., Janvry, A.d. & Fafchamps, M., 1991. Peasant Household Behaviour with Missing Markets:Some Paradoxes Explained. Economic Journal,No.409, Vol.101, pp.1400-17. Yemane,Beruk (2001) “Livestock Feed Resources Status of Afar Region” in ESAP Proceedings www.ijmer.in 74 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 PRACTICES AND CHALLENGES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION PROGRAMME IN ILUABABOR ZONE, ETHIOPIA Dimo Didana Dinie Kassahun Tadesse Mamo Lecturer Assistant Professor Mettu University Mettu University Institute of Education and Institute of Education and Professional Development Studies Professional Development Studies Mettu Ethiopia Mettu Ethiopia Tekalign Minalu Tirfe Assistant Professor Mettu University Institute of Education and Professional Development Studies Mettu Ethiopia Abstract The purpose of this study was to assess the practices and challenges of Early Childhood Care and Education in Iluababor Zone. To this end, a mixed research method was chosen to conduct the study because the nature of the study dictated the use of both the qualitative and quantitative approaches Data were gathered from 8 districts. In the study 180 (male 130, female 50) research participants were selected by random sampling/lottery method and then participated to fill the questionnaires. For interviews, school principals and district education experts 18 (M =15, F= 3) were selected by purposive spspampling to participate in the interviews sessions. Likewise, 150 households were selected from 8 districts through availability sampling and asked short guided interview questions about practices and challenges of pre- primary education. In addition to this, 40 (male =25, female =15) participants from kindergarten schools of each eight districts were selected for focus group discussions. The data gathered through questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion were transcribed, analyzed, and triangulated. The findings of the study showed that the number of pre-primary schools was below the demand of the community; Early childhood care and education personnel www.ijmer.in 75 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 qualifications were at low standard and teaching methods in early childhood care and education were not practiced in accordance with the pedagogical principles and strategies. Besides this, the findings also identified challenges that related with early childhood care and education program such as lack of instructional materials, absence of compressive and clear early childhood care and education policy framework and operational guideline; use of inappropriate teaching methods; unavailability of sufficient teaching aid, lack of separate restroom, toilets with water, different children’s book, first aid materials, classroom space per child; absence of organization of activity centres/corners made the system of early childhood care and education ineffective in the last five years in Iluababor administrative zone. Early childhood care and education program expansion, implementation and its status was not to the expected standard. Accordingly, in the study it can be concluded that Early Childhood Care and Education sector in Iluababor administrative zone was mainly unsuccessful due to the absence of well-built strategy directions, lack of capacity building, absences of well trained man power, and poor management system.Thus, it is recommended that the supervisors, experts, school heads, teachers and other stakeholders of early childhood care and education ought to plan for expansion, continuous training, and awareness creation on the nature, practice and significance of early childhood care and education programme implementation. Key words: Early childhood care and education, Pre - primary school, kindergarten school, parents’ involvement 1. Introduction 1.1. Background of the study All over the world, early childhood care and education received great attention in policies, strategies, researches, and forums. It is founded that strong early childhood base can help for a smooth transition to primary school, a better chance of completing basic education, a better cognitive, emotional and social development and a route out of poverty and disadvantage (Tsegai Mulugeta, 2015; Peisner-Feinberg, 2007; Tassew Woldehanna, 2011, Sammons et.al., 2007). As explained in the study by Mwamwenda (2014), care and education at early life plays a significant role in the introduction of basics learning skills which are vital for their subsequent formal education at all levels. Children who www.ijmer.in 76 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 have had early childhood Care education (ECE) have the following advantages: less likely to repeat classes; less likely to drop out of school; and are less likely to be assigned to special need classes. Early Childhood Care and Education leads to higher achievement scores; higher completion rate in subsequent years of education; low correlation between such children and criminal activity. Moreover, it is indicated also that adversity in early life, such as frequently accompanies child poverty, is linked to: poor adult mental and physical health, adult mortality, anti-social and criminal behaviour, substance abuse and poor literacy and academic achievement (Melhuish, 2011). Cognizant to the importance of the program, Ethiopia has committed to develop and adopt different policies that can enhance the implementation of the program. Ethiopia is one of the signatories to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, signed in December 1991 (Tsegai Mulugeta, 2015). The education and training policy (1994) of the country also gives insight to the need for children’s overall development during the preschool years. Ethiopia also reaffirmed its commitment to achieve Education for All (EFA) at the World Education forum in Dakar, Senegal in April 2000 (UNESCO & UNICEF, 2012, Tsegai Mulugeta, 2015) which aimed to bring more children into a classroom and keep them there. However, the country has no early childhood care and education policy until the third five year ESDP-III plan (2005/06 to 2010/11). For the first time, a new Early Childhood Care and Education policy framework has been developed in 2010, by the joint effort of UNICEF with three ministries: ministry of education, ministry of health and ministry of women, youth and children affairs (MOE, 2010a). Less attention has been given to early childhood education until recently, when the government announced a National Policy Framework for Early Childhood Care and Education. The government of Ethiopia gives due attention to Early Childhood Care and Education in its fourth five years plan of Education Sector development Programme (ESDP - IV) which has two outcome targets: to increase Gross Enrolment Ratio from 6.9% in 2009/10 to 20% in 2014/15 and a pre-primary school to be established in all schools of the country (MOE, 2010:25b). Efforts by private investors, faith-based organizations and NGOs into the sub-sector made the gross enrolment rate for pre-primary to reach 34% in 2013/14, of which around a www.ijmer.in 77 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 quarter is kindergarten and the remainder O-Class and Child-to-Child (MOE, 2015: 6). This is above the Education Sector development Programme (ESDP IV) target for Early Childhood Care and Education which was 20% (from a baseline of 6.9% at the start of the plan). Therefore, in Ilababor administrative gross enrolment rate of kindergarten schools were also below 20% target (Iluabaor zone Education Office, 2016). Consequently, this study was intended to assess challenges of Early Childhood Care and Education programme in Iluababor administrative zone. 1.2. Statement of the problem Pre-primary enrolment has increased dramatically starting from the year (2011/12) and this is because ‘O’ class and child to child enrolments have been counted as part of pre- primary. In (2012/13) out of the estimated 7.71 million children of the appropriate age group (age 4 to 6) about 2.01 million children have been reported to have access to pre-primary education all over the country (Tsegai Mulugeta, 2015). Though the enrolment was small when compared to the appropriate age group, gross enrolment rate is higher than the previous year. This increase is due to the improved reporting of “O” class and child to child data in the year 2005 E.C. (2012/13) from primary schools. National review of Education for All (2015) showed that, in spite of the increased recognition of the importance of learning in the early years, in Ethiopia, too many children still do not have access to any form of early education programs before starting school. For example, the early childhood education enrolment rate in 2008/2009 was 4.2 % nationally neglected figure. Progress in recent years has moved the gross Enrolment Rate (GER) of children age 4-6 to 33.65% in 2013/14. The rapid increase in the past five years follows greater private sector engagement in the urban centres and massive government efforts to expand access to a reception class (0-class) in primary schools. Although great improvements have taken place, pre-primary education participation for both sexes still appears to be relatively low in most regions of the country. For instance, the gross enrolment rate of pre- primary program or O-class of Iluababor was below 20%. Likewise, the gross enrolment rate of kindergarten, of the region was 20 % (MOE, 2015:6). Thus, Ilababor has low achievement in both pre-primary and kindergarten gross enrolment rate. Besides, the Illubabor administrative zone is located 600 km from the capital city Addis Ababa www.ijmer.in 78 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 in Ethiopia and Iluababor administrative zone as result generally lacks Early Childhood Care and education facilities and a well-trained workforce in kindergarten schools. Then again, there is a gap of research studies with regards to challenges in kindergarten and pre- primary in Iluababora administrative zone. Therefore, this research was intended to answer the following basic research questions: 1. How the existing kindergartens, “0” class and child to child programs are functioning? 2. What were the challenges in implementing the programme? 1.3. Objectives of the study 1.3.1. General objectives To assess the practices and challenges of implementing Early Childhood Care and Education programme in Ilubabor Zone 1.3.2. Specific Objectives: 1. To assess the status of existing kindergartens, “0” class and child to child programmes. 2. To reveal the challenges in implementation of pre-primary education programme. 2. Research Methodology 2.1. Research design In this study, a mixed research method was chosen to conduct the study because the nature of the study dictated the use of both the qualitative and quantitative approaches. In this study the sequential exploratory design approach was conducted in two phases where priority is given to the first phase of qualitative data collection. The second phase was involved quantitative data collection where the overall priority is given to qualitative data collection. In this design the findings are integrated in the interpretation phase. Its most basic purpose is to use quantitative data to help in interpreting the results of the qualitative data results (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007:85). Thus, the exploratory sequential design was selected to get qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of the qualitative study. The researchers have chosen this design because the research problems were more qualitative in nature. Additionally, during the study, after www.ijmer.in 79 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 the collection of qualitative data, a lot of new questions emerged from the qualitative results that required the researchers to use explanatory (questionnaire) design to fill the information gap in the study. Then, the researchers used the quantitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of qualitative study through interviews and focus group discussions in the study. 2.2. Study Population Study populations were technical committees of early childhood care and education of districts in Ilubabor Zone, pre-primary education implementers and principals, zone and districts experts and facilitators of pre-primary education and parents. 2.3. Samples and Sampling techniques Out of 24 districts in Ilubabor Zone, eight of them were included through cluster sampling. Then, by using two – stage sampling technique, participants within the selected clusters were randomly selected for the inclusion in the sample. These districts were Mettu, Darimu, Nopha, Yayo, Bedele, Bure, Becho and Dega. After that, all technical committees of the districts were included. Regarding pre- primary education implementers and principals, multi-phase sampling techniques were used. Pre-primary schools in the districts were classified as urban and rural, and also kindergarten, “0” class, and child to child program. Then, some schools were randomly selected from their respective population. Finally, all implementers and principals of selected pre-primary education were included. In the study 180 (male 130, female 50) research participants were selected by random sampling/lottery method and then participated to fill the questionnaires. For interviews, school principals and district education experts 18 (M 15, F 3) were selected by purposive sampling to participate in the interviews sessions. Likewise, 150 (50 those who sent their children to kindergarten,50 those who sent their children to O class, and 50 those who did not sent their children to any pre- primary schools) households were selected from 8 districts through availability sampling and asked short guided interview questions about accessibility and challenges of pre-primary education. Whereas, 40 (male 25, female 15) participants kindergarten schools of each eight districts were selected for focus group discussions. www.ijmer.in 80 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 2.4. Instruments For this study, both interview guides and questionnaires were developed by researchers. Interview guides were prepared for districts managers, principals and teachers of Pre-primary schools, and for family. On the other hand, questionnaires were prepared for pre- primary principals and teachers as well as for experts/technical committees. Researchers also used focus group discussions to triangulate the data obtained through questionnaire and interviews data to enrich for supplementary insights. 2.5. Sources of Data For this research the sources of data were primary and secondary data. Primary sources include: teachers’, principals, educational experts’ and parents’ response; whereas, secondary data includes Iluababor administrative zone education office and Ministry of Education annual report. 2.6. Validity and Reliability During instrument development validity issue was considered by evaluating whether it can produce data that research questions need to obtain. Next, before data collection, pilot study was conducted at Hurumu district. After that, based on the result, poor items that have low Cronback alpha value were discarded. As a result, the Cronback alpha of the questionnaire was 0.89 after ambiguous items were discarded. 2.7. Data types and data collection tools Both primary and secondary data were collected through different data collection techniques. For the primary data, district technical committees, and facilitators of pre-primary education were included in focus group discussion (FGD); pre-primary school education principals, teachers and experts, and parents were interviewed through semi- structured interview. 2.8. Data collection procedure The data collection were undertaken through the following procedures: Interview with districts education office; focus group discussion with experts and technical committees of districts; interview with pre-school principals and some teachers; distribution of questionnaire for pre- www.ijmer.in 81 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 school principals and some teachers; orientation for enumerators/data collectors; and interview with family by enumerators. On the basis of instruments employed and the nature of questions, both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis were employed in the study. The data obtained through questionnaire which were liable to quantitative analysis were coded and entered into SPSS version 20 and analyzed using simple descriptive statistics of frequency count, percentages and means followed by discussion of the most important points. For nominal or ordinal variables, a frequency count for each value is very descriptive and the mean is appropriate for describing interval or ratio data. 3. Results and discussions The purpose of this chapter was to summarise the main findings of the research. The problem statement of the study as formulated in chapter 1 would be correlated with the findings as set out in this chapter, and the summary arising from the findings would show that the research basic question has been effectively addressed. The chapter as well proposes a solution based on the research findings for evaluating, maintaining and Early Childhood Care and Education and its outcomes in the Iluababor administrative zone. The following paragraphs would provide a result and discussion of the statistical analyses, interviews, and focus group discussions. In the study 180 (male 130, female 50) research participants were selected by random sampling/lottery method and then participated to fill the questionnaires. For interviews, school principals and district education experts 18 (M 15, F 3) were selected by purposeful sampling to participate in the interviews sessions. Likewise, 150 (50 those who sent their children to kindergarten,50 those who sent their children to O class, and 50 those who did not sent their children to any pre- primary schools) households were selected from 8 districts through availability sampling and asked short guided interview questions about accessibility and challenges of pre-primary education. Whereas, for focus group discussions 40 (male 25, female 15) participants were participated in 8 focus group discussions were as well selected by the purposeful sampling technique from pre – primary and kindergarten schools. www.ijmer.in 82 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 The purpose of this study was to determine practices and challenges of early childhood care and education programme in the Iluababor administrative zone. In order to fulfil the aims, the following main basic research questions were developed, specifically, the basic questions were as follows: 1. How the existing kindergartens, “0” class and child to child programs are functioning? 2. What were the challenges in implementing the programme? The following section discusses summary of the basic questions in detail as follows. Then, the challenges of Early Childhood Care and Education are presented in table 1 below. www.ijmer.in 83 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table I: Challenges in the implementation of Early Childhood Care and Education program Items Strongl Disagree Undecide Agree - Strongly agree - y - d - 4 5 Disagr 2 3 ee -1 Mode Mode F % F % f % F % F % There is inadequate classrooms 3 - - 42 10.2 226 55.1 98 23. 44 10.7 9 Furniture are not suitable for 4 - - 35 8.5 87 21.2 238 58. 50 12.2 the children 0 Picture reading books are not 4 - - 10 2.4 60 14.6 232 56. 108 26.3 adequate 6 There is lack of qualified 2 - - 149 36.3 82 20.0 126 30. 53 12.9 teachers 7 There is ineffective supervision 4 - - 37 9.0 87 21.2 220 53. 66 16.1 7 Weak collaboration of 4 7 18. 31 7.6 71 17.3 138 33. 94 22.9 stakeholders 6 5 7 Lack of capacity building for 4 - - 37 9.0 108 26.3 186 45. 79 19.3 teachers 4 Lack of financial support for 4 - - 34 8.3 129 31.5 150 36. 97 23.7 the school 6 Lack of curriculum inputs – 4 - - 17 4.1 65 15.9 219 53. 109 26.6 inadequate textbooks and 4 materials www.ijmer.in 84 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Play centre equipment are 4 - - 7 1.7 52 12.7 242 59. 109 26.6 inadequate and of poor 0 standard Over-crowding in classrooms 4 - - 18 4.4 71 17.3 172 42. 149 36.3 with disproportionate 0 teacher/pupil ratio Lack of curriculum contribution 3 - - 18 4.4 71 17.3 172 42. 149 36.3 to the holistic development of 0 children Lack of systematic evaluation 4 - - 18 4.4 64 15.6 218 53. 110 26.8 and assessment. 2 Unable to promote the school 3 - - 37 9.0 188 45.9 147 35. 38 9.3 vision and missions 9 There is lack of adequate salary 4 - - 5 1.2 51 12.4 244 59. 110 26.8 5 Teachers dissatisfaction with 3 - - 37 9.0 176 42.9 144 35. 53 12.9 the profession 1 The community gives less value 4 - - 10 2.4 58 14.1 232 56. 110 26.8 on the profession (KG teachers) 6 www.ijmer.in 85 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 The above table I indicated major challenges in the implementation of Early Childhood Care and Education programme. Respondents were asked to rate their agreement on five likert scale. From the listed challenges majority of the respondents were agreed with challenges related to lack of suitable furniture for the children, inadequacy of picture reading books, ineffective supervision, weak collaboration of stakeholders, lack of capacity building for teachers, lack of financial support for the school, lack of curriculum inputs/inadequate textbooks and materials, inadequate and poor standard of play centre equipment, over-crowding in classrooms with disproportionate teacher/pupil ratio, lack of systematic evaluation and assessment, lack of adequate salary, and less value given by community on the profession of early childhood education. Moreover, other rated problems at medium level were, inadequate classrooms, lack of qualified teachers, Lack of curriculum contribution to the holistic development of children and dissatisfaction of teachers with their profession. The next section presents qualitative data results collected in the study through interview and focus group discussion. In supporting the above ideas , Ministry of Education (2010:5) confirmed that lack of clearly allocated money or budget in a sustainable manner to the kindergartens; lack of capacity building, lack of motivation and commitment to allocate responsible professionals body at all levels to coordinate Early Childhood Care and Education sector, absence of coordination and relationship between stakeholders like parents, offices of Education sector, Health sector offices, Women and Child Affairs offices and different Non Government Organisations; lack of sufficient advocacy work to create awareness or information gap about the objective of kindergarten education specific to its curriculum content and implementation strategies. In the first year of Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP IV), the government of Ethiopia established an early childhood development policy framework and an implementation guideline to facilitate the expansion of pre-primary education. The strategy encourages private investors, faith-based organizations and NGOs into the sub-sector. These efforts have allowed the gross enrolment rate for pre-primary to reach 34% in 2013/14, of which around a quarter is www.ijmer.in 86 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 kindergarten and the remainder O-Class and Child-to-Child. This is above the ESDP IV target for ECCE which was 20% (from a baseline of 6.9% at the start of the plan). In the last years of Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP IV), the subsector has been prioritised, with the establishment of a national steering committee, regional councils and districts technical committees. These structures function in collaboration with other relevant ministries, with a view to coordinate, support and monitor the involvement of stakeholders in ECCE. They have provided a foundation from which rapid expansion of Early Child Care and Education is possible. 3.1. Qualitative Data collected from the respondents through interview and Focus Group Discussion 3.1.1. Accessibility of Early Childhood Care and Education Early Childhood Care Education is one of the most significant aspects of child development and all the participants in the Early Child Development programmes play an important role in providing the context in which the Early Child Development children can develop holistically. This section answers the question: how effective is the access with regards to Early Childhood Care Education school principals and district education experts 18 (M 15, F 3) verified that “there is very low access to Early Childhood Care Education because the capacities of kindergartens were not commensurate with the existing high demand both in the towns and urban areas.” With regards to the access, one of the primary school principal said that: “There was a strong rural-urban division in Early Childhood Care Education provision. In urban areas, there was a diversity of non-governmental providers. Wealthier parents tend to use private preschools, while many poorer parents use faith-based facilities. In rural areas, the private and non-governmental sectors provide very few pre-schools. The coverage and quality of rural Early Childhood Care Education provision was low because government primary school systems are still being consolidated and lack the resources to offer pre- schooling.” www.ijmer.in 87 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 In supporting the above idea Young Lives in Ethiopia (2012) verified that, although overall levels of Early Childhood Care Education provision in Ethiopia are low, there are diverse providers. Majority of them are located in urban areas, giving urban families different choices and opportunities for accessing Early Childhood Care Education. With regards to access, the majority of the interviewee participants agreed that pre schools are mostly found in urban areas but small number of children classes were attached to primary schools in both urban and rural areas. Three primary schools (1-8) principals confirmed that “kindergarten is part of pre-primary education in which children aged 4-6 involved in it but in their respective district there were no access for children 4-6 years. 3.1.2. Development of Knowledge of the Child in the school There are several preschools in the Iluababor zone where the practitioners belong to a different background from that of the parents and children. An interview made with three experts in Iluababor Zone education office verified that: the interviewed participants of the district education offices revealed that “there were no adequate trained teachers’ in preschools that have appropriately trained and qualified school leaders and teachers in the administrative zone. They suggested that prescriptive guidelines and learning programmes based on the educational needs of immature children should be given to such practitioners. They need such prescriptive guidelines and programmes (especially about cognitive development) so that the preschool years can lay the foundation for later development.” The participants additionally proposed that “under qualified or unqualified practitioners should get and follow in-service courses that help them to use the prescribed programmes with greater flexibility.” The three district education experts and three school principals said that: “The availability of quality guidance and counselling services would result in quality Early Childhood Care Education programmes. The quality of guidance and counselling services will promote, for example: prioritisation of the practical training of guidance and counselling for Early Childhood Care Education trainee teachers, school heads and counsellors specifically for Early Childhood Care Education children by www.ijmer.in 88 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Federal Ministry of Education and Oromia Regional Education Bureau, however, there were shortage of capacity building programmes with regards to guidance and counselling. Besides, the kindergarten of three school principals also proposed that “there should be training of teachers, school heads and counsellors in practical guidance and counselling skills at all levels and production of well-trained and practically equipped teachers in guidance and counselling of Early Childhood Care Education children by colleges and universities.” From the above interviewees’ participations, one can conclude that all stakeholders need to be involved in the provision of guidance and counselling. 3.1.3. Policy Issues and Strategy Guidelines The importance of early childhood care and education is now widely accepted in international research and development policy. The Ethiopian government has designed a national framework for Early Childhood Care Education (2010). Within this framework, the state would regulate the existing ECCE sector provision. It would also begin to provide low - cost Early Childhood Care Education programmes through extending existing government primary schools to provide a reception year. Where this is not possible, some older primary school pupils would be trained as Child-to-Child facilitators in a programme of play designed to improve the readiness of younger children to start school. But there is extremely limited government and donor funding available for the plans in the framework. The implementation of Early Childhood Care Education risks placing a significant burden on an already overstretched primary education system. (Young Lives in Ethiopia, 2012:1). In supporting this idea one primary school principal’s said: “ having a clear policy on all the aspects of Early Childhood Care Education programmes, the provision of guidance and counselling in Early Childhood Care Education, the promotion of quality nutrition, health and safety in Early Childhood Care Education, parental involvement and stakeholder involvement in Early Childhood Care Education, relevant qualification of Early Childhood Care Education personnel and the provision of material, financial and human resources by Zone education and district www.ijmer.in 89 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 education offices would help to improve the quality of Early Childhood Care Education programmes. He further verified that “having a policy that specifies: the service providers, how the services may be offered and when the services may be offered; practical training of guidance and counselling skills of Early Childhood Care Education teachers, school and school principled by zone and districts education offices.” Thus, the discussions programmes with various stakeholders will produce better results through holding awareness process for all partners, familiarising them with Early Childhood Care Education policies, strategies, plans and their implementation. The school principals and district education experts 18 (M 15, F 3) confirmed that “having quality management and organisation of Early Childhood Care Education programmes would improve the quality of Early Childhood Care Education programmes. They also confirmed that the quality of Early Childhood Care Education programmes would be enhanced by: training of all stakeholders on Early Childhood Care Education management and organisation which would bring about a better understanding of Early Childhood Care Education programmes; the existence of a policy with explicit directions of how to manage Early Childhood Care Education programmes and the guidance of school heads by the expectations in Early Childhood Care Education policy administration; carefully structured administrative procedures in which the school heads are guided in management; and wider consultation among school heads, teachers, parents and other stakeholders which would result in ownership of the programme.” From the above interviewers’ views one can conclude that quality Early Childhood Care Education programmes would be the result of programmes that were well managed and organised and had all the stakeholders’ involvement. Thus, good management of Early Childhood Care Education programme involves furnishing, and arranging the play areas as well as cleaning the learning environment efficiently. Besides, the quality of Early Childhood Care Education programmes would also be promoted by having Early Childhood Care Education programmes managed by Early Childhood Care Education specialists who are familiar with the Early Childhood Care Education curriculum and offering intensive training for school heads, parents and other www.ijmer.in 90 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 ministries on Early Childhood Care Education curriculum management by the zone and district education offices. 3.1.4. Status of Inputs of Early Childhood Care and Education to Children The quality of ECCE programmes would be promoted by: having staff development workshops for the school administration on Early Childhood Care Education curriculum issues and their implementation; mounting workshops on mentorship and assessment of Early Childhood Care Education teachers for teachers-in-charge and school heads by teachers. The quality of Early Childhood Care Education programmes depend on the qualifications of Early Childhood Care Education teachers. Each and every one of Early Childhood Care Education teachers need to have relevant qualification(s) (MOE, 2010:12). From the review of related literature from the documents of Ministry of verified that the whole stakeholder participation is calling for qualified Early Childhood Care Education personnel would result in quality Early Childhood Care Education programmes being offered. From the review of related literature from the documents of Ministry of verified that the whole stakeholder participation is calling for qualified Early Childhood Care Education personnel would result in quality Early Childhood Care Education programmes being offered. Every interviewed school principals and district education experts 18 (M 15, F 3) confirmed the following problems are prevailing in the schools: “No trained human resource in the area of managing kindergartens either a pre-service or in service short term programmes; Non-existence clear Early Childhood Care Education policy framework and operational guideline Inadequacy of qualified teachers; Non-existence of allocated budget to kindergarten; Absence of child sized tables and chairs; Absence cleanliness and safety e environment; Unavailability of play ground; Absence of trained administrative support staff; www.ijmer.in 91 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Absence supply of play materials and equipment for practicing different teaching methods; Unavailability of sufficient teaching aide, separate restroom, toilets with water, different children’s book, first aid materials, classroom space per child; The organization of activity centres/corners claimed to be inadequate; Absence of medical consult, material and equipments for children; Separate feeding rooms were significantly low or non-existent; and Old classroom which lack neatness.” Thus, having qualified Early Childhood Care Education personnel would be enhanced by having ECCE policies with clear minimum Early Childhood Care Education teacher qualifications and in training school heads and administrators in Early Childhood Care Education curriculum issues (MOE, 2009:1-2). Because, the quality in preschool education is directly affected by how well status of inputs early childhood care and education to children’s and the practitioners are trained and motivated. 3.1.5. Parent involvement According to Ministry of Education (MOE, 2010:15) parents should be involved in their children's education in the following ways: through newsletters informing them of their role, Through direct links between parents and teachers or caregivers. When young mothers attend prenatal clinics (when they are still expecting their babies), They are given lessons on how to take care of their babies physically. The Ministry of Education (2010:13) as well verified that parents could also be "given lessons" on how to stimulate their children's development in all areas, in particular cognitive development. Besides, the interviewed participates elucidated that “parents would then realise that as much as it is important to raise physically healthy children, it is www.ijmer.in 92 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 also important to raise healthy children in other areas of development. Parents should generally be assisted and empowered in their parental role. This should be done by the departments of Education and Health.” Interviewee participants further suggests “that NGOs should also increasingly be involved in this training of parents and childminders. Additionally, the interviewed participants confirmed that “there should be a considerable amount of control of syllabi by parents that are to be offered for children in this regard in the schools. They also said, “It is important to understand children within their natural environment. Children need to be understood within the context of their families; the participation of parents was assumed to be low; the participation of different NGOs was almost none; and lack of close coordination and work for all pertinent bodies or stakeholders.” 3.1.6. Challenges in the implementation of Early Childhood Care and Education programme Ethiopia offers a case study of the opportunities and challenges in developing early care and education (ECCE) services in low-resource settings. The country has been viewed as a success story of Education for All, with the number of children out of school reduced from nearly four in five in 1992 to one in five in 2009. But there are significant challenges in improving the quality of education provision, and an intense focus on primary education has resulted in relatively little attention to ECCE (Young Lives in Ethiopia, 2012). All of interviewed participants 18 (M 15, F 3) confirmed that “the following major challenges of early childhood care and education programme are prevailing: The non-existent of prepared guideline used for the beneficiary selection process. presence of some sort locally developed criteria set by selection committees or institutions at districts and/or school level like education office, Parent Student and Teacher Association (PSTA) members; but, No uniformly developed adaptable guideline from top to down in the administrative hierarchy dedicated to the selection process; www.ijmer.in 93 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 high turnover of staff in the leadership position at all levels, Lack of clearly allocated money or budget in a sustainable manner to the kindergartens, Lack of capacity though the demand is getting high, lack of motivation and commitment to allocate responsible professionals body at all levels to coordinate all relevant bodies in the area, or non uniform education services delivered by the government and private sector which may in turn contribute to dissatisfaction and lead to bias from parents’ and local lack of sufficient advocacy work to fill the awareness or information gap about the objective of kindergarten education specific to its curriculum content and implementation strategies and lack of sufficient and consistent leadership and coordination the conduciveness of kindergarten for children with disability about the majority of parents and community believe that their kindergartens were to less conducive for children lack of trained teachers in the area absence of support materials including suitable curriculum Besides, all interviewed participants 18 (M 15, F 3) confirmed that “the following major Opportunities also seen in schools such as: Increasing interest and commitment from local communities and administrative offices the existence of opportunities for teachers to upgrade to diploma level specializing in ECCE in summer programme” www.ijmer.in 94 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 3.1.7. Focus Group Discussion Results from parents of Early Childhood Care and Education In this section, an analysis of the focus group discussions with parents of Early Childhood Care and Education in groups of five to seven was provided. The focus group discussions were about the participants’ experience of service in the Early Childhood Care and Education. Accordingly, this section also provides an analysis of the focus group discussion interviews with parents in groups of five to seven of Early Childhood Care and Education, that is, 40 (male 25, female 15) focus group participants and 150 (50 those who sent their children to kindergarten, 50 those who sent their children to O class, and 50 those who did not sent their children to any pre- primary schools). Then the next section discusses accessibility of Early Childhood Care and Education, involvement of parents; the stakeholders/ partners having collaboration with the school; source of schools financial resources; training from the school regarding child development, nutrition, and behaviour. 3.1.7.1. Parent involvement Ministry of Education (MOE, 2010:13) verified that in the very early years, that is, birth to three years, are crucial in intellectual development. This puts emphasis on the crucial role that parents can play in cognitive development. The Ministry of Education (MOE, 2010:23) further explained that if society reinforces preschool education with complementing parental education, then the children will benefit substantially. Thus, according to the Ministry of Education parents can be taught the following: to give value to the education of their children; to give importance to the early years; to give support to their young children; to understand that some of their cultural activities like telling folktales to young children can be beneficial to cognitive development; and To see themselves as the most important educative force in the lives of their children. www.ijmer.in 95 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 There is widespread demand for quality improvement in Early Childhood Care Education services with increasing interest by parents and society. Therefore, it is important to form a long-term strategy of professional development as an integral part of measurement development. The EFA Global Monitoring Report (UNESCO, 2010) indicates that children’s ability to learn and to function as contributing members of society rests heavily on their development of social competency and emotional health. Clearly, home and family early literacy development together with preschool programs with contextually relevant standards of quality will contribute substantially to this development. The research informing this chapter points to an urgent need to promote better home and family literacy development programs that will lead to equitable preschool access and a fair chance for sustained participation in schooling. On the parts of parents’ involvement, 40 (male 25, female 15) focus group participants and 150 (50 those who sent their children to kindergarten,50 those who sent their children to O class, and 50 those who did not sent their children to any pre- primary schools) verified that “as a result of inadequate funding support effective monitoring and supervision in schools (kindergarten and nursery) has become impossible thus allowing illegal operation and questionable practices which are detrimental to children’s learning. In most cases, they are constrained by lack of transportation to the school sites and adequate monitoring equipment to achieve their goals. This is why unapproved and unregistered schools that have not met the minimum standard for approval continue to thrive in most schools in the districts.” The focus discussions participants also explained that “nevertheless, some parents consider the enrolment of their children in the schools as luxury and waste of money. Consequently, the level of enrolment in early childhood education remains low in the districts.” 3.1.7.2. Challenges in the Practices of Early Childhood Care and Education Programme The data collected from the focus group discussion participants and interviewed participants 40 (male 25, female 15) focus group participants and 150 (50 those who sent their children to kindergarten, 50 those who sent their children to O class, and 50 those who did not sent their children to any pre- primary schools) confirmed that “the www.ijmer.in 96 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 following major challenges of early childhood care and education programme were prevailing: Loosen coordination and relationship between stakeholders like parents, offices of education, and health, women and child affairs and different non government organizations. Non comfortable environments classrooms, gates, compounds, little space in to classroom and entire compound, insufficient human resource in the area of teachers and absence of care takers absence of the contribution of parents in the area of financial support was negligible and rather their contribution were largely in labour support when needed; Lack of consistent awareness creation activities about the objective of Pre-primary education.” The data collected from the documents and questionnaire results verified that the total enrolment of KG in Iluababor zone was 3, 363 which was lower than the other zones in Oromia regional state. Besides this, the total number of children enrolled in O-class in Iluababor administrative zone was 32,080 which were again lower than the other zones’ enrolment in Oromia regional state zones. Similarly, the enrolment of children in Child to Child program was very less in terms of access where for Ilu Ababor zone, the total number of children enrolled in this program was 449 which were lower than that of other zones enrolment in Oromia regional state. Besides, the accessibility of private KG, NGO and faith based KG were very few in Iluababor administrative zone. Nonetheless, results from interviews and focus group discussions in the study disclosed that there was very low access to Early Childhood care and Education because the capacities of kindergartens were not commensurate with the existing high demand both in the towns and urban areas that indicated children were denied access to early childhood care and education as it was planned by the government. www.ijmer.in 97 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 The findings of the study confirmed that there was flavourless learning environment in the selected districts such as lack of standardized classroom size, lack of organizing activity centres, unavailability of child-sized tables, chairs and shelves, lack of separate feeding and rest rooms, and lack of child appropriate toilet. With regards to inputs and facilities the results of the study revealed that there were no appropriate facility that fits early childhood care and education that the results of the study showed children books and play materials, availability of locally made play materials and basic first aid in the schools were not suitable. The study concomitantly confirmed the following problems were prevailing in the schools: no trained human resource in the area of managing kindergartens either a pre-service or in service short term programmes; nonexistence clear Early Childhood Care and Education policy framework and operational guideline; inadequacy of qualified teachers; non existence of allocated budget to kindergarten; absence of child sized tables and chairs; absence cleanliness and safety e environment; unavailability of play ground; absence of trained administrative support staff; absence supply of play materials and equipment for practicing different teaching methods; unavailability of sufficient teaching aide, separate restroom, toilets with water, different children’s book, first aid materials, classroom space per child; The organization of activity centres/corners claimed to be inadequate; absence of medical consult, material and equipments for children; separate feeding rooms were significantly low or non-existent; and old classroom which lack neatness. The study results confirmed that the following major challenges of early childhood care and education programme were prevailed: The non-existent of prepared guideline used for the beneficiary selection process; high turnover of staff in the leadership position at all levels; lack of clearly allocated money or budget in a sustainable manner to the kindergartens; lack of capacity though the demand is getting high; lack of motivation and commitment to allocate responsible professionals body at all levels to coordinate early childhood care and education; non uniform education services delivered by the government and private sector which may in turn contribute to dissatisfaction and lead to bias from parents’ and local; lack of sufficient advocacy work to fill the awareness or information gap about the objective of kindergarten www.ijmer.in 98 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 education specific to its curriculum content and implementation strategies and lack of sufficient and consistent leadership and coordination; the conduciveness of kindergarten for children with disability about the majority of parents and community believe that their kindergartens were to less conducive for children; lack of trained teachers in the area and absence of support materials including suitable curriculum were some of the major confront that made poor implementation of the system of early childhood care and education in Iluababor administrative zone. 4.1. Conclusion . The following conclusions were drawn from the finding of the research: The results disclosed that there was very low access to Early Childhood Care and Education because the capacities of kindergartens were not commensurate with the existing high demand both in the towns and urban areas; among the specified teaching learning approaches, low attention were given to project method, drawing and colouring pictures, and role play; There was lack of good preparation in the planning process due to lack of knowledge and skill in kindergarten school development planning; absence of well-built professional training for educators, principals and teachers were very weak; lack of access to professional developments. In general the following problems were identified in the schools: no trained human resource in the area of managing kindergartens either a pre-service or in service short term programmes; nonexistence clear Early Childhood Care and Education policy framework and operational guideline; inadequacy of qualified teachers; non existence of allocated budget to kindergarten; absence of child sized tables and chairs; absence cleanliness and safety environment; unavailability of play ground; absence of trained administrative support staff; absence supply of play materials and equipment for practicing different teaching methods; unavailability of sufficient teaching aide, separate restroom, toilets with water, different children’s book, first aid materials, classroom space per child; The organization of activity centres/corners claimed to be inadequate; absence of medical consult, material and equipments for children; separate feeding rooms were www.ijmer.in 99 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 significantly low or non-existent; and old classroom which lack neatness. 4.2. Recommendation of the Study Thus, the recommendations presented below emanate from the findings and conclusions reached in the study as follows. Governmental and private organizations should have to be involved in the expansion of pre- primary schools. Appropriate ways of planning and implementation should have to be done by implementers of the program Governmental and private organizations should have to be arranged long term and short term training for teachers of pre- primary education. There ought to be a need for the regional government, districts administration, parents and members of the community to join hands and increase financial resources to the Kindergartens and pre-primary schools so that schools can afford to procure the basic instructional resources and to improve the learning environments of the children. Besides, strong stakeholder’s participation should be needed in advocating for and allocating resources for early childhood care and education in Iluababor administrative pre- primary and kindergartens to improve quality of early childhood care and education programmes being offered. Regional government, regional education bureau and the private sectors should have to address the challenges or factors that are having a negative influence on the Early Child Care and Education so as to create attractive learning environment for children in kindergartens and pre-primary schools. Comprehensive capacity building such as workshops, and seminars on the issue of early childhood care and education should be prepared jointly by Mettu University, Mettu Teachers Training College and non government organizations so that everyone can get awareness and take the responsibility under common understanding. It is as well suitable to institutionalize the coordination efforts through establishing a sort of www.ijmer.in 100 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 institutional network to improve the system of early childhood care and education at all levels. Acknowledgements We would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to Mettu University Research and Technology Transfer Directorate Office for its financial support, commitment, unfailing encouragement, and guidance to conduct this study. Our deep appreciation also goes to sampled schools leaders, teachers, Early Childhood care and Education Program coordinators, supervisors, principals, and facilitators and implementers of the ECCE program for their giving us the necessary information by fulfilling questionnaires, participating in FGD and interviews. Without their ample participation, this study would not have been completed. We are also greatly thankful to Iluababor Zone Education Department and the sampled districts Early Childhood Care and Education for they gave us an important documents and reference materials concerning our research work. List of references Creswell, J.W., & Planno Clark, V.L. (2007). Designing and Conducting Mixed Research. Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage Publication. Melhuish, e. (2011).early years experience and longer-term child development: research and implications for policymaking. Edu/edpc/ecec MOE. (2005). Education Sector Development Program III (ESDP-III). Addis Ababa: MOE. MOE. (2009). The Education and Training Policy and its Implementation. AA: MOE. MoE (2010). Education Sector Development Program IV (ESDP IV). Program Action Plan, Addis Ababa MoE (2011/12) Education statistics Annual Abstract Papalia,D. and Olds,W.(1990):A Child World: Infancy Through Adolescence. Mc Gra-Hill,Inc United states Ministry of Education (2015). ESDP V First Final Draft, Addis Abeba www.ijmer.in 101 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 MoE, MoH, and MoWA (2010a): Policy document for Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE). Ultimate printing press. MoE, MoH, and MoWA (2010b): Strategic operational plan and guidelines for early childhood care and education in Ethiopian. Ultimate printing press. Mwamwenda .F (2014).Early Childhood Education in Africa: Mediterranean Journal of Social Science, Vol, 5 , No. 20 , Peisner-Feinberg, E.S. (2007). Child Care and Its Impact on Young Children’s Development. Michigan: Dushkin/McGraw Hill. Tassew Woldehanna (2011).The Effects of Early Childhood Education Attendance on Cognitive Development: Evidence from Urban Ethiopia. Paper for the CSAE Conference 2011 on Economic Development in Africa at St Catherine’s College, Oxford, 20 ‐ 22 Tsegai Mulugeta (2015). Early child care and education attainment in Ethiopia: Current status and challenges. African Educational Research Journal Vol. 3(2), pp. 136-142 TGE. (1994). The Education and Training Policy. Addis Ababa: Berhanena Selam Printing Enterprise. UNESCO - EFA. (2010). Global Monitoring Report Summary Paris: UNESCO publishing from http://undoc.unesco.org UNESCO & UNICEF (2012). Early Childhood Care and Education. Asia-pacific end of decade notes on education for all Young Lives Ethiopia Policy Brief (2013). Why public investment in pre-school education is needed to boost cognitive and school outcomes for the poorest children www.ijmer.in 102 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 ROLE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS IN SUPPORTING LINGUISTICALLY AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE LEARNERS J. Damayanthi Dept of English Abstract As teacher of English language, one needs to shoulder the responsibility of using language to empower the society morally and ethically; and identify the students as funds of knowledge of various cultures. Expectations of students from language teachers are unpredictable. So is the result of having learners from different cultural backgrounds. However, there is an opportunity of molding the learners’ bent of mind in a systematic manner, thereby continuing the teaching English language innovatively using the diverse cultural backgrounds as a tool. And language teachers have to work with an objective to inculcate ethics and morals by using certain language games. Thus, use of literature and language should help the learners to understand the need of ethics to lead a happy and successful life. This paper focuses on the drastic changes that took place over a period of time and its impact on the society. It also discusses the challenges; learning drawbacks, and need of the hour for ethics to be taught. A part from these, it also focuses on learners’ outcomes just by providing the requisite linguistic orientation to culturally distinct learners ranging from known to unknown. Key Words: Language Games, Ethics, Diverse Learners, Language Teachers, Imparting Knowledge Introduction Language acquisition is precisely about discovering ways to engage in communication with others. It is learning to interact through emerging www.ijmer.in 103 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 words, signs and accents in cross-cultural meets. As of today language teaching and learning are highly spirited activities which occur in real and virtual worlds. What are Ethics? Ethics is the arena that reasons about the correctness of actions on the grounds of being right or wrong. This is connected to specific moral values and actions as well as the issues around them. Teaching ethics fills a gap in the conventional programs in which students are enrolled. Ethics courses are unavailable; this provides students with a symposium to explore this important subject while learning a second language. Ethics provides plenty of material for English language classes. It is of great relevance and interest to students. Teaching ethics to students provides an opportunity to consider their role in society in new ways. In so doing, we have the possibility of achieving an educational benefit that reaches beyond either their domain or English thereby the possibility of a better world would be created. Ethics as a content base for English language teaching provides an excellent opportunity for English teachers to approach the instruction for students from a perspective other than the typical ESP/EST approach. The advantages of using a subject like ethics, in addition to the more traditional ESP/EST methods of instruction, are numerous and wide-ranging. Macmurray (2012) has explained that the cultivation of our sensibility and emotions means treating our senses rather than as means as “ends in themselves” (p.671), and being able to enjoy what we perceive around us through emotional reflection. He pleads for an educational system based on “learning to be human”. This humanistic approach is key to the field of Languages because it is based on human perception, communication and interaction. And another educationist, Macmurray (2012), believes, on the one hand, that “our ability to enter into fully www.ijmer.in 104 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 personal relations with others is the measure of our humanity.” (p. 670) Students could be offered an education in direct proportionality between behavior and social interaction which leads to success in all aspects. Awareness should be inculcated not only on the role of their linguistic skills but also on their cultural attitudes and values. In fact, language education could go beyond awareness and reflection of identity formation and the impact of culture by building on students’ perceptions and knowledge of the world, as well as their interpersonal intercultural skills. Need to apply ethics in choosing a course of action are guided by clear rules that can be adopted in advance that could help the individual to lead an ethical life. Below mentioned are a few that a person can adopt: I will think before I act. I will clarify and periodically review my goals. I will gather sufficient facts before I act. I will try to consider all reasonable options. I will consider the consequences of my actions and omissions. I will give consideration to the judgment of others. I will monitor and review the results of my actions. I will be honest in all my business dealings. I will be considerate of the environment. I will speak truthfully. What are the challenges faced in learning and teaching ethics? Teaching ethics is always a challenge for teachers and learners as it is proportional to the environment in which we teach and students learn. www.ijmer.in 105 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 This environment is ever changing which always proves to be a task for both teachers and learners. Establishing a standard of discipline is also essential. This can be achieved through consultation with both of them. Active participation of students in this process will help to increase the students' awareness of what disciplinary measures are in place, and why they are used when they are used. Students will gain an appreciation for the fairness of the system, and will be less likely to perceive discipline as a personal attack. In short, they will understand that discipline is a result of their actions, and will develop a sense of responsibility for their own behavior. Uniform enforcement of such discipline will also increase the level or respect between teachers and students by separating the deed from the doer, and by increasing the air of co-operation. It is important to note that disciplinary methods should not diminish the dignity and self- esteem of the student. By involving the student in deciding upon a code of discipline, and by discussing the use of discipline with students, educators can avoid this problem. Below mentioned are some aspects which can provide a platform for teachers to go beyond situation dilemmas which require students to consider aspects of about human behavior Bystanders – this means those people who observed what was going on but did nothing about it (sometimes for a variety of motivations such as fear of reprisals, indifference etc) Perpetrators – this means those directly involved in the process of persecution itself Victims – this means those people who were made victims by persecution www.ijmer.in 106 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Rescuers – this means those people who were directly involved in helping victims of persecution, such as hiding them, smuggling them out of the country etc. Activities based on these perspectives of human behavior are designed to help students discuss difficult issues, while also recognizing that they likely represent different perspectives. The following strategies have been adopted from Facing History: Iceberg This strategy which helps students to investigate the underlying issues which underpin major historical events. Students can explore the multiple factors and issues surrounding past events and how they were acted out by individuals involved, by using an iceberg diagram. The “tip “ of the iceberg focuses on the students’ existing knowledge of the event and they are asked to write about What happened? Where did the event take place and when? What choices were made and by whom? Who was affected by these choices? The “beneath the surface” part of the iceberg is where the students begin to think deeper about what caused the event. They can explore more complex questions about the factors which influenced the particular choices of individuals and groups of people involved in the event and write their ideas in the bottom half of the iceberg diagram In the discussions which follow students could be asked to consider what could have happened if different choices had been made? Could anything have been done to prevent this event from happening? Can anything be done today to prevent similar events from happening? Barometer A barometer is a walking debate which can be used to present different perspectives of historical figures. This teaching strategy helps students to physically take a stand by lining up along a continuum to represent a point of view. It is especially useful when trying to discuss moral and www.ijmer.in 107 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 ethical questions raised by historical situations about which there is wide range of perspectives.. As the activity progresses teacher uses statements which concentrate on the choices facing the different historical figures and the existing factors which may have constrained or assisted their decisions. The discussions will enable the students to confront and explore any assumptions they may have about the moral choices made by different groups of people in the past. Teacher can extend the discussions by asking the students to investigate how their chosen group may have responded if they had the benefit of hindsight and to explain their choices. Using a barometer strategy allows students to explore ways of constructively disagreeing with one another when different groups in the class offer their explanations in defence of a particular position. The techniques listed provide effective implications for better discipline in the classroom which has a direct impact on ethical behavior and also helps to handle ethical dilemmas. Let the students know what you need by having five to six classroom rules. Be consistent and take charge of your classes in a firm manner . Be sure that the instruction you provide matches the ability of the student. Listen to what students are thinking or feeling. Invite help from other individuals who may come in contact with the students. Correct inappropriate behavior before it gets out of hand. Use humor in the classroom. Use various techniques to move smoothly from one activity to another. www.ijmer.in 108 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Offer choices to your students. Spend time with your students individually. Set up techniques that will teach the students to monitor their own behavior. Inform your students that accuses will not be accepted in the classroom. Designate your classroom into different activity or learning areas. Legitimize misbehavior that you cannot stop. Realize and accept that you will not reach every student in your class. Reduce the stress that comes with being a teacher. Start fresh every day. Inculcation of ethical thinking through language teaching supported by games. Language games Warm up: Copycat. The session starts with an exercise. Standing in a circle so they can see one another, each student says his or her name while making a physical gesture, like waving. Everyone else then repeats the student’s name and gesture. After all take a turn, we discuss the underlying meaning: how, starting in infancy, people learn to “be” by copying the actions of others. 2 .Anagrams. Help the students to arrive at a discussion on a frame work of vocabulary which would help them to be structured. 3. Complete the story. Giving few lines of the story or a task to complete the story would provide the students an opportunity for www.ijmer.in 109 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 ethical thinking as the story would be based on inculcating ethics and moralities. 4. Role play Role playing gives students an opportunity to explore their own moral compass. Combined with other activities throughout, like developing a personal ethical code, the students launch into the professional world with a foundation for action. Culturally diversified learners as a bank for language teaching Educators need to model culturally responsive and socially responsible practices for students. When English educators model culturally responsive practices they explicitly acknowledge and incorporate students’ funds of knowledge. Modeling effective teaching practices involves building on and consciously referring to the knowledge base of said practices. The process of modeling depends on carefully planned demonstrations, experiences, and activities. As part of this process, educators help students collectively examine experiences in light of their own learning, knowledge, and goals. Crossing Cultural Boundaries Teachers and teacher educators must be willing to cross traditional, personal and professional boundaries in pursuit of social justice and equity. While there are discussions about whether “we” can or cannot teach “others,” the fact remains that English educators do just that every day. There is and will continue to be a disparity between the racial, socioeconomic, and cultural backgrounds of English educators and their students. Teacher candidates will need to understand and acknowledge racial and socioeconomic inequities that exist and that schools perpetuate. Ultimately, teachers need to engage in projects that allow them to study their lives as a way to recognize their limits and to complement www.ijmer.in 110 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 the work they will do in crossing personal boundaries. This may involve learning language, studying culture, and visiting with students and their families. This has to be done as it is not the same student all the time. The following are few activities and projects to develop sustained contact with participants from diverse communities. Develop projects on different cultural practices. Accomplish the projects above via audio and video tape interviewing; transcribing, studying, and compiling the stories of people from different cultures/places; collecting oral histories; all to be used as classroom resources. Use documentary films from PBS, etc., as a resource, designing carefully-phrased pre-post viewing questions and activities. References https://www.brainpop.com/games/mobethics/ https://www.facultyfocus.com/tag/active-learning-activities/ http://www.schrockguide.net/uploads/3/9/2/2/392267/critical- thinking-workbook.pdf http://www2.ncte.org/statement/diverselearnersinee/ http://hosted.jalt.org/pansig/PGL2/HTML/CuBr.htm www.ijmer.in 111 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT Kommu Shekar Department of Public Administration Abstract India constitutes the second largest urban population in the world having more than 300 million people dwelling in towns and cities. The figure is likely to cross 40% with 74 million-plus urban cluster by 2021. In order to cope with the challenges of rapid urbanization, the Government of India has set up the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission¹ (JNNURM) in 2005 with a single objective to strengthen and empower urban local bodies / municipalities and to accelerate investment, both public and private, for urban infrastructure and facilities. Within a short duration of 3 years, quite a lot of urban local bodies and municipalities have brought in innovative ideas to attract private sector not only as a partner to build, but also operate, manage urban infrastructure and amenities. Infrastructure Development requires huge resources. Not every investment can come from public resources. For this reason, it is necessary that we investigate avenues to increase investment in infrastructure by means of a mixture of public investment, PPPs and exclusive private investment wherever possible. The, PPP approach², supplements inadequate resources, creates a more competitive environment and helps improve efficiencies and reduce costs. At this point, the profits of PPP can be measured by the success achieved in the roads and transportation sector. In less than a decade, PPPs have become the default development alternative in these sectors. Other infrastructure sectors in particular airports & aviation, ports and railways are being developed through PPP to a limited extent. It may not be out of context to point out that urban infrastructure sector has possibly witnessed slight amount of progress as far PPPs are concerned. www.ijmer.in 112 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 ¹Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was a massive city-modernisation scheme launched by the Government of India under Ministry of Urban Development. ²PPP Approach is one of the main approaches in financing the large- scale infrastructure projects, Objectives to provide an insight about PPP in Indian infrastructural projects to assess the impact of the current Infrastructural projects on the inclusive development of the nation in order to propose an effective PPP Policy to review advantages and disadvantages of PPP in India Key words: Infrastructure, Public-Private Partnerships, Transportation, Economic Growth, Business Ventures 1. Introduction A public–private partnership (PPP or 3P) is a commercial legal relationship defined by the Government of India in 2011as an arrangement between a government / statutory entity / government owned entity on one side and a private sector body on the other, for the provision of public assets and/or public services, by means of investments being made or management being undertaken by the private sector entity, for a specified period of time, where there is well defined allocation of risk between the private sector and the public entity and the private entity receives performance linked payments that correspond to specified and pre-determined performance standards, to be gauged by the public entity or its representative. The Government of India recognizes several types of PPPs, including: User-fee based BOT model³, Performance based management/maintenance contracts and Modified design-build contracts. At present, there are hundreds of PPP projects in different stages of implementation throughout the country. As summarized in its XII Five Year Plan4 (2012–2017), India has an impressive target of infrastructure investment (estimated at US$1 trillion). In the face of such a massive investment requirement, the www.ijmer.in 113 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Government of India is vigorously promoting PPPs in many sectors of the economy. According to the World Bank, about 824 PPP projects have attained financial closure since 1990 in India. Build-operate-transfer3 is a good model to start with low initial investment wherein a private entity receives a concession from the private or public sector to finance, design, construct, own, and operate a facility as declared the concession contract. XII Five Year Plan4 (2012–2017) aimed at setting up an inspiring target for infrastructure investment. 2. Definition A public–private partnership (PPP) is a government service or private business endeavour which is funded and operated during a partnership of government and one or more private sector companies. These schemes are every now and then referred to as PPP, P3 or P3. Thus PPP stands for a long-term contractual partnership between the public and private sector agencies, explicitly targeted towards financing, designing, implementing and operating infrastructure facilities and services in the State. These PPPs aim to accomplish the twin objectives of high growth and equity on a sustainable basis. 3. Background Demand to change the standard model of public procurement came to exist initially from concerns about the level of public debt, which grew rapidly through the macroeconomic dislocation of the 1970s and 1980s. In a competitive global environment, governments around the world were stressing on new ways to finance projects, construct infrastructure and deliver services. At the outset, major public–private partnerships were negotiated individually, as one-off deals, and a great deal of this activity began in the early 1990s. In 1992, the Conservative government of John Major in the UK introduced the private finance initiative5(PFI), the first well-organized programme intended to encourage public–private partnerships. Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) in India The Government of India recognizes that there is significant deficit in the availability of physical infrastructure across different Sectors and that this is hindering economic development. Provision of quality infrastructure is critical for the economy to attain a higher growth www.ijmer.in 114 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 trajectory on a sustained basis. The development of infrastructure requires large investments that cannot be undertaken out of public financing alone, and that in order to attract private capital as well as the techno-managerial efficiencies associated with it, the Government is committed to promoting Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) in infrastructure development6. 5Private finance initiative is a method of providing funds for major capital investments where private firms are allowed to carry out and manage public projects on contract. 6Infrastructural development constitutes the basic physical systems of a company or nation; transportation, communication, sewage, water and electric systems are all examples for infrastructure. In addition to leveraging public capital to attract private capital and undertaking a larger shelf of infrastructure projects, PPPs bring in the advantages of private sector expertise and cost reducing technologies as well as efficiencies in operation and maintenance. Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) present the most suitable option of meeting these targets, not only in attracting private capital in creation of infrastructure but also in enhancing the standards of delivery of services through greater efficiency. Few of the primary reasons for public agencies to enter into public-private partnerships include: accelerate the implementation of high priority projects through packaging and procuring services in new methods turning to the private sector to supply specialized management capacity for huge and complex programmes enable the delivery of new technology developed as a result of private entities drawing on private sector expertise in accessing and organizing the widest range of private sector financial resources encourage private entrepreneurial development, ownership, and operation of highways and related assets allowing for the decrease in the size of the public agency and the substitution of private sector resources and personnel a). PPP Policies www.ijmer.in 115 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 i. Government of India Support (PPP Cell, DEA, GOI) The Government also generated a Viability Gap Funding Scheme7 for PPP projects to help promote the sustainability of the infrastructure projects provided that the Government or statutory entity that owns the project may, if it so decides, provide additional grants out of its budget, but not exceeding a further twenty percent of the Total Project Cost. This scheme provides financial support to infrastructure projects, normally in the kind of a capital grant8 on the stage of project construction up to 20 percent of the total project. 7Viability Gap Funding (VGF) refers to a grant one-time, provided to assisr infrastructure projects that are economically justified but fall short of financial viability. 8 Capital grant refers to a contribution made by a government to an independent governmental body to cover part of the expenditure of the latter's facilities. Presently, viability gap funding is restricted to a maximum of 40% of the project cost. The principle of viability gap is that a project generates positive externalities, the benefits of which can't be reaped by the project operator. As majority of the urban sector projects generate positive externalities, they should be a provision for providing higher VGF for some of these sectors which are perceived as social goods. ii. The “India Infrastructure Project Development Fund” (IIPDF), PPP Cell, DEA, GOI The procurement costs of PPPs, and particularly the costs of Transaction Advisors, are significant and often pose a burden on the budget of the Sponsoring Authority. Department of Economic Affairs (DEA) has identified the IIPDF as a mechanism through which Sponsoring Authority will be able to source funding to cover a portion of the PPP transaction costs, thereby reducing the impact of costs related to procurement on their budgets. The IIPDF9 will be available to the Sponsoring Authorities for PPP projects for the purpose of meeting the project development costs which may include the expenses incurred by the Sponsoring Authority in respect of feasibility studies, environment impact studies, financial structuring, legal reviews and development of project documentation, including concession agreement, commercial assessment studies etc. www.ijmer.in 116 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Transaction Advisors: The Government of India has considered that implementation of this policy will need a capacity in order to determine the suitability and feasibility of PPP transactions and effectively implement agreed transactions. This entails agencies concerned at central, state and municipal government level have access to suitable advisory support for the implementation of PPP transactions. Consequently, Government of India has finalised a panel of pre- qualified Transaction Advisers to assist the agencies concerned with identifying and retaining transaction advisers10. This panel is accessible to all sponsoring authorities as well as central, state and municipal governments and their agencies who are undertaking PPP transactions. 9 IIPDF is an acronym for India Infrastructure Project Development Fund this Scheme is created to support the Central and the State Governments and local bodies through financial support for project development activities (feasibility reports, project structuring etc.) for PPP projects. 10 Transaction advisers undertake an inclusive feasibility of the project and also provide advisory services for the procurement of the project. The Ministry of Finance centralizes the coordination of PPPs, through its Department of Economic Affairs' (DEA) PPP Cell. In 2011, the DEA published guidelines for the formulation and approval of PPP projects. This was part of a venture to restructure PPP procedures and strengthen the regulatory framework at the national level to expedite PPP projects approval, reassure private parties and encourage them to enter into PPPs in India. Besides this was one of the main roles of the Public Private Partnership Appraisal Committee11 (PPPAC) which is responsible for PPP project appraisal at the central level.The Government has also launched India Infrastructure Finance Company Limited (IIFCL) which provides long-term debt for financing infrastructure projects. Established in 2006, IIFCL provides financial assistance in the following sectors like transportation, energy, water, sanitation, communication, social and commercial infrastructure. With an aim to help finance the cost incurred towards development of PPP projects (which can be significant, and particularly the costs of transaction advisors), the Government of India has launched in 2007 the 'India Infrastructure Project Development Fund’ (IIPDF) which supports up to 75 % of the project development expenses. Finally, the www.ijmer.in 117 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 PPP Cell has produced a series of guidance papers and a 'PPP Toolkit'12 to support project preparation and decision-making processes. The core objective is to help improve decision-making for infrastructure PPPs in India and to improve the quality of the PPPs that are developed. The toolkit has been designed with a main focus on helping decision-making at the Central, State and Municipal levels. b). PPP Models in practice There are range of PPP models that allocate a responsibilities and risks between the public and private partners in different ways. The following terms are commonly used to describe typical partnership agreement. Build Operate and Transfer (BOT) Build-Own-Operate-and-Transfer (BOOT) Build-and-Transfer (BT) Build-Own-and-Operate (BOO) Build-Lease-and-Transfer (BLT) Build-Transfer-and-Operate (BTO) Design Built Finance Operate (DBFO) Contract-Add-and-Operate (CAO) Develop-Operate-and-Transfer(DOT) Lease Management Agreement 11Public Private Partnership Appraisal Committee is a business legal relationship defined by the Govt of India in 2011 as "an arrangement between a government owned entity on one side and a private sector entity on the other, for the provision of public assets through investments being undertaken by the private sector entity for a specified period of time. 12. The PPP Toolkit is a web-based resource designed to help improve decision-making and to improve the quality of the PPPs for the development of infrastructure PPPs in India www.ijmer.in 118 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Statistics Sector Wise Project Details Sector-wise No.of.Pr Based Betw Betw More Value ojects on een een than of 100 100 to 251 to 500 Contr crore 250 500 crore acts crore crore Airports 5 - - 303.0 18,808. 19,111. 0 0 Education 17 424.2 365.5 460.0 600.0 1,849.7 Energy 56 337.6 934.0 3,083. 62,890. 67,244. 0 0 6 Health Care 8 315.0 343.0 275.0 900.0 1,833.0 Ports 61 86.0 1,745. 4,304. 74,902. 81,038. 3 8 1 2 Railways 4 - 102.2 873.0 594.3 1,569.6 Roads 405 4,364.6 11,696 38,520 122,143 176,724 .5 .5 .3 .9 Tourism 50 1,132.6 1,503. 800.0 1,050.0 4,486.1 5 Urban 152 2,812.0 3,136. 6,688. 16,838. 29,475. Development 9 2 0 0 Total 758 9,471.9 19,826 55,307 298,725 383,332 .9 .5 .8 .1 It may be noted that road projects account for 53.4% of the total number of projects and 46% by total value owing to the small average size of projects. Ports though account for 8% of the total number of projects have a larger average size of project and contribute 21% in terms of total value. It is remarkable that if ports and central road projects are excluded from the total, there is in fact a comparatively a small value of deal flow, at only Rs 125,568.93 Crores in basic infrastructure PPPs to date, suggesting a momentous potential upside for PPP projects across sectors where states and municipalities have most important responsibility. It is observed that the potential use of PPPs in e-governance and health and education sectors remains largely unutilized across India in general, though recently there have been a few activities influencing these sectors. Across states and central agencies, the leading users of PPPs by number of projects have been www.ijmer.in 119 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh, with 104, 96 and 86 awarded projects correspondingly and the National Highways Authority of India13 (NHAI), with about 155 projects. In terms of main types of PPP contracts, more or less all contracts have been of the BOT/BOOT14 type comprising either toll or annuity payment models or close variants. 13National Highways Authority of India is mainlyresponsible for the development, maintenance and management of National Highways in the country. 14BOT/BOOT are the Type of PPP (Public Private Partnership) Models. 4. Telangana Urban Finance And Infrastructure Corporation (Tufidc) Projects Handled by TUFIDC S.No. Name of the Project Transaction Advisors 1 O&M of Street Lighting in M/s. Price House Water Coopers 9 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in Telangana 2 Foot Over Bridges in M/s. Price House Water Coopers Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in Telangana State 3 Pay & Use Toilets in M/s. CRISIL Risk & Urban Local Bodies Infrastructure Solutions (ULBs) in Telangana State Implementation 1. Foot Over Bridges Single bid for 2 FOBs in Khammam 13ULB was received. Government issued orders accepting the sole bid and accordingly APUFIDC issued Letter of Award to M/s.Prakash Arts Pvt. Ltd. for Khammam ULB for 2 sites, Agreement yet to be executed. www.ijmer.in 120 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 2. Pay and Use Toilets One single bid each for different locations for 4 PUTs in 3 ULBs were received. The Bidder M/s.Suvidha Sanitation has executed the Concession Agreement for 1 PUT in Nirmal ULB.As the said site was in dispute M/s.Suvidha Sanitation requested to return the performance security and bid security. 14APUFIDC has returned the performance security and bid security to the bidder. 3. Street Lighting Project in 12 ULBs 1. Gajwel Nagara Panchayat 2. Karimnagar Corporation 3. Nizamabad Corporation 4. Siddipet Municipality 5. Siricilla Municipality 6. Ramagundam Corporation 7. Khammam Corporation 8. Mahbubnagar Municipality 9. Manchiryal Municipality 10. Nalgonda Municipality 11. Tandur Municipality, 12. Warangal Corporation 13ULB is an abbreviation that may be referred to Ultra Light Beam 14APUFIDC is an organization initiated by Government of Andhra Pradesh for an effective implementation of several infrastructure and housing projects meant for urban poor. Scope: Retrofitting of existing street lights with LED luminaries CCMS at switch points (during full scale project) Light quality : to match or exceed existing light output Replacement on point to point www.ijmer.in 121 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Retrofit wattages of LED Existing 40 70 70 250 400 wattages, W Other losses, W 8 10 15 25 40 Gross wattage, 48 80 165 275 440 W LED Wattage 15- 35-45 70-85 120-140 190-210 (range) 20 Power ministry PSU Energy Efficiency Services Ltd15 (EESL) has signed an agreement with Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) to retrofit an astounding 4.5 lakh street lights with LED lamps, beneath the Street Lighting National Project (SLNP). This, according to a release by EESL, is the leading LED street lighting project in the world. EESL has retrofitted 2.7 lakh street lights for South Delhi Municipal Corporation that is presently the largest project below the SLNP. The expenditure of the GHMC street lighting project is approximately Rs.270 crore that will be fully borne by EESL. The municipal corporation will pay back the cost through deemed savings, over a period of seven years. GHMC is expected to save 200 million kwh of electricity per year through the switch to LED street lighting. Currently, GHMC has 3.5 lakh street lighting poles, a number that will be increased to 4.5 lakh ensuring 33 lighting poles per km. GHMC presently incurs an annual cost of Rs.210 crore on operating and maintaining the current conventional lighting system. EESL has assured the Telangana civic body that it would recover 50 per cent on its current costs, through the LED switchover. Over the seven-year period, GHMC is expected to save over Rs.1,200 crore. The Street Lighting National Programme16, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on January 5, 2015, aims to convert 1.34 crore conventional street lights with energy-efficient LED lights. The present achievement stands at nearly 26 lakh. 15Energy Efficiency Services Ltd (EESL) was launched under the Ministry of Power to facilitate the functioning of energy efficiency projects. www.ijmer.in 122 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 16Street Lighting National Programme (SLNP) was launched by the government launched with an aim to replace conventional street lights with smart and energy efficient LED street lights by March, 2019. 5. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Ppp With Reference To Indian Infrastructural Projects Advantages Value for Money: The important benefit of PPP is the generation of value for money which means delivering a project with the higher quality for similar amount of money. Risk Transfer: Risk will be transferred to third party who can manage risk at least cost. Private sector management skills: This allows the project to be delivered well in advance. By using PPP Government will have access to new skills. Competition: Generally competition is linked with private sector such as lower prices, Innovative Practices, Increased Investment, Better services etc. Cost Efficiencies: PPP leads to cost efficiencies due to increased competition, increased proportion of risk transfer, and closer integration of various aspects. Time to Delivery savings: PPP projects can be delivered faster than under standard procurement because of better project management, better management of project risks and as the service provider is not paid until the project is completed. Reduction on the public Treasury: PPP helps minimize the capital demands17 on the public treasury for infrastructure development18. Broad support: PPP are broadly sustained by central, state and local bodies. Others: Innovation, Private sector project development skills, Transparency of process, Involvement of third party financiers etc. Disadvantages Higher transaction cost: PPP’s try to decrease entire project cost, since trending costs and developing costs are generally higher. www.ijmer.in 123 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Lack of coordination: As there are two or more parties involved in PPP there are chances of confusion Inefficiencies: PPP can lead to Inefficiency due to lack of contestability and competition. Culture Gap: There exists a culture gap between public and private sector which may end in loss of mutual confidence. ______17capital demands is the amount of capital a financial institution has to hold as may be required its financial regulator. 18Infrastructure development contributes to the revamping and promotion of physical infrastructure especially in the disaster affected areas. Different Objectives: The private sectors motive to take part in PPP is to mainly make profits but the motive of public sector is service oriented. Corruption: PPP projects are constantly in the wake of the risk of corruption as there are excessively numerous people and procedures engaged in the closure of the project. Political and Legal Problems: Changing Governments and major changes in law has sometimes a very horrific influence on PPP projects. 6. Findings And Recommendations 1. In order to make PPP projects successful in India, risk should only be transferred to those parties who are most excellent in managing it, because transferring risk will result in a huge impact. 2. Over-specification and miss-specification of project result can cause huge damage. For this reason, the government will have to determine its goals, desires, principles and requirements as clearly as possible. 3. The total number of bidders should be enough to have effective competition, but should be limited in order to have control over transaction cost, quality of bids and probability of success. www.ijmer.in 124 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 4. It is always better to have standardized contracts in order to avoid transaction cost, delays and uncertainties. 5. In terms of contract award method, the international competitive bidding yielded 35% of total investment in India followed by domestic competitive bidding19 of 26%. 6. An independent institutional structure for handling PPP programs in India has to be set up to function as a nodal agency with the responsibility of creation of PPP database, best practices and model documents for all sectors. 7. There is a need for efficient distribution of responsibility, costs and risks among the public and private sector to discharge their responsibilities productively such as land acquisition, environmental clearance, state support, etc. 8. There are a good number of projects under Transportation, Airports, and Ports sectors, but there is a huge under-explored market in sectors like Energy, Urban Development20 and Railways. 9. There is a dire need for PPP projects in India to grow at a speed of 8-9% to match countries like Japan and China in terms of infrastructural development. 19competitive bidding is a procedure for issuing a public bid with the intention that companies can put together their best proposal and contest for a particular project. 20Urban Development handles planning and development in urban and rural areas. 7. Conclusion Reflecting on India’s infrastructural needs, PPPs are not just seen an alternative, but as a necessity. It has been understood that PPP has many merits such as large investment in public both urban and rural infrastructure, efficient service delivery, cost-effectiveness, contracts that are performance-based, sharing of risks, effective use of assets and opportunities of long-term investment. By an adoption of combined economic approach which relies on public private involvement in economic activities, Public Private Partnership in infrastructure is at this point more than a decade old. It seems to create considerable value www.ijmer.in 125 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 to the Indian Government and its citizens with respect to enhancement in time efficiency, greater ease, increased reliability and saving costs along with easy availability of information. Since, there are many issues which need to be identified, addressed and resolved in order to create a better understanding on making use of PPP in a better way to develop Indian infrastructure efficiently. Finally, PPPs often terminate being renegotiated. The main reason is due to the long-term nature of the PPP projects and their complications. It is hard to identify all possible contingencies during project development, events and issues may arise that were not anticipated in the documents or by the parties at the time of signing the contract. Other major drawbacks encountered in 3P projects in India take account of poorly drafted contracts and lack of understanding of contracts, insufficient resources, lack of managerial experience, breaches of contract, failures in team building, lack of performance measures, corruption and political intervention. Bibliography 1. http://www.mwcllctest.com/sitefiles/IP3.pdf (06/06/2014) 2. http://dspace.ucalgary.ca/bitstream/1880/44333/1/TransportPaper- Ohri.pdf (06/06/2014) 3. http://cistup.iisc.ernet.in/presentations/Kalpana15032013.pdf (06/06/2014) 4. http://www.iima.edu.in/assets/snippets/workingpaperpdf/2010-11- 03Ajay.pdf (06/06/2014) 5. http://www.ibef.org/download/India_Infrastructure.pdf (06/06/2014) 6. http://joaag.com/uploads/7_- _4_1___Reaserach_Note_SharmaFinal.pdf (06/06/2014) 7. http://www.ijbm.org- A Study on Public-Private Partnerships with Reference to Indian Infrastructural Projects Tharun Shastry. International Journal of Business and Management Invention ISSN (Online): 2319 – 8028, ISSN (Print): 2319 – 801X www.ijbmi.org Volume 3 Issue 10 ǁ October. 2014 ǁ PP.56-62 www.ijmer.in 126 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 8. http://www.pppinharyana.gov.in/ppp/sector/health/report- healthcare.pdf (06/06/2014) 9. http://jms.nonolympictimes.org/Articles/Article8.pdf (06/06/2014) 10. http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/jtrc/DiscussionPapers /DP201311.pdf (06/06/2014) 11. http://www.icar.org.in/files/Public-Private-Partnership.pdf (06/06/2014) 12. http://a4id.org/sites/default/files/files/%5BA4ID%5D%20Public- Private%20Partnership.pdf (06/06/2014) 13. http://www.pppinindia.com/pdf/Gridlines- %20Financing%20PPPs%20India.pdf (06/06/2014) 14. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnershi p (06/06/2014) 15. http://www.ripublication.com/gjmbs_spl/gjmbsv3n7_15.pdf (06/06/2014) 16. http://recoup.educ.cam.ac.uk/publications/WP5-SF_PPPs.pdf (06/06/2014) 17. Public Private partnerships, the advantages and Disadvantages examined; GWEB Van Herpen. 18. Committee on Infrastructure Financing. (2007). “The Report of the Committee on Infrastructure Financing”, Government of India, New Delhi, India. 19. Department of Economic Affairs. (2007a). “Meeting India’s Infrastructure Needs with Public Private Partnerships: The International Experience and Perspective”. Conference Report. Ministry of Finance, New Delhi, India. 20. Varrkey B, Raghuram G, “Public Private Partenership in Airport Development – Governance and Risk Management Implications from Cochin International Airport Limited” ,IIM Ahmedabad. 21. Airports Authority of India 22. Sinha Sanjay K, “Mobilising Private Investment in Airport Development in India”, India Infrastructure Summit, March 29, 2005. www.ijmer.in 127 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 23. Selvaraju, V and VB Annigeri. 2001. Trends in Public Spending on Health in India. New Delhi: National Institute of Public Finance and Policy. Background paper for the Commission on Macro Economics and Health (India) 24. Economic Survey, 2010-11 and various years, Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Government of India 25. http://www.tndindia.com/worlds-largest-led-street-lighting-project- hyderabad/ World’s Largest LED Street Lighting Project In Hyderabad; July5, 2017. 26. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnersh ips_in_India www.ijmer.in 128 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 IMPLEMENTATION OF RIGHT TO EDUCATION IN INDIA P.Kurumaiah Department of Economics Kakatiya University Background: The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009 came into force on 1 April 2010. It has completed three years of its existence. According to the RTE, children aged 6-14 are entitled to get free and compulsory education in India. Undercurrent target or aim of the RTE is to minimise the number of school dropouts and child labourers by offering free and compulsory education. RTE was prepared with number of provisions and guidelines for effective implementation of it in all the States including Union Territories. Provisions talked about the infrastructure, human resource, effective implementation and caste based reservations etc. But so far three years down the line of RTE since its existence, statistics shows that the implementation of the RTE is not successful and will be not, if the current implementation procedure continues further. Lakhs of downtrodden children are still out of schools and supporting their families as child labourers. Some of them are being subjected to human trafficking. Discrimination, capital punishment and humiliation have become a routine experience for marginalised students who enrolled into schools with the help of RTE. Central and State governments are taking pride in RTE for political gains. When one goes through the ground reality, the implementation of RTE following prescribed guidelines is a myth and it needs a www.ijmer.in 129 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 dedication and determination of implementing agencies inclusive of strong political will for proper implementation of RTE. Infrastructure: “Instead of improving teachers' working conditions and training, many States have opted for cosmetic solutions. Orissa has taken the lead in this respect by imposing a dress code requiring teachers to wear a pink sari and a black blouse. Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh may not face an acute shortage of teachers but the issues pertaining to the quality of training are just as relevant for them as they are to the northern States”, Krishna Kumar, former Director of NCERT, says in an editorial written for The Hindu on April 1, 2013. The former director of NCERT, an apex organization for curricular reforms in India admitted the fact that the quality teaching is lagging in schools. Quality teaching is one of the issues that government and some other private schools are having. To be fact there are many other problems, which need to address for effective implementation of Right to Education. Issues like in adequate human resources, lack of infrastructure and absence of teachers during calendar year need to address properly. “Another important RTE goal is to empower teachers as key change agents in schools, ensuring their competence as professionals able to reflect on and improve their own practice. Beyond ensuring an acceptable Pupil-Teacher Ratio, RTE mandates that all teachers are professionally trained and supported to continuously assess and improve children’s learning,” says Louis Georges Arsenault is the representative of UNICEF in India. Rules are not meant to break rather follow, this is the principle that most of Indian state governments are strictly following regarding implementation of Right to Education. Millions of students are being dropped out of schools on various reasons. However, the respective www.ijmer.in 130 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 state governments are not bothering to get those students back to schools by providing adequate resources to foster mandatory primary education for the children in our country. Time and again the central government and non-governmental organizations which are working on RTE, have tired of making pleas to the respective state governments for facilitating adequate infrastructure in schools to minimise the number of school drop outs. However, so far nothing has happened rather turning blind eye to those pleas by the state governments. “Indeed, there have been promising developments starting from the government’s budget for the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan programme, the main vehicle for RTE’s implementation — has nearly doubled from Rs.12,825 crore in 2009-10 to Rs.27,258 crore in 2013-14” Louis Georges Arsenault says in his article published in The Hindu. Despite the fact that the central government is being raised the budget allocation on RTE time and again, still some state governments are passing the bug that they are lack of adequate funds for implementation of RTE. The students from weak economical background or marginalised sections constituted the majority number among the school dropouts in our country. This phenomenon is not only happening in rural areas but also urban areas. Slum dwellers’ children are being involved in rag picking in urban areas rather than attending schools. According to RTE guidelines, it is responsibility of the state governments to identify school dropouts and bringing back them to schools. It is a bitter truth that most of the children from slum areas are not enrolling into schools and they are being engaged in works like industrial works, domestic help, rag picking and hotel works. This www.ijmer.in 131 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 truth is beyond the state governments’ eye catchy statistics on implementation of RTE. According to the RTE that schools should be within a radius of 1-3 km from where the child lives. This is may be implemented in some metro cities, where we found a school in each street of them. However, when it comes to the states like Andhra Pradesh it is not the same case. Andhra Pradesh is having a vast agency area, where there is no adequate number of schools according to the children population in those areas. In addition, the number of students enrolling schools from agency areas is very less comparatively students from plain areas. Still government has not taken firm steps to facilitate all the children into schools, despite the fact that the government is aware of the dropouts’ percentage from the agency areas. According to the Union Human Resource Development Ministry, in 2010-11, 907,951 teacher posts have been lying vacant in primary schools across the country. Further, according to the ministry, in 45.76% of primary schools, the teacher-student ratio is more than 1:30. Likewise, in 34.34% of upper primary schools in the country, the teacher-student ratio has been over 30. What’s more, almost 25% of teachers in most states are para-teachers. Facts are clearly speaking the truth that most of the government schools are lagging adequate human resources and infrastructural facilities like separate toilets for boys and girls. Students from marginalised sections have been enrolling into government schools due to their weak financial background. However, implementing state agencies are not keen on facilitating adequate resources to the children by following the RTE guidelines. This sheer negligence shows the commitment of political class and state governments in implementing the RTE in order to give mandatory www.ijmer.in 132 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 primary education to the children of this country and particularly children from marginalised sections. According to Krishna Kumar, the country will need well over a million teachers over the next four years in order to meet the RTE norms, and peculiar development of the last two decades has further compounded the situation. This factor has to do with the culture of trivia that has become the norm of schooling of the poor. Superficial training has led many teachers to perceive their job as that of baby-sitters. A pattern of poorly conceived, shallow activities, aimed at keeping children occupied without learning anything substantial, has evolved into a full-fledged routine. Children come to school, get a free meal, and it matters to no one that they make tangible progress from day to day. The cult of ‘joyful learning' has driven many among the poor to look for whatever private provision exists in their habitation. Students from well off families are being enrolled into private public schools and being trained in various aspects of life. When it comes to the students of marginalised sections, it is a different story all together. Most of the students from these weaker economical background families are studying in regional medium. According to The Hindu article, Statistics show that a shortage of 12 lakh teachers in primary schools, 20 per cent of the teachers employed are untrained, and the student-teacher ratio falls short of the prescribed norms. Even infrastructure is not fully in place — and worse, learning outcomes leave much to be desired. Teaching by untrained teachers and disqualified para teachers at primary and secondary schools resulted in poor quality education. As Krisha Kumar, the former director of NCERT rightly pointed out that the children come to school, get a free meal, this is exactly happening in most of the government schools in Andhra Pradesh and the other states. www.ijmer.in 133 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Monitoring agencies are not at concern about the quality of teaching that is being given to the students of government schools. In addition, the absence of the teachers in government schools is a routine phenomenon, which is resulted in students’ dropouts from schools. According to Louis, Learning assessments show that many of the children who do remain in school are not learning the basics of literacy and numeracy or the additional knowledge and skills necessary for their all-round development as specified under the Act. While most schools have adequate numbers of classrooms and great strides have been made in providing drinking water and separate toilet facilities for girls and boys, the availability of playground, school ramp, kitchen shed and boundary wall remains a major challenge in many States. Implementation and the flight of Marginalised students: “I feel nothing has changed between yesterday and today. The government did not take the Act seriously at all. Even the achievable targets such as infrastructure and teacher recruitment have not been met in these three years,” says Kiran Bhatty, senior fellow at the Centre for Policy Research, who has associated herself with the RTE Division of the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR), which is monitoring the implementation of the Act. While admitting that achieving good learning outcomes required a longer period, Ms. Bhatty said the government shied away from giving publicity to the Act and its legal implications for the simple reason that it did not have to face questions. The fact that parents could go to court to claim entitlement for their children was not even known to many. “It is a shame that the government merely passed the Act without doing much to ensure its implementation in letter and in spirit.” According to the Hindu article published on April1, 2013. Parents of the marginalised children do not their children’s right that they can get educated in private schools with the help of Right to www.ijmer.in 134 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Education. Its the responsibility of governments to bring publicity to RTE by creating awareness in parents of the children. However, so far this is not happening most of the states in our country. There are a few states, which are actually educating public about the rights through various folk culture and arts. Even if the parents aware of their children right to get educated in private schools including government, but they are not ready to send their children to private schools. As there is a prevailed discrimination, humiliation and kind of down looking by the management and students as well. In addition, in some cases most of the public schools are not offering an admission to the students from marginalised, who are having rural background and got educated in regional medium. These private outfits impose a harsh regime of homework and physical punishment to show good examination results. The paucity of good teachers is just as acute in the low-fee private sector as it is in schools run by the government and local bodies. Despite acute poverty and hurdles, some students from the marginalised are being enrolled into private schools with the help of RTE, but the prevailing conditions in those schools towards these marginalised students are not in a welcome manner. According to former director of NCERT, “Our metropolitan public schools cannot bear the idea of mixing children of the poor with rich kids. Many have started an afternoon shift for the poor; others want to test the poor kids before enrolling them. RTE's radical vision prohibits such screening procedures. The cutting edge of the legal case RTE is facing arises out of the rule that the government will subsidise the reserved seats for the poor only to the extent of the per capita amount it spends in its own schools. If RTE survives this court case, it will have the potential to alter the exclusive and moribund character of the elite public schools. However, a lot of creative energy will need to go into www.ijmer.in 135 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 equipping teachers serving in these schools to deal with a mixed population of children” A key RTE mandate is for schools to become child-friendly, inclusive spaces, where all children from diverse backgrounds are welcomed, treated kindly, and encouraged to actively participate in learning through child-centred activities. However, these are not being implemented properly. “Many classrooms continue to be characterised by teacher-centred rote- learning, corporal punishment, and discrimination. More positive attitudes and expectations towards children from the most deprived and marginalised communities are needed, without which inclusive education will remain a distant dream,” says Louis Georges Arsenault is the representative of UNICEF in India. Conclusion: Statistics are clearly says that implementation of the Right to Education Act is not proper and many changes need to make for an effective implementation. Apart from these structural changes, strong political will and initiative of the concern government implementing agencies are mandatory for implementation of RTE. To meet the requirements of RTE, the Central and State governments must work together more effectively in order to address the issues related with funds, infrastructure, facilities, human resources and discrimination against marginalised students. Respective State governments should make sure that the schools irrespective of private and government are friendly to the students from diverse backgrounds, cultures and communities as well. References: Alur, M. (2007). Education of children and young adults. Presentation made at the People with disabilities in India: status, challenges www.ijmer.in 136 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 and prospects workshop held at World Bank (New Delhi: India), November. Dickinson, G. (2004). The right to education in Canada. International Journal of Education Law, 7, 1–2. Erb, S. and Harriss-White, B. (2002). Outcast from social welfare: Adult incapacity and disability in rural South India. Bangalore: Books for Change. Kalyanpur, M. (2007). Equality, quality and quantity: challenges in inclusive education policy and service provision in India. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 12 (3), 243-262. NCPCR (2007). National Commission for Protection of Child’s Rights. Retrieved on April 14,2012 http://www.ncpcr.gov.in/Reports/National%20Consultation%20for %20Rights%20and%20Entitlements% 20of%20Children%20infectedaffected%20by%20HIVAIDS.pdf) Singal, N. Education of children with disabilities in India, UNCEO Report University of Cambridge, 2010/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/21 Singal, N. (2006a). Inclusive education in India: international concept, national interpretation. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53 (3), 351-369. Sharon E. Lee, Education as a Human Right in the 21st Century, Democracy & Education Vol 21, N2 1 Sen, A. (2003a, October 28). The importance of basic education [full text of speech to the Edinburgh Commonwealth education conference]. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://people.cis.ksu.edu/~ab/Miscellany/basiced.html www.ijmer.in 137 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Sujata Bhan, Suzanne Rodricks, Indian Perspective on Child’s Right to Education, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 69 ( 2012 ) 367 – 376 SSA (2000). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Guidelines. MHRD Department of Elementary Education and Literacy, N.Delhi. http://eoc.du.ac.in/RTE%20-%20notified.pdf (The Rights Children free and Compusory Education Act-2009) http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/no-high-five-for- rte/article4567385.ece http://infochangeindia.org/education/backgrounders/challenges-in- implementing-the-rte-act.html www.ijmer.in 138 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 SHIVAJI DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS OF GOLCONDA KINGDOM Chatla. Chittibabu Dept of History Introduction Marathas were organized under the brilliant leadership of Shivaji the son of Shahji Bhonsle a state dignitary of Ahmadnagar, Mughals and finally of Bijapur kingdom. It may be interesting to know some thing about the family of Shivaji and the background to the consolidating of Maratha power by him. Shivaji was born to Shahji at Shivneri fort in 1627 (1630) by his wife Jijiya Bai. He got another son Venkoji by another wife Tupa Bai. Santoji was his third son by another wife.1 Shivaji Roal In Marathas Shivaji was crowned at Roy gad fort as Chatrapathi in the year 1674. Shivaji was fear less, dashing, unscrupulous master strategist and intelligent. He had great capabilities of organising and leadership. He organised and united the scattered and divided Marathas into a single and formidable force to be reckoned with. He was crowned as “Maharaja Shivaji Chatrapathi” on 6th June 1674. The power that rose in the Kalyani Region of the western ghats enfeebled the Adil Shahi Kingdom further it impeded the onslaught of the invincible and irresistable Mughal formations. The sole aim and ambition of Mughals was to extend their borders to extreme Deccan by assimilating the Deccani kingdoms.2 They created dissensions among the rulers in the south, encouraged desertions, revolts of their military generals, Ameers and state www.ijmer.in 139 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 dignitaries against their monarchs, to achieve their goals. They fanned religious frenzy and sectarian hatred to fulfill their ambitions. Shivaji Relations Qutub Shahis This was a caution signal for the Qutub Shahi Kingdom which was hitherto comparatively free from Maratha depredations, excepting once in early 1672. Marathas were now free from Adilshahi’s and the Mughals. So they had a opportunity, the will and the power to lay waste large tracts of lands in the south. Large parts of Deccan were already groaning under the iron hoof of Maratha horse and the people moaned under the Maratha steel. “Burhan-E-Masiri” and “Khafi Khan” gave detailed accounts of Maratha depredations.3 Even after conceding considerable margin to exaggeration, and pathological bias of the persian historians in their narration, one will be aghast at these ruthless acts. Shivaji was a shrewd politician. He want only created chaiotic conditions and fear psychology by terrorist activities, to divert and engage the attention of the man and the monarch, while he concentrated on Jinzee and other places around. Since the arrival of the Deevan of Ekoji (Venkoji) at his court, Shivaji was planning to conquer some Karnataka areas and to take over his due from his brother Ekoji. He knew well that he would be in troubles if he ventured in to Karnataka without the concurrence and co- operation of Golconda Kingdom. Heavy amounts and concentrated efforts were needed, by Qutb Shahi kingdom to establish law and order in Golconda Karnataka. In addition to and apart from the fiscal implication, Golconda could not concentrate on this aspect, due to its full pre-occupation with the Mughal threat looming large. Further the conditions in the south, particularly south of the Karnataka territory were highly disturbed. Establishing of law and order there, tantamounted to asking for the moon, as lady Luna was in accessible then. www.ijmer.in 140 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 It was necessary and in the interest of Golconda State also, to establish peace, law and order in the chaotic parts of its Karnataka region of Golconda. The first Governor of Golconda Karnataka Mirza Mohammad Sayeed desterted the Qutb Shah and joined the imperial camp. Aurangzeb laid claims to those Karnataka territories, stating that their ruler was in his camp. This and the imperial claim over the diamond mines, personally owned by the first Meerjumla Mirza Mohammad sayeed, discouraged Golconda government from embarking on further conquest of Karnataka. There was no prospectus of any help coming from Sikindar, Adil Shah against Shivaji. Mughal menace was sharpening its canine teeth at the gates of Golconda. Shivaji Deplomatic Relations Abdul Hasan Tanashah Taking congnisance of all these factors, Madanna came to the conclusion that there was no alternative to a friendship and cooperation treaty with Chatrapathi Shivaji. If such a treaty with him was a must, it was certainly the most opportune and advantgeous time, because Shivaji himself was seeking the cooperation of Golconda for conquering Gingee and some other parts in Karnataka. Further Shivaji’s help would be valuation to Golconda in containing the Mughals, in arresting the Maratha depredations and in establishing law and order in the Karnataka region of Golconda. Shivaji’s cooperation would be very useful to Golconda regime. To acquire some more adjoining parts of Karnataka without involving its army and inviting the wrath of Aurangzeb. Hence with the royal concurrence Madanna started to explore avenues of concluding a peace, friendship and cooperation treaty with Chatrapathi Shivaji. At the close of the year 1676, Shivaji set out at the head of thirty thousand horses, and forty thousand infantry, towards Golconda, carefully abstaining from pulnder, his march was conducted with the greatest revolution. Prichard Punt, the son of Nyadeish Purdhan, was sent forward to announce his approach, which, although known to Madana Punt. www.ijmer.in 141 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Madana Punt came out some distance to meet Shivaji, and the day after his arrival at Golconda he had an interview with Qutb Shah, which lasted for sevarale hours; many consultations followed, and Shivaji had the address to persuade the King that an alliance between them was not only necessary but natural. No authentic record of the particular of the secret compact which was entered into has been preserved by the Marathas; but the purport seems to have been a division of such part of Shivaji’s conquests as had not belonged to his father Shivaji, and a treaty offensive and defensive against the Mughals and their allies 4. With the usual burlesque advantages, which a power not consulted commonly obtains by such alliances of its neighbours, Bijapur was to be admitted to all the benefits of this agreements, after its possessions in the Carnatic had been reduced and divided between Shivaji and Qutb Shah, on condition of dismission Abdul Kareem from the regency, and receiving the brother of Madana Punt in his stead.5 What further inducement may have been held out, or whether the ambition or avarice of Madana Punt may have been more treacherously excited, cannot be discovered; but Shivaji succeeded in obtained a considerable supply of money; and what he most wanted, a train of artillery with its equipment’s. It is probable that the dispensed with all other reinforcements; and the necessity of keeping the whole of troops of Qutb Shah for the defense of the kingdom was an opinion likely to arise of itself without being suggested by Shivaji. Golconda government to instruct its officers in Karnataka to assist Shivaji in this mission in all manners. He conquered large tracts in Karnataka. Differences arose between Shivaji and Abdul Hasan regarding the interpretation and implementation of the terms of treaty and about the apportionment of the conquered Karnataka territories. www.ijmer.in 142 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 It is reported by some historians and European travellers that Abdul Hasan asked Shivaji to place the Gingee fort under the command of one of his generals. Shivaji’s refusals to comply with this request opened Tanashah’s eyes to the deception played on him. Further Martin in his “Memoirs”, recorded that this “made him realise that Shivaji and Madanna had come to a secret understanding to the prejudice of his interests”. Martin also says that “Madanna knew Shivaji too well not to realise that he would never keep to the promise made.” Further Adrian Duarte adds “the whole was a carefully planned conspiracy… for the greater benefit of the Maratha chieftain.6 Some records in Connemara Library and Fort St. George, Madras state that Shivaji levied and collected taxes in Golconda, Karnataka and punished the defaulters. Some other records in this Library state, that Shivaji had not taken any military or fiscal steps in these parts. These contridictory reports required to be carefully examined. Madanna took a prominent part in the negotiations and in drafting this treaty. There is a school of thought which feels that Golconda regime suffered a loss of face and grace due to this pact. It asserts that this was a positive proof of Madanna’s treason. North and north-western frontiers of Golconda kingdom were defenceless. There were no natural barriers to stem intrusion overtly and covertly by the enemy. Gul-Mohava and palm trees were planted as a demarcation of the Golconda boundary. Mughals had already conquered Khandesh and Ahmednagar. The danger to Golconda frontiers from these sides was not only real but perhaps immanent. Bijapur kingdom on the west to it, has not only declined militarily and fiscally but was tied of Muhgal war chariot, by means of treaties and by the ever haunting and consuming fear of the mighty Mughals. Obviously therefore the danger to western frontiers of Golconda, was www.ijmer.in 143 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 positive and constant. The borders in the south were always prone to give in due to the continuous chaotic conditions ruling supreme there, inspite of best efforts by Golconda government to administer it on sound lines. It was clear that frontiers of Qutb Shahi State were vulnerable on all the three sides, north, west and south inspite of several measures taken by Madanna for their protection. Hence the assistance of Shivaji in safeguarding Golconda frontiers was too valuable and clear to admit complacancy or controversy. Further, to establish peace law and order in the Karnataka region of Golconda, also, Maratha cooperation was essential. The irresistable depredations and organised guerilla tactics of the Marathas, was not only very shrewdly stemned by the treaty but were successfully diverted against the inexharably advancing Mughals forces. This saved the country from the ruthless plunder and ill warranted military devastation of the country. It gave respite to the country and relief to the crown to plan and concentrate on the defence of the borders. Madanna adopted the best course available and in the best interest of the kingdom in the then prevalent circumstances. Perhaps there was no alternative to or improvement over the terms and spirit of the treaty. Many historians of stature admit this treaty as the best conceivable one in the prevalent circumstances. Martin, Duarte and Hawart had incurable pathological hatred for Madanna and all actions by him. So their writings generally are not accepted as gospel truths or unassaiable facts in the case of Madanna. If Sultan Abdul Hasan suspected the bonafides or the fidelity of Madanna, the Deevan could have not continued to be the first minister for a further period of six years. Hadeequat-ul-Alam declares unequivocally that Madanna was loyal to his king. He was an able diplomat, a competent and patriotic administrator. The fact that Shivaji also stood to gain much by this treaty could hardly be contested. It is undesirable to under estimate the advantages accrued to Golconda kingdom. Both the parties to the treaty were www.ijmer.in 144 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 benefitted. Assessing the percentage of the gain or trying to apportion benefits and hairsplitting is ill-warranted. The puls points for the Qutb Shahi government were. 1. The means of the irresistible depredations and devastation by the Marathas, was stayed effectively and diverted against for foe. The ensured peace to the people and security to the state borders. 2. Peace that was evading Karnataka of Golconda since 1635, was also established to some extent for the first time in about half a century with the assistance of Shivaji in 1678. 3. These two positive and basic elements gave respite to the crown and provided Madanna with an opportunity to concentrate on the fortifications of the west and north-western frontiers. The Maratha power, devastating the country with iron and fire and laying vast tracts of the country waste was tamed and harnessed by Madanna’s diplomacy. It was an undeniable fact that if it was left to follow its course, the fate of Golconda could not have been otherwise than the one seen all over Deccan. The sagacity and the statesmanship of the prime minister, reflects in his using of his destructive power, to impede and counteract another mightier and destructive power of Mughals. There were no mean gains for the kingdom of Golconda, from any standard. It has been mentioned by certain historians that the differences between Golconda and Shivaji started on the issue of Jingi fort. Shamsheer Khan, a Bijapuri general assaulted and worsted Nazar Mohammad, the garrison officer to Ginjee fort. In order to avenge this humilitation, he offered to Golconda government to hand over the fort if a Jageer was given to him.7 Meanwhile Shivaji occupied this fort by force and refused to hand it over to Abdul Hasan. This event was magnified and was used to malign Madanna as the Villian of the peace www.ijmer.in 145 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 and as a magic strick to beat him with. The truth of this episode was otherwise. It does not at all pertain to this fort. It was already under the control of Ekoji. It transpires from the record available, that this dispute arose regarding the tract between the forts of Ginjee and Vellur, which was occupied by Ekoji later. It may be noted here that this incident happened seven years prior to the treaty between Golcond and Chatrapathi. Golconda laid claims to this area. Shivaji argued that it was his parental asset, as it was ruled by Ekoji. These differences were neither basic nor acute. The real difference arose regarding the western parts of Mysore tableland. Shivaji turned towards Bijapur after the conquest of western Mysore tableland. He had not informed Golconda with this change in his programme, Conditions of the treaty do not impose or contemplate such an exchange of information. No reasons are available till today date for this sudden change in the course by Shivaji. He turned towards west without answering Golconda’s querries and without appointing the conquerred Karnataka territories as per the agreement entered into. This behaviour poured some cold water on the flush and enthusiasm generated by the friendship treaty and introduced an element of caution in their relationship. Some reports in Fort Saint George Madras, Say that Shivaji had conquered more then a hundred forts in these parts. Sir Jadunth Sarkar also confirms this. Nevertheless the need to allow a margin for overstatements need not be brushed aside. Shivaji was said to have stayed in these parts for about sixteen months. Much of this time was spent by him in arguing with and persuading his brother Ekoji, to accept him as the sole title holder to the parental possessions. All discussions, correspondence and persuasions over this long period failed to produce reconcillation between the brothers, Shivaji in disgust occpied territories between Ginji and Velur. He busied himself in establishing law and order there. www.ijmer.in 146 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 He then turned to the west and conquered extensive tracts. The annual income from these territories was said to be twenty lakh hons (Varaha-pagoda). It was strongly believed that there were many gold and diamond mines in this area. Shivaji did not hand over a part of the newly acquired area to the kingdom of Golconda as per the agreement. Some hold Madann responsible for this act of Shivaji and blame him. They assert that this was yet another proof of Madanna’s treason against his king and the kingdom; this unexpected contingency cannot be a touchstone for Madanna’s obedience to and loyalty for the king. One sparrow does not make the spring. He has not approved his misdemeanour of Shivaji. The control of the land between Ginjee and Velur had slipped away, some seven or eight years ago from the grip of Golconda. Nevertheless Madanna sent the commander-in-chief of Golconda armed forces, Mahammad Ibraheem to conquer this area. Further podili Linganna the Founder of Karnataka, was ordered to conquer and occupy Mysore table land, captured earlier by Shivaji. These prompt and stern actions taken by Madanna to retrieve the prestige and the kingdom’s territories from the defaulting Marathas point to his stead-fast loyalty to the crown and to the country. They do not at any rate suggest reason. Shivaji’s inexplicable behavior and the prompt retrieving action by Madanna, have not undermined the guiding spirit of the treaty (i.e.,) mutual defence against’ Mohals, though the initial enthusiasm cooled down. Some accuse Shivaji of violating the rules of hospitality. Jamshid Khan was a prominent Afghan general of Bijapur, earlier he was seen deputising for Bahalool khan at Hyderabad conference. He took prominent part in concluding a “mutually military alliance treaty” between the two kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda. It is said that Shivaji won him over by paying sixty thousand hons to assist him in occupying Bijapur fort and taking Sikinder Adilshah a prisoner. The negotiations progressed. This is said to be the reason for Shivaji’s www.ijmer.in 147 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 sudden abandonment of his Karnataka expedition, and turning to west towards Bijapur and for his misdimeanour towards Golconda. This overture stunned Abdul Hasan and his Deevan. Disgusted, they persuaded Bijapur generals to close their rank and foil the evil designs of Shivaji. However Siddi Masood the Vakeel-ul-Sulthanat, entered into an alliance treaty with Shivaji. Inspite of all these unpleasantries bordering on default and fraud, master statesmen Tanashah and his Deevan Madanna on one side and the great tactician and strategist Shivaji on the other side, averted the collapse of the treaty. They also revived the mutual military assistance treaty between them. Both sides knew perfectly well that the threat to both of them from the Mughals was alive and certain. Shivaji returned home in May 1678. The military alliance was fully operative. Though this treaty was drafted and shaped by Madanna, yet it appears that some sort of unwritten understanding already existed between Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah and the Marathas. Madanna gave it a letter form and legal shaped to it. Even after the exit of Madanna and Chatrapathi Shivaji from this transitory world, the treaty remained fully alive and operative. Abdul Hasan was paying one hundred thousand hons to the Marathas as per the understanding and Sambhaji the son of Shivaji and the king of the Marathas continued to render military assistance to Golconda kingdom. In accordance with the terms of this treaty, Raja Sambhaji came to the assistance of Sultan Abdul Hasan with fifty thousand infantry and twelve thousand cavalry. Conclusion Thus it is clear that the relation between Marathas and Golconda not only existed during Shivaji time but also during his successors time. And the relations between these states are based on Mutual benefit and cordial. Emperor Alamgeer was very much annoyed by this mutual alliance treaty. This is a shining example of Madanna’s fore sighted www.ijmer.in 148 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 and statesman like foreign policy. Rajah Sambhaji cut off Mughal logistic lines, communications, civil supplies, transport of arms, ammunitions and other facilities during the siege of Golconda fort. This caused untold miseries to the mighty Mughal army. This is a commendation and compliment to the diplomacy of Madanna. Great historian have unequivocally praised Madannas farsightedness, deep understanding of persons and problems, political sagacity and administrative competency. This is an eloquent testimony for Madann’s services to the king and the kingdom. R e f e r e n c e s 1. Henry Davison Love; Vestiges of Old Madras, Vol.IV, Index, Delhi, 1988. 2. Adrian Du-arte; An estimate of Madanna from French Records, Journal of Indian History, 1932, p.298. 3. Memoris of Froncoies Martine; (Trans. and Ed.) By L. Varada Rajan, Delhi, 1981, p. 175. 4. J.N. Sarkar, History of Aurangazeb, Vol. IV, Delhi, 1972, p.176. 5. Letters to For St. George; Madras 1686-87, Vol. IV, p.112. 6. K.V. Bhoopala Rao; The illustration Prime Minister Madanna, Sri Sai Printers, Sultan Bazar, Hyderabad-7, 1984, p.173. 7. Ibid. p.174. www.ijmer.in 149 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 EFFICIENT COMMUNICATIONS USING DYNAMIC CONCENTRIC RINGS INFRASTRUCTURE IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS Mandapalli Premakumar, CH. Sudeepti, Valli Balaji Reg.No:315232925007. M.TECH (Communication systems),Sanketika vidya parishad Engineering college, Andhra university,visakhapatnam M.TECH, Ph.D Prof of ECE Dept, and Head of the department of ECE ,Sanketika vidya parishad Engineering college, Andhra university Visakhapatnam. Abstract - The project aim at design of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) has a new paradigm that implies a separation of the underlying communication functionalities from the upper layer protocols with the goal of leveraging the reusability of protocols. And overview of the proposed Rings infrastructure protocol (RIP), which forms a generic flexible communication infrastructure. RIP discovers the physical topological rings that exist in an arbitrary WSN topology and produces an infrastructure of concentric rings (Rings) that reflects the physical rings of nodes in the field. The resulting infrastructure guarantees the proximity of nodes. neighbour nodes in this logical overlay are also physical neighbours. Each ring in Rings is assigned one or more mobile robots that act as probes to access the data and monitor the ring. Access nodes are selected dynamically at each ring to act as anchors for the probes visiting their associated rings. The Rings infrastructure supports both multi hop and data mule communication models with a high degree of reliability. The focuses on creating the infrastructure are we justify its correctness and efficiency. A rough cost model that predicts the cost of communication over Rings is provided. The performance of the infrastructure is evaluated by implementing and simulating some of the upper layer processes. Simulation based comparisons with the multi www.ijmer.in 150 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 scale communication approach are provided, and the results show that the Rings infrastructure is both robust and efficient in supporting upper layer processes. 1. Rings infrastructure protocol Literature Survey WSN research is rapidly progressing toward a unified design for WSN protocols. The unification of the entire soft-ware stack architecture for WSNs was proposed early in these works, the proposed architecture known as the narrow waist architecture. They described the rules by which network services could be arranged over the sensor network stack architecture and suggested the insertion of a sensor protocol (SP) between the network layer and the data link layer in the stack architecture. However, there was a belief in the field that this unification process would considerably increase overhead and, consequently, result in performance degradation. It is still unknown whether this unifying approach will provide the desired benefits to the designers of WSN protocols. Never the-less, building a generic communication overlay (at the level of the physical links) would constitute a step toward enhancing the reusability of the upper-layer protocols. A communication topology is usually constructed over a sensor network as an in-line communication structure that supports a specific process such as routing or data aggregation. This approach is usually related to specific application-layer goals. Tree-based and clustering- based techniques are the most commonly utilized methods of constructing such communication topologies. These techniques provide the net-work nodes with the means to self-organize in an unstructured manner, wherein the most commonly utilized operations are usually based on flooding mechanisms; failure handling and maintenance require cascade updates throughout the network. However, most www.ijmer.in 151 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 topologies formed in this manner cannot be optimized for various upper-layer protocols and are not reconfigurable. Design of sensor network architecture has significant impact on Network Scalability Energy consumption Fault Tolerance of network 2. Architectures in wsn 1.1Flat architecture: Sink periodically sends query to all sensors using flooding Sensors that process data matching the query transmit data without aggregation Data packets are relayed via peer nodes (multichip communication) Figure- 1 Flat architecture 1.2 Cluster Architecture: Sensors in close proximity are grouped together into cluster one of the cluster members within cluster is selected as cluster member’s nodes sense data and send them to their respective cluster. www.ijmer.in 152 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Role of CII: Intra cluster data gathering from member nodes Data aggregation Data reporting to sink Sleep scheduling of sensors. Reduction in energy consumption by minimizing redundant transmissions allows load balancing within clusters. Improves scalability as the network size expands. Figure-2 clustered architecture A communication overlay at the level of the physical links that is not tied to any specific upper-layer protocol is known as a general-purpose overlay. This type of overlay should be able to work with various upper- layer processes with equal efficiency. However, the creation of such an overlay is a challenging task, particularly for networks with scarce or limited resources such as WSNs, and especially when considering that WSNs are intended to be application specific. The construction of generic overlays over sensor networks. They utilized coronas and wedges to develop their virtual infrastructure. They primarily targeted static sensor networks, in which all the nodes are static. They allocated a special sink at the center of the network, which they termed the Training Agent (TA), and they assumed that www.ijmer.in 153 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 this special sink could support multiple levels of transmission ranges. The TA is responsible for training the other nodes, using information about their positions relative to the TA. Each node's position is given relative to the selected form (wedge or corona). This protocol is considered centralized and is based on global information about the nodes. To begin creating the coronas, the TA must identify the appropriate total number of coronas before creating them. In addition, the protocol proactively splits the nodes into sub sets and then requires synchronization of the wakeup times of each subset of nodes and the level of the sink's transmission range at that time. In, this model was extended to allow for mobility of the TA. However, that did not specify the effects of including multiple sinks/TAs in the constructed infrastructure. For example, the question of how to proactively determine the number of coronas for each TA was not answered. In an approach similar to, the construction of a ring based overlay, in which the nodes are assigned to the constructed rings based on their hop counts from a central flexed base station. The base station lies at the center of the constructed rings. Collected data are transmitted from the outer ring to the inner rings and, finally, to the base station. The protocol (C3) that forms virtual rings based on the received signal strength indicator (RSSI). C3 extended and enhanced the topology control mechanism provided. In both protocols, virtual rings are constructed around a centric base station based on the calculation of a predefined optimal width that is usually a function of the communication range. In, the rings are formed based on their distance from a centric base station; this scheme requires nodes to be aware of their locations. In contrast, the RSSI approach used can work in cases where the nodes are unaware of their locations. Moreover, C3 reduces the cost of communication among nodes by constructing clusters and allowing communications between cluster-heads. www.ijmer.in 154 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Our proposed approach, described in this paper, is designed to be generic. It discovers the virtual rings that inherently exist in a random topology in a simple yet effective way. It does not require the formation of rings around a centric base station because it sweeps the network from the outermost to the innermost nodes. It also accommodates both multi hop and mobility based communications, which makes data routing and collection processes both flexible and cost efficient. In [10], an overlay for multi-scale communication was pro-posed to support upper-layer protocols. In this approach, the nodes are structured into cells and super-cells: a clustering-based technique in which the hierarchy is designed via a self-election scheme with periodic beacons. As in most clustering-based techniques, maintaining the overall structure requires potential topological updates to be broadcast within the network, and re-clustering algorithms are then executed to react to those updates. Of course, this incurs additional overhead that might lead to more rapid exhaustion of the resources of the sensor nodes. The construction of a logical overlay such as a distributed hash table (DHT) on top of physical networks has long been the focus of considerable research. It is well known that sensor nodes have scant resources in terms of energy, communication and bandwidth, which could render DHTs unsuitable. The main reason is that DHT overlays usually produce excessive overhead relative to the advantages they offer for upper-layer applications [20]. Furthermore, when mobility is included, the movement of certain nodes may cause frequent changes in the network topology, necessitating additional overhead to update the network topology and manage node mobility. A means of narrowing the gap between logical and physical overlays are introduced a routing protocol called Virtual Ring Routing (VRR). This protocol is motivated by the general concept of DHT schemes. In this protocol, logical rings are formed over the link layer. However, the rings created in this protocol do not maintain the proximity of nodes, www.ijmer.in 155 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 and they hide the physical neighbor hood of the nodes. Moreover, the protocol requires the global identification of nodes. The nodes obtain unique identifiers that are treated as globally ordered addresses. The protocol supports both point-to-point and DHT-like operations. The VRR approach is optimized primarily for routing processes. Many research works assume a ring topology as a deployment model for the systems they study but without researching how this topology is constructed. Such works could directly benefit from the research described in this paper. Assumed circular field of interest of diameter D that could be decomposed into n concentric circles and presented a joint routing strategy based on this decomposition. It is described in [23] described a multilevel virtual ring based framework to support peer-to- peer applications in the context of WSNs without considering a mechanism for constructing such multilevel rings. A system based on Gaussian-ring deployment for detecting intruders at the edge of a network was proposed in [24]. We also assumed a ring topology as the underlying model for crowd management using a WSN in [25]. Our work in this paper provides a dynamic mechanism for constructing such ring-based overlays in an elegant and simple manner. 3. Network model: We consider deployment scenarios in which stationary nodes are dominant in the field. This implies that the number of mobile nodes (robots/sinks) is much smaller than the number of static nodes. These mobile sinks are also more powerful than the ordinary nodes. 3.1 Mobile sinks: A mobile sink is any moving entity in the field that can access the transmitted traffic of the sensor nodes. These sinks could be mobile vehicles, robots, humans with portable devices, etc. We call them mobile probes (MPs) for simplicity. The assumption is that these MPs can directly communicate with each other. If this is not the case www.ijmer.in 156 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 coordination among them could be achieved by means of a centralized management site. Moreover, MPs will be distributed dynamically in the field based on the proposed strategy (see Section III). Therefore, their positions at setup time are not important. We also assume that the mobility of the MPs is controlled [26] and that they can travel based on various mobility patterns. This implies that they can travel based on a certain trajectory and move in discrete steps toward given topological coordinates. 3.2 Sensor nodes We assume that the sensor nodes are distributed in the field with a uniform random distribution [27]. The sensor nodes are homogenous, which means that they have a common transmission range and a common energy supply. They can use GPS or other localized approaches to recognize their coordinates [28]. Neighbour hoods are established between nodes based on the distance between them w.r.t. their transmission range. Figure- 3: Conceptual rings overlay 4. phases of RIP RIP organizes an arbitrary distribution of nodes into an infrastructure consisting of concentric rings (Rings). It learns the physical rings that could be present in the topology. A brief, early description of RIP can be www.ijmer.in 157 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 found in [7]. RIP forms the Rings overlay based on localized operations. This implies that only one-hop neighbour information is exchanged among nodes. RIP dynamically discover the rings at setup time. It then adaptively allocates the MPs at run time. The allocation of the mobile probes is specific to each application and should accomplish the application's goals. Fig. 1 depicts a possible outcome of RIP when applied to an arbitrary physical network topology, whereas Fig. 2 provides an abstracted view of the resulting Rings infrastructure. RIP achieves this arrangement in an elegant and simple way. It arranges the nodes in the following sets: the network rings R, the network backbones B, the internal network nodes I , the network access points AP, and the mobile probes MP. A node can belong to one or more of these sets. Each member of R has a matching member in B, I , AP, and MP. A ring Ri consists of a backbone Bi and the associated internal nodes Ii. A backbone is a closed sequence of nodes. The internal nodes are the one-hop neighbours of nodes in the backbone. The backbone Bi of a ring forms a physical cycle that starts at one node and ends at the same node or at a node belonging to the same backbone. Some nodes on the backbone will be distinguished as access points, APi. These APs guide the MPs traveling from place to place in the network. MPs can access data either directly at these APs in what is known as data-mule communication mode or through multi-hop transmissions. RIP builds the Rings infrastructure in three phases: ring discovery, AP selection, and MP allocation. 4. phases 4.1 phase1 (Ring discovery): Rings are discovered through an iterative process. As mentioned above, a ring in Rings is a closed sequence of nodes and their one-hop neighbours. The outermost ring, R1, simply consists of the outer boundary nodes of the network and their one-hop neighbours. The outer boundary nodes can be recognized by any boundary recognition www.ijmer.in 158 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 algorithm, such as that presented in [29] and [30]. The nodes that form the outer boundary are regarded as the backbone of this ring, and the one-hop neighbours of these nodes are the internal nodes of the ring. Once recognized, all nodes within the outermost ring temporarily enter sleep mode. With these rings out of operation, the new boundary of the network is recognized as the backbone of the next ring, R2. In the same way, the one-hop neighbours of these backbone nodes are the internal nodes of the ring R2. Thus, all possible rings can be iteratively discovered. At the end of this phase, the network is partitioned into a Ring set R D {R1, R2, Rn}. Each ring Ri consists of a ring-backbone sequence of nodes Bi D b1, b2, b3; :::b1 and an internal-node sequence Ii D {i1, i2, i3}. One of the nodes in the sequence, Bi, is elected as the leader node of the ring Rib This iterative process requires the master node to move iteratively toward the centred of the network in steps equal to the transmission range. The centroid is calculated from the coordinates of several access points (defined in the next section) on the outermost backbone (which is treated as an approximate polygon), following [31]. The backbone discovery message transmitted by the master node to recognize the outer boundary of the network carries a signature packet that indicates the current ring number. The 1st node in the sequence Bi (the initial node) is elected as the leader of the ring RI The backbone nodes in set Bi determine their positions within the ring Ri. The position of each Node in the ring is simply its hop count with respect to the leader of the ring. Pairs of the form (ring number, node position) are used to identify the nodes in Bi. Each internal node assigns itself the same ID as its parent node in the set Bi corresponding to its ring as well as a local identifier to distinguish it from other children of that parent node. RIP utilizes a bound hole algorithm [29], [30] as a seed algorithm that is implemented by the master node to de ne the nodes in set B for each ring. This algorithm was originally developed to de ne holes within the network. It www.ijmer.in 159 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 inherently denes the outer boundary of the network as a closed cycle of nodes. We use this algorithm to de ne the backbone nodes of each ring because it has been proven to be a lightweight localized algorithm; however, other boundary recognition algorithms could be used as alternatives. 4.2phase II (AP Selection): In this phase, multiple nodes are chosen as the access points APi for each ring Ri. The set APi is a subset of the back-bone nodes Bi. Nodes are selected for membership in APi according to their distances in terms of number of hops from the leader of the Ring. For example, nodes at distances of kh (k D 1, 2, 3, etc., where h is a given parameter) from the leader node are selected as the APs of the ring. The access point selection process could be implemented either piggybacked on the ring extraction process (because the parameter h that represents the number of hops between successive access points could be carried by the same packet as the boundary recognition information) or separately after the ring extraction phase. After the APs are determined, the nodes exchange their topological statuses. Nodes with no ring membership are regarded as dangling nodes. These nodes attach themselves to any connected internal neighbour. The APs determine the granularity of access to the network. The MPs utilize the APs to access data. The MPs navigate the network by visiting these anchors in the network. Therefore, the number of APs per ring affects the network accessibility. When only a small subset of the nodes in Bi are selected as the APs for each Ri, the distance between consecutive access points is large, leading to coarse access granularity. The opposite is also true. The h parameter of RIP is tunable, and any node in the set Bi can change its role to become an access point if required. 4.3 phase III (Adaptive MP Allocation): www.ijmer.in 160 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 RIP adaptively allocates MPs to the discovered rings for load balancing. The MPs serve as data collectors and management agents. Therefore, each MP plays the role of a main probe in only one home ring. However, each MP could serve as an assistant probe in other rings depending on the requirements of the application. The MPs utilize the APs as anchors to guide their travels in the field. They navigate the network either periodically or upon request. In periodic navigation, each MP must Figure-4 Possible outcomes of RIP over an arbitrary WSN topology Know its periodic visiting time t, which is an application specific parameter. We distinguish two main distribution strategies: passive allocation and active allocation. In passive allocation, the allocation depends on the number of discovered rings. If m is the number of MPs and g is the number of rings, then the number of MPs per ring is (m/g). Better performance can be achieved if m D ag and a 1. In active allocation, allocation is performed specially to accomplish the requirements of the application. As an example, a large number of MPs could be allocated to critical areas in the field. Additionally, MPs that serve the inner rings could assist those serving the outer rings, as the area of each ring increases from the innermost rings to the outermost ones. www.ijmer.in 161 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 5. Efficient Failure Handling: The infrastructure is designed to be maintainable. Any change to the topology results in only local updates. RIP performs failure management based on two concepts: Segmentation Failures in one ring are not propagated over the network; therefore, they have less impact on the structure of the infrastructure. Role-based operations: Nodes with different roles provide different functions in the network; this, in turn, decreases the impact of failures. Nodes are considered failed when they no longer respond to heartbeat packets transmitted by the leader nodes with the purpose of discovering failures. 1) Failure of Backbone Nodes: Whereas the internal neighbors of a failed backbone node bi directly switch to another parent (if any), the backbone neigh-boors bi 1 and biC1 of a failed bi can mitigate the failure through the following local operations. (i) Establish a multi-hop bridge via internal nodes. (ii) Leave the cut point as it is and compensate for the lost links through the transmission of data away from the cut point toward the connected APs. (iii) Change their roles to become APs, such that data transmitted to them are collected directly by the MPs. 2) Failure of Internal Nodes: A failed internal node ij is directly marked as out of service and ignored during communication. No further actions are required from their neighbours. Changes in the topological status of a node are propagated to the direct neighbours of that node to allow them to alter their neighbourhood tables. This capability of Rings to tolerate failures www.ijmer.in 162 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 enables self-healing and makes Rings a very efficient infrastructure with a variety of configurations. 6. Integration of New Nodes: RIP is able to merge new nodes into the infrastructure with minimal overhead. No global updates are required. The topological status of a node is determined based only on local neighbourhood information collected directly from its one-hop physical neighbours. It is regard to the statuses of the one-hop neighbours of the new node x, the following rules assist x in determining its topological status. (i) If there are no backbone nodes among the neighbours of x and all internals among its neighbours belong to same ring Ri, x is integrated as a dangling node into the current Ri. If the internals belong to different rings, x is integrated as an FIN into the inner ring Ri and as an internal node into the outer ring Ri 1. (ii) If x has backbone neighbours that belong to same ring R , x is i directly integrated as an internal node into Ri and selects a parent. (iii) If x has backbone neighbours belonging to different rings R and i Ri 1, x is again integrated as an FIN into the inner ring Ri and as an internal node into the outer ring Ri 1. The local rules described above are sufficient to accommodate new nodes that join the network after the infrastructure has been created. However, it is known that the deployment of new nodes is unusual in WSNs. Regard less, the phases of RIP can always be re-executed if a large supplement of nodes is deployed. 7. Cost Model: The cost model provides insight into the communication costs incurred by Rings. It is formulated in terms of the numbers of rings and nodes as well as the numbers of APs and MPs associated with these rings. www.ijmer.in 163 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 RIP divides a network into independently managed rings with sizes that gradually decrease from the outermost ring to the innermost ring. Therefore, the total cost Ct is the sum of the costs experienced at each of these rings as shown in (3), where m is the number of discovered rings. c = ∑ Ct (1) We should note same that under the conditions, Ci > CiC1. To determine m, we assume that r1 is the radius of the outermost ring R1 and that the nodes are distributed uniformly in the field. The estimated number of rings is m D r1/Tx, where Tx is the transmission range.r1 does not need to be known. It is calculated with respect to the centroid c. If the outermost ring R1 is considered as A polygon with a set of k access points {p1, p2; : : : ; pk} as its virtual vertices, c is determined following the geometric equation given in [31]. Then, r1 can be calculated using (2) as the maximum of the distances from c to each of these k points. (2) r = Max ⃦c, {p , p , … p } ⃦ ri, the radius of ring Ri with respect to c, can be approximately calculated using r1 and (3), where Di is the width of each ring. D = (r − r ) ≥ T (3) If d is the average number of one hop neighbours (degree of connectivity), then the number of nodes for each ring Ri can be calculated as shown in (4), where jBij is the number of hops required to make a full circuit of the ring Ri (the length of Ri). N ≤ d|Bi| (4) www.ijmer.in 164 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 If h (the tunable infrastructure parameter) is the number of hops between consecutive APs, then the number of access points at each ring Ri is ki D jBij/h and the total number of APs in the network is K = ∑ Ki The cost Ct can be abstracted as shown in (5), where f can be adapted based on the features of the communication process of interest. This function can be customized to rep-resent the communication overhead in terms of the number of transmissions or the energy consumption induced in the network by a given task and the time required to achieve this task. C = f(m, B, h) (5) For example, a data collection process that involves collecting data only from the APs consumes K transmission units. The time required to achieve one complete circuit of a ring is g|Bi| where g is the time needed to travel a one-hop distance. It depends on the mobility speed of the MPs (the upper bound on the one-hop distance is Tx) 8. Implementation issues related to the rings overlay: Nodes keep track of the topological statuses of their neighbours through neighbourhood tables. These tables indicate the roles of neighbouring nodes in the network topology; each node is classified based on its (ring #, role) tuple. The roles include backbone, parent, Access Point, internal, foreign-internal and dangling. Fig. 5 displays the neighbourhood tables of one internal node and one backbone node based on the connectivity illustrated in Fig. 4. We should note that although the internal nodes of ring Ri do not have backbone neighbours in Ri 1, they could have backbone and internal neighbours that belong to the adjacent ring RiC1. Internal nodes of Ri that are physical neighbours to nodes in ring RiC1 are known as foreign internal neighbours (FINs) of RiC1 (e.g., the node R1 i3 is a foreign internal neighbour of R2 b3). R1 does www.ijmer.in 165 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 not have any FINs because it is the outermost ring. Within a ring Ri, for any internal node with more than one backbone neighbour in Bi, one of them is marked as a default parent. Priority is given to any such node that happens to be an AP in the ring. Figure-5 example of ring connectivity 9.Simulation Results The main goals are (i) to prove that RIP will always be successful in discovering the ring patterns within an arbitrary random topology and (ii) to prove that a centralized implementation and a distributed implementation of RIP would produce approximately the same results. Proving these assertions demonstrates the sustainability of the RIP protocol in constructing generic ring-based infrastructures. To realize the above goals, the 1st category of tests was performed to determine the ability of RIP to discover rings in random topologies. Test 1 addressed the case in which the distribution of nodes is guaranteed to form a connected net-work graph [27]. The results show that in this case, all nodes are able to self-organize into rings. In a connected graph, every node is connected to every other node through single or multiple paths. The results re ect the ring membership of the nodes and are consistent with the underlying properties of RIP as www.ijmer.in 166 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 described in Section 3. Test 2 was performed to determine the ability of RIP to form a Rings infrastructure when the topology is imperfect. The initial distribution of nodes was a connected graph, which was then intentionally made imperfect by randomly removing 5% of the distributed nodes. Nodes were removed by ignoring their presence in the topology during the run time of the algorithms but considering them during the calculation of the results. The results show that rings can be formed from all nodes that remain in the topology with a high level of confidence. In Tests 3 and 4, node distributions were prepared with a high density but with no guarantee regarding connectivity. Here, a dense distribution refers to the case of a long transmission range that allows nodes to have a large number of neighbours. In Fig. 7, the transmission range was 60 m in Test 3 and 90 m in Test 4. For both settings, the percentage of nodes that could be merged into rings is higher than 95% and tends to increase with an increasing number of distributed nodes. All the tests described above were performed with a minimum of 100 nodes and a maximum of 400 nodes. The network lifetime was measured, and the results, depicted, were obtained with the parameters (h and D) set to values of 2 and 4. The network lifetime reflects how many routing sessions the network can support with a certain reliability value. Based on the Average results, the ability of MSC to cope with failure drops rapidly when reaches 0.2. Therefore; this value is considered as a threshold. The lifetime of RIP drops slightly at a higher number of hops between APs because the data must be trans-mitted over longer distances. In RIP, when h increases, the number of hops over which the data must travel to reach the access points increases; therefore, the energy consumption also increases. This leads to a slight reduction in the network lifetime for RIP. However, an increase in the degree of connectivity contributes to an increase in the network lifetime. The results also show that at small degrees of connectivity, the performance of RIP tends to remain www.ijmer.in 167 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 steadier than that of MSC. The MSC-based lifetime is more sensitive to variations in the degree of connectivity. One interesting observation is that an increase in connectivity does not directly lead to an increase in network lifetime. In MSC, the lifetime is reduced at both low and high values of connectivity. When the degree of connectivity is small, more transmissions are required, which increases the energy consumption. At high degrees of connectivity, the rate of redundant reception in the cells consumes more energy, which also contributes to a decrease in network lifetime. Moreover, as D (the drum width) becomes larger, the tree depth decreases, yet the hop counts rise on the communication paths both inside the drums and among the heads, which also causes network lifetime to decrease. Figure-6 Life time vs. degree of connectivity Figure- 7 Communication cost Vs Transmission radius for routing. www.ijmer.in 168 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 10.Performance measurement experiments In the experiments described below, the protocol-related parameters h and D for RIP and MSC, respectively, were both assigned a value of two. Both protocols were tested for their ability to support routing, data collection and broadcasting. The routing performances of both RIP and MSC were measured, and the results are depicted. In RIP, routing involving both in-ring and inter-ring communication was tested for the transmission of messages from ten randomly selected sources to ten randomly selected destinations. Mobility was considered, and the results were compared with those for the case in which no mobility was considered. In contrast to RIP, MSC transmits messages over the shortest paths that include the heads of the drums. We considered various transmission ranges with the number of nodes fixed at 400. The results show that RIP saves considerable energy compared with MSC. With mobility, the energy expenditure of RIP is less than 0.16 times that incurred by MSC. Even in the fully static scenario, MSC requires double the energy expenditure Figure-8 communication cost vs. transmission radius. www.ijmer.in 169 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Figure-9 Communication cost vs. transmission radius for selective data collection. Figure-10 Communication cost vs. network size for broadcasting. 11.Proposed Method In proposed method bandwidth of infrastructure in wireless sensor network is increased compared with previous method, protocol is tested for their ability to support routing, data collection and broadcasting. Finally energy loss is decreased compared to rest of all. www.ijmer.in 170 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Figure-11 communication cost vs Transmission radius Figure-12 Communication cost vs. transmission radius for selective data collection Figure-13 Communication cost vs. network size for broadcasting. 8. Conclusion The construction of the Rings infrastructure using our RIP protocol is the main goal of the infrastructure is to act as a reconfigurable overlay at the level of physical links. RIP shows great flexibility and the ability to support variety of configurations. We have tested the performance of Rings by sampling some communication processes using different www.ijmer.in 171 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 communication requirements. The test results show the efficiency of Rings in reducing communication costs while maintaining a high degree of reliability. We believe that the Rings infrastructure provides several interesting features that include the efficient support of both data-mule and multi-hop communication models and the ability to accommodate the deployment of new nodes with minimum overhead. The Rings infrastructure is very flexible, allowing much more room for optimization. 11.1 Previous methods: clustered infrastructure and hybrid infrastructure 11.2 Proposed method: Rings infrastructure protocol It is better than the previous infrastructure using RIP forms a rings infrastructure. It is high reliability, flexibility and good efficient communications in wireless sensor networks compare to previous methods it is proved by simulation results. 9. References [1] I. F. Akyildiz, W. Su, Y. Sankarasubramaniam, and E. Cayirci, ‘‘Wireless sensor networks: A survey,’’ Comput. Netw., vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 393–422, 2002. [2] E. Yoneki and J. Bacon, ‘‘A Survey of wireless sensor network technologies: Research trends and middleware’s role,’’ Dept. Comput. Lab., Univ. Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K., Tech. Rep. UCAM-CL-TR646, 2005. [3] J. Wu, ‘‘Reliable routing protocols for dynamic wireless ad hoc and sensor networks,’’ Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. Elect. Eng., Math. Comput. Sci., Univ. Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands, 2007. [4] J. Polastre et al., ‘‘A unifying link abstraction for wireless sensor networks,’’ in Proc. ACM SenSys, 2005, pp. 76–89. www.ijmer.in 172 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 [5] J. Heidemann, F. Silva, and D. Estrin, ‘‘Matching data dissemination algorithms to application requirements,’’ in Proc. 1st Int. Conf. Embedded Netw. Sensor Syst. (SenSys), 2003, pp. 218–229. [ 6] C. Liang and F. R. Yu, ‘‘Wireless network virtualization: A survey, some research issues and challenges,’’ IEEE Commun. Surveys Tuts., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 358–380, Mar. 2015. [7] S. Hashish and A. Karmouch, ‘‘Mobility-based generic infrastructure for large scale sensor network architecture,’’ in Proc. IEEE ICC, Jun. 2009, pp. 1–6. [8] R. Silva, J. Sa Silva, and F. Boavida, ‘‘Mobility in wireless sensor networks—Survey and proposal,’’ Comput. Commun., vol. 52, pp. 1–20, Oct. 2014. [9] A. Kansal, M. Rahimi, W. J. Kaiser, M. B. Srivastava, G. J. Pottie, and D. Estrin, ‘‘Controlled mobility for sustainable wireless sensor networks,’’ in Proc. IEEE Commun. Soc. Conf. Sensor Ad Hoc Commun. Netw. (SECON), Oct. 2004, pp. 1–6 Author’s Bibliography Mandapalli Premakumar Pursuing Masters in communication systems from Sanketika vidya parishad engineering college , Affiliated to Andhra University Visakhapatnam. www.ijmer.in 173 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 1)Ch. Sudeepti is currently working as Assistant professor in Electronics and communication engineering department in Sanketika vidya parishad engineering college affiliated to Andhra university Visakhapatnam. She did her master’s from ANITS college Visakhapatnam. 2)Valli Balaji, M.Tech is currently working as a Assistant professor in Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering in Sanketika Vidya Parishad Engineering College.Affiliated to Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. he did him masters from avanthi’ st theressa college, garividi.vizianagaram. www.ijmer.in 174 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 EFFECT OF NEUROFEEDBACK THERAPY ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION OF DIABETIC PATIENTS Shivani Tomar Dr. Anand Pratap Singh Research Scholar Assistant Professor Department Of Psychology Department Of Psychology & Mental Health, SHSS & Mental Health Gautam Buddha University SHSS, GBU Abstract Type 2 diabetes and its effect on cognitive ability has been the subject of great concern not only because of adverse physical consequences but also its association with cognitive impairment. Cognitive function has been reported to be related to electroencephalogram (EEG) alpha brain wave activity. Present study is an exploratory research and an attempt was made to study the effect of individual alpha neurofeedback training (NFT) on some aspects of cognitive function with pre and post assessment design among Type 2 Diabetic patients. 15 diagnosed Type 2Diabetic patients, between the ages of 60 to 65 years old, were included in the study. After the base line assessment of cognitive function, patients were given intervention sessions, followed by post intervention assessment. With the help of proper research design and scheduling of NFT sessions, the research outcome revealed that the patients were capable to accelerate the related amplitude power of alpha brain wave range in patients during NF sessions and performance of selected domains of cognitive function was significantly enhanced by 12 sessions of NFT through achieving more relaxed state of mind. This suggests that patients can learn to enhance their specialized brain wave band which can help to improve in cognitive function with more relaxed mental state which again contributes to accelerate the cognitive abilities. www.ijmer.in 175 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Key words: Neurofeedback Therapy, Type 2 Diabetes, Cognitive Functions Introduction Diabetes is a systemic disease having an impact on every organ of the body including the mental process with cognition dysfunction which observed in type 2 diabetic patients. Deficits have been observed in the domains of general cognitive ability, psychomotor skill, declarative and immediate memory (Arvanitakis et al., 2004; Ryan et al., 1993). Dysfunction in the ability of cognition is attributed to frontal lobe (executive functions) (Gold et al., 1993). Regulation of type 2 diabetes needs constant and careful watching and various intervention programs to keep precaution on long-term complexity (ADA, 2004). Neurofeedback (NF, also called EEG biofeedback) is an electroencephalographic (EEG) operant- conditioning training technique that assist individual learn to alter or modify their brain wave activity consciously. Various researches display that EEG alpha brain wave activity is related to cognition performance (Anokhin & Vogel, 1996; Klimesch, Doppelmayr, Pachinger, & Ripper, 1997; Neubauer, Fink,&Schrausser, 2002; Neubauer, Freudenthaler,&Pfurtscheller, 1995; Vogt, Klimesch, & Doppelmayr, 1998). Different range of alpha brain wave is associated with particular domains of cognition ability in different terms. NFT researches apply audio or optical form of feedback to give the participants crucial and significant facts about their different brain wave frequencies for improving them according the individual requirement and optimal level of specific range of brain wave (Lubar, 1997). Although, it has been clearly showed that growing age is related to reduction in brain wave activities (Obrist, 1954) and also reduce the strength of the alpha frequency (Markand, 1990), less researches have yet aimed on the effect of NFT on brain wave activity and the cognition www.ijmer.in 176 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 abilities of old aged participants (Albert, et al., 1998; Angelakis, et al., 2007; Fernandez, et al., 2008). The limited numbers of researches have been done in this area with elderly population. One such research conducted by Angelakis et al. (2007), who targeted increasing peak alpha frequency to improve the selected domains of cognitive function, another study that showed the increased strength of the upper alpha band compare to the strength of the theta band (Hanslmayer et al., 2005) in cognition. Lecomte and Juhel (2011) research also showed the improvement in the alpha band range and alpha theta ratio in subjects but didn’t show improved working memory due to some research limitation as mentioned. A valuable study in this field was done by Jirayucharoensak, et al. (2014), result showed improved cognition ability in respective domains and brain wave range. Hanslmayr, et al. (2005) also assessed the effectiveness of NFT on cognition performance. This study showed the association among the successfully achieved upper- alpha frequency and mental rotation enhancement. Joana Reis, et al. (2016) evaluated the effect of alpha/theta NF protocol in working memory performance in the healthy elder participants above 55 years old. Obtained result showed moderate improvements in cognition with the improvement in the digit span and brain wave band. In recent studies (Egner & Gruzelier, 2001, 2004; Vernon et al., 2003) participants from healthy population exhibited successful enhancement of focus attention and memory function by using, who were trained to upsurge their specific brain wave frequency power between the range of 12–15 Hz, termed “sensorimotor rhythm” (SMR) by Sterman (1996). In the light of mentioned review, present study investigated either neurofeedback therapy (NFT)—aiming to increase individual alpha brain wave amplitude power— the same enhancement influence on cognition function can be noticed. The aim of the current research was www.ijmer.in 177 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 to explore the effect of NFT in regulation to increase cognitive performance by increasing alpha brain wave amplitude power. Method The objective of the present research is to study the effect of NFT on cognitive function among type 2 diabetic patients. For the purpose of achieving the objective of the study, articulated the hypothesis that, NFT enhance cognitive function positively in type 2 diabetic patients. Participants The total sample size was 15 diabetic male and female patients (male = 9 , & female = 6) taken from the city hospital’s outpatients department and stratified from the age group of 60 to 65 years old with at least two years illness duration. Patients who have other related physical or mental problems, except disease related tension or depression, excluded from the study. Procedure For the purpose of the study, we used three assessment scales to assess the three domains of the cognitive functions, such as, Stroop test for executive function, Trail Making Test for focus attention and Digit span test for immediate memory with the Neurofeedback machine for the training to enhance the alpha brain wave. 1. Stroop Color- Word Test (Stroop, 1935)- This test has two sheet to response, named color test, which is basic task and has the name of colors, such as, red, blue, green and tan. Second sheet has also color name but in unmatched pair, such as, blue color name print in red color or green color name print in tan color, so on and called it color- word response, main task due to the measure of ‘Interference Effect’ of basic task. The patients are asked to read first sheet and the time taken to read all the stimuli are noted down. Then the patients are asked to name the color, in which the word is printed. The increase in time www.ijmer.in 178 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 taken to perform the main task compared with the basic task is referred to as “the Stroop interference effect”. It is considered a general measure of cognitive flexibility control and executive functioning. 2. Trail Making Test (TMT) Part A & B (Shum, 1990)- The task requires the patients to connect the dots of 25 numbers (1, 2, 3 etc) on a sheet in Part A and in Part B, the patients alternates between numbers and letters (1, A, 2, B, etc.). The aim of the patients are to complete the task as quickly as possible and the time taken to finish the task is noted. The TMT is sensitive to the impairment in attention process (Lezak, 1995; Boone & D’Elia, 1999; Spree & Strauss, 1998). 3. Digit Span Test (Albert B. Blankenship, (1938)- This test is used to measure working memory storage capacity. Patients are presented with a series of digit (e.g. 4, 8, 2) and must immediately repeat them back. If they do successfully, they are given a longer list. The length of the longest list a person can remember is that person’s digit span. This exercise has also been done in reverse order too. 4. Neurofeedback Machine- We used Biofeedback 2000 modular by Schuhfried GmbH, for enhancing alpha brain wave in amplitude for achieving more relaxed state of mind. In this device, we select EEG module with bipolar recording and a reference electrode. Electrodes were placed on the scale according to the international standardized 10- 20 system and the requirement of the study. Individual patients can be differing in the scalp site, based on their baseline recording which decides the site of that particular patient. Generally, for alpha enhancement, parietal and occipital lobe (back site of the brain) location of the scale has been selected, such as Pz, O1/O2. www.ijmer.in 179 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Data Collection The participants were briefed about the importance of their participation for the study. Informed consent was taken from the patients before inclusion in the study and personal data sheet was filled to elicit demographic information regarding age, gender, education, illness duration etc. The patients didn’t have any neurological or known psychological disorder. The stroop color- word test, trail making test and digit span test conducted to assess the cognitive abilities of the patients twice, for baseline, pre assessment and after the intervention sessions, to interpret the effect of NFT on cognitive functions. The collection of NFT data was conducted using mentioned software in the 12 sessions of NFT within the time period of three months. Two pair of electrodes was attached on the selected location of the scalp with the reference electrode, which was on the right ear lobe. The stimulation process was conducted using a continuous sound signal (eyes closed) to increase the alpha amplitude. Result Statistical analysis was done to calculate the effect of NFT on cognitive functions. Paired sample t- test was done to analyze the mean difference between the pre and post intervention assessment of cognitive functions of type 2 diabetic patients on SPSS software, version 21.0. Table 1 shows the descriptive statistic of the study and Table 2 shows the effect of NFT on the different domains of cognitive functions. www.ijmer.in 180 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table 1- Pre & Post Intervention Values of Mean & Standard Deviation of Cognitive Functions Among Type 2 Diabetic Patients Mean N Std. Std. Deviati Error on Mean Executive Function (C- Res) 104.27 15 10.92 2.82 Pair Pre Test 1 Executive Function (C- Res) 111.33 15 1.23 .319 Post Test Executive Function (C-W Res) 10.67 15 40.96 10.58 Pair Pre Test 2 Executive Function (C-W Res) 23.33 15 32.09 8.29 Post Test Focus Attention (Part A) Pre 92.51 15 41.37 10.68 Pair Test 3 Focus Attention (Part A) Post 81.52 15 33.29 8.59 Test Focus Attention (Part B) Pre 176.33 15 72.31 18.67 Pair Test 4 Focus Attention (Part B) Post 163.21 15 67.92 17.54 Test Pair Working Memory Pre Test 6.13 15 1.24 .32 5 Working Memory Post Test 6.80 15 1.42 .37 Table one showed that the pre test intervention indicated both, a lower mean score and a larger standard deviation for C- W response of patients. Greater degree of interference was reflected in the pre assessment of color- word scores of the type 2 diabetic patients. In post www.ijmer.in 181 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 intervention assessment of executive function, showed little improvement but statistically significant as indicated in Table 2. Other domains of cognitive functions also showed improvement scores in the different assessment of the patients. www.ijmer.in 182 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table 2- Differences Between the Pre & Post Intervention Assessment of Cognitive Functions Among Type 2 Diabetic Patients Paired Differences t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Std. 95% Confidence tailed) Deviat Error Interval of the ion Mean Difference Lower Upper Executive Function -7.07 10.42 2.69 -12.83 -1.29 -2.62 14 .020 (C- Response) Pre- Post Test Executive Function -12.67 12.66 3.27 -19.68 -5.65 -3.87 14 .002 (C- W Response) Pre- Post Test Focus Attention 10.99 16.89 4.36 1.63 20.35 2.52 14 .025 (Part A) Pre- Post Test Focus Attention 13.11 21.12 5.45 1.42 24.81 2.40 14 .031 (Part B) Pre- Post Test Working Memory -6.67 1.05 .27 -1.25 -.09 -2.47 14 .027 Pre- Post Test www.ijmer.in 183 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table 2 showed statistically significant differences between the pre and post test assessment of the different domains of the cognitive functions, which revealed enhancing impact NF training to improve the cognitive function of the elderly patients. Effect size also shows the range of medium to larger effect of NFT on all aspects of the cognitive function, which are .67, 1.0, .58, .62 and .63 respectively. Discussion We have investigated the effect of NFT sessions on different domains of cognitive functions in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes. The objective of the present study was to establish whether the NF training process that aimed to accelerate the amplitude power of alpha brain wave to gain more relaxed state of patients, which leads improvement in cognitive functions, could cause pronounced accelerated selected brain wave in patients. Analysis of the result showed that NF training on average, is increased the amplitude power in alpha band and patients showed pronounced improvement in their selected domains of cognition. Yet prior studies exhibit that elderly participants can be trained to modify their amplitude of alpha wave ranges and to regulate brain EEG activity more ‘efficiently’, but there is no research support available in the context of type 2 diabetic patients. Related studied, such as with elderly population or type 1 diabetic patients (Monjezi & Lyle, 2008), confirm the outcome of the present study, like, related to young adults (Hanslmayer et al., 2005) and elderly adults (Angelakis et al., 2007). In a research, which was conducted by Hanslmayer et, al. (2005) applied NFT to increase the power of the upper alpha waves, and showed positively increasing in cognition performance in pre and post mental rotation task. They suggested further studies in this field due to the measure of short term effect of NFT on cognitive performance. Angelakis et al., (2007) revealed same result in elderly but healthy www.ijmer.in 184 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 individuals, participants practicing much higher number of therapeutic training sessions (between 31 and 36 sessions). Researchers noticed gradual increasing in the amplitude power of the alpha band in the participants and concluded that NFT accelerate the cognition abilities with verbal memory of old aged subjects and improved their performance. Klimesch et al. claimed that the alpha band improves the memory performance significantly (Klimesch, 1999; Klimesch et al., 2005). In this context, another important study has been done with old aged participants by Lecomte and Juhel (2011), concluded that, NF training accelerate the upper alpha band and alpha/theta ratio but didn’t observed NF training leads improvement in cognitive performance. Yet they claimed some degree of improvement in cognitive performance at least half number of participants so they suggested, it can assist to decrease the growth of cognition decline. The present result is contrary to our findings. But they mentioned some limitation of their research that why increasing in alpha amplitude has no observable effect on cognitive performance. Number of training sessions were only four or five, which is probably insufficient according to prior studies as well as our study also, because most of the researches showed improved cognitive performance in at least ten sessions of training (Egner & Gruzelier, 2004; Vernon et al., 2003) and irresistible result of NF training sessions on cognition were noticed in more than 30 sessions (Angelakis et al., 2007). Limited number of participation is another respective limitation to feature significant difference. Selected test to assess the cognition abilities and the nature of sample, like in present study, elderly but with type 2 diabetes have been taken in the study, are some other variables that should be mention in future studies to examine. Considering the little amount of research which has been done in the previous years to assess the role and significance of Neurofeedback www.ijmer.in 185 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 therapy to improve cognitive function in the management of disease as chronic as diabetes, it can be understood that Neurofeedback therapy has extensive scope in the area of diabetes care as well as prevention. However, it has also been observed that not much work has been done in India with increasing number of type 2 diabetic patients, due to various cultural related contributing and co- morbid factors in this context especially with the Neurofeedback therapy. Conclusion NF therapeutic intervention presents the area to investigate and promising operations in the relation with old aged population especially with type 2 diabetic patients. In recent years, it becomes much more speculate area to explore in the case of elderly population to improve their cognitive abilities which will help them to reduce their daily hassles and increased their understanding to manage disease like diabetes in better way. The present research explain and showed that optimal level of brain wave range can be achieved through proper protocol of the intervention with self regulation technique to gain more relaxed state of mind which lead better management in elderly type 2 diabetic patients. At the same time, the association among selected brain wave activity and cognition ability also need more precise and systematic research support and consideration of NFT as a therapeutic intervention which proposed cognition enhancement in the diabetic patients due to some contradictory outcome in the field (Bauer, 1976; Angelakis et al., 2007) with some research limitations. Despite all the efforts, some of the relevant factors could not be controlled and consequently certain limitations of the present study have been enumerated. The present study is restricted in the limited area, such as, one or two hospitals of the city, coming from a specific geographical location and not categorized socio- economic status. Small www.ijmer.in 186 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 sample size, lack of long term follow up information and lack of representative population are another profound limitation of the study. References American Diabetes Association: Standards of medical care in diabetes (Position Statement). (2004). Diabetes Care 27 (Suppl. 1): S15–S35. Angelakis, E., Stathopulou, S., Frymiare, J. L., Green, D. L., Lubar, J. F. , & Kounios, J. (2007). EEG neurofeedback: A brief overview and an example of peak alpha frequency training for cognitive enhancement in the elderly. [Electronic version]. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21, 110–129. Anokhin, A., & Vogel, F. (1996). EEG alpha rhythm frequency and intelligence in normal adults. Intelligence, 23, 1–14. Arvanitakis, Z., Wilson, R.S., Bienias, J.L., Evans, D.A., & Bennett, D.A. (2004). Diabetes mellitus and risk of Alzheimer disease and decline in cognitive function. Archives of Neurology, 61, 661–666. Bauer, R. H. (1976). Short-term memory: EEG alpha correlates and the effect of increased alpha. Behavioral Biology, 17, 425-433. doi.org/10.1016/S0091- 6773(76)90793-8. www.ijmer.in 187 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Blankenship, Albert B. (1938). "Memory Span: A Review of the ] Literature." The Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 35f : No. 1 (January), pp. 1-26. Egner, T., & Gruzelier, J. (2001). Learned self-regulation of EEG frequency components affects attention and event related brain potentials. Neuroreport, 12, 4155–4159. Egner, T., & Gruzelier, J. (2004). EEG Biofeedback of low beta band components: Frequency specific effects on variables of attention and event related brain potentials. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115, 131–139. Gold, A.E., Deary, I.J., & Frier, B.M. (1993). Hypoglycemia and cognitive function. Diabetes Care, 16, 958–959. Hanslmayer, S., Sauseng, P., Doppelmayr, M., Schabus, M., & Klimesch, W.(2005).Increasing individual upper alpha by neurofeedback improves cognitive performance in human subjects.Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, 30(1), 1-10. Jirayucharoensak, S., Israsena, P., Pan- Ngun, S. , & Hemrungrojn, S. (2014). A game- based neurofeedback training system for cognitive rehabilitation in the elderly. 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Neocortical dynamics: Implications for understanding the role of neurofeedback and related techniques for the enhancement of attention. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 22, 111–126. Markand, O. N. (1990). Alpha rhythms. J. Clin. Neurophysio. 7, 163– 189. doi: 10.1097/ 00004691- 199004000-00003. Neubauer, A., Freudenthaler, H., & Pfurtscheller, G. (1995). Intelligence and spatio-temporal patterns of eventrelated desynchronization. Intelligence, 20, 249– 267. www.ijmer.in 189 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Neubauer, A. C., Fink, A., & Schrausser, D. G. (2002). Intelligence and neural efficiency: The influence of task content and sex the brain-IQ relationship. Intelligence, 30, 515–536. Obrist, W.D. The electroencephalogram of normal aged adults. Electroenceph. clin. Neurophysiol.1954;6:235–244. Reis, J., Portugal, A. M., Fernandes, L., Afonso, N., Pereira, M., Sousa, N., et al. . (2016). An alpha and theta intensive and short neurofeedback protocol for healthy aging working-memory training. Front. Aging Neurosci. 8:157. 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00157. Ryan, C.M., & Williams, T.M. (1993). Effects of insulin-dependent diabetes on learning and memory efficiency in adults. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 15, 685– 700. Shum, D. H. K., McFarland, K. A., & Brain, J. D. (1990). Construct validity of eight tests of attention: comparison of normal and closed head injured samples. Clin. Neuropsychol. 4, 151–162. doi: 10.1080/13854049008401508. Sterman, M. B. (1996). Physiological origins and functional correlates of EEG rhythmic www.ijmer.in 190 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 activities: Implications for self-regulation. Biofeedback and Self- Regulation, 21, 3–33. Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662. Vernon, D., Egner, T., Cooper, N., Compton, T., Neilands, C., Sheri, A., et al. (2003). The effect of training distinct neurofeedback protocols on aspects of cognitive performance. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 47, 75–85. Vogt, F., Klimesch, W., & Doppelmayr, M. (1998). High frequency components in the alpha band and memory performance. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 15, 167–172. www.ijmer.in 191 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 HIGH-SPEED AND ENERGY-EFFICIENT CARRY SKIP ADDER OPERATING UNDER A WIDE RANGE OF SUPPLY VOLTAGE LEVELS Madhireddi Bhaskar, Nihar Ranjan Panda, Rupalin Nanda M.Tech Pursuing Student ,Sanketika vidya parishad Engineering college, Andhra university,visakhapatnam. Ph.D, M.TECH, Head of the department of ECE and Assistant Prof of ECE Dept, Sanketika vidya parishad Engineering college, Andhra university, Visakhapatnam. Abstract-Modified Booth Encoding (MBE) is used to generate partial product. The proposed 32-Bit multiplier is based on pipelining. The main target is to reduce the delay of higher bits multiplier and speeding up the computation. The proposed design is implemented in Xilinx 14.2. The delay achieved is 2.826ns for computing 32×32 bit signed multiplication with maximum frequency of 353.832 MHz on the device A 32-bit signed pipelined multiplier has been designed. The design uses MBE for partial product generation, hence the number of PPRS reduced to half. Pipelining reduces the overall delay of the multiplier. The design is simulated using Xilinx 14.2. The proposed pipelined multiplier is compared with the conventional existing multiplier in terms of delay, clock cycle. The proposed multiplier gives less delay than the existing conventional multiplier. The proposed 32-bit pipelined multiplier is designed in Xilinx 14.2 using Verilog HDL. In the first case, when the PPRS are added in sequential manner, it takes 16 clock cycles to generate the final product and in the second case, when the PPRS are added using CLA based architecture, it takes 4 clock cycles to generate the product. The delay and clock cycles are get reduced but the area i.e. no. of Luts has been increased. www.ijmer.in 192 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Cla based 32-bit signed pipelined multiplier Introduction Efficient Multipliers plays an important role in various applications such as Digital Signal Processors, Microprocessors and Microcontrollers etc. High speed with less area and hence low power multiplier is an extreme need in today’s VLSI systems. In the normal binary multiplication, three basic steps are required to get the final product. First step is partial product generation, second is addition of partial product rows (PPRs) using partial product reduction tree until two partial product rows remain and third step is final addition using any fast carry propagation adder. The main parameter that affects the performance of multipliers the addition of large number of partial product rows. There are various techniques and algorithms that have been proposed to design 32-Bit Signed/Unsigned multipliers [1-8].A FSM based 32-bit high-speed pipelined multiplier is implemented using Verilog HDL and the critical path delay achieved is 3.065 ns. This pipelined multiplier requires four40-Bit full adders to complete 64-bit 32 partial products addition. For 32*32 bit unsigned multiplication, the maximum frequency achieved is 326.243 MHz with output latency of 9-clock cycle [1]. Another design of a 32-bit signed/unsigned pipelined multiplier is implemented using 0.18μm CMOSimplementation and the critical path delay achieved is 3.13 ns.In this paper, MBE is used to generate partial product and amixed CSA-CCA architecture is used for final addition [2].Another approach has been proposed to generate a regular partial product array and to regularize partial product array of post truncated MBE multipliers. In this paper, the partial product array is reduced by a Wallace tree structure and for final addition carry-look ahead adder is used.The delay achieved for 32-bit MBE multiplier and 32-bit post truncated multiplier is 6.65 ns and 6.88 ns respectively [3]. Alinear array multiplier design which is based on signal flow optimization in www.ijmer.in 193 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 adder array for partial product reduction, left to-right leapfrog (LRLF) signal flow, and splitting of the reduction array into upper/lower parts is implemented and the delay achieved is 7.18 ns [4]. To improve the performance of traditional MBE, a new modified encoding (MBE) scheme has-been proposed for partial product generation and a new algorithm has been developed to construct multiple level conditional- sum adders [5]. In this paper, Radix-4 Modified Booth Encoding (MBE) is used to generate partial product. By using basic Add-Shift Algorithm when two 32-bit numbers are multiplied, it generates 32 partial product rows but by using MBE it can be reduced to half. To add the partial product, CLA based architecture is used. Pipelining is used to speed up the performance of multiplier. Pipeline is a set of processing elements that are connected in series in such a way that output of one element is the input of next one, means that pipelining reduces the complexity of the design and hence it reduces the delay in the critical path. In this paper, we will show the design of 32- bit pipelined multiplier in Section II, the performance evaluation of the pipelining multiplier in Sections III and IV, and the conclusion of the paper in Section V. Multiplier Background Basic binary multiplier Figure-1 Basic binary multiplication www.ijmer.in 194 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Figure-2 Signed multiplication algorithm Partial product generation Figure-3 series of logic AND gates Booth Encoding Figure-4 Multiplier bit grouping according to Booth Encoding Table-1 Modified Booth encoding table www.ijmer.in 195 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 For each step I, three bits of multiplier X i.e. x2i-1, x2i, x2i+1 are considered and the corresponding value of did is obtained from Table 2. There are few points to remember here. 1. Zero must always be concatenated to the right of X, i.e. x-1 is considered to be 0. 2. M must always be even. There are two unavoidable consequences when utilizing MBE as sign extension prevention and negative encoding. The combination of these two results in the formation of one additional partial product row, which requires more hardware and the system, also becomes slower [3].This problem and its solution are discussed in section 6. The advantage of using MBE is that the number of partial products are reduced to m/2. This, in turn, reduces the hardware burden and increases the speed of multiplier. Signed multiplication There are two kinds of multipliers i.e. unsigned and signed. In unsigned multiplier, it is assumed that both the multiplier and the multiplicand are positive integers, while in signed multipliers, the operands bear signs which is represented by the MSB of each operand. A signed multiplier is a little bit more complex than an unsigned one due to the possibility that any number can be negative changing the result. The sign bit creates some troubles while compressing the partial products. The sign bit of a partial product row has to be extended all the way to the MSB position which would require the sign bit to drive that many output loads. This makes the partial product rows unequal in length [3]. Signed number representations Performance of the multiplier with respect to speed, chip area and power dissipation also depends upon the number representation used. www.ijmer.in 196 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 For fixed point numbers one of the following representations can be used. Sign-magnitude representation Complement representation o 1’s complement representation o 2’s complement representation o Binary offset representation Signed-digit code Canonic signed digit code Multiplier types Multipliers are categorized relative to their applications, architecture and the way the partial products are produced and summed up. Based on all these, a designer might find following types of multipliers. 1. Array multipliers 2. Simple array multiplier 3. Double array multiplier 4. Higher-order array Tree multipliers 1. Binary Trees 2. Overturned-Staircase tree 3. Wallace Tree www.ijmer.in 197 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Serial/parallel multiplier Figure-5 Serial/parallel multiplier Transposed serial/parallel multiplier Figure-6 Transposed serial/parallel multiplier Serial/Parallel Multiplier Accumulator An alternative realization of the serial/parallel multiplier with an additional input that allows computations of the type y = a.x + z is in Figure 15. Figure-7 S/P multiplier accumulator www.ijmer.in 198 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Differences between CPLDs and FPGAs The primary differences between CPLDs and FPGAs are architectural. A CPLD has a somewhat restrictive structure consisting of one or more programmable sum-of-products logic arrays feeding a relatively small number of clocked registers. The result of this is less flexibility, with the advantage of more predictable timing delays and a higher logic-to-interconnect ratio. The FPGA architectures, on the other hand, are dominated by interconnect. This makes them far more flexible (in terms of the range of designs that are practical for implementation within them) but also far more complex to design for. Another notable difference between CPLDs and FPGAs is the presence in most FPGAs of higher-level embedded functions (such as adders and multipliers) and embedded memories, as well as to have logic blocks implements decoders or mathematical functions. Some FPGAs have the capability of partial re-configuration that lets one portion of the device be re-programmed while other portions continue running. Applications Applications of FPGAs include digital signal processing, software- defined radio, aerospace and defense systems, ASIC prototyping, medical imaging, computer vision, speech recognition, cryptography, bioinformatics, computer hardware emulation and a growing range of other areas. FPGAs originally began as competitors to CPLDs and competed in a similar space, that of glue logic for PCBs. As their size, capabilities, and speed increased, they began to take over larger and larger functions to the state where some are now marketed as full systems on chips (SOC). www.ijmer.in 199 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 FPGAs especially find applications in any area or algorithm that can make use of the massive parallelism offered by their architecture. One such area is code breaking, in particular brute- force attack, of cryptographic algorithms. FPGAs are increasingly used in conventional High Performance Computing applications where computational kernels such as FFT or Convolution are performed on the FPGA instead of a microprocessor. The use of FPGAs for computing tasks is known as reconfigurable computing. The inherent parallelism of the logic resources on the FPGA allows for considerable compute throughput even at a sub-500 MHz clock rate. The current generation of FPGAs can implement around 100 single precision floating point units, all of which can compute a result every single clock cycle. The flexibility of the FPGA allows for even higher performance by trading off precision and range in the number format for an increased number of parallel arithmetic units. This has driven a new type of processing called reconfigurable computing, where time intensive tasks are offloaded from software to FPGAs. Architecture The typical basic architecture consists of an array of configurable logic blocks (CLBs) and routing channels. Multiple I/O pads may fit into the height of one row or the width of one column in the array. Generally, all the routing channels have the same width (number of wires). An application circuit must be mapped into an FPGA with adequate resources. A classic FPGA logic block consists of a 4-input lookup table (LUT), and a flip-flop, as shown below. In recent years, manufacturers www.ijmer.in 200 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 have started moving to 6-input LUTs in their high performance parts, claiming increased performance. Figure-8 Typical logic block There is only one output, which can be either the registered or the unregistered LUT output. The logic block has four inputs for the LUT and a clock input. Since clock signals (and often other high- fan-out signals) are normally routed via special-purpose dedicated routing networks in commercial FPGAs, they and other signals are separately managed. For this example architecture, the locations of the FPGA logic block pins are shown below. Figure-9 logic block pin location Each input is accessible from one side of the logic block, while the output pin can connect to routing wires in both the channel to the right and the channel below the logic block. Each logic block output www.ijmer.in 201 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 pin can connect to any of the wiring segments in the channels adjacent to it. Similarly, an I/O pad can connect to any one of the wiring segments in the channel adjacent to it. For example, an I/O pad at the top of the chip can connect to any of the W wires (where W is the channel width) in the horizontal channel immediately below it. Generally, the FPGA routing is unsegmented. That is, each wiring segment spans only one logic block before it terminates in a switch box. By turning on some of the programmable switches within a switch box, longer paths can be constructed. For higher speed interconnect, some FPGA architectures use longer routing lines that span multiple logic blocks. Whenever a vertical and a horizontal channel intersect, there is a switch box. In this architecture, when a wire enters a switch box, there are three programmable switches that allow it to connect to three other wires in adjacent channel segments. The pattern, or topology, of switches used in this architecture is the planar or domain-based switch box topology. In this switch box topology, a wire in track number one connects only to wires in track number one in adjacent channel segments, wires in track number 2 connect only to other wires in track number 2 and so on. The figure below illustrates the connections in a switch box. Modern FPGA families expand upon the above capabilities to include higher level functionality fixed into the silicon. Having these common functions embedded into the silicon reduces the area required and gives those functions increased speed compared to building them from primitives. Examples of these include multipliers, generic DSP blocks, embedded processors, high speed IO logic and embedded memories. www.ijmer.in 202 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Figure-10 Switch box topology FPGAs are also widely used for systems validation including pre- silicon validation, post-silicon validation, and firmware development. This allows chip companies to validate their design before the chip is produced in the factory, reducing the time to market. FPGA design and programming To define the behavior of the FPGA, the user provides a hardware description language (HDL) or a schematic design. The HDL form might be easier to work with when handling large structures because it's possible to just specify them numerically rather than having to draw every piece by hand. On the other hand, schematic entry can allow for easier visualization of a design. Then, using an electronic design automation tool, a technology- mapped net list is generated. The net list can then be fitted to the actual FPGA architecture using a process called place-and-route, usually performed by the FPGA Company’s proprietary place-and- route software. The user will validate the map, place and route results via timing analysis, simulation, and other verification methodologies. Once the design and validation process is complete, the binary file generated (also using the FPGA company's proprietary software) is used to (re)configure the FPGA. www.ijmer.in 203 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Going from schematic/HDL source files to actual configuration: The source files are fed to a software suite from the FPGA/CPLD vendor that through different steps will produce a file. This file is then transferred to the FPGA/CPLD via a serial interface (JTAG) or to an external memory device like an EEPROM. The most common HDLs are VHDL and Verilog, although in an attempt to reduce the complexity of designing in HDLs, which have been compared to the equivalent of assembly languages, there are moves to raise the abstraction level through the introduction of alternative languages. To simplify the design of complex systems in FPGAs, there exist libraries of predefined complex functions and circuits that have been tested and optimized to speed up the design process. These predefined circuits are commonly called IP cores, and are available from FPGA vendors and third-party IP suppliers (rarely free, and typically released under proprietary licenses). Other predefined circuits are available from developer communities such as Open Cores (typically free, and released under the GPL, BSD or similar license), and other sources. In a typical design flow, an FPGA application developer will simulate the design at multiple stages throughout the design process. Initially the RTL description in VHDL or Verilog is simulated by creating test benches to simulate the system and observe results. Then, after the synthesis engine has mapped the design to a net list, the net list is translated to a gate level description where simulation is repeated to confirm the synthesis proceeded without errors. Finally the design is laid out in the FPGA at which point propagation delays can be added and the simulation run again with these values back-annotated onto the net list. www.ijmer.in 204 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) arrived in 1984 as an alternative to programmable logic devices (PLDs) and ASICs. As their name implies, FPGAs offer the significant benefit of being readily programmable. Unlike their fore bearers in the PLD category, FPGAs can (in most cases) be programmed again and again, giving designers multiple opportunities to tweak their circuits. There’s no large non-recurring engineering (NRE) cost associated with FPGAs. In addition, lengthy, nerve wracking waits for mask- making operations are squashed. Often, with FPGA development, logic design begins to resemble software Figure-11 FPGA Implementing plstform design due to the many iterations of a given design. Innovative design often happens with FPGAs as an implementation platform. But there are some downsides to FPGAs as well. The economics of FPGAs force designers to balance their relatively high piece-part pricing compared to ASICs with the absence of high NREs and long development cycles. They’re also available only in fixed sizes, which matters when you’re determined to avoid unused silicon area. FPGAs fill a gap between discreet logic and the smaller PLDs on the low end of the complexity scale and costly custom ASICs on the high end. They consist of an array of logic blocks that are configured using www.ijmer.in 205 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 software. Programmable I/O blocks surround these logic blocks. Both are connected by programmable interconnects. The programming technology in an FPGA determines the type of basic logic cell and the interconnect scheme. In turn, the logic cells and interconnection scheme determine the design of the input and output circuits as well as the programming scheme. FPGA Usage Then and Now FPGA’s were designed into systems primarily to reduce system component costs by consolidating board-level logic into fewer devices. A few hundred logic gates were replaced by a single FPGA that implemented the same functionality. Because the role of an FPGA was the consolidation of board-level logic into fewer components. The complexity of today’s FPGA’s, allows system architects to replace a broad range of ASICs with FPGA’s and further consolidate and integrate the system logic into fewer and fewer components. Today’s FPGA’s provide unprecedented flexibility at attractive costs. Figure-12 FPGA device complexity Advantages No NRE costs. Easy design modification. In-System Re-Programmability. www.ijmer.in 206 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Easy off-the-shelf availability in small volumes and Fast time to Market. New FPGA and Old ASIC designers are moving to fully exploit the new generation of FPGA devices by replacing more ASICs with FPGA’s. As FPGA’s replace ASICs, FPGA design is moving from board engineers into chip design teams. Adopting HDL design methods helps meet their tight time-to-market requirements while implementing designs into ever larger and more complex FPGA’s. The combination of these FPGA technology and design trends increase the need for FPGA design solutions that provide tools powerful enough to handle ASIC designs while also delivering the productivity of an integrated FPGA design flow A generic description of an FPGA is a programmable device with an internal array of logic blocks, surrounded by a ring of programmable input/output blocks, connected together via programmable interconnect. There are a wide variety of sub-architectures within this group. The secret to density and performance in these devices lies in the logic contained in their logic blocks and on the performance and efficiency of their routing architecture. FPGAs are a distinct from SPLDs and CPLDs and typically offer the highest logic capacity. A typical FPGA contains from 64 to tens of thousands of logic blocks and an even greater number of flip-flops. Most FPGAs do not provide 100% interconnect between logic blocks, to do so would be prohibitively expensive in. terms of area Programmable interconnect Is what makes the device programmable it is the most important contributor to making these PLD’s what they are today. Also a fact, not commonly known about interconnects, is that it is the most dominant contributor to Die Area and Cycle Time [ i.e. speed ] in PLD’s configurable devices. www.ijmer.in 207 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 To support their large, active functional density, the computational units must be richly interconnected and support highly parallel data routing. FPGAs, more than other general-purpose devices, place most of their area into interconnect. Interconnects have now become the biggest bottlenecks in device development / architecture definition, as they, Consume maximum power. Put limitations on 100% utility. Dictate speed of operation. Consume the maximum silicon space. Design Implementation After the design is entered using schematic capture and synthesized, it is ready for implementation on the target device. 1. Conversion: the first step involves converting the design into the format supported internally by the tools. Most implementation tools read "standard" netlist formats and the translation process is usually automatic. a) Once translated, the tools perform a design rule check and optimization on the incoming net list. 2. Partitioning: Then the software partitions the designs into the logic blocks available on the device. a) Partitioning is an important step for both FPGAs and CPLDs. b) Good partitioning results in higher routing completion and better performance for FPGAs and increased density and performance for CPLDs. www.ijmer.in 208 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 3. Place and Route: after the logic is partitioned into the logic blocks, the implementation software searches for the best location to place the logic block among all of the possibilities. a) Primary goal of P&R is to reduce routing resources required and maximize system performance. b) P&R is a compute intensive operation for FPGAs and larger CPLDs. c) Implementation software monitors the routing length and routing track congestion while placing the blocks. d) It also tracks the absolute path delays in order to meet user- specified timing constraints. In large or complex applications, the software may not be able to successfully place and route the design. Some packages allow the software to try different options or to run many iterations in an attempt to obtain a fully-routed design. 4 4. Conversion: the first step involves converting the design into the format supported internally by the tools. Most implementation tools read "standard" net list formats and the translation process is usually automatic. e) Once translated, the tools perform a design rule check and optimization on the incoming net list. 5. Partitioning: Then the software partitions the designs into the logic blocks available on the device. A) Partitioning is an important step for both FPGAs and CPLDs. B) Good partitioning results in higher routing completion and better performance for FPGAs and increased density and performance for CPLDs. C) Some tools have floor planning options to aid in physical layout. Layout is especially important for larger FPGAs because some tools www.ijmer.in 209 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 have problems recognizing design structure. A good floor planning tool allows the designer to convey this structure to the place and route software. D) When the placement and routing process is complete, the software creates the binary programming file used to configure the device. Issues in interconnect Design: 1) Provide adequate flexibility -- The interconnect must be capable of implementing the interconnection topology required by the PLD with acceptable interconnect delays. 2) Use configuration memory efficiently--The area required for configuration memory can account for a reasonable fraction of the array real estate. By making the configuration encodings tight, we do not have to take up substantial area relative to that required for wires and switches. 3) Balance bisection bandwidth-- As discussed above, interconnect wiring takes space and can, in some topologies, dominate the array size. The wiring topology should be chosen to balance interconnect bandwidth with array size and expected design interconnect requirements 4) Minimize delays -- The delay through the routing network can easily be the dominant delay in a programmable technology. Two significant factors of delay are: a) Propagation andfan-out delay -- Interconnect delay on a wire is proportional to distance and capacitive loading - fan-out. b) Switched element delay -- Each programmable switching element in a path adds delay. This delay is generally much larger than the propagation or fan-out delay. www.ijmer.in 210 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Topology of Conventional Interconnect Figure-13 conventional FPGA interconnect Topology Conventional FPGA interconnect takes a hybrid approach with a mix of short, long and longer connections. Figure shows a typical FPGA LUT tile. Full connectivity is not supported even within the interconnect of a single tile. Typically, the interconnect block includes: A hierarchy of line lengths -- some interconnect lines span a single cell, some a small number of cells, and some an entire row or column Limited, but not complete, opportunity for corner turns Limited opportunity to link together shorter segments for longer routes Options for the value generated by the LUT to connect to some lines of each hierarchical length in each direction -- perhaps including some local interconnect lines dedicated to the local LUT output Opportunity to select the LUT inputs from most of the lines converging in the interconnect block www.ijmer.in 211 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Figure-14 FPGA interconnect caricature Some of the questions about the basic FPGA interconnect characteristics are Density of switches per interconnect block. Number of routing tracks required to route representative circuits Merits of hierarchical interconnect Distribution of line lengths. Number of Switches Estimation For a 4 input LUT, in an FPGA containing around 100 LUT’s, number of switches required is about 100 to 400. The fact that conventional FPGAs can, with difficulty, route all most. all designs using less than 80-90% of the device LUT’s, suggests that they chose a number of switches which provides reasonably “adequate'' interconnect for the current device sizes. Thus area which these resources occupy is not necessarily independent of the number of LUT’s interconnected. Some estimates for the number of I/O channels required, and the average channel length are, given byRents Rule which empirically meters the interconnect requirement. www.ijmer.in 212 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 The following graph shows a relation between Switches per LUTvs.No of LUT’s. It is clear from this graph that the no of switches per LUT Increase linearly The number of LUT’s, Thus complicating interconnect issues as FPGA Gate densities increase. We can say that the amount of interconnect, we need to provide depends upon the connectivity of the network. This makes it difficult to design a single network, which will efficiently accommodate arbitrary designs. 1. Running a SoC design on FPGA prototype is a reliable way to ensure that it is functionally correct. This is compared to designers only relying on software simulations to verify that their hardware design is sound. Simulation speed and modeling accuracy limitations hinder this development. 2. Due to time constrains, many projects cannot wait until the silicon is back from the foundry to start on software tests. FPGA prototyping allows for much more time in area of software development and testing at the software-hardware integration stage. This allows many unforeseen software bugs that appear due to today's array of operating systems, applications, and hardware. 3. Prototyping also allows the developer to ensure that all IP technologies on his system work well together off the simulation stage and in actual form. 4. Prototyping has the added advantage as demo platforms to SoC clients, bringing in interest early. This speeds up the overall www.ijmer.in 213 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 development cycle and allows for more enhancement or improvement to the chip features as it would otherwise have been. Power Dissipation in FPGAs The programmability and flexibility of FPGAs make them less power-efficient than custom ASICs for implementing a given logic circuit. The FPGA configuration circuitry and configuration memory consume silicon area, producing longer wire Lengths and higher interconnect capacitance. Programmable routing switches attach to the pre-fabricated metal wire segments in the FPGA interconnect and add to the capacitive load incurred by signals. To be sure, most dynamic power in an FPGA is consumed in the programmable routing fabric. Likewise, static power is proportional to total transistor width. The interconnect comprises a considerable fraction of an FPGA's transistors and therefore dominates leakage. Consequently, the interconnection fabric should be a prime target for FPGA power optimization. Certainly, power can be addressed through process technology changes, at the hardware architecture level, or at the circuit level. Virtex-5 FPGAs, for example, contain .diagonal. interconnect resources, allowing connections to be made with fewer routing conductors and reduced interconnect capacitance. At the transistor level, Virtex-4 and Virtex-5 FPGAs employ triple-oxide process technology for leakage mitigation. Three possible oxide thicknesses are available for each transistor, depending on its speed, power, and reliability requirements. The proliferation and increased use of hard IP blocks, such as DSPs and processors, can also lower power consumption versus implementing such functionality in the standard FPGA fabric. An overview of approaches for optimizing FPGA power can be found. www.ijmer.in 214 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 It is also possible to reduce power without incurring any costly hardware or process changes. Power issues can be tackled through power-driven CAD algorithms and design flows. Result and Simulation Multiplier 32-Bit Simulation Multiplier 32-Bit CSLA www.ijmer.in 215 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Piple-line Parallel Pipe-line Sequential CONCLUSION In this paper, a 32-Bit signed pipelined multiplier has been designed. The design uses MBE for partial product generation, hence the number of PPRs reduced to half. Pipelining reduces the overall delay of the multiplier. The design is simulated using Xilinx 14.2. The proposed pipelined multiplier is compared with the conventional existing multiplier in terms of delay, www.ijmer.in 216 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 clock cycle. The proposed multiplier gives less delay than the existing conventional multiplier. REFERENCES [1] Abdullah-Al-Kafi, Atul Rahman, BushraMahjabeen, Mahmudur Rahman, “An Efficient Design Of FSM Based 32-Bit Unsigned High- Speed Pipelined Multiplier Using Verilog HDL” 8th International Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering, DOI 10.1109/ICECE.2014.7027026, Dec 2014. [2] Qingzheng LI, Guixuan LIANG, Amine BERMAK, “A High Speed 32-Bit Signed/Unsigned Pipelined Multiplier” Fifth IEEE InternationalSymposium on Electronic Design, Test & Applications, DOI 10.110 9/DELTA.2010.10, Jan 2010. [3] Shiann-RongKuang, Jiun-Ping Wang, Cang-Yuan Guo, “Modified Booth Multipliers with a Regular Partial Product Array” IEEETransactions on Circuits and Systems, DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2009.2019334, Vol 56, Issue 5, May 2009. [4] Huang Z. J., Ercegovac M. D., Cater J., “High-performance low- power left-to-right array multiplier design” IEEE Transactions on Computers,DOI 10.1109/TC.2005.51, Vol 54, Issue 3, March 2005. [5] Wen-Chang Yeh, Chein-Wei Jen, “High-Speed Booth Encoded Parallel Multiplier Design” IEEE Transactions on Computers, DOI 10.1109/12.863039, Vol 49, Issue 7, July 2000. [6] Rahul D Kshirsagar, Aishwarya.E.V.,AhireShashankVishwanath, P Jayakrishnan, “Implementation of Pipelined Booth Encoded Wallace Tree Multiplier Architecture” 2013 International Conference on Green Computing, Communication and Conservation of Energy (ICGCE), DOI 10.1109/ICGCE.2013.6823428, Dec 2013. www.ijmer.in 217 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 [7] Vijayalakshmi, R. Seshadri, Dr. S. Ramakrishnan, “Design and Implementation of 32-Bit Unsigned Multiplier Using CLAA and CSLA” International Conference on Emerging Trends in VLSI, Embedded System, Nano Electronics and Telecommunication System,DOI 10.1109/ICEVENT.2013.6496579, Jan 2013. www.ijmer.in 218 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 TEACHER’S ROLE IN PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT Dr. K. Manjulamma Dept of Political Science &Public Administration S.V.U. College of Arts S.V. University Tirupati Introduction Environmental education and training can be important in effecting social change towards a sustainable society. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, agreed to a global environment and development agenda for the 21st century, called Agenda 21. In Agenda 21 it was stated “Education, including formal education, public awareness and training should be recognized as a process by which human being and societies can reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address environment and development issues” Most Asian countries have made efforts to introduce environmental education at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. The approaches could be making environmental studies a separate course, or incorporating environmental education into existing curricula at primary, secondary and training levels, or using a combination of both approaches. Primary level education is the main focus of attention because of the inherent flexibility in curricula to infuse environment into existing subjects and the higher level of enrollments in primary schools compared to secondary schools. NGOs and universities in some countries play a big role in teacher training, and providing materials for formal education Environment related materials are also included in the non-formal primary education programme of India. In India, the www.ijmer.in 219 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 content of environmental education in the social science courses may be fairly adequate. Education plays a very important role in the life of man. It is this tool that makes a man as human being who can think, analyse and act judiciously. Many philosophers, thinkers and educationists have defined education in many ways from different viewpoints. If we sum up all the definitions, then we can define education as “that process which brings a change in the behaviour of human being”. I would further hold that “a change on behaviour in a desired manner”. The early life of man is about 20 years, is spent in getting education. It is this time from the age of 6 years onwards that a desired change is planned and executed in terms of primary, high school, pre- university and university level education. The most effective and interactive period is the first two stages of education is primary and high school. At this stage the children will fall in the age group of 6 to 14 years. It is the most receptive age group, which can influence, to bring a desired change. The responsibility of doing this lies with the teachers who teach at these levels. A properly planned syllabus and activities appropriately calculated and executed will bring the desired change. Hence the teacher said that the importance of primary and high school teachers. These teachers themselves need a good training so that they can become effective. The primary teachers are trained at D.Ed training institutes (both private and government) and the high school teachers are trained at B.ed institutes (both private and government) and M.Ed at postgraduate level. The people or master trainers are called “The teacher educators”. These teacher educators plan the syllabus and the training schedules for the training of the candidates. They influence these would be teachers who would take the burden and shoulder the responsibility of training (educating) the future generations. Hence, they are of prime concern. Environment is the utmost important part www.ijmer.in 220 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 of our lives. It is concerned with the surroundings in which we live and cherish our life. Protection of environment is everyone's duty as well as resbonsible. So, environment education is needed. Conservation of environment is not taken seriously by people. There is a “who cares” attitude or “the little I pollute, how does it matter much?” attitude. These attitudes are because of the lack of environment education. Effective learning happens in childhood to make environment education effective. The people who shoulder this responsibility are to be trained, hence the importance of teacher educators. If the “would be” teachers are trained in conservation and protection of environment, then the cascading effect can be seen in the following way. The impact can be seen at two levels- i.e., at the school level and at the teacher's training institute level. At the primary school level A teacher has on an average 40 students passing out at VII std. Level. The average service of each teacher in general would be about 30 years. Hence in his full service each primary and upper primary teacher can influence about 1200 students (40x30). Then there are 1,07,519 primary school teachers on an average in Andhra Pradesh, then it would mean that in 30 years 1200x1,07,519=12,90,22,800=12.90crore students will be getting the right environmental education to become responsible citizens. www.ijmer.in 221 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Impact – First Level Per Year Over 30 years Sl. Level No. of No. of Total Averag No. of Total Impact No student teacher (in e student . s s lakhs service s ) of teacher s 1 Primar 40 1,07,51 43.00 30 40 30x40x1,07,519=12. y 9 90 crore School 2 High 60 73,601 44.16 30 60 30x60x73,601=13.2 School 4 Crore Total 87.16 Total 26.14 crore At the Secondary level (High School) In a high school, on an average each teacher has about 60 students, if each teacher works for 30 years, then the teacher would have 60x30=1800 students, i.e., each teacher in his life time can educate about 1800 students. In high schools, on an average there are about 73,601 teachers in Andhra Pradesh i.e., to say that if all the high school teachers provide proper environment education then they can influence 1800x73,601=13,24,81,800=13.24 crore students. At the Training Institute level In each of the D.Ed colleges, the average intake of trainees per year is 50. Then the total number of D.Ed institutes in Chittoor district is 55 that mean every year we produce 50x55=2,750 “environment aware” www.ijmer.in 222 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 teachers to impart education at primary schools. In Andhra Pradesh we have 733 institutes i.e., 36,650 teachers. In the same manner, the average intake of students per year in a B.ed college is 100 students and there are 27 B.ed colleges in Chittoor district i.e., 27x100=2700 environment aware teachers. As such in Andhra Pradesh there are 360 colleges, then 360x100=36,000 teachers. At the university level, i.e., M.Ed, the average intake is 30 students. In Andhra Pradesh there are four universities which train teacher educators i.e., every year there will be 30x4=120 trained environment aware responsible postgraduate teacher educators. They in turn will impart the awareness to a large extent as the whole system runs into a chain reaction. Impact – Second Level Sl. No. Level Intake of No. of Total Trainees Institutions in Andhra pradesh 1 D.Ed 50 733 36,650 2 B.ed 100 360 36,000 3 M.Ed 50 44 2,200 Total 74,850 If teacher educators are environment conscious, then per year in Andhra Pradesh, they would produce about 74,850 trained teachers who are also environment conscious. In 2020, we can see a vibrant, healthy and pollution free India. Conclusion: If 12.90 crore primary school students and 13.24 crore high school students altogether about 15 crore students become aware of the www.ijmer.in 223 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 environment and protect it for their own betterment by planning and executing policies, then it will preserve the environment for future use. In 2020 AD we can have a healthy, pollution free vibrant India. To achieve this, we need to take the following steps. Include environment education as a compulsory subject at D.Ed, B.ed and M.Ed levels by adding it in the syllabus. The teaching methods and curriculum of the government and non-formal primary schools are different. The students of the government schools private school came from the households with comparatively better socioeconomic background. It is believed that the achievement of the students studying at government schools should be better than the other schools. But, the performance of the students of both the government private school as well as the non- formal primary school of Andhra Pradesh almost similar. It is a positive achievement of the schools. The boys and girls have no significant difference in overall performance on environmental awareness. Recommendations: Environment education has to be learnt by all “would be trainees” irrespective of whether they are arts graduates or science graduates. 1. Compulsory environment awareness camps to be initiated at the three levels for trainee teachers to get hands on experience. 2. The students with primary education have better awareness about safe water, safe sanitation practice and the importance of trees. The students are poorly aware about environmental pollution (like air, water and soil). 3. Understanding biodiversity is a step to appreciate and conserve nature. Therefore, importance should be given to biodiversity in the curriculum of primary education. By increasing awareness on biodiversity, threatened and endangered species could potentially be preserved. The study findings also revealed that www.ijmer.in 224 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 in addition to schoolbooks, media also provided a source of awareness rising. To use the positive impact of mass media, it could be used more actively for raising awareness. The elderly people of the community could also play important role in awareness rising since. 4. The government of Andhra Pradesh implement Pachchadanam– Parisubhratha (clean and green) but the present Government of India launch programme Swatch Bharat awareness plant sapling and create awareness among students on the need to protect trees and distribution plantation in all school compounds . The teacher key role plays the student in future interest on environment. 5. Follow up and refresher course of one/two weeks for the in-service teachers and teacher educators----once in 2 years. Reference 1. UGC (2003). Six months model syllabus for environment studies for under graduate course, UGC New Delhi, India. 2. Environment education service (2004). NBI annual Review, 2003- 2004. Retrieved April 2008 3. NERT 2005, National Curriculum frame work, NCERT edition Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 4. Regional college0f education, Bhubaneswar, NCERT. www.ijmer.in 225 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 SOCIO-DOCTRINAIRE RHYTHMS OF MINICOY ISLAND: A CULTURAL STUDY Manzoor.B.P Assistant Professor in Malayalam P M Sayeed Calicut University Centre Androth Island, U.T. of Lakshadweep Abstract India is blessed with beauteous constellation of rare coral isles like Lakshadweep. It is too lovely for poetry or painting and too heavenly for patriotic idolatry of geography or imaginative bounty of geology. This cluster of lagoons and tiny lands lie close to Kerala, crowded by artless tribals of Muslim faith, coconut abundance and legendry lapsing into history. The unusual flora and fauna, ubiquitous sand bank, azure sky and entrancing sea are the envy of the gods and rarest of spots. There are about 35 islands out of which 10 islands Kadmat, Amini, Kilthan, Chethlath, Bithra, Agathi, Kavarathi, Kalpeni, Androth and Minicoy are inhabited. Among them, Minicoy is endowed with special tradition and culture while comparing with others. This article is trying to make a glance on the custom and other specialties of Minicoy. Keywords: Minicoy, mahal, maliku, lagoons, athiris. Introduction Minicoy is the second largest island in Lakshadweep archipelago. It also known as Maliku in the local language. It is located (lat 8°7′ N and long 73°19′ E) amidst the vast expanse of Arabian Sea, just 398 km (215 nautical miles) from the shores of Cochin and 400 km west off the coast of Trivandrum. The small island encompasses the total area of 4.801 sq. km and is exclusively known for its vibrant coral www.ijmer.in 226 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 reefs and quaint white-sand beaches of the infinite ocean. It is located on the eastern and southeastern side of the lagoon, along the reef fringe. It measures about 10 km from its northern end to its southernmost point and 1 km wide in its southern half, while the northern half is a narrow sandbank, often less than 100 m wide. Minicoy is almost completely covered with coconut trees. One of the few landmarks of the island is a tall lighthouse. On the southern side of the main Island, lies the uninhabited islet Viringili (also called the Small Pox Island), measuring barely 200 m in length. Formerly the lepers of Minicoy were banished to this Island where they lived in abject conditions. In 1988, Navodya vidyalaya has been established here. Maliku atoll has a lagoon with two entrances in its northern side, Saalu Magu on the northeast and Kandimma Magu on the northwest. Its western side is fringed by a narrow reef and coral rocks. The lagoon is sandy with moderate depth, rarely reaching 4m. Nine Degree channel separates Minicoy and remaining islands. The closest island to Minicoy is Thuraakunu which belongs to Republic of Maldives. Since 1956, the Indian Government has forbidden the direct travelling between the two islands despite their geographic proximity and ethnographic similarities. www.ijmer.in 227 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Ancient history of Minicoy There are ancient remains in an area of the island known as "Salliballu" dating back from Minicoy's Buddhistpast, about 800 years ago. The most conspicuous archaeological sites are two mounds or large heaps of ruins belonging to a stupa and another related structure. These sites were investigated by the Archaeological Survey of India in 1980s. The excavations yielded few discoveries, for the sites had been much damaged and vandalized previously. Still, a much-damaged large Buddha head was found buried in the area. The name "Salliballu" originated in the local name for the ‘Christian cross", because the locals say that an inscription with a "cross" was found there. But it is likely that, coming from a Buddhist site, it was a cross- shaped Mandalaor Visvavajraa, like those often found on inscriptions in archaeological remains in the Maldives. Local oral tradition says that Kamborani and Kohoratukamana, two princesses from the Maldives, came to Maliku. When they arrived, the Tivaru, who had been living there before, left the island for Sri Lanka. The Kamborani's descendants are the bodun (land and ship owners) and the descendents of Kohoratukamana are the niamin (captains). The other status groups are made up of the descendants of their crew. The term Lakshadweep, according to folk-etymology, means a hundred thousand islands. The Laccadive group consists of only 35 islands and it is unlikely the name refers to a numerical value. According to ancient Sanskrit literature the term originally applied to all the island groups SSW of the Indian Subcontinent, that is the Laccdive-Maldive- Chagos archipelagoes. The kings of the Maldive styled themselves as "Kings of twelve thousand islands". This indicated a huge number rather than a numerical value. Until the 16th Century, the Laccadives appear to have www.ijmer.in 228 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 been under the suzerinty of the Kolathiri Raja of Chirakkal which is belonged to the Indian state of Kerala. With the Portuguese ascendancy in the region, it became necessary for the Kolathiri to transfer sovereignty of the islands to their hereditary admiral, the Ali Raja of Kolathunadu, Kannur. It is unclear if Maliku was included in this transfer or if in fact Maliku ever formed part of the dominons of the Kolathiri. Still, the rulers of the Maldives issued edicts addressed to the subjects in their realm Malikaddu Midhemedhu. This meant "Between Maliku and Addu". Previously Addu was the Southern-most island in the dominions of the Maldive kings and was in Abdu Atoll. The island was dredged off by the British in 1959 to construct the airfield on neighbouring Gan island. In late AD 1696, a grant issued under the Seal of the King Siri Kula Ran Mani of the Maldives referred to him as Malikaddu Midhemedhu ekanuonna mi korhu anikaneh nethee korhu which meant "Sole Sovereign with no other over what lies between Maliku and Addu". The grant was issued in the matter of the building and upkeep of a mosque in the island of Feney in Thailadhummathi Atoll, Maldives. On 18 December 1790 Maliku was surrendered to the Court of Directors of the English East India Company by the Ali Raja of Cannanore, Junumabe Ali-Adi Raja Bibi II. The Ali Raja was allowed to administer Maliku in return for a tribute to the East India Company. She continued to dispute the transfer of sovereignty but in 1824, her successor, Mariambe Ali-Adi Raja Bibi made a formal written recognition of the suzerainty of the East India Company. She and her successors, however, continued the tributary arrangement. On 27 July 1795, the Governor General of the Presidency of Madras under whose jurisdiction Maliku was, abolished Junumabe Ali Adi-Raja Bibi's coir monopoly. This was the beginning of the end of the Ali Raja's real control over Maliku. In 1857, suzerainty over Maliku transferred from the East India Company to the Indian Empire when www.ijmer.in 229 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress. In 1905 under the heavy burden of debts to the Empire, Mohamed Ali-Adi Raja agreed to surrender sovereignty and control over Maliku. He died before the formal transfer. After an attempt to back track, his successor Imbicchi Ali-Adi Raja Bibi finally signed over Maliku to the Emperor Edward VII on 9 February 1909, back dated to 1 July 1905. Following this, Maliku was annexed to the District of Malabar. In August 1947 the possessions of the Emperor of India passed to either the Indian Union or Pakistan according to an agreed demarcation line. The rulers of the independent countries that were vassals of the Emperor had the choice of acceding to either India or Pakistan. While Maliku was a sovereign possession of the Emperor and not that of an independent country such as Cannanore, Kashmir or Hyderabad, it is unclear why India felt it necessary to hold a plebiscite in Maliku in 1956 to determine whether or not the people of Maliku wished to join the Indian Union. A referendum was held and an absolute majority of the Malikun decided to join the Indian Union. On 1 November 1956, Maliku was incorporated into the Union Territory of Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands, renamed Lakshadweep in 1973. Maliku Atoll has been under Indian administrations since mid 16th century. It was the northernmost Atoll of historical Maldives before mid 16th century. In December 1976, India and the Maldives signed a maritime boundary treaty whereby Maliku was placed on the Indian side of the boundary. However, on 26 July 1982, Abdulla Hameed, the half-brother of Maldivian president Maumoon Abdul Gayoom and the Minister of Atolls for the Maldivian government gave a speech in which he declared that Minicoy Island was part of the Maldives. The speech caused a minor diplomatic crisis between India and the Maldives, and Gayoom clarified that the speech was intended to highlight the linguistic, www.ijmer.in 230 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 cultural, and religious ties between the Maldives and Minicoy and the Maldives was not intending to make a political claim over the atoll. Etylology of maliku Minicoy is known as Maliku in the local language. The ancient name of Maliku was Mahiladū meaning women's island. Mahiladu is the conjugated form of Mahila nadu, which liberally means woman- land. However, the name Maliku is thought to have been derived from the Arab trader's term for the island, Jazirat al-Maliku (the island of the king). Since it was the ancient capital of Lkashadweep. Minicoy islanders have long settled in the Nicobar Island across the Bey of Bengal. These settlers regularly travelled back to Minicoy. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands had a reputation in the Maldives and Minicoy of being inhabited by cannibals, and so collectively the Andaman and Nicobar groups were called "Minikaa-raajje" by Maldive and Minicoy islanders. This meant "cannibal kingdom". A British official once asked a Minicoy islander what the name of his island was. The islander told the official that he was from Maliku but usually lived in "Minikaa-raajje" (Nicobar). The official thought Maliku and Minikaa were the same place and recorded the name of this islander's home as "Minikaa". This later became anglicised as Minicoy. Villages (Athiris) The social structure is entirely different from other places. The whole island is divided into ten villages. Each village has got its own name, a village elder called “Mooppan”, and a female leader called “Mooppathi”. In all matters of disagreement between any of the persons in the village, the decision of the Mooppan is final and nobody can question him. He is always considered to be a man of justice and he does not have any personal affection when deciding each case. No political or religious consideration is there for the appointment of the Mooppan and is carried out traditionally from times unknown and is www.ijmer.in 231 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 still being followed. And each village has its own boat with the name of the village and maintained at the cost of all the residents of that village. There are other boats also owned by other persons, but for all social functions and traditional purposes, the village boat is being made use of. And each village competes among them, to make their village boats more attractive and more useful. Thus we can see all the village boats are in high degree of maintenance and attractive in looking, so it becomes difficult for people from outside, to judge which one is better compared to the other. Every year they conduct a boat race competition and nobody can predict who will be the winner, until the final result is announced. For social functions like marriage ceremony in a house, all the villagers join together and do the work in groups. Thus the need for outside labor is dispensed with. Ladies wearing same colors and designs of uniform in groups to take up different types of jobs, and perform them in strict discipline and in an organized manner without any room for confusion. One group will attend to draw water from the well and carry it to the house. Another group with another set of uniforms will be in the preparation of food items. Yet another group will arrange the hall and furniture for accommodating the guests on the day of the ceremony. The Social life of ants is an example to point out for the co- operation among the islanders. As most of the male members will be outside the island most of the time, the female members have the responsibility for all the things in the household, and the male members obey their words and moves according to their decision only. Ladies have the greatest respect there, which is a rare thing among other communities in India. Totally ten villages (athiris) (avah) in Minicoy Island. From North to South, they are, Kendifarty, Fallessery, Kudehi, Funhilol, Aloodi, Sedivalu, Rammedu, Boduathiri, Aoumagu and Bada. The Minicoy people are divided in to four classes, the Raveries who are tree climbers www.ijmer.in 232 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 and tappers, the Takkrus also sailors and boat men whose women used title bibi, malmis also sailors but a better standing society and Malikhans the highest class. The malmi women use the title bifan and the malikhan women the title manikka. Intermarriage between malikhans and malmis and between takkrus and raveris is allowed but not between the two higher classes and the two lower. Culture of Minicoy The cultural traits of Minicoy differ from those of any other island in Lakshadweep. Manners, customs, lifestyle and food are similar to those of the Malidives to the south of Minicoy and Malikubas (Officially referred as Mahal by the Lakshadweep administration), a dialect of Dhivehi language is spoken on the Island. Like other Dhivehi speaking communities, it is the Tana script, written from right to left which is used in writings. The social structure is anthropologically interesting, being a matrilineal Muslim society with local residence. A man will live in either his mother's or his wife's house. Remarriage for both men and women is accepted. Property is inalienable and owned by "houses" (matrilineal descent groups). As Muslims, they have conservative customs and traditions and yet they are liberal in approach. Here a man after marriage stays a member of his own mother's house throughout his life. Quite frequently Minicoy is referred to as the 'female island' mentioned in the travelogue of Marco Polo. Thurakunnu in the Maldives is the closest island to Minicoy. Formerly there was direct trade between both, and fishermen from both islands used to visit each other. This exchange continued even after Minicoy became part of the Indian Union after independence. However, since 1956 the Indian government has forbidden these visits between two nations. The people of Maliku are known as good sailors, and also for boat building and other crafts. The Indian seafarers originated from Maliku island. www.ijmer.in 233 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Traditional clothing for men and women in Minicoy Lakshadweep The traditional outfits of Lakshadweep are beautified with vibrant colors. It can be seen from their unique designs, patterns and styles. The costumes are plain and simple but attractive enough to draw the attention of others. Amini cluster of several islands be worthy of praise due to their integral sense. Dresses vary for men and women in Lakshadweep. Modern attires can be seen in various parts of Lakshadweep as well as the young generation is influenced a lot by westernization. The Kachi is a traditional garment worn by the women in Lakshadweep. The top part of dress consists of a long sleeved, snug- fitting jacket. A wide variety of stratas of Minicoy like the Raveri, the Manikfans, the Thakrus and the Thakrufans have their traditional outfits. Men of this tribe wear shirt and lungis. They rarely cover the upper part of their body. It is due to the moderate and coastal weather of Lakshadweep as well. Libus opens to the neck with decorated embroidery. Jewelleries and Accessories of Lakshadweep Ornaments are popular among the island of Lakshadweep. There is a waist ornament in Minicoy, known as Kodakam or Vola, for ear and wrists. Alikkath and Koodu are necklaces and Vala is a kind of beautiful bangle. The Urukku is also a good looking necklace with its www.ijmer.in 234 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 extraordinary black beds combined gold. A lot of ornaments are used to beautify the bride in Lakshadweep with costly and traditional jewelleries. Dances of Minicoy The Lava dance is the traditional folk dance of the people of Minicoy. The Lava dancers flash colorful costumes along with a marvelous performance of their art. Lava dance is most popular among the dances of the Minicoy. Other specialized dances of the Minicoy Island are Dandi dance, Bandiya dance and Fuli dance. It is a highly charged male dominated dance form. They wear multi-hued costumes for their performance. The dance clothing comprises of bright red trousers, with a white scarf tied around the waist and a black and white head gear to complete the look, locally known as ‘Bolufeyle’. Folk musical instruments accompany the dancers, to add rhythm to the dancing performance. Bandiya lava is performed by women. Status groups The bodun owned land and bandu-odies (merchant ships); they were the vering (rulers). The niamin were pilots of the Bandu-odies and while on shore assisted the bodun in administrative and other leadership functions; they were custodians of property and supervised public work. The medhukimbin and the raaverin were working classes www.ijmer.in 235 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 (the medhukimbin enjoying a status higher than the raaverin. The raaverin tap coconut palms for toddy, a distinctive beverage converted into sweet palm syrup. Coconut vinegar, known as raahuiiy, was also produced by the raaverin. Customs Each village of Maliku has a Bodukaaka (male mayor) and Bodudhatha (female mayor) who conduct village business at a gathering known as Baemedu. The Bodukaaka announces Baemedu by sending children of the village to each house. Male members gather in the village house to learn the purpose of the Baemedu. After the work is finished, there is a feast prepared by female members of the village. A newborn child is named on its day of birth (this is different from the Maldivian tradition of being named on the seventh day). The baby normally stays in the room in which it is born (which is customarily the ancestral home of the mother) for the first six days. The mother's house name becomes the child's surname. On the seventh day after birth, the baby is taken to the father's ancestral home, where jewelers are presented. After 20 days, the baby's head is shaven and the hair is weighed against something of value, traditionally gold or silver, which would be given to the poor. This ceremony is called boabeylun. Circumcision of boys is followed by much celebration. Dancing and drumming in the evening forms part of the entertainment. The festivities usually continue for about a week. Religion Minicoy islanders, like the nearby Maldive islanders, follow Islam. In Lakshadweep 100% people believes in Islam www.ijmer.in 236 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 National Minicoy Fest The National Minicoy Fest is held every year to showcase rich traditional and culture of Lakshadweep in general and unique culture of Minicoy Island in particular. The fest is held in Minicoy Island and it has a unique culture amidst a biding unity. Minicoy is famous of boat building and seafares tradition. The 'Jahaadhoni' the colorful and elegant race boat, a masterpiece of indigenous craftmanship, showcases the glorious past, people's unity and the vibrant life under the traditional village system that need to be protected and projected. The first Prime Minister's Rolling trophy boat race was organised in the year 2009. Since then Minicoy Fest and Prime Minister's rolling boat race are organised as an annual event. The colorful event was suitably renamed as 'NATIONAL MINICOY FEST' in consideration of its significance as a program for promoting national unity and integration in addition to rejuvenating the unique culture and tradition of the Mahal speaking community. www.ijmer.in 237 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Tourism A beach holiday at Minicoy turns exciting with splashing the crystal-clear water and participating the various water-sports like swimming, snorkeling, kayaking, pedal boating and sailing. Underwater diving offers the exclusive pictures of the marine fishes, emerald coral reefs and many strange species. The southernmost Minicoy beach holds the several nearby attraction. Beach lovers can hangout in the dazzling white sandy shore and enjoy the spectacular view of the refreshing sunrise and the sleepy sunset. Also a beautiful lagoon close to the beach is provided with a number of ferry services and luxury cruises. Tourist can hire any one, according to their budget and sail towards the Viringili Island. The crescent-shaped beach is also point out its nearby local attraction. The cluster of 10 villages (Athiris), situated in its vicinity, offers visitors enjoy the rural living style and the culture dominating the Island. The village folks are skillful in fishing marine lives and as such many of them escorts the travelers to the fishing sites and highlights the technique of using complicated fishing nets and boats. Visitors can also enjoy the working procedure of Tuna Canning Factory, Minicoy. A beach holiday in Minicoy is ultimate during the days between October to April. Visitors receives a warm welcome with the entertaining traditional programs, organized by the local folks. The festive aura warms up with Lava dance, which stand as a major www.ijmer.in 238 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 attraction from visitors’ points of view. Recreational activities and adventure water-sports make a better Lakshadweep visit. Minicoy beach are facilitated with a number of bathing huts and refreshing rooms. Besides there are three tourist cottages and a tourist home with 20-bedded rooms. Each one of them provide the quality hospitality and options to enjoying water-sports, which indicates a cozy holiday in Lakshadweep. Fishing and canning of tuna The main fishery in Minicoy is tuna fishery by using the pole and line method. Special type of hook is used for tuna catch. Small live fish is being used as bite for tuna and is stored inside the boat. Presence of tuna in particular arera will be indicated by the flocks of sea birds flying over there. Once the boat has reached that site, the live bait fish kept in boat would be thrown out in large quantities, and start to catch the fish using the pole and line by taking the advantage of confusion of tuna with bait. Once they get sufficient quantity of the tuna, they sail back to the shore. After reaching the shore, fishes will be weighed and taken to the canning factory. In factory, the labours (all are ladies) hygienically process tuna. Head, tail, fins and intestine will be removed first, and then flesh is cut into small pieces. The tuna flesh contains both black and white meat. The black meat is not considered good for the canning. So white pieces are only taken and remaining things are left as waste. The white meat is cooked with the help of boiler and then www.ijmer.in 239 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 conveyed to packing table, where they are packed. The canned tunas will eventually be taken to mainland for sales. There are wholesale marketers of canned tunas, and it is sold through retail stores to the consumers. Climate of minicoy Minicoy has a tropical savanna climate (koppen climate) with warm temperatures throughout the year. Precipitation falls during most of the year, only January to March are relatively dry. Light house The Minicoy Island Lighthouse, which was established on 2nd February 1885 by Sir James Douglass at the southern end of the Minicoy during the British regime. It has 49.5 meter (162 ft) height and has a range of 40 nautical miles (74 km). It is built in brick masonry and has a lantern and gallery. The lighthouse area in the southern part of the island was once exclusively occupied by the British, while the local people preferred to live in the northern part. It has modern instrumentation of electrification and an automatic system of shining mirrors that flash light every 15 seconds. It is also equipped with Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS). The lighthouse was www.ijmer.in 240 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 brought under the control of the Government of India when the Indian National Flag was unfurled over its top on 2nd April 1956. There is another smaller lighthouse on the island, at its northern end, which was established on 19th November 2008, following the construction of a new jetty with improved landing facilities. It has a focal plane of 22 meter (72 ft). It was fitted with a first order optic and kerosene wick lamps. Optics had an active focal plane of 47 meter (154 ft). The exterior surface of the lighthouse was given a coat of white paint while the lantern roof was painted in red colour. In 1928, petroleum vapor burners with mantle were installed. A radar transponder (RACON) was fitted in 1985, and in 1998, it was fitted with a Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS). The optical system consists of 3 panels of 920 mm (36 in) with a focal distance of 460 mm (18 in). The light source is of 400 W Metal Hallide Lamp while the rotation of optic is provided by electronic pulse motors. The lighthouse was fitted in 1983 with a medium frequency Radio beacon with a range of 400 kilometer (250 mi) and has a call sign 'NY'. The tower has a winding staircase access to the top consisting of 216 steps inside. Entry to Minicoy island Under the Laccadive, Minicoy and Aminidivi Islands (Laws) Regulations, 1967 of the Government of India, the following people may enter Minicoy (Maliku): 1. Persons who had taken up permanent residence in Minicoy at any time before 1967 and members of the families of such persons. 2. Member of the Armed Forces of India entering Minicoy on duty. www.ijmer.in 241 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 3. Persons serving in connection with the administration of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep proceeding to Minicoy on official duty and members of their families. 4. Officials and non-officials sponsored by any of the Ministries or Departments of the Government of India or the Administrator of Lakshadweep. 5. Indian Tourists permitted by the Administrator of Lakshadweep. 6. Non-Indian nationals permitted by the Ministry of Home Affairs of the Government of India for visits for such periods as may be specified by the Ministry, or the Administrator of Lakshadweep. 7. Employees of the Indian Federal and State governments, Indian public sector undertakings and bona fide domestic servants and cooks permitted by the Administrator of Lakshadweep. 8. Maldive nationals permitted by the High Commissioner of India to the Maldives to visit specifically Minicoy for the period not exceeding fifteen days. Such persons may not disembark on any other Lakshadweep island unless permitted as per point 6 above.The High Commissioner of India in Male shall intimate the names of the persons whose visits are permitted and the period of their stay to the Administrator of Lakshadweep sufficiently in advance. The Administrator may, on valid grounds, extend the period of stay of Maldive nationals. www.ijmer.in 242 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Transportation MV Corals, MV Lagoons, MV Amindivi, MV Arabian Sea, MV Kavaratti, MV Lakshadweep Sea and MV Minicoy are the important passenger ships connecting Lakshadweep with Kerala (Kochi,Bepore and Manglore ports). The passage takes between 14 and 20 hours. Agathi airport is the only civilian airport in Lakshadweep. Helicopter service is available from Agatti to Kavaratti throughout the year. The flight from Kochi to Agathi takes approximately one hour fifteen minutes. Flights operate six days a week. Conclusion Minicoy is the southern most Island in Lakshadweep. The people of Minicoy are entirely different in manners and customs. The cultural traits of Minicoy differ from those of any other Island in Lakshadweep. Manners, customs, lifestyle and food are similar to those of the Maldives to the south of Minicoy. Mahal, a dialect of Dhivehii, is the language spoken in the Island. It is second largest Island with dense coconut groves & crescent shaped, and one of the Islands with largest lagoons. This lagoon is very beautiful and lovely and has Bluish green water and white sand. The lighthouse of Minicoy alone survives historic structure of the British period in the Lakshadweep Islands. The cluster of 10 villages (Athiris), situated in www.ijmer.in 243 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 its vicinity, offer visitors the space to enjoy the rural living style and the cultural variety of the Lakshadweep Islands. Minicoy is an island of variety folk dances. The village folks are skilful in fishing and marine lives. A wide variety of stratas of Minicoy like the Raveri, the Manikfans, the Thakrus and the Thakrufans have their traditional outfits. The elegance in their dress is unique and that cannot be seen in any other part of the world. Minicoy is an isolated island among Lakshadweep archipelago wearing a golden crown. The imprint cultural tradition, the feeling of oneness, diverse form of languages and way of life keep its isolated identity from the other islands of Lakshadweep. Reference: Bell, H.C.P., (1883) The Maldive Islands, An account of the physical features, History, Inhabitants, Productions and Trade. Colombo. Ellis, R.H., (1924) A Short Account of the Laccadive Islands and Minicoy. Government Press, Madras, India. Hajahussain, Chamayam, (2016) LakshaDweep Nadan Kalikalum Acharagalum, Malapuram; Ashrafi Book Centre, India. Nair Sajukumaran, (1972) Arabic Kadalile pavizadweepukal, National Kottayam, India. Ramunny, Murkot (1999) India’s Coral Islands in the Arabian Sea. India; Lakshadweep social research commission, India. Bell H C P, (1983) The Maldive Island, An account of physical features, history, inhabitants, productions and trade, Colombo. www.ijmer.in 244 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 IMPACT OF DAIRY BUSINESS ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SMALLHOLDER DAIRY PRODUCERS Ashok Raj Thakur N. Sambasiva Rao Research Scholar Professor Dept of Commerce and Dept of Commerce and Management Studies, Andhra Management Studies, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam University, Visakhapatnam Abstract Dairy business plays a significant role in the socio-economic development of rural farmers as majority of farmers keeps milking animal in their farming system. The present study was endeavoured to know the impact of dairy business on socio-economic development of smallholder farmers. An ex-post facto research was adopted to know about the impact. Randomly 4 villages from Parsa district were selected for the study. 40 respondents from each village have been selected to make a sample size of 160 dairy producers. The study said that there is a significant impact with dairy business and the socio-economic development of the smallholder dairy producers. Out of seven parameters five parameters were supported the impact of dairy business on socio-economic development. Key words: Socio-economic development, Smallholder dairy producers, Dairy business. Introduction Nepal is a landlocked country and the economy of the country mainly depends on agriculture. 65% of total population are depending on agriculture(NDDB 2015). Most of farmers of Nepal are poor and landless or having very few land to cultivate. As per Asian Development Bank 25.2% of the total population lives below the national poverty line www.ijmer.in 245 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 in Nepal (ADB 2017). Livestock is always a part of mixed farming system in Nepal and it is the major sector which contributes in GDP of Nepal after cereals. Dairy business can be boon for landless and small farmers. Dairy business can provide supplementary income to landless and smallholder dairy producers. Total milk production of the country is 1,700,073 metric tonnes(APSD 2014). In Nepal Dairy producers are scattered in small and medium scale in rural areas and most of rural areas are not covered with proper road connectivity. Most of rural farmers keep 1 to 3 cows or buffalo to extract milk for their personal or family consumption and sell the surplus milk locally. Smallholder dairy producer cannot get the actual price of milk by selling to local people. Socio-economic condition of Nepalese smallholder milk producer is very weak. Rearing of dairy cattle has been increasingly viewed as a means of alleviating poverty and is believed to improve the livelihoods of landless and small households(Saadullah 2001). Dairy has a direct impact on socio-economic development of smallholder milk producer. Socio-economic development of smallholder milk producer can be in terms of self employment, income generation, poverty alleviation, better health and education. The money which received from selling the surplus milk can be used for various propose including saving, health, education etc. Government of Nepal is also supporting by providing various training, subsidy and facilities to smallholder dairy producer for their economic development. In spite of various supports there are few major constrains available for smallholder dairy producers including poor management, shortage of quality feed and fodder, cattle breeds, limited veterinary care and milk marketing system. Major Obstacle To The Producer Dairy business in the country is getting more attention from farmers as well as government. It is creating more opportunities to farmers but it does not mean that farmers are not facing obstacles in the business www.ijmer.in 246 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 which effects the socio-economic development of farmers. The major obstacles in the business are poor management, shortage of quality feed and fodder, cattle breeds, limited veterinary care and milk marketing system. As we know the major farmers in the country are less educated. Professionals are not trying to involve in dairy business. The farmers are less educated have not proper knowledge about management. That management include herd management and cattle management. Another obstacle for the farmers is shortage of quality feed and fodder. Quality of milk depends on the quality of feed and fodder and poor farmers are unable to manage quality feed and fodder for their cattle. Local breed is one of challenge in the country. Livestock sector in Nepal is dominated by local breed. The condition of veterinary care is also not good in the country. Milk market in Nepal is dominated by unorganized channel. In spite of various obstacles dairy has played a vital role in socio-economic development of smallholder dairy producer. Methodology An ex-post facto research was adopted to know about the impact of dairy business on socio-economic development of smallholder dairy producer. Simple random sampling techniques were used to collect the data from smallholder dairy producers. Various charts were used to analyse the data with the help of MS-Excel. Parsa district of Nepal was selected for the study. There are 1 metropolitan and 3 municipality in the district. Randomly 4 villages namely Gardaul, Dhorey, Bindabashini and Pokhariya were selected for the study. Gardaul village has been selected because of Yadavs are the major population of the village, who are basically known for milking cattle farming since their forefathers. Dhorey is selected because one private dairy plant called Kalsh Dairy is established and most of people of the village are involve in dairy business. Likewise Bindabashini is also famous for milk production and Pokhariya is one of emerging city of the district. Among 4 villages, 1 peri-urban village taken from metropolitan, 1 peri-urban www.ijmer.in 247 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 village from municipality and 2 villages were taken from rural municipality with 40 respondents from each village, making a sample size of 160 dairy farmers. A structured interview schedule was used to study to measure the impact of dairy business on socio-economic development of smallholder dairy producer. Limitation Of The Study The study is micro level and limited to 4 villages to Parsa district of Nepal. The sample size was also very small size of 160 respondents. Only smallholder dairy producers had considered for respondents. Most of respondents were illiterate and less educated and may not be able to justify the answer of the questionnaire. Findings And Conclusion Impact of dairy business on socio- economic development of smallholder dairy producers were analysed and presented as follows. The age of dairy producers ranged between 20–75 years. About 18.75 percent dairy producers belong to young age group, while 32.50 percent belongs to middle age group and 48.75 percent dairy producers belongs to old age group. So the majority belongs to old age smallholder dairy producers. More than half i.e. 62.50 percent producers were male and remaining 37.50 percent producers were female in the study area. Male producers were mostly involved in buying and selling animals and milk as well as extracting milk. But female were involved in taking care of animals. Educational profile of producers indicates that 30 percent of producers were illiterate followed by primary school education producers 26.25 percent, high school producers were 23.75 percent, higher secondary completed producers were 13.75 percent and rest 6.25 percent were completed college education. Result shows majority of dairy producers were illiterate and having poor education. www.ijmer.in 248 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 The 31.25 percent respondents were adopted agriculture as the main occupation, 35 percent respondents were agri-labor, 12.50 percent respondents were started small and cottage business, 15 percent respondents were adopted dairy as main occupation and 6.25 percent were involved in other job. There were 27.50 percent dairy producers who had started the business around range between 1 to 5 years. 15 percent dairy producers were started between 5 to 10 years and 57.50 percent dairy producers were started the business before 10 years. Majority of producers had started dairy business before than 10 years as dairy business is their family business. Majority of dairy producers mentioned that their herd size is small. 52.50 percent respondents were keeping 1 to 2 animals in their herd. 35 percent were keeping 3 to 5 animals and 12.50 percent were keeping 5 to 10 animals. Out of total producers 47.50 percent were invested upto 2 lakh per annum in dairy business. 18.75 percent were invested range between 2 to 4 lakh per annum in the business and 33.75 percent producers were invested above 4 lakh per annum in the business. Majority of producers had just invested upto 2 lakh per annum in the business. In terms of income from dairy business 50 percent respondents were earning less than 2 lakh per annum from the business, 41.25 percent were earning more than 2 lakh and upto 4 lakh and rest 8.75 percent were earning 4 lakh and above from the business. Majority of producers were earning less than 2 lakh per annum. It had been reported that 26.25 percent dairy producers were spending their income to purchase food items, 13.75 percent producers were spending to purchase land, 17.50 percent producers were spending to their child education, likewise 15 percent producers were spending for health check-up, 16.25 percent producers were spending to pay loan www.ijmer.in 249 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 amount and 11.25 percent producers were spending to purchase milking animals. So the majority of producers were spending the income to purchase food items. The study indicated that 52.50 percent producers were highly agreed that the ratio of family education has been increased after dairy business, where 22.50 percent were agreed that the ratio of family education has been increased after dairy business and 25 percent were disagreed that the ratio of family education has been increased after dairy business. Majority of producers were highly agreed with the statement. Out of total respondents 32.50 percent respondents were highly agreed with dairy business is a prestigious business, 27.50 percent were just agreed with the statement and remaining 40 percent were disagreed that dairy is a prestigious business. Majority of respondents were disagreed with the statement. Dairy business is an extra source of income to the farmers. 43.75 percent respondents were highly agreed that dairy business is an extra source of income, 38.75 percent respondents were just agreed and 17.50 percent respondents were disagreed with the statements. Majority of respondents were highly agreed with dairy is an extra source of income. There were 27.50 percent respondents reported that their economic condition has been improved after involving in dairy business, 38.75 percent respondents were agreed and 33.75 percent respondents were disagreed that the dairy has not improved their economic condition. Majority of respondents were agreed that dairy business has improved their economic condition. The study indicates that majority of respondent i.e.51.25 percent were highly agreed that the major source of income is selling milk than www.ijmer.in 250 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 selling animals. Where 35 percent were agreed and 13.75 percent were disagreed that the major income comes from selling milk in the business. Likewise the 51.25 percent respondents were said that dairy business has created employment opportunity to their family, where out of total 36.25 percent respondents were agreed that dairy has created employment opportunity and rest 12.50 percent were disagreed with the statement. Majority of respondents were highly agreed with dairy business has created employment opportunity to them. The 11.25 percent of respondents were highly agreed that their all family members are also involved in the same business, 20 percent respondents were agreed that all family members also involved and 68.75 percent were disagreed. Majority of respondents said that they do not involve all family members in the business. Talking about poverty alleviation, 42.50 percent respondents were highly agreed that dairy business play a vital role in poverty alleviation, 35 percent reported that they were agreed and 22.50 percent of total respondents were disagreed. Majority says that dairy help to reduce poverty. The 15 percent of respondents were highly agreed that they are providing employment opportunity to others, similarly 32.50 percent were agreed and rest 52.50 percent respondents were disagreed. According to them it is very difficult to create employment opportunity to others in small scale dairy business. Animal dung is a free source of manure and used by farmers in the farms. The 43 percent producers were highly agreed that they use dung as manure, where 29 percent respondents were agreed and 8 percent respondents were disagreed and mentioned that they sell the dung to others. Majority of respondents were using dung in the form of manure in the farm. www.ijmer.in 251 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Animal dung is used in form of bio-energy in rural area. 26 percent respondents were highly agreed that they use animal dung in form of bio-energy, 36 percent respondents were agreed that they were using and 18 percent respondents were disagreed with using animal dung as bio-energy. There is a significant impact with dairy business and the socio- economic development of the smallholder dairy producers. Out of seven parameters five parameters were supported the impact of dairy business on socio-economic development. Conclusion Impact of dairy business on socio-economic development of smallholder dairy producers has revealed that majority of producers were male (62.50 percent) and old age people (48.75 percent). 30 percent producers were illiterate to education ranged from one to primary. Majority (57.50 percent) of producers had started dairy business before than 10 years as dairy business is their family business, 31.25 percent respondents were adopted agriculture as the main occupation and 52.50 percent respondents were keeping 1 to 2 animals in their herd. Out of total producers 47.50 percent were invested upto 2 lakh per annum in dairy business. From the dairy business 50 percent respondents were earning less than 2 lakh per annum from the business and majority of producers (26.25 percent) were spending the income to purchase food items. The study indicated that 52.50 percent producers were highly agreed that the ratio of family education has been increased after dairy business. 32.50 percent respondents were highly agreed with dairy business is a prestigious business. Dairy business is an extra source of income to the farmers and 43.75 percent respondents were highly agreed with that. Majority (38.75 percent) respondents were agreed that their economic condition has been improved after involving in dairy business. The study also indicates that majority of respondent www.ijmer.in 252 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 (51.25 percent) were highly agreed that the major source of income is selling milk than selling animals. Likewise the 51.25 percent respondents were said that dairy business has created employment opportunity to their family. 68.75 percent respondents were disagreed that they do not involve all family members in the business. 42.50 percent respondents were highly agreed that dairy business play a vital role in poverty alleviation and 52.50 percent respondents were disagreed that it is very difficult to create employment opportunity to others in small scale dairy business. 43 percent producers were highly agreed that they use dung as manure and 36 percent respondents were agreed that they were using animal dung in form of bio-energy. Dairy is old century business in the country. Dairy business has played an important role in uplifting the socio-economic condition of poor and landless farmers. Farmers are able to generate some income from dairy business and able to fulfil their some desires. There are various obstacles are available to stop the socio-economic development of the dairy producers. In spite of various obstacles dairy business has impact on socio-economic development of the dairy producers. References ADB. 2017. https:/www.adb.org. APSD. STATISTICAL INFORMATION ON NEPALESE AGRICULTURE 2013/2014. Agri Statistics section, Kathmandu: Ministry of Agricultural Development, Agribusiness Promotion and Statistics Division, 2014, 46. CBS. National Sample Census of Agriculture Nepal 2011/12. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2013. Gopi, R., Narmatha, N., Sakthivel, K.M., Uma, V. & Jothilaxmi, M. Gopi, R., Narmatha, N., Sakthivel, K.M., Uma, V. and Jothilaxmi, M. "Socio-economic characteristic and its relationship with www.ijmer.in 253 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 information seeking pattern of dairy farmers in Tamilnadu, India"." Asian Journal of Dairy & Food Research 36, no. 1 (2017): 16-20. Gunaseelan, M., Thilakar, P., and Mathialagan, P. "“Socio-economic profile of peri-urban dairy farmers”." Indian Journal of Social Research 57, no. 2 (2016): 295-300. Hambloch, Caroline, Mclean, Denisse, Jean-Louis, Fabien Eric Florent and Andersson, Karolin. Factors Influencing Small-scale Farmers’ Choice of Formal or Informal Raw Milk Markets, A Case Study in Gura Sub-location, Kenya. Kenya: Interdisciplinary Land Use and Natural Resource Management, 2014. Khyalia, Narendra Kumar, Sagar, M. P. and Kumar, Vijay. "Perception of dairy farmers towards livestock services delivered by dairy co- operatives." Indian Journal of Social Research Volume 57 Issue 2, 2016: 265-270. NDDB. Annual progress report. Kathmandu: National Dairy Development Board, 2015. Pradhan, Subarna M. "Dairy processing and farming in Nepal." Saadullah, M. "Smallholder dairy production and marketing in Bangladesh." Proceedings of a South–South workshop held at National Dairy Development Board (NDDB). Anand, India: National Dairy Development Board, 2001. 7-21. Sharma, Bikash and Banskota, Kamal. "Smallholder Dairy Farming in Nepal:Characteristics, Constraints, and Development Opportunities." www.ijmer.in 254 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 255 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 256 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 257 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 258 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 259 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 260 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 261 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 262 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 PREVALENCE OF URINARY TRACT INFECTION: BACTERIAL ETIOLOGIES, DRUG RESISTANCE PROFILE AND ASSOCIATED RISK FACTORS IN PREGNANT WOMEN ATTENDING THE ANTENATAL CLINIC OF METTU KARL HOSPITAL SOUTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA Eshetu Chilo Dr. Raja Kumar Parabathina Lecturer in Microbiology Associate Professor in Department of Biomedical Science Biochemistry College of Public Health and Department of Biomedical Science Medical Sciences College of Public Health and Mettu University,Mettu, Ethiopia Medical Sciences Mettu University, Mettu, Ethiopia J. Caroline Sangeetha Lecturer in Human Anatomy Department of Biomedical Science College of Public Health and Medical Sciences Mettu University, Mettu, Ethiopia Abstract Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) during pregnancy are among the most common health problems worldwide afflicting many women in their reproductive years especially in developing countries. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of UTIs during pregnancy, to isolate and diagnose the Uropathogens and its antibiotic sensitivity pattern and the factors associated with UTIs. A cross sectional study was conducted in 120 samples collected from pregnant women with no sign and symptom of urinary tract infection from pregnant women between the age group of 18 to 40 years. A midstream clean catch is adequate, provided by all pregnant women’s through given careful instructions. For enumeration of bacteria we perform standard loop techniques method. The number of colonies counted or estimated, and this number used to calculate the number of viable bacteria per ml of urine. The www.ijmer.in 263 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 bacterial strains were identified by colonies characteristics, gram staining, morphological and biochemical character. The antibiotics sensitivity test of bacterial strains was done as per CLSI guidelines by Kirby-Baure Disc Diffusion Methods. Out of 120 pregnant women, 25(20.8%) were positive for asymptomatic bacteriuria (Colony Forming 5 Unit ≥ 10 /mL). There was no difference in prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria with respect to age (p = 0.07) and trimester (p = 0.27).The most frequently isolated bacteria were coagulase negative Staphylococcus (32.6%), followed by Escherichia coli (26.1%), and Staphylococcus auerus (13%). The susceptibility rate of bacterial isolate was highest for norfloxacin (64.7%) and lowest for ampicillin (17.6%).The high prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnant women warrant the need to screen all pregnant women and treat those infected with appropriate antimicrobial regimens in order to reduce its complications. Key words: Asymptomatic bacteriuria, Urinary tract infection, pregnant women, antimicrobial resistance Introduction Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) describe the microbial invasion and subsequent multiplication on a part or the entire urinary tract. UTI remains the most common bacterial infection in human population and is also one of the most frequently occurring nosocomial infections [1,5]. Its annual global incidence is of almost 250 million [2,3]. UTIs refer to the presence of microbial pathogens within the urinary tract and it is usually classified by the site of infection as bladder (cystitis), kidney (pyelonephritis) or urine (bacteriuria). They are asymptomatic or symptomatic. UTIs that occur in a normal genitourinary tract with no prior instrumentation are considered as “uncomplicated”, whereas “complicated” infections are diagnosed in genitourinary tracts that have structural or functional abnormalities including instrumentation www.ijmer.in 264 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 such as indwelling urethral catheters, and are frequently asymptomatic [4,6,7]. Although urine is fluid with a variety of molecules and salts some of which are waste products, it does not usually have bacteria as a normal component, therefore when a bacterium by any means get into the bladder and subsequently multiply, it may cause UTI. The upper urinary tract infection (pyelonephritis) is the most common urinary tract complication in women, occurring in approximately 12 % of all pregnancies; lower urinary tract infection (cystitis) which is infections of the bladder is less common [9,10,16]. Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common health problem among women compared with men due to shorter urethra, closer proximity of the anus with vagina, and pathogen entry facilitated by sexual activity [12,13]. It is estimated that one in three women of childbearing age contracts UTI [14], which may manifest symptoms or remain asymptomatic. Moreover, the main factors predisposing married women to bacteria are pregnancy and sexual intercourse. Pregnant women are more susceptible to UTI, owing to altered anatomical and physiological state during pregnancy [13]. In Ethiopia, studies reported prevalence of asymptomatic bacteria among pregnant women to range from 7% to 10.6% [9,16]. Most urinary tract infections are caused by gram-negative bacteria like Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter spp., and Serratia spp, and gram-positive bacteria such as Enterococcus spp, and Staphylococcus spp. Escherichia coli is the predominant pathogen in UTI in women, associated with more than 80% of cases. Staphylococcus saprophyticus is found in 15% of cases. Other members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, such as Klebsiella sp., Proteus sp., or Enterobacter sp. are also associated with UTI. Groups B streptococcus are an uncommon pathogen in UTI in www.ijmer.in 265 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 young healthy women, but requires treatment in pregnant women. [11,17]. Widespread use of antibiotics without properly identifying the organism or its antibiotic sensitivity pattern has led to recurrent urinary tract infections or the emergence of multi-drug resistant organisms. 2 A simple urinary analysis (urine full report) is a good screening test but in order to confirm the diagnosis and to find out the causative organism a urine culture is required. Microbiologically, urinary tract infection exists when pathogenic microorganisms are detected in the urinary tract. The infection is considered significant and requires treatment when more than 105 microbial cells per milliliter of urine are present in a properly collected specimen [3]. Statement of the problem The infection and its management may have adverse effects on the pregnancy outcome. Maternal UTI is independently associated with preterm delivery, preeclampsia, intrauterine growth retardation, and cesarean delivery. Pregnant women with asymptomatic bacteriuria are also more likely to deliver preterm. In addition, maternal UTI can be associated with some types of malformations. Urinary tract infections are the most common infections in clinical practice [22]. It is one of the most important causes of morbidity in the general population, and is the second most common cause of hospital visits [23]. It has been estimated that globally symptomatic UTIs result in as many as 7 million visits to outpatient clinics, 1 million visits to emergency departments, and 100,000 hospitalizations annually [24,26]. UTI is the commonest bacterial infectious disease in community practice with a high rate of morbidity and financial cost. It has been estimated that 150 million people were infected with UTI per annum worldwide which costing global economy more than 6 billion US dollars [25]. www.ijmer.in 266 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 UTI is a major health problem, it has been reported among 20% of the pregnant women and it is the most common cause of admission in obstetrical wards [26]. Pregnancy causes numerous changes in the physiology of a woman’s body. Hormonal and physical changes increase urine stasis and the climbing up of urine from the bladder into the ureters. These changes, along with an already short urethra (approximately 3-4 cm in females) increase the frequency of UTI in pregnant women. In general, pregnant women are considered immunocompromised UTI hosts because of the physiological changes associated with pregnancy. These changes increase the risk of infections that could be either symptomatic or asymptomatic [27,28]. Treatment of UTI cases is often started empirically and therapy is based on information determined from the antimicrobial resistance pattern of the urinary pathogens [25]. In spite of the availability and use of the antimicrobial drugs, UTIs caused by bacteria have been showing increasing trends in recent years. Much of the increase has been related to emerging antibiotic resistance in urinary tract pathogens. The prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in urinary pathogens is increasing worldwide. Accurate bacteriologic records of culture results may provide guidance on empirical therapy before sensitivity patterns are available [30]. The increasing prevalence of infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria makes the empirical treatment of urinary tract infections more difficult. One of the important factors contributing to these high resistance rates might be the increasing use of antibiotics without knowing the causative organism and its antibiotic sensitivity pattern [31]. The etiological agents and their susceptibility patterns of UTI vary in regions and geographical locations. Besides, the etiology and drug resistance change through time. Knowledge of the local bacterial etiology and susceptibility patterns is required to trace any change that might have occurred in time so that updated recommendation for www.ijmer.in 267 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 optimal empirical therapy of UTI can be made. Routine antimicrobial sensitivity tests cannot be done in the hospitals of many developing countries. Therefore, empirical therapy of UTIs is based on survey of antimicrobial susceptibility test [1]. In general, Because of the continuous evolution of antibiotic resistance, regular monitoring of this phenomenon appears to be necessary to improve guidelines for empirical antibiotic therapy, which must consider the most probable microorganisms, their susceptibility according to the characteristics of the population concerned [32,33]. However, in most developing countries including Ethiopia, Little is known regarding the epidemiology of bacteriuria in pregnant women in southwestern Ethiopia. This study therefore aimed to determine type of bacterial etiology and their antibiotic susceptibility pattern in pregnant women attending antenatal clinic of the Mettu Karl Hospital, southwestern Ethiopia. Significance of the study Many different microorganisms can cause UTIs though the most common pathogens causing the simple ones in the community are Escherichia coli and other Enterobacteriacae, which accounts for approximately 75% of the isolates [1,4]. Treatment of UTI is often started empirically and therapy is based on information determined from the antimicrobial resistance pattern of the urinary pathogens. The prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among urinary pathogens has been increasing worldwide due to aberrant use of antibiotics in practice [7]. Distribution of urinary pathogens and their susceptibility to antibiotics varies regionally so it becomes necessary to have knowledge of distribution of these pathogens and their susceptibility to antibiotics in a particular setting [9]. Local data regarding UTIs in pregnant women are sparse in Jimma patients. The aim of this study is to determine bacterial etiologic agents responsible for urinary tract infection in pregnant women and to evaluate their in vitro www.ijmer.in 268 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 susceptibility pattern to commonly used antimicrobial agents. This study is important for clinicians in order to facilitate the effective treatment and management of patient with symptoms of urinary tract infection. Periodic reassessment of in vitro susceptibility pattern of urinary pathogens is necessary to provide physician’s knowledge on the updated and most effective empirical treatment of UTIs and serves as a guide for antibiotic therapy for UTI infection. Therefore the finding of this study will fill the information gap to understand local distribution and susceptibility pattern of bacterial pathogens of UTIs, indicate study area, and put base line information for further studies and for planning the effective use of antimicrobials in the country particularly for Mettu zone. Objectives of the study General objective To determine risk factors, to identify the bacterial profile and their antibiotic resistance pattern of bacteriuria in pregnant women visiting ANC clinic in Mettu karl Hospital from January to June 2016. Specific objectives To profile the distribution of different bacterial pathogens isolated from urine of pregnant women. To determine the antibiotic resistance pattern of isolates to the commonly used antimicrobial agents. To determine associated risk factors Method and Materials Study design and period A cross-sectional study design was conducted from January to June 2016 to determine the distribution of different bacterial pathogens and www.ijmer.in 269 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 antibiotic susceptibility patterns in pregnant women who visit ANC in Mettu karl Hospital , Southwest Ethiopia Study area The study area was Mettu, the capital town of Ilu Aba Bora Zone, which is located 600 km. away from Addis Ababa, in the southwestern part of the country. It covers 16884 square kilometer and has an estimated population of 1361582. There are three hospitals, a number of health centers. Target population The target population included all pregnant women attending outpatient antenatal clinic at Mettu karl Hospital. Study population The study included all asymptomatic pregnant women who will be seeking antenatal services at the hospital at any gestational stage of the pregnancy who gave consent or assent to participate in the study. Variables Dependent variables - Bacterial profile - Antibiotic resistance pattern Independent Variables Age, Gestational age Sample size determination and sampling techniques Sample size determination In this laboratory based cross sectional study the following statistical formula is used for determining the sample size based on 12% culture www.ijmer.in 270 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 positivity (prevalence) rate (P=0.12) of study done in Hawassa [44], with a 95% level of confidence (α=0.5), 5% margin (d=0.05). 2 n= (Z α/2) P (1-P) d2 Where n =estimated sample size (?) P=estimate of the prevalence rate for the population (0.12) d=margin of sampling error tolerated (0.05) =the standard normal variable at 1- % confidence level and Z α α =5% (1.96) n = (1.96) 0.12(1 − 0.12) (0.05) . n = ≈ 162 . By adding 10% (16) none response rate it will give 162+16 = 178 Therefore, the estimated sample size using all the above data will be 178 Sampling techniques Convenience sampling techniques was employed. Data collection was carried out as consecutive sampling of all women who visited Antenatal Care Clinic in Mettu karl Hospital during the study period until the determined sample size fulfilled. Specimen collection and transport A freshly voided midstream urine samples (10-15 ml) was collected from clients in a wide mouth sterile container after cleansing the genitals with soap and water. The urine specimens was then delivered www.ijmer.in 271 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 to the microbiology laboratory immediately and processed within one hour. All patients were asked to come back for results after 2 days. Then patients care at Antenatal Care Clinic was continued by her managing obstetrician in the particular unit [8, 9]. Culture and identification Demographic data including age and pregnancy gestational age was collected using questionnaires. Clean catch mid-stream urine samples was collected from all participants using wide-mouthed sterile capped container. The specimen was promptly transported to Microbiology laboratory and cultured within one hour of collection. Briefly, about 0.002 ml of samples was inoculated on MacConkey agar, Mannitol salt agar (MSA), and blood agar plate (Oxoid Basingstoke, UK) and will be incubated aerobically at 37°C for 24 hours. Bacterial growth was categorized and interpreted on the basis of colony forming units (CFU) as follows: equal to or greater than 105 CFU/ml was considered as positive; less than 105 CFU/ml is contamination. Identification of bacteria was done using colony characteristics, gram reaction of the organisms and biochemical tests following standard procedure. A standard biochemical procedure namely Indole, citrate, oxidase, H2S production, lysine decarboxylase, lactose fermentation, urea hydrolysis, gas production, catalase, coagulase, Mannitol fermentation was used for full identification of gram-positive and gram negative bacteria [8]. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing Morphologically identical 4-6 bacterial colonies from overnight culture were suspended in 5ml nutrient broth and incubated for 4 hours at 37oC. Turbidity of the broth culture was equilibrated to match 0.5 McFarland standards. Using sterile swab, the suspension was inoculated onto Mueller Hinton agar and antimicrobial discs were added within 5 minutes of inoculation. www.ijmer.in 272 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Isolates was tested for antimicrobial susceptibility testing by the standard Kirby Bauer’s disc diffusion method [19]. Standard inoculums adjusted to 0.5 McFarland will be swabbed on Mueller Hinton agar and will be allowed to soak for 2 to 5 minutes. After that antibiotic disks was placed on the surface of media and pressed gently. Mueller Hinton agar plates were then incubated at 37∘C for 24 h. After 24 h direct measurements of diameters of zones of inhibition of bacterial growths on agar plates to antibiotics will be done with a calibrated ruler. The Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) break points was used for interpretation of susceptibility patterns as sensitive or resistant [20,21]. For gram-negative and positive bacteria the following discs were tested: amoxicillin (25 μg), co-trimoxazole (SXT) (1.25/23.75 μg), nitrofurantoin (300 μg), ciprofloxacin (5 μg), nalidixic acid (30 μg), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (20 μg/10 μg), and norfloxacin (5 μg) [18]. Quality control Culture media was tested for sterility and performance. Standard strains of E. coli ATCC 25922 and S. aureus ATCC 25923 will be used during culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Data management and analysis Cleaning, Coding and verification of the data was done before data Analysis. Analysis was done using SPSS version 20. Chi-square test (2x2) for P- value derivation for socio-demographic and risk factors to identify variables associated with UTIs. P-value less than 0.05 were taken as statistically significant. Ethical Considerations Approval of Ethical clearance was obtained from Mettu University ethical-review committee. Informed written consent was obtained from the study participants. Participants were given a full right to continue or withdraw from the study. Information obtained at each course of the www.ijmer.in 273 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 study were kept confidential. Those identified positives for bacteriuria during the study period were referred to attending physicians for appropriate treatment. Operational Definitions Asymptomatic bacteriuria: Significant bacteriuria without symptoms. Uncomplicated urinary tract infection: Infection in a patient with a normal, unobstructed genitourinary tract with no prior instrumentation. Complicated urinary tract infection: Infection in a patient with structural or functional abnormalities. This also includes men, pregnant women, presence of foreign body (urinary catheter, stone). Relapse: Recurrence of bacteriuria with the same microorganism within seven days of therapy and implies failure to eradicate infection. Reinfection: Recurrence of bacteriuria with a new microorganism. Reinfection is difficult to differentiate from relapse when infection occurs with a microorganism of the same species as the initial infection. Approximately 80% of recurrent infections are due to reinfection. Cystitis: Inflammatory syndrome and infection of the bladder with signs and symptoms of dysuria, frequency, urgency, and suprapubic tenderness. Pyelonephritis: Bacterial infection of the kidney involving flank pain, tenderness, and fever, and often associated with dysuria, urgency, and frequency. This condition may be acute or chronic. Urethritis: Lower urinary tract inflammation with / without bacterial infection, causing symptoms similar to those of cystitis. Most often associated with sexually transmitted diseases such as Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. www.ijmer.in 274 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Prostatitis: Encompasses several different clinical entities, from bacterial infection to inflammation to pain, which cause symptoms related to the prostate gland. Results Single urine samples collected from a total of 120 pregnant women were examined for asymptomatic bacteriruria. The mean age of the study participants was 27. The majority of the pregnant women were in their 3rd trimester (45%) and 2nd trimester (41%). Of the analyzed urine samples, 25 (20.8%) were positive for significant bacteriuria (CFU 5 ≥ 10 /mL). The rate of isolation was higher in the age group 28-39year (56%), though the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.08). Women at their 2nd and 3rd trimester had a respective 44% and 48% rates of asymptomatic bacteriruria, though this The majority (89.1%) of the infected women had single infection; while 10.9% were dually infected, which makes the total number of bacterial isolates 51 (Table 2). Of the bacterial isolates, 26 (51%) were Gram- positive bacteria and the rest 25 (49%) were Gram-negative bacteria. The predominant bacterial species were coagulase negative Staphylococcus (CoNs) (32.6%), E. coli (26.1%), S. auerus (13%), Enterobacter species 4(8.7), and Klebsiella species 3(6.5%). CoNS and E. coli was responsible for 4 (8.7%) of mixed infection. difference was also statistically non-significant (p = 0.28) (Table 1). Antimicrobial susceptibility of isolated bacteria showed that: norfloxacin (64.7%), gentamicin (47.1%), cefotaxime (43.15%), penicillin (30.8%), trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole (25.5%), vancomycin (23.5%), and ampicillin (17.3) (Table 3). Multi-drug resistance (resistance two or more drugs) was observed in all isolated bacteria. www.ijmer.in 275 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Discussion Pregnant women are at increased risk of UTI but in many cases, infection remains asymptomatic [13]. In this study, the prevalence of asymptomatic urinary tract infection among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic of Mettu karl hospital was 20.8%, which is similar with previous work in northwest Ethiopia (Bahirdar) [16]. It is, however, higher than results from southwest (Jimma) [10], northwest (Gondar) [17], and central Ethiopia (Addis Ababa) [11], where rates ranging from 6 to 10.6% were reported. Our finding is lower than the figure reported from Iran (29.1%) [18] and Sagamu (23.9%) [19], Benin (45.3%) [20] and Abakaliki cities of Nigeria (78.7%) [21]. The varying prevalence of ASB from one country to another and among regions of the same country might be due to difference in risk factors with geographical areas. The highest rate of ASB was reported in the age group ≥ 35 years and the lowest was in the age group 25–34 years. Similarly, higher infection rates were shown in the age group 25–29 years elsewhere [22,23]. Moreover, similar to previous findings by Okonko et al. [22] and Turpin et al. [23], the prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria has no significant association with trimester. The predominant bacterial isolates observed in this study were CoNS (32.6%) followed by E. coli (26.1%), and S. auerus (13%). In agreement, Rahimkhani et al. [18] reported S. epidermidis (36%) and E. coli (20%) as prevailing bacterial isolates. The predominance of E. coli was also consistently reported by others [11,16-18,21,22,24]. High prevalence rate of staphylococci (45.6%) in this study were surprising result. This could be due to poor genital hygienic practices by pregnant women who may find it difficult to clean their anal or genital region properly after defecating or passing urine. www.ijmer.in 276 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 In this study, the traditional semi-quantitative bacterial counts (s-QBC) cut-off of value 105 CFU/ml was used to define significant bacteriuria. However, recent studies have reported that this cut-off is insensitive and inappropriate for some clinical conditions and proposed lower s- QBC value cut-off, 103 CFU/ml [25, 26]. Tan et al. also showed that using a lower threshold of ≥103 s-QBC Conclusion and recommendation In conclusion, the prevalence of ASB in pregnant women was relatively higher than previous findings in Ethiopia. This study also showed, most of bacterial isolates are resistant against commonly used antimicrobial agents. Therefore, routine laboratory diagnosis of ASB in pregnant women and providing appropriate treatment would be needed to reduce its complications. References 1. Biadglegn F, Abera B. Antimicrobial resistance patterns of bacterial isolates from urinary tract infections at Felege Hiwot Hospital, Ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Dev. 2009; 23: 236-38. 2. Grude N, Tveten Y, Kristiansen BE. Urinary tract infections in Norway: bacterial etiology and susceptibility. A retrospective study of clinical isolates. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001; 7: 543–47. 3. Melaku S, Kibret M, Abera B, Gebre-Sellassie S Antibiogram of nosocomial urinary tract infections in Felege Hiwot referral hospital, Ethiopia African Health Sciences. 2012; 12(2): 134-139 4. Getenet Beyene, Wondewosen Tsegaye. Bacterial uropathogens in urinary tract infection and antibiotic susceptibility pattern in Jimma university hospital, Ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Sci. 2011; 21:141-6. 5. Aiyegoro OA, Igbinosa OO, Ogunmwonyi IN, Odjadjare EE, Igbinosa OE, Okoh AI (2007). Incidence of urinary tract www.ijmer.in 277 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 infections (UTI) among children and adolescents in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 013-019. 6. Anyamene CO, Stellamaris N, Muoneke, Umerie GNC (2002). Bacterial isolates associated with urinary tract infections in Akwa and environs. J. Appl. Sci. 5(4): 3092-3098. 7. Bloomberg B, Oslen B, Hinderer S, Langeland N, Gasheka P, Jureen R, Kvale G; Midtvedt T (2005). Antimicrobial resistance in urinary bacterial isolates from pregnant women in rural Tanzania, implications for public health. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 37: 262 - 268. 8. Cheesbrough MC (2006). District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. p 105 - 115. 9. Tadesse E, Teshome M, Yared M, Belayhun K and Shimelis T. Asymptomatic urinary tract infection among pregnant women attending the antenatal clinic of Hawassa Referral Hospital, Southern Ethiopia. BMC Research Notes 2014, 7:155 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1756-0500/7/155. 10. Delzell JE, Lefevre ML (2000). Urinary tract infections during pregnancy. American Academy of Family Physician 61: 713 - 721. 11. Gratacos E, Torres PJ, Vila J, Alonso PL, Cararach V (1994). Screening and treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy prevent pyelonephritis. J Infect Dis. 169: 1390 -1392. 12. Feitosa DCA, Silva MG, Parada CMGL: Accuracy of simple urine tests for diagnosis of urinary tract infections in low-risk pregnant women. Rev Latino-am Enfermagem 2009, 17(4):507- 13. www.ijmer.in 278 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 13. Abdullah AA, Al-Moslih MI: Prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnant women in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. East Mediterr Health J 2005, 11:5-6. 14. Duarte G, Marcolin AC, Quintana SM, Cavalli RC: Urinary tract infection in pregnancy. Rev Bras Ginecol Obstet 2008, 30:93- 100. 15. Schnarr J, Smaill F: Asymptomatic bacteriuria and symptomatic urinary tract infections in pregnancy. Eur J Clin Invest 2008, 38(2):50–57. 16. Assefa A, Asrat D, Woldeamanuel Y, G/Hiwot Y, Abdella A, Melesse T: Bacterial profile and drug susceptibility pattern of urinary tract infection in pregnant women at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ethiop Med J 2008, 46:227-35. 17. Delzell JE, Lefevre ML: Urinary tract infections during pregnancy. Am Fam Physician 2000, 61(3):713-21. 18. Gabre-Selassie S: Asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy; epidemiological clinical and microbiological approach. Ethiop Med J 1998, 36:185-192. 19. Baur AW, Kirby WM, Sherris JC, Turck M. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single dick method. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 1966; 45:493-496. 20. McFadden JF, editor. Biochemical Tests for Identification of Medical Bacteria. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott. Williams and Wilkins; 2000. 21. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute: Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing: 17th informational supplement. CLSI document M100-S17. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2007: 27(1). www.ijmer.in 279 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 22. Noor N, Ajaz M., Rasool SA., Pirzada ZA. Urinary tract infections associated with multidrug resistant enteric bacilli, characterization and genetical studies. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2004;17: 115-123 23. Ronald AR, Pattulo MS. The natural history of urinary infection in adults. Medical clinics of North America 1991; 75:299-312. 24. Wilson ML, Gaido L. Laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract infections in adult patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2004; 38:1150–1158. 25. C. M. Gonzalez and A. J. Schaeffer, “Treatment of urinary tract infection: what’s old, what’s new, and what works,” World Journal of Urology, 1999 17(6) 372–382 26. Bacak SJ, Callaghan WM, Dietz PM, Crouse C: Pregnancy- associated hospitalizations in the United States, 1999-2000. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005, 192(2):592-7 27. Johnson KE, Kim ED (2012). Urinary tract infections in pregnancy. [Copyright © 1994-2012 by WebMD LLC.]. Available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/452604- overview. Accessed on: May 31, 2012 28. Ciesla BC (2007). Hematology in practice. F A Davis Company, Philadelphia, USA. p82-142 29. Dafnis E, Sabatini S: The effect of pregnancy on renal function: physiology and pathophysiology. Am J Med Sci 1992, 303(3):184- 205 30. Shamataj Razak et al. Bacteriology of UTI and their Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern. Int J Med Sci Pub Health 2012; 1 (2) 31. LU Edirisinghe, D Vidanagama A retrospective analysis of urine culture results issued by the microbiology department, Teaching Hospital, Karapitiya Galle Medical Journal 2008; 13:( 1) www.ijmer.in 280 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 32. Moges F, Genetu A, Mengistu G. Antibiotic sensitivity of Bacterial pathogens in Urinary tract infections at Gondar Hospital, Ethiopia. East Afr Med J. 2002; 79:140-42. 33. De Francesco MA, Giuseppe R, Laura P, Riccardo N, Nino M. Urinary tract infections in Brescia, Italy: Etiology of uropathogens and antimicrobial resistance of common Uropathogens. Med Sci Monit. 2007; 13: 136-44. Table 1 Distribution of Asymptomatic bacteriuria by age group and trimester among pregnant women at Mettu karl hospital, 2016 Characte Total Number Chi- p.value ristics tested positive square value Age 18- 27 42 (35) 10(40) 5.44 0.08 28-39 76(63.3) 14(56) ≥40 2(1.7) 1(4) Total 120 (100) 25(20.8) Trimester 1st 17 (14) 2(8) 2.625 0.28 trimester 2nd 49 (41) 11(44) trimester 3rd 54 (45) 12(48) trimester Total 120 (100) 25(20.8) www.ijmer.in 281 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table 2 Distribution of different bacterial pathogens isolated from urine of asymptomatic pregnant women at Mettu Karl hospital, 2016 Bacterial isolates Frequency (%) Single infection Staphylococcus auerus 3(12) CoNS 8(32) Escherichia coli 6(24) Klebsiella species 2(8) Pseudomonas aeruginosa 1(4) Enterobacter species 2(8) Mixed infection CoNS and Escherichia coli 2(8) Staphylococcus auerus and 1(4) Citrobacter species Total 25 (100) www.ijmer.in 282 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 BURNOUT AS A CRISIS AMONG TEACHERS WITH RESPECT TO OCCUPATIONAL SELF-EFFICACY Dr.Madhu Gupta Ms. Surekha Rani Professor Dept. of Education Dept. of Education M. D. University, M. D. University, Rohtak,Haryana Rohtak,Haryana Abstract The present study was undertaken to examine the burnout among secondary school teachers in relation to occupational self-efficacy and some demographic variables i.e. locality and gender. Burnout was treated as dependent variable whereas organizational commitment (High & Low), locality (Rural & Urban) and gender (Male & Female) were treated as independent variables. Descriptive survey method was employed for the present study. A sample of 400 secondary school teachers was taken by using multi-stage random sampling technique. Teachers’ Burnout scale by Gupta and Rani (2017) [13] and Occupational Self-efficacy Scale by Pethe, Chaudhari and Dhar (1999) [18] were used to collect the data. The obtained data were analyzed using Three Way ANOVA with 2×2×2 factorial design. Levene’s Test of Homogeneity of Variance was also applied to test the assumption of homogeneity of variance for ANOVA. Findings of the study revealed that occupational self-efficacy and gender had significant effect on burnout among teachers whereas locality had no significant effect on burnout among teachers. Significant double interaction effect of occupational self- efficacy and locality; occupational self-efficacy and gender were reported on burnout among teachers. Further, No significant interaction effect of locality and gender was found on burnout among teachers. Triple interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender on burnout among teachers was not found significant. It is suggested that courage and reward should be given to the teachers for their knowledge, efficiency and skills. Keywords: Burnout, Gender, Locality and Occupational Self-efficacy. Introduction www.ijmer.in 283 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Self-efficacy is a critical component of social cognitive theory, which has a primary influence on human thought, motivation, action and performance. Self-efficacy refers to the speculation and judgment of whether an individual is capable of completing an action (Cupertino et al. 2012[6]; Kamen et al. 2013) [16]. In other words, self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capability to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments. Occupational self-efficacy has been defined as the belief in ability and competence to perform in an occupation (Pethe, Chaudhari and Dhar, 1999) [18]. Occupational self- efficacy is the extent to which one judges oneself able to do the tasks inherent in a given career or vocational pursuit. Occupational self- efficacy can be used to assess “self-efficacy over different jobs, organizations, levels etc.” (Schyns & Collani, 2002) [19]. As we know, teacher holds the most crucial position in the education system. A teacher is responsible for the destiny of our children. He should possess certain qualities, capacities, competencies, capabilities in order to modify and shape the behaviour of the students in a certain specific direction. In fact, teacher efficacy is the teacher’s belief in his or her capability to organize and execute courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context. Teacher efficacy is defined as the extent to which a teacher believes that she or he can influence student behavior and academic achievements, especially students with difficulties or those with especially low learning motivation (Berman et al., 1977). According to Guskey and Passaro (1994) [14] “Teacher efficacy is the teacher’s belief or conviction that they can influence how well students learn even those who may be difficult or unmotivated.” Teachers’ sense of self- efficacy plays a key role in influencing important academic outcomes. It is related to higher level of student achievement and motivation, and has been shown to influence teachers’ instructional practices, use of innovative teaching methods, enthusiasm and teaching behavior. In the last decade, definitions of teacher self-efficacy that are more complex in terms of the scope and the facets they embrace have appeared in the literature. For example, Cherniss (1993) [3] has suggested that teacher efficacy should consist of three domains: task (the level of the teacher’s skill in teaching, disciplining and motivating students), interpersonal (the teacher’s ability to work harmoniously with others, particularly service recipients, colleagues and direct supervisors) and the organization domain (the teacher’s ability to influence the social and www.ijmer.in 284 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 political powers of the organization). When teachers with high self efficacy levels experience problems related with their profession well on these problems and make an effort to solve them. Conversely, teachers with low self efficacy levels avoid such problems and try to solve their emotional disturbances in their inner world. This situation contributes a lot to teacher burnout. Leiter (1993) [17] defined burnout as ‘a crisis of self-efficacy’. From this point of view, we can assert that teacher burnout can be caused by the break of belief in the job related efficacy. During the last decades, several studies have been focused on teachers’ self-efficacy and burnout. Chwalisz et al. (1992) [5] found that teachers with low self-efficacy reported higher levels of job burnout as compared to teachers with high self-efficacy. Friedman and Farber (1992) [11] revealed that those teachers who considered themselves poor in maintaining discipline in the classroom and a lower management capacity reported higher levels of job burnout as opposed to the teachers who considered themselves as having a higher management capacity. Chu (2003) [4] found that teaching efficacy can promote students’ learning motivation and prompt them to improve their abilities. Friedman (2003) [10] found that perceived sense of self-efficacy was inversely correlated with perceived burnout. Ahmet, Yunus and Ismail (2014)[1] found significant, medium and negative correlation between teacher self efficacy and burnout levels of the participants. Hakan and Halis (2014) [15] reported significant relationships between teacher self-efficacy and burnout. Findings of the study Arvidsson, Hakansson, Karlson, Jonas, and Roger (2016)[2] revealed that low self- efficacy, poor leadership, high job demands and teaching in higher grades were the variables most clearly associated with burnout. Hence, review of literature makes it clear that a very few researches are available on occupational self-efficacy and burnout among teachers. Therefore, the investigators undertook the present study to examine the burnout among secondary school teachers with respect to occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender. Variables Used Dependent Variable: Burnout Independent Variables: (a) Occupational Self-efficacy (b) Locality and (c) Gender Objectives Of The Study www.ijmer.in 285 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 1. To study the effect of (a) occupational self-efficacy, (b) locality and (c) gender on burnout among secondary school teachers. 2. To find out the interaction effect of (a) occupational self-efficacy & locality; (b) locality & gender; and (c) occupational self- efficacy & gender; on burnout among secondary school teachers. 3. To find out the interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender on burnout among secondary school teachers. Hypotheses Of The Study H01 There exists no significant effect of (a) occupational self-efficacy, (b) locality and (c) gender on burnout among secondary school teachers. H02 There exists no significant interaction effect of (a) occupational self-efficacy & locality; (b) locality & gender; and (c) occupational self-efficacy & gender; on burnout among secondary school teachers. H03 There exists no significant interaction effect of occupational self- efficacy, locality and gender on burnout among secondary school teachers. Design And Methodology In the present study, descriptive survey method was used. The 2×2×2 factorial randomized group design was used to analyze the data. All the independent variables i.e. occupational self-efficacy (High & Low), locality (Rural & Urban) and gender (Male & Female) were varied at the two levels which have been shown below in the schematic design. Occupational Self-efficacy Locality (B) Gender (C) (A) Rural (B1) Male (C1) High (A1) Urban Female (B ) (C ) Low (A2) 2 2 www.ijmer.in 286 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Sample A sample of 400 secondary school teachers was selected through multi- stage random sampling technique on the basis of occupational self- efficacy, locality and gender. The sample was classified on the basis of occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender. As per the norms given in manual those teachers who scored 83 & above on occupational self- efficacy scale were categorized as teachers with high occupational self- efficacy and those teachers who scored 64 & below were treated as teachers with low occupational self-efficacy. Thus, the investigator obtained 117 teachers with high occupational self-efficacy and 110 teachers with low occupational self-efficacy. In the present study 173 teachers with average occupational self-efficacy were not entertained. Distribution of the cells for analysis of interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender on burnout and psychological well- being has also been presented in Fig. 1. Teachers [400] Average High Occupational Occupational Low Occupational Self-efficacy [A1] Self-efficacy Self-efficacy [A2] [117] [173] [110] Rural [Not Considered] Rural Urban Urban Teachers[B1 Teachers Teacher[B2] Teachers ] [B1] [55] [B2] [56] [62] [54] Male Male Male Male [C1] [38] [C1] [19] [C1] [29] [C1] [23] Female Female Female Female [C2] [24] [C2] [36] [C2] [25] [C2] [33] Fig.1: Schematic Layout of 2×2×2 Factorial Design for Burnout among Teachers with respect to Occupational Self-efficacy, Locality and Gender www.ijmer.in 287 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Tools Used [13] Teachers’ Burnout Scale by Gupta and Rani (2017) was used to assess the level of burnout among teachers. The scale consists 40 items under four dimensions i.e. Perceived self-efficacy, Students’ disruptive behavior, Collegiality and Institutional climate. Test- retest reliability of the scale was 0.994. The scale has high construct validity ranged from 0.660 to 0.900. Occupational Self-efficacy Scale by Pethe, Chaudhari and Dhar (1999) [18] was used to assess the occupational self-efficacy of teachers working in teacher training institutions. This scale contains 19 items corresponding to six factors. These are confidence, command, adaptability, personal effectiveness, positive attitude and individuality. The reliability coefficient of the scale was 0.98. Validity of the scale was 0.99. Statistical Techniques Used The Three-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with 2×2×2 Factorial Design was computed using SPSS 20 version to study the main and interaction effects of the independent variables i.e. occupational self- efficacy [High & Low], locality [Rural & Urban] and gender [Male & Female] on burnout among teachers. Levene’s Test of Homogeneity of Variance was used to test the assumption of homogeneity of variance before applying Three-Way ANOVA. Wherever F-value was found significant, then ‘t’-test was employed for further investigation. Data Analysis And Discussion To study the main and interaction effects of occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender on burnout among teachers, data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) of a (2×2×2) factorial study with a randomized group design. The independent variables such as occupational self-efficacy coded as (A) and further categorized as High (A1) and Low (A2); locality coded as (B) and divided into two categorizes – Rural (B1) and Urban (B2); and gender, coded as (C) was categorized as Male (C1) and Female (C2). The Means and SDs of different sub samples have been given in the Table-1 and Fig.2. The summary of ANOVA (2×2×2) has been further presented in the in table-2 which is analyzed in terms of main and interaction effects of independent www.ijmer.in 288 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 variables i.e. occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender on burnout among secondary school teachers. Table – 1 Means and SDs of Sub Samples of 2×2×2 Design for Burnout among Teachers with respect to Occupational Self-efficacy [A], Locality [B] and Gender [C] Occupational Locality [B] Male [C1] Female [C2] Self-efficacy [A] High Rural [B1] Mean= 92.39 Mean= 85.04 Occupational S.D.= 27.95 S.D.= 31.28 Self-efficacy [A1] N= 38 N= 24 Urban [B2] Mean= 99.52 Mean= 92.36 S.D.= 27.63 S.D.= 30.03 N= 19 N= 36 Low Rural [B1] Mean= 67.62 Mean= 85.88 Occupational S.D.= 23.03 S.D.= 22.82 Self-efficacy [A2] N= 29 N= 25 Urban [B2] Mean= 53.86 Mean= 84.18 S.D.= 27.70 S.D= 23.62 N= 23 N= 33 www.ijmer.in 289 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Male (C1) Female (C2) 99.52 92.36 92.39 85.88 85.04 84.18 67.62 53.86 A1B1 A1B2 A2B1 A2B2 Fig. 2: Mean Scores of Sub Samples of 2x2x2 Design for Burnout among Teachers with respect to Occupational Self-efficacy, Locality and Gender Table-2 Summary of Three Way ANOVA (2x2x2 Factorial Design) for Burnout among Teachers with respect to Occupational Self- efficacy, Locality and Gender Sources of df Sum of Mean Sum F-ratios Variance Squares (SS) of Squares (MSS) Main Effect Occupational self- 1 20388.764 20388.764 28.107** efficacy (A) Locality (B) 1 3.359 3.359 0.005 (NS) Gender (C) 1 3908.996 3908.996 5.389* Double Interaction Effect Interaction (AxB) 1 3013.693 3013.693 4.154* Interaction (BxC) 1 505.088 505.088 0.696 (NS) www.ijmer.in 290 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Interaction (AxC) 1 13417.324 13417.324 18.496** Triple Interaction Effect Interaction 1 474.557 474.557 0.654 (NS) (AxBxC) Between Cells 7 197280.088 ……… Within Cells 219 158864.065 725.407 Total 226 ** Significant at 0.01 level * Significant at 0.05 level NS= Not Significant Main Effect of Occupational Self-efficacy (A), Locality (B) and Gender (C) on Burnout among Secondary School Teachers Occupational Self-efficacy (A) From the Table-2, it is seen that F-ratio (28.107) for the main effect of occupational self-efficacy on burnout among secondary school teachers is significant at 0.01 level leading to the conclusion that occupational self-efficacy has a significant effect on burnout among teachers. Therefore, the null hypothesis H01 (a), ‘There exists no significant effect of occupational self-efficacy on burnout among secondary school teachers’ is not retained. In the context of mean scores, it can be concluded that teachers having high occupational self-efficacy (92.03) had high level of burnout than teachers having low occupational self- efficacy (73.86). It may be due to the fact that, teachers with strong self-efficacy beliefs seem to be stronger enough to face factors that lead to burnout and they are ready to implement new educational practices. This result is in contrast with the result of Fernando (2006) [9] who also revealed that teachers with a high level of self‐efficacy had low level of burnout than teachers with a low level of self‐efficacy. Locality (B) It is apparent from the Table-2 that F- ratio (0.005) for the main effect of locality on burnout among secondary school teachers is not significant at 0.05 level which shows that locality have no significant effect on burnout among teachers. Therefore, the null hypothesis H01 (b), ‘There exists no significant effect of locality on burnout among www.ijmer.in 291 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 secondary school teachers’ is retained. In terms of mean scores, it was found that teachers teaching in rural areas (83.27) slightly differ from teachers teaching in to urban areas (83.18). The finding of the present study is in contrast with the finding of Devi (2011) [8] who also found that significant difference exists among teachers on the basis of their locality they served in terms of their burnout. This result is in tune with the result of Dagar and Mathur (2016)[7] who investigated no significant difference in the burnout level of teachers teaching in rural and urban areas. Gender (C) From the Table-2, it is clear that F- ratio (5.389) for the main effect of gender on burnout among secondary school teachers is significant at 0.05 level leading to the inference that gender has a significant effect on burnout among teachers. Therefore, the null hypothesis H01 (c), ‘There exists no significant effect of gender on burnout among secondary school teachers’ is not retained. It was found from mean scores that male teachers (78.91) had low level of burnout as compared to female teachers (87.21). The result is in similarity with the result of Dagar and Mathur (2016) [7] who also revealed that male and female school teachers differ significantly in their burnout level. Double Interaction effect of Occupational self-efficacy, Locality and Gender on Burnout among Secondary School Teachers Occupational Self-efficacy x Locality (AxB) F-ratio (4.154) vide Table-2 for the interaction between occupational self-efficacy and locality is significant at 0.05 level which leads to the inference that occupational self-efficacy and locality (AxB) interact with each other. Therefore, the null hypothesis H02(a), ‘There exists no significant interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy and locality on burnout among secondary school teachers’ is not retained. This shows that there is a significant interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy and locality on burnout among teachers. Further t-test was employed to find out the significance difference between mean scores of burnout for different groups. The results have been shown in the table-3. Table-3 www.ijmer.in 292 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 ‘t’ values for Mean Scores of Burnout among Teachers for Different groups of Occupational self-efficacy x Locality (AxB) Groups N Means SDs t-values A1B1vs 62 54 89.54 76.07 29.25 24.51 2.70* A2B1 A1B2 vs 55 56 94.83 71.73 29.17 29.29 4.16** A2B2 A1B1 vs 62 56 89.54 71.73 29.25 29.29 3.38** A2B2 A1B2 vs 55 54 94.83 76.07 29.17 24.51 3.64** A2B1 A1B1 vs 62 55 89.54 94.83 29.25 29.17 0.979 A1B2 (NS) A2B1 vs 54 56 76.07 71.73 24.51 29.29 0.844 A2B2 (NS) ** Significant at 0.01 level * Significant at 0.05 level NS = Not Significant A1 – High Occupational Self-efficacy B1- Rural Teachers A2 - Low Occupational Self-efficacy B2 - Urban Teachers Table-3 discloses that ‘t’-value (2.70) for rural teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1B1) and rural teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (A2B1) is found significant at 0.05 level. In terms of mean scores, it can be interpreted that the level of burnout among rural teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (89.54) is higher as compared to rural teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (76.07). From the Table-3, it is clear that ‘t’-value (4.16) for urban teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1B2) and urban teachers with low self-efficacy (A2B2) is found significant at 0.01 level. From the comparison of mean scores it can be concluded that urban teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (94.83) have high level of burnout as compared to urban teachers with low self-efficacy (71.73). Similarly, t-value (3.38) from Table-3 for rural teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1B1) and urban teachers with low self-efficacy (A2B2) is found significant at 0.01 level. It may be concluded from the mean scores that the level of burnout among rural teachers with high www.ijmer.in 293 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 occupational self-efficacy (89.54) is higher than urban teachers with low self-efficacy (71.73). The t-value (3.64) for urban teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1B2) and rural teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (A2B1) is found significant at 0.01 level. In the context of mean scores, it can be inferred that urban teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (94.83) experienced higher level of burnout than rural teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (76.07). The t- values (0.979 and 0.844) vide Table-3 for rural teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1B1) and urban teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1B2); rural teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (A2B1) and urban teachers with low occupational self- efficacy (A2B2) are not found significant at 0.05 level leading to the conclusion that teachers of these groups do not differ significantly with respect to burnout. 94.83 94.83 94.83 89.54 89.54 89.54 76.07 76.07 76.07 71.73 71.73 71.73 A1B1vs A1B2 vs A1B1 vs A1B2 vs A1B1 vs A2B1 vs A2B1 A2B2 A2B2 A2B1 A1B2 A2B2 Fig. 3: Mean Scores for Interaction Effect of Occupational Self-efficacy and Locality on Burnout among Teachers www.ijmer.in 294 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 89.54 94.83 High Occupational Self- 76.07 71.73 efficacy (A1) Low Occupational Self- efficacy (A2) Rural Teachers (B1) Urban Teachers (B2) Fig. 4: Interaction effect of Occupational Self-efficacy & Locality (AxB) on Burnout among Teachers The interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy and locality (AxB) on burnout among teachers has been also presented in the form of line graph in Fig. 4 which indicates a significant interaction effect of the two variables (occupational self-efficacy and locality) on burnout among secondary school teachers. In this line graph B1 and B2 are marked on the X-axis at any distance and Y ordinate a scale is taken for the mean values. The mean M11=89.54 and M12=94.83 are marked for plotting line A1. Similarly, A2 line is drawn by marking M21= 76.07 and M22=71.73. In the Fig. 4, B1 and B2 lines will intersect at a point because they are not in parallel form. The graphical representation of AxB interaction indicates that there is a significant interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy and locality on burnout among teachers. Locality x Gender (BxC) As evident from Table-2 that F-ratio between locality and gender (BxC) is (0.696) which is not found significant at 0.05 level leading to the inference that locality and gender (BxC) do not interact with each other. Therefore, the null hypothesis H02(b), ‘There exists no significant interaction effect of locality and gender on burnout among secondary school teachers is retained. This result is in contradiction with the result of Gupta and Rani (2017) [12] who found a significant double interaction effect of locality & gender on burnout among teachers. Occupational self-efficacy x Gender (AxC) www.ijmer.in 295 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 The Table-2 further discloses that F-ratio between occupational self- efficacy and gender is (18.496) which is found significant at 0.01 level which leads to the inference that occupational self-efficacy and gender (AxC) interact with each other. Therefore, the null hypothesis H02(c), ‘There exists no significant interaction effect of occupational self- efficacy and gender on burnout among secondary school teachers’ is not retained. Further t-test was employed to find out the significance difference between mean scores of burnout for different groups. The results have been shown in the Table-4. Table-4 ‘t’ values for Mean Scores of Burnout among Teachers for Different groups of Occupational Self-efficacy x Gender (AxC) Groups N Means SDs t-values A1C1vs 57 52 94.77 61.53 27.80 25.88 6.46** A2C1 A1C2 vs 60 58 89.43 84.91 30.49 23.09 0.911 A2C2 (NS) A1C1 vs 57 58 94.77 84.91 27.80 23.09 2.07* A2C2 A1C2 vs 60 52 89.43 61.53 30.49 25.88 5.24** A2C1 A1C1 vs 57 60 94.77 89.43 27.80 30.49 0.996 A1C2 (NS) A2C1 vs 52 58 61.53 84.91 25.88 23.09 4.98** A2C2 ** Significant at 0.01 level * Significant at 0.05 level NS = Not Significant A1 – High Occupational Self-efficacy C1 - Male Teachers A2 - Low Occupational Self-efficacy C2 - Female Teachers www.ijmer.in 296 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 An examination of Table-4 discloses that t-value (6.46) for male teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1C1) and male teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (A2C1) is found significant at 0.01 level. It may be concluded from the mean scores that male teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (94.77) have higher level of burnout than male teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (61.53). The t- value (0.911) vide Table-4 for female teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1C2) and female teachers with low occupational self- efficacy (A2C2) is not found significant at 0.05 level leading to the conclusion that teachers of these groups do not differ significantly. As evident from Table-4 that t-value (2.07) for male teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1C1) and female teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (A2C2) is found significant at 0.05 level. It may be concluded from the mean scores that the level of burnout among male teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (94.77) is higher than female teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (84.91). Further, Table-4 depicts that t-value (5.24) for female teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1C2) and male teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (A2C1) is found significant at 0.05 level. In terms of mean scores, it can be observed that female teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (89.43) experienced higher level of burnout as compared to male teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (61.53). The t-value (0.996) vide Table-4 for male teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1C1) and female teachers with high occupational self-efficacy (A1C2) is not found significant at 0.05 level leading to the conclusion that these groups do not differ significantly. Lastly, t-value (4.98) from Table-4 for male teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (A2C1) and female teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (A2C2) is found significant at 0.01 level. In terms of mean scores, it can be inferred that male teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (61.53) possessed lower level of burnout than female teachers with low occupational self-efficacy (84.91). www.ijmer.in 297 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 94.77 94.77 94.77 89.43 89.43 89.43 84.91 84.91 84.91 61.53 61.53 61.53 A1C1vs A1C2 vs A1C1 vs A1C2 vs A1C1 vs A2C1 vs A2C1 A2C2 A2C2 A2C1 A1C2 A2C2 Fig. 5: Mean Scores for Interaction Effect of Occupational Self- efficacy and Gender on Burnout among Teachers 94.77 89.43 High Occupational 84.91 Self-efficacy (A1) 61.53 Low Occupational Self-efficacy (A2) Male Teachers (C1) Female teachers (C2) Fig. 6: Interaction effect of Occupational Self-efficacy & Gender (AxC) on Burnout among Teachers The interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy and gender (AxC) on burnout among teachers has been also presented in the form of line graph in Fig.6 which shows a significant interaction effect of the two variables (occupational self-efficacy & gender) on burnout among secondary school teachers. In this line graph C1 and C2 are marked on the X-axis at any distance and Y ordinate a scale is taken for the mean values. The mean M11=94.77 and M12=89.43 are marked for plotting line B1. Similarly, B2 line is drawn by marking M21= 61.53 and M22=84.91. In the Fig. 6, A1 and A2 lines intersect at a point. The figure showed that occupational self-efficacy (A) and gender (C) intersect at a point. Therefore, this line graph supports the inference that interaction effect between occupational self-efficacy (A) and locality (C) is found significant. www.ijmer.in 298 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Triple Interaction effect of Occupational Self-efficacy, Locality and Gender on Burnout among Secondary School Teachers Occupational Self-efficacy x Locality x Gender (A x B x C) The Table-2 further indicates that the F- ratio (0.654) for the interaction between occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender with respect to burnout among teachers is not found significant at 0.05 level which leads to the inference that occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender do not interact with each other. Therefore, the null hypothesis H03, ‘There exists no significant interaction effect of occupational self- efficacy, locality and gender on burnout among secondary school teachers’ is retained. Thus, it is inferred that there is no significant interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy, locality and gender on burnout among secondary school teachers. Conclusion The present study concluded that occupational self-efficacy had a significant effect on burnout among secondary school teachers. It was found that teachers having higher occupational self-efficacy had high level of burnout than teachers having low occupational self-efficacy. It may be due to the fact that, teachers with strong self-efficacy beliefs seem to be stronger enough to face factors that lead to burnout and they are ready to implement new educational practices. However, this problem may be resolved by giving them courage and reward for their knowledge, efficiency and skills. Educational journals and books should be provided for the teachers which may widen their knowledge about burnout and increase their self-efficacy to cope with burnout. Enhancement of self-efficacy can lead to increased sense of professional identity and occupational commitment among teachers. Believing in the capability of attaining a positive outcome is likely to trigger behaviours towards such attainment. References 1) Ahmet, C. S. , Yunus, B. and Ismail, E. (2014). A Study on the Relationship between Teacher Self Efficacy and Burnout. European Journal of Educational Research, 3(4), 159-166. www.ijmer.in 299 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 2) Arvidsson, I., Hakansson, C., Karlson, B., Jonas, B. and Roger, P. (2016). Burnout among Swedish school teachers – A cross-sectional analysis, BMC Public Health, 16(823), 1-11.Retrieved from: DOI 10.1186/s12889-016- 3498-7. 3) Cherniss, C. (1993). Role of professional self-efficacy in the etiology and amelioration of burnout. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout (pp. 135– 150). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. 4) Chu, C. L. (2003). A study of the relationship between personality traits and teaching effectiveness of teachers in reward and non-reward kindergarten in Taiwan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Spalding University, Kentucky. 5) Chwalisz, K., Altmaier, E. M., & Russell, D. W. (1992). Causal attributions, self-efficacy cognitions, and coping with stress. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11(4), 377–400. 6) Cupertino, A.-P., Berg, C., Gajewski, B., Hui, S.-K. A., Richter, K., Catley, D., et al. (2012). Change in self- efficacy, autonomous and controlled motivation predicting smoking. Journal of Health Psychology, 17(5), 640–652. 7) Dagar, N. and Mathur, M. (2016). Burnout among school teachers of Haryana. International Journal of Educational Planning & Administration, 6(1), 45-48. 8) Devi, M. (2011). Burnout in relation to emotional intelligence of regular and special school teachers. Indian Streams Research Journal, 1, 1-4. 9) Fernando D. B. (2006). Stressors, self‐efficacy, coping resources and burnout among secondary school teachers in Spain. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 26(4). 10) Friedman, I. A. (2003). Self-Efficacy and Burnout in Teaching: The Importance of Interpersonal-Relations Efficacy. Social Psychology of Education, 6(3), 191–215. www.ijmer.in 300 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 11) Friedman, I. A., & Farber, B. A. (1992). Professional self-concept as a predictor of teacher burnout. The Journal of Educational Research, 86(1), 28–35. 12) Gupta, M. and Rani, S. (2017). Burnout among secondary school teachers: An analysis on the basis of type of school, locality and gender. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR), 3(2), 221-229. 13) Gupta, M. and Rani, S. (2017). Manual of Teachers’ Burnout Scale. National Psychological Corporation, Agra. 14) Guskey, T. and Passaro, P. (1994). Teacher efficacy: A study of construct dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 627-643. 15) Hakan, S. and Halis, S. (2014). Burnout and teacher self- efficacy among teachers working in special education institutions in Turkey. Educational Studies, 40(4), 423-437. 16) Kamen, C., Flores, S., Etter, D., Lazar, R., Patrick, R., Lee, S., et al. (2013). General self-efficacy in relation to unprotected sexual encounters among persons living with HIV. Journal of Health Psychology, 18(5), 658–666. 17) Leiter, M. P. (1993). Burnout as a developmental process: Consideration of models. In Schaufeli, W. B., Maslach, C. E., & Marek, T. E. (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 237–249). Philadelphia, US: Taylor & Francis. 18) Pethe, S., Chaudhari, S., & Dhar, U. (1999). Manual of Occupational Self-efficacy Scale. Agra: National Psychological Corporation. 19) Schyns, B. & Collani, G. v. (2002). A new occupational self-efficacy scale and its relation to personality constructs and organisational variables. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11, 219-241. www.ijmer.in 301 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 302 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 303 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 304 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 305 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 306 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 307 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 RELIGIOUS TOURISM: A HOLY TREK OR LEAVING THE MESS? Puja Raj M.Phil Research Scholar Department of Philosophy University of Delhi, Delhi, India Abstract Religion, as generally understood, is faith in superior God. Religion is also considered as a purpose of life, believing in something infinite while understanding human’s finiteness. Religion has become so integral to human beings that they instantly get offended if something happens against their belief. Religion in the world has a remarkable history, background, beliefs, followers, sacred places, events, occasions, etc. One of the integral parts of religious practice is pilgrimage or religious tourism. Religious tourism can be easily understood as tourism that is motivated for religious reasons for peace, holiness, blessing and easy feelings and so on. However, when we think about the impact of these pilgrimages or religious tourism on the environment, it gives a very uneasy image. Religious tourism, which is a vital part of the tourist industry and has become a part of economic growth, also contributes to national GDP (Gross Domestic Products). And thereby religious tourism has been commercialized. With religious beliefs in tune in human life, people are more and more attracted to go for religious tours as a comfortable, safe and adventurous journey, hence promote commercialization. Although commercialization of religious tourism promotes the domestic market, socio-cultural aesthetics gives way to infrastructure and service delivery but leaves a terrible effect on ecology. Religious tourism leads to air pollution, overcrowding, generating wastes, degrading lands, contaminating water or river, www.ijmer.in 308 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 deforestation, sewage treatment and so on. Religious tours to Kumbha Mela almost every time leaves behind the land full of non-biodegradable wastes and contaminated river. On one hand, the water from the Ganga River or Yamuna River is considered to be sacred, to bestow blessings and purification. On the other hand, one cannot drink it because it is dirty and occupied with waste and non-biodegradable product that have been used in religious practices. These so-called avoidable wastes are creating a grave threat not just to the ecosystem but also to the health of human beings. My paper would be an attempt to unfold the different dimensions of religious tourism, taking some case studies, and their impact on the ecosystem. Moreover, I would elaborate the role of politics and government to curb or cause such effects. Introduction Tourism is an activity involving a trip to some other place, more specifically for a change in the environment and surrounding. Also, tourism is one of the biggest and continuously emerging industries to contribute to the national or global growth and economy. Tourism comprises of different forms, such as (a) Cultural Tourism, (b) Sports Tourism, (c) Business Tourism, (d) Political Tourism, (e) Rest and Relaxation Tourism, (f) Social or Group Tourism, (g) economic Tourism, (h) Religious Tourism, and many more. Every Tour leads to a certain level of psychological pleasure; however, this paper is focused on the religious tourism. Tourism has various effects and dimensions including environmental, cultural, social and economic etc. Religion, being an integral part of people’s life, seems easy to follow but hard to point out. Religion has a very remarkable history of its emergence in different names and forms. Every religion has certain beliefs, practices, followers, sacred places, events, occasions, etc. One of the primal practices of any religion is the pilgrimage, which now has www.ijmer.in 309 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 been named as religious tourism. “A large number of people…” or followers “…have been making the pilgrimage to sacred religious or holy places.”1 This is not just limited in countries boundary but spread globally. Religious tourism includes a tour to religious places, religious gathering as well as religious camps. Unlike other tourism, religious tourism differs as it is partly or strongly driven by people’s faith in religious reasons or supreme God. People or groups sharing similar belief travel in numbers to religious places. With the end of these religious tours, it provides the tourist with peace, calmness, holiness, blessing and easy feelings. And then simply no one thinks of the residues and the adverse effect of this religious tourism. Alike any other tourism, Religious tourism also requires accommodation, catering, transporting, facilities, entertainment besides religious attraction. With increasing attraction to religious places, numbers of pilgrims or tourist are also increasing day by day. In order to have a safe but adventurous journey, people or devotees look for more and more facilities and entertainment, which demands resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, vehicles, roads, airports to facilitate the visitors. These facilities promote the commercialization and competition among the benefactors. Religious tourism has, thereby, became a greater part of the tourist industry. Undoubtedly, Religious tourism has given way to domestic markets, cultural and regional art craft and handicrafts, roadbeds, infrastructure, delivering services, etc. However, these facilities also have an adverse effect which is indirectly causing a greater threat to the environment in many forms, not just locally but globally. In my paper, I am particularly highlighting the four most famous religious tours of India and their adverse effects on the ecology. Vaishno Devi Shrine 1 Jagpradeep, Tourism development; New Delhi, Murari Lal & Sons, 2008, Page no.- 62 www.ijmer.in 310 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Shrine is located in Katra town of Jammu & Kashmir. The temple of Vaishno Devi is located at the height of Trikuta Mountains, 13.5 km from Katra. Devotees stay at Katra town to visit the temple of Vaishno Devi. The Town has expanded its mode of facilitating the visitors. Various modes of transportation are used by the devotees to reach the temple including electric vehicles, Ponies, Paalkhis and Helicopter. Every year millions of devotees visit Vaishno Devi shrine and with each passing year, the number of people is increasing. “The number of pilgrims visiting the shrine has risen from 1.4 million in 1986 to 10 million in 2012.”2 Although it seems and sounds good to know about the visitors in such a large amount, but this increasing number of tourist is directly or indirectly contributing to environmental degradation in the area. From Air Pollution to soil erosion, waste generation to dumping the wastes in water resources, causing water pollution to natural habitat loss. For enhancing and thriving tourism in the place, development of the place is required which need cutting mountains, trees, and forests, construction of resorts, guest houses, hotels, restaurants, dhabas, fast food outlets etc. Construction of resorts, guest houses require area which demands cutting trees because other places are pre-occupied by residents. Cutting mountains, trees and forest lead to soil erosion, threatening essential ecological functions, influencing wildlife, etc. Restaurants, hotels, Food chains, in order to meet the food demands of visitors, produce a larger amount of food and also contribute to solid waste and littering. Air pollution level has increased with gas emission coming from vehicles, airplanes, and generators. Also, increased burning of fossil fuels for cooking and heating in hotels and restaurants 2Sharma, Anita and Anil K. Raina; International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology; June 2014; ( https://www.rroij.com/open- access/environmental-impacts-of-tourism-inkatra-town-jk.pdf ); Accessed on 1 May 2017 www.ijmer.in 311 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 etc. make an addition to air pollution. Moreover, the solid waste and garbage dump by Pony owners, hotels, and restaurants, untreated sewage are used to dispose of in the water resource of the town, i.e. Bal Ganga. These issues may seem ignorable to many, but cause the grave threat to the environment. These pollutions and reckless behavior toward the environment is a contributor to climate change, which needs to be tackled seriously. However, we cannot stop the religious tourism altogether, but the government can manage, plan and limit the number of visitors. Environmental problems happen when the number of visitors exceeds the environmental ability to cope with the use. Also, besides the environmental problems, the profit earned by the tourism industry, through these religious tours, hardly benefit the local residents or to very religious place. Kumbha Mela Kumbha Mela is a mass Hindu pilgrimage in which Hindus gather to bathe in the holy and sacred river. Kumbha Mela traditionally is held every three years, switching it location between Haridwar (Ganga River), Prayag or Allahabad (Sangam of Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati), Ujjain (Kshipra River) and Nasik (Godavari River). Ultimately Mela returns to each location in 12 years. Hindus believe that those who bathe in the sacred water during the Kumbha are eternally blessed by divine and all their sins would be washed away and they get one step closer to salvation. This festival is over 2000 years old and Hindus have very firm believe in it. Last held Kumbha in Prayag or Allahabad was in 2013. Almost 10 crore people gathered for this festival. Although the Kumbha Mela in 2013 provided around 650,000 jobs3, estimating earn around Rs12,000 crore, also temporary hospitals, toilets etc. were built; but by the end of the festival, it left dirty 3 Jagdia, Varun; ( www.thebetterindia.com/55090/10-facts-kumbh-mela/ ) May 2016; Accessed on 2 May 2017. www.ijmer.in 312 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 premises, wreck and debris of religious products, the river was choked with garbage, sewage, plastics, puja materials and other wastes. The after-effect of the Kumbha Mela is so immense that it becomes so durable to reinstate the ordinary situation. The crowd at Kumbha Mela is so huge that maintaining order at every level is almost next to impossible. It leads to strains on water resources, soil erosion, waste generation by increased population, threatens our food supplies, increases noise pollution etc. People hardly think of the after-effect of any religious activity or practice, however, if we start to evaluate the result of such actions, it has an enormous impact on the environment. Jagannath Puri Jagannath Puri temple is a sacred Vaishnava temple dedicated to lord Jagannath or lord Krishna located at Puri in Odisha. It is one of the Char Dham pilgrimages that anyone is expected to make. Its famous event of annual Rath Yatra or chariot festival attracts lakhs of Hindu devotees. Alike other tourism, it requires accommodation, transportation, food supplies, entertainment, safety and security. As Jagannath Puri in Odisha is situated nearby beach of Bay of Bengal, the tourist gets attracted to visit beaches and enjoy the surrounding beside the holiness of the place. However, the annual Rath Yatra almost accommodates millions of people, which indirectly affect the ecosystem. Tourist's trampling influence the marine life. A Huge number of tourists creates solid waste, unhygienic conditions and littering, ultimately polluting the environment and affecting the ecological functions. The place of religion becomes monetized, but the benefit or profit earned goes to the Travel agents and Tour Operations instead of benefiting the local areas. Domestic market of shell keychain, hand-made shell curtains, jewelry, art crafts and show pieces etc. also make a huge profit, but by hampering marine or aquatic life. Also, these kind of religious tourism adds to the pollution, waste, dumping www.ijmer.in 313 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 sewages in near shore coastal areas, putting local infrastructure and habitats under great pressure. Amarnath Cave Amarnath Cave is another Hindu Shrine located in Jammu & Kashmir. The cave is surrounded by snowy mountains. Once in a year in the summertime, the cave is opened for pilgrims to visit the cave and see the ice stalagmite formed inside the cave. As per the religious beliefs, the ice stalagmite inside the cave is considered as Linga of Lord Shiva, and the cave is the place where Lord Shiva explained the secret of life to his wife Parvati. The route to the cave passes first through forests and pastures, then ice-fields and rocks. The number of devotees has risen from few thousands to lakhs in recent past. The devotees travel to cave through a limited track, having different modes such as back and forth on foot, ponies or dandis etc. Same as Vaishno Devi shrine, it takes commercialized shops, transportation, accommodation and food supplies; which ultimately cause environmental degradation. Moreover, with increasing number of people traveling through the same path causes the massive erosion and landslides on the mountain areas, causing deaths. For safety and security, military units are posted; however, this adds the number of people in a small area. As the temperature of the nearby area of Amarnath Cave is considerably very low, tourists demand heating facility and hot-served foods in hotels and restaurants, requiring the burning of excessive fossil fuels, leading to air pollution. Dumped solid wastes of ponies and littering from other sources create unhygienic surrounding. Also, natural resources were extracted and trees were cut in order to construct the road. Although this kind of religious tourism enhances the infrastructure and services but also exploits the environment and ecosystem at large. Other Impacts www.ijmer.in 314 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Besides impacting the environment, Religious tourism has also been targeted for attracting terrorism. Also, due to the immense commercialization of religious tourism, profit makers try to sell out poor things and support unsustainable infrastructure, which not just jeopardize environment by human life as well. Further, when the number of visitors exceeds in a small area, it leads to stampede, crushing, and causing a threat to lives of devotees. Not just religious tourism, but any tourism or event, if not properly managed and planned, can have destructive effects on biodiversity and environment. My paper is not to oppose religious tourism, but to highlight its possible adverse effects on the environment if not properly managed. Government and Non-governmental organization can play a vital role in eliminating such devastating effects. Possible Suggestions Human Being has been living on and continuously modifying the earth and other non-human beings. And now, it is very difficult to reconstruct the environment which has been hampered. However, we can work toward reducing such adverse effects. Undoubtedly, we cannot ignore and stop social, cultural and economic growth while just centering upon environmental issues, instead, we can have sustainable development inclusive of environmental concern. “Environmental problems often occur only during the peak season when overloading of the infrastructure and overuse of attractions, facilities and services take place.”4 The government can regulate and limit the number of pilgrims. Also, application of environmentally sustainable programs, pedestrians and roadway can be handled with barricades, appropriate design and planning for tourism development, Eco-tourism. In addition, non-governmental can help in providing environmentally suitable land use, prohibiting tourists from cutting trees or disturbing the natural 4 Jagpradeep, Tourism development; New Delhi, Murari Lal & Sons, 2008, Page no.-79 www.ijmer.in 315 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 behavioral pattern of wild animals while protecting other plant and animals and maintaining environmental health and safety standards for the benefit of both local people and devotees or tourist. After all, only if we sustain the environment, it can reciprocate by providing a better and healthy living standard for humans. ------ Bibliography Jagdia, Varun. The Better India. May 6, 2016. http://www.thebetterindia.com/55090/10-facts-kumbh-mela/ (accessed May 2, 2017). Jagpradeep. Tourism Development. New Delhi: Murari Lal & Sons, 2008. Raina, Anita Sharma and Anil. K. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. June 6, 2014. https://www.rroij.com/open-access/environmental-impacts-of-tourism- inkatra-town-jk.pdf (accessed May 1, 2017). www.ijmer.in 316 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 A RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOL FOR PILOT ALLOCATION IN CROWDED MASSIVE MIMO SYSTEM . M.V.Krishna Veni, S Venkata Anand,P.Bhaskar PG Scholar, Dept of ECE, Sanketika Vidya Parishad Engineering College Visakhapatnam, AP, India Assistant Professor,Assistant Professor, Dept of ECE, Sankethika Vidya Parishad of Engineering College, Visakhapatnam, AP, India. Abstract - The Massive MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) technology has great potential to manage the rapid growth of wireless data traffic. Massive MIMO achieves tremendous spectral efficiency by spatial multiplexing of many tens of user equipments (UEs). These gains are only achieved in practice if many more UEs can connect efficiently to the network than today. As the number of UEs increases, while each UE intermittently accesses the network, the random access functionality becomes essential to share the limited number of pilots among the UEs. In this paper, we revisit the random access problem in the Massive MIMO context and develop a reengineered protocol, termed strongest-user collision resolution (SUCRe). An accessing UE asks for a dedicated pilot by sending an uncoordinated random access pilot, with a risk that other UEs send the same pilot. The favorable propagation of Massive MIMO channels is utilized to enable distributed collision detection at each UE, thereby determining the strength of the contenders’ signals and deciding to repeat the pilot if the UE judges that its signal at the receiver is the strongest. This can investigates the uplink transmission in multicell multiuser multiple-input multiple- output (MIMO) orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) systems. The system model considers imperfect channel estimation, pilot contamination (PC), and multicarrier and multipath channels. IntroductionTo MIMO:The number of wirelessly connected devices and their respective data traffic are growing rapidly as we transition www.ijmer.in 317 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 into the fully networked society [1]. The growth is currently driven by video streaming, social networking, and new use cases, such as machine-to-machine communication and internet of things. In dense urban scenarios, the METIS (Mobile and wireless communications enables for project predicts a future with up to 200.000 devices per km2 and an associated data volume of 500 GByte/month/device [2].These are massive numbers that call for radical changes in the network infrastructure to avoid congestion and guarantee service quality and availability. A fair amount of the traffic is expected to be offloaded to Wi-Fi and small-cell-technology operating at mm-wave frequencies, but macro cellular networks operating at frequencies of one or a few GHz will remain to define the coverage, mobility support, and guaranteed service quality. Hence, future cellular networks need to handle urban deployment with massive numbers of connected UEs that request massive data volumes [3] Since the cellular frequency bands are scarce, orders-of-magnitude capacity improvements are only possible by radically increasing the spectral efficiency (SE) [bit/s/Hz]. The Massive MIMO network topology, proposed in the seminal paper [4], can theoretically deliver such extraordinary improvements [5]. The gains are achieved by spatial multiplexing, where base stations (BSs) with hundreds of antennas are utilized to serve tens of UEs per cell, at the same time- frequency resource FUTURE wireless communications require the outstanding capability to combat multipath fading and to offer high spectral efficiency. Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) combined with orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) has been widely considered to be a promising candidate [1], [2]. Unlike the point-to- point MIMO, a multiuser MIMO (MU-MIMO) system that has low cost in terminals and better tolerance to wireless propagation environment has been considered for future wireless communications. www.ijmer.in 318 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Basic view of communication system Traditional wireless communication systems with one transmit and one receive antenna are denoted as single input single output (SISO) systems, whereas systems with one transmit and multiple receive antennas are denoted as single input multiple output (SIMO) systems, and systems with multiple transmit and one receive antenna are called multiple input single output (MISO) systems. Conventional smart antenna systems have only a transmit side or only a receive side equipped with multiple antennas, so they fall into one of last two categories. Usually, the base station has the antenna array, as there is enough space and since it is cheaper to install multiple antennas at base stations than to install them in every mobile station. Strictly speaking, only systems with multiple antennas at both ends can be classified as MIMO systems. Although it may sometimes be noted that SIMO and MISO systems are referred as MIMO systems. In the terminology of smart antennas, SIMO and MISO systems are also called antenna. Limiting Factors of Massive MIMO Channel Reciprocity: TDD operation relies on channel reciprocity. There appears to be a reasonable consensus that the propagation channel itself is essentially reciprocal, unless the propagation is affected by materials with strange magnetic properties. However, the hardware chains in the base station www.ijmer.in 319 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 and terminal transceivers may not be reciprocal between the uplink and the downlink. Calibration of the hardware chains does not seem to constitute a serious problem and there are calibration- based solutions that have already been tested to some extent in practice. , treats reciprocity calibration for a 64-antenna system in some detail and claims a successful experimental implementation. Note that calibration of the terminal uplink and downlink chains is not required in order to obtain the full beamforming gains of massive MIMO: if the base station equipment is properly calibrated then the array will indeed transmit a coherent beam to the terminal. (There will still be some mismatch within the receiver chain of the terminal but this can be handled by transmitting pilots through the beam to the terminal; the overhead for these supplementary pilots is very small.) Absolute calibration within the array is not required. Instead, as proposed, one of the antennas can be treated as a reference and signals can be traded between the reference antenna and each of the other antennas to derive a compensation factor for that antenna. It may be possible entirely to forgo reciprocity calibration within the array; for example if the maximum phase difference between the up-link chain and the down- link chain were less than 60 degrees then coherent beam forming would still occur (at least with MRT beamforming) albeit with a possible 3 dB reduction in gain. Pilot Contamination Ideally every terminal in a Massive MIMO system is assigned an orthogonal uplink pilot sequence. However the maximum number of orthogonal pilot sequences that can exist is upper- bounded by the duration of the coherence interval divided by the channel delay-spread. In, for a typical operating scenario, the maximum number of orthogonal pilot sequences in a one millisecond coherence interval is estimated to be about 200. It is easy to exhaust the available supply of orthogonal pilot sequences in a multi-cellular system. The effect of re- www.ijmer.in 320 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 using pilots from one cell to another, and the associated negative consequences, is termed “pilot contamination”. More specifically, when the service-array correlates its received pilot signal with the pilot sequence associated with a particular terminal it actually obtains a channel estimate that is contaminated by a linear combination of channels to the other terminals that share the same pilot sequence. Downlink beamforming based on the contaminated channel estimate results in interference that is directed to those terminals that share thesame pilot sequence. Similar interference is associated with uplink transmissions of data. This directed interference grows with the number of service-antennas at the same rate as the desired signal. Even partially correlated pilot sequences result in directed interference. Pilot contamination as a basic phenomenon is not really specific to massive MIMO, but its effect on massive MIMO appears to be much more profound than in classical MIMO. it was argued that pilot contamination constitutes an ultimate limit on performance, when the number of antennas is increased without bound, at least with receivers that rely on pilot-based channel estimation. While this argument has been contested recently, at least under some specific assumptions on the power control used, it appears likely that pilot contamination must be dealt with in some way. This can be done in several ways: • The allocation of pilot waveforms can be optimized. One possibility is to use a less- aggressive frequency re-use factor for the pilots (but not necessarily for the payload data)—say 3 or 7. This pushes mutually- contaminating cells farther apart. It is also possible to coordinate the use of pilots or adaptively allocate pilot sequences to the different terminals in the network. Currently, the optimal strategy is unknown. • Clever channel estimation algorithms, or even blind techniques that circumvent the use of pilots altogether, may mitigate or eliminate the effects of pilot contamination. The most promising direction seems to www.ijmer.in 321 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 be blind techniques that jointly estimate the channels and the payload data. • New precoding techniques that take into account the network structure, such as pilot contamination precoding, can utilize cooperative transmission over a multiplicity of cells—outside of the beamforming operation—to nullify, at least partially, the directed interference that results from pilot contamination. Unlike coordinated beamforming over multiple cells which requires estimates of the actual channels between the terminals and the service-arrays of the contaminating cells, pilot-contamination precoding requires only the corresponding slow-fading coefficients. Practical pilot-contamination precoding re- mains to be developed. Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) Technology Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) technology is a wireless technology that uses multiple transmitters and receivers to transfer more data at the same time. MIMO technology takes advantage of a radio-wave phenomenon called multipath where transmitted information bounces off walls, ceilings, and other objects, reaching the receiving antenna multiple times via different angles and at slightly different times Figure 2.2 : MIMO Technology uses multiple radios to transfer more data at the same time www.ijmer.in 322 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 MIMO, is a radio communications technology or RF technology that is being mentioned and used in many new technologies these days. Wi-Fi, LTE; Long Term Evolution, and many other radio, wireless and RF technologies are using the new MIMO wireless technology to provide increased link capacity and spectral efficiency combined with improved link reliability using what were previously seen as interference paths. Even now many there are many MIMO wireless routers on the market, and as this RF technology is becoming more widespread, more MIMO routers and other items of wireless MIMO equipment will be seen. MIMO technology leverages multipath behavior by using multiple, “smart” transmitters and receivers with an added “spatial” dimension to dramatically increase performance and range. MIMO allows multiple antennas to send and receive multiple spatial streams at the same time. MIMO makes antennas work smarter by enabling them to combine data streamsarriving from different paths and at different times to effectively increase receiver signal-capturing power. Smart antennas use spatial diversity technology, which puts surplus antennas to good use. If there are more antennas than spatial streams, the additional antennas can add receiver diversity and increase range A. MIMO -Multiple Input Multiple Output basics: As a result of the use of multiple antennas, MIMO wireless technology is able to considerably increase the capacity of a given channel. By increasing the number of receive and transmit antennas it is possible to linearly increase the throughput of the channel with every pair of antennas added to the system. This makes MIMO wireless technology one of the most important wireless techniques to be employed in recent years. As spectral bandwidth is becoming an ever more valuable commodity for radio communications systems, techniques are needed to www.ijmer.in 323 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 use the available bandwidth more effectively. MIMO wireless technology is one of these techniques. MIMO is effectively a radio antenna technology as it uses multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver to enable a variety of signal paths to carry the data, choosing separate paths for each antenna to enable multiple signal paths to be used. Figure 2.3 : MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output One of the core ideas behind MIMO wireless systems space-time signalprocessing in which time is complemented with the spatial dimension inherent in the use of multiple spatially distributed antennas, i.e. the use of multiple antennas located at different points. Accordingly MIMO wireless systems can be viewed as a logical extension to the smart antennas that have been used for many years to improve wireless. It is found between a transmitter and a receiver, the signal can take many paths. Additionally by moving the antennas even a small distance the paths used will change. The variety of paths available occurs as a result of the number of objects that appear to the side or even in the direct path between the transmitter and receiver. Previously these multiple paths only served to introduce interference. By using MIMO, these additional paths can be used to advantage. They can be used to provide additional robustness to the radio link by improving the signal to noise ratio, or by increasing the link data capacity. www.ijmer.in 324 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 One of the key advantages of MIMO spatial multiplexing is the fact that it is able to provide additional data capacity. MIMO spatial multiplexing achieves this by utilizing the multiple paths and effectively using them as additional "channels" to carry data. The maximum amount of data that can be carried by a radio channel is limited by the physical boundaries defined under Shannon's Law. Multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antenna systems are used in modern wireless standards, including in IEEE 802.11n, 3GPP LTE, and mobile WiMAX systems. The technique supports enhanced data throughput even under conditions of interference, signal fading, and multipath. The demand for higher data rates over longer distances has been one of the primary motivations behind the development of MIMO orthogonal- frequency-division-multiplexing (OFDM) communications systems. Shannon's law defines the maximum rate at which error free data can be transmitted over a given bandwidth in the presence of noise. It is usually expressed in the form: Capacity = BW log2(1 + SNR) ---- Eq. 1 Where C is the channel capacity in bits per second, BW is the bandwidth in Hertz,and SNR is Signal to Noise Ratio. The above Eq. shows, an increase in a channel's SNR results in marginal gains in channel throughput. As a result, the traditional way to achieve higher data rates is by increasing the signal bandwidth. Unfortunately, increasing the signal bandwidth of a communications channel by increasing the symbol rate of a modulated carrier increases its susceptibility to multipath fading. For wide bandwidth channels, one partial solution to solving the multipath challenge is to use a series of narrowband overlapping subcarriers. Not only does the use of overlapping OFDM subcarriers improve spectral efficiency, but the www.ijmer.in 325 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 lower symbol rates used by narrowband subcarriers reduces the impact of multipath signal products. MIMO communications channels provide an interesting solution to the multipath challenge by requiring multiple signal paths. In effect, MIMO systems use a combination of multiple antennas and multiple signal paths to gain knowledge of the communications channel. By using the spatial dimension of a communications link, MIMO systems can achieve significantly higher data rates than traditional single-input, single-output (SISO) channels. In a 2 x 2 MIMO system, signals propagate along multiple paths from the transmitter to the receiver antennas. Massive MIMO Advantages: Following are the Advantages of Massive MIMO (M-MIMO) system: • High spectrum efficiency due to large multiplexing gain as well as antenna array gain • High energy efficiency due to concentration of radiated energy on MS/UE. • High reliability due to large diversity gain. • Weak inter-user interference and enhanced physical security due to orthogonal MS channels and extremely narrower beam. • Simple scheduling scheme. • Robustness to individual element failure due to large number of antenna array elements. Massive MIMO can be developed using low power and in-expensive components Massive MIMO (M-MIMO) Applications: Following are the applications of Massive MIMO (M-MIMO): www.ijmer.in 326 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 • 4G LTE • LTE Advanced • Advanced WLAN versions e.g. 802.11ac, 802.11ad PROPOSED RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOL Fig 5.1 :Block diagram of PROACH protocol 5.1 :PRACH Protocol 1. Step 1: The retrieving UE picks arbitrarily a preamble from a set of pre-defined preambles. This preamble permits the BS to gain synchronization. It does not transfer a specific reserved data or information and hence has a role as a pilot sequence[8]. As multiple UE’s pick preambles in an awkward way, a collision may happen if two or more UE’s choose the same preamble. Though, at this stage the base station only senses if a particular preamble is live or not. 2. Step 2: The base station transmits a random-access reply to each activated preamble correspondingly, which helps to knowvarious physical parameters likewise timing advance and assign a resource to the UE or UE’s that triggered the preamble. In Step 3, each UE that has acknowledged a reply to its transmitted preamble, sends a Radio Resource Control (RRC) Connection request in order to gain resources for succeeding data transmission. If more than one UE triggered with that preamble, then all UE’s use the same resources to direct their RRC connection invitation[8]. 3. Step 3: This collision is noticed by the base station[8]. www.ijmer.in 327 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 4. Step 4: Termed by contention resolution and comprises of one or multiple steps that are envisioned to avoid collision[8], [9]. We consider cellular networks where each BS is equipped with M antennas. The system operates in TDD mode and the time-frequency resources are divided into coherence blocks of T channel uses, dimensioned such that the channel responses between each BS and its UEs are constant and frequency flat within a block, while they vary between blocks. This can be implemented using orthogonal frequency- division multiplexing (OFDM). We let Ui denote the set of UEs that reside in cell I. At any given time, only a subset AiUi of the UEs are active in the sense that they are transmitting and/or receiving data. Note that in the scenarios relevant for Massive MIMO deployment, we typically have a very large UE set: |Ui|T . However, the active UEs satisfy |Ai| < T, thus the BS can temporarily assign orthogonal pilot sequences to these UEs and reclaim them when their respective transmissions are finished. The coherence blocks are divided into two categories: payload data blocks and random access blocks. For each cell i, the first category is used for uplink (UL) and downlink (DL) data transmission to the UEs in the set Ai. These UEs have temporarily been allocated |Ai| mutually orthogonal pilot sequences, which however are reused in other cells (using some reuse factor that guarantees low pilot contamination [5]). The payload data blocks can be operated as in the classical Massive MIMO works [4]– [6], [8]–[11], which provide methods to achieve high data rates. The second category is dedicated for RA from inactive UEs (i.e., some of those in Ui n Ai) that wish to be admitted to the payload data blocks; that is, to be allocated a temporary dedicated pilot. This category has not been studied in the Massive MIMO context and is the www.ijmer.in 328 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 main focus of this paper. The time-frequency location of the RA blocks is different between adjacent cells, as illustrated in Fig. 2. This design choice protects the RA procedure from the strongest forms of inter-cell interference, as will be shown later. 5.2 Strongest-user collision resolution (SUCRe)—Overview: The key contribution of this paper is the strongest-user collision resolution (SUCRe) protocol, which is an efficient way to operate the RA blocks in beyond-LTE Massive MIMO systems. We first give a brief overview of the protocol and then provide the exact analytical details. The four main steps of the SUCRe protocol are illustrated in Fig. 3. There is also a preliminary Step 0 in which theBS broadcasts a control signal. Each UE uses this signal to estimate its average channel gain and to synchronize itself towards the BS. In OFDM, the UE and the BS need to be synchronized in frequency and the timing delay can be neglected if it is shorter than the cyclic prefix. The round-trip time determines the maximum timing delay, thus the normal CP in LTE allows for 750 m cell radius and the extended CP allows for 2.5 km— these are substantially larger than the 250–500 m cell radius typical in urban deployments. This paper focuses on such urban scenarios and we stress that the spatial multiplexing in Massive MIMO is ideal for crowded urban settings. In Step 1, a subset of the inactive UEs in cell ‘i’ wants to become active. Each such UE selects a pilot sequence at random from a predefined pool of RA pilots. BS ‘i’ estimates the channel that each pilot has propagated over. If multiple UEs selected the same RA pilot, a collision has occurred and the BS obtains an estimate of the superposition of the UE channels. The BS cannot detect if collisions occurred at this point, which resembles the situation in LTE. In Step 2, the BS responds by sending DL pilots that are precoded using the channel estimates, which results in spatially directed signals toward the UEs that sent the particular RA pilot. The DL signal www.ijmer.in 329 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 features an array gain of M that is divided between the UEs that sent the RA pilot. Due to channel reciprocity, the share of the array gain is proportional to their respective UL signal gains, particularly when M is large, which enables each UE to estimate the sum of the signal gains and compare it with its own signal gain (using information obtained in Step 0). Each UE can thereby detect RA collisions in a distributed way. This departs from the conventional approach in which collisions are detected in a centralized way at the BS and broadcasted to the UEs. Based on the detection in Step 2 and the favorable propagation of Massive MIMO channels, the UEs can resolve RA contentions in Step 3 by applying a local decision rule: only the UE with the strongest UL signal gain should repeat the RA pilot. This is a key advantage over LTE, where all contending UEs repeat the preamble in Step 3. This mechanism is illustrated in Fig. 4. The probability of non-colliding pilot transmission in Step 3 is vastly increased in the SUCRe protocol, which enables the network to admit UEs also in crowded scenarios. The transmission in Step 3 also contains the identity of the UE and a request for payload transmission, resembling the RRC Connection Request in LTE. Step 4 grants these resources by assigning a pilot sequence that can be used in the payload blocks or starts further contention resolution (e.g., in an LTE fashion or by repeating the SUCRe protocol) in the few cases when RA collisions remain. Hence, the SUCRe protocol both stands on its own and can complement conventional contention resolution methods. The transmission in Step 3 also contains the identity of the UE and a request for payload transmission, resembling the RRC Connection Request in LTE. Step 4 grants these resources by assigning a pilot sequence that can be used in the payload blocks or www.ijmer.in 330 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Fig.5.2: Illustration of the proposed transmission protocol, where the time-frequency domain is divided into coherence blocks The majority of the blocks are used for payload data transmission for active UEs (which have been allocated dedicated pilots). A few of the blocks are used for random access where inactive UEs can ask to be admitted to the payload data blocks. The location of the random access blocks in the time-frequency grid is different between adjacent cells (here illustrated using a reuse factor of three), and the neighbors are either quiet or send payload during the RA A few of the blocks are used for random access where inactive UEs can ask to be admitted to the payload data blocks. The location of the random access blocks in the time-frequency grid is different between adjacent cells (here illustrated using a reuse factor of three), and the neighbors are either quiet or send payload during the RA. Fig.5. 3: The proposed SUCRe random access protocol for Massive MIMO. www.ijmer.in 331 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 B. Detailed Description of the SUCRe Protocol Fig.5.4: Illustration of a UE collision at RA pilot t resolved by the SUCReprotocol,where only the UE with strongest signal gain repeats the pilot in Step 3. Next, we describe and analyse the proposed RA protocol in detail. Without loss of generality, we focus on an arbitrary cell, say cell 0, and consider how interference from other cells impacts the operation. Let K0 = U0 nA0 denote the set of inactive UEs in cell 0 in a given RA block. Hence, there are K0 = jK0j inactive UEs in cell 0. These are assumed to share mutually orthogonal RA pilot sequences 1,..., p C p that p ψ ψτ ∈ τ span τp UL channel uses and satisfy ||ψt||2 = τp The inactive UEs are not fully time-synchronized, but the pilot orthogonality is maintained at the receiver since we consider urban scenarios where the roundtrip delays are smaller than the cyclic prefix. We typically have τp K0, but there is no formal constraint. Each of the K0 UEs picks one of the _p pilots uniformly at random in each RA block: UE k selects pilotc(k) ∈ {1,2…..τp} Furthermore, each UE would liketo become active in the current block with probability Pa_1, which is a fixed scenario-dependent parameterthat describes how often a UE has data packets to transistor receive. An access attempt by UE k consists of transmitting the pilot ψc(k) with a non-zero power ρk> 0,otherwise it stays silent by setting ρk = 0. Hence, each inactive UE will transmit a particular pilot sequence ψt(using non-zero power) with probability Pa/τp The set St = {k: c(k) = t; ρk> 0} contains the www.ijmer.in 332 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 indices of theUEs that transmit pilot t. Based on this model, the number of UEs, |St|, that transmits ψt has a binomial distribution. We notice that pilot t is unused (|St|=0) with the probability (1- K0-1 Pa/τp) . Consequently, an RA collision (|St|>2) occurs at this arbitrary pilot with probability. These collisions need to be detected and resolved before any UE can be admitted into the payload blocks. The SUCRe protocol is a distributed method to resolve pilot collisions at the UE side by utilizing properties of Massive MIMO channels The channel vector between UE k K and its BS is denoted by h CM. ∈ 0 k∈ We adopt a very general propagation model where the channels are assumed tosatisfy the following two conditions (almost surely We will describe the four steps of the SUCRe protocol under the assumption that the channels satisfy (3) and (4). In Section III, we particularize the protocol for uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channels, which enables us to quantify the performance in further detail. 1) Random Pilot Sequence: In Step 1 of the proposed RA protocol, the BS x p receives the signalY ∈CM τ from the pilot transmission: www.ijmer.in 333 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 as M ➞∞. Note that there is interference in !t from both data transmission and RA pilots in other cells, but theformer typically dominates since the closest neighboring cells in Fig. 2 transmits data. It is only the value of !t that is important in the remainder of this section, and not how it is computed 2) Precoded Random Access Response: In Step 2, the BS responds to the RA pilots by sending orthogonal precoded DL pilot signals that correspond to each of the RA pilots that were used in the UL 3.Contention Resolution & Pilot Repetition: The UL pilot transmission is repeated in Step 3. The main goal of the proposed protocol is to resolve pilot contentions in a distributed 4) Allocation of Dedicated Payload Pilots: The BS receives the repeated RA pilot transmissions in Step 3, which are followed by UL messages that, for example,can contain the unique identity number of the UE. The SUCRe protocol is repeated at a given interval. The UEs that were not admitted in Step 4 can be instructed when and how to transmit new RA pilots, for example, after a random waiting time. Alternatively, we can add additional steps on top of the SUCRe protocol to resolve the remaining collisions, by utilizing any conventional contention resolution method. Performance With Uncorrelated Rayleigh Fading Channels www.ijmer.in 334 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 In this section, we consider the special case of uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channels with Lemma 1. Consider uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channels. For any UE k ∈ St the received signal in (13) can be expressed as zk = gk + vk, where Probability of Pilot Repetition The core of the SUCRe protocol is that only one UE should transmit pilot t in Step 3. The probability that aparticular UE decides to repeat its pilot transmission iscomputed as follows www.ijmer.in 335 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Fig. 5.5: Comparison of three estimators of the signal gain : ^MLt;k ∝t ∝ , ^approx1 , and ^approx2 . The true value is = 20, while the ∝t,k ∝t,k ∝t pilot SNR at UE i is 10 dB. C. Example: Resolving a Two-UE Collision Let us consider a case where two UEs collide: St ={1,2} The first UE has the fixed pilot SNR SNR1 = ρ1β1τp=q β1τp=10D Fig. 5.6 : Two-UE collisions are studied where UE 1 has = 10 dB ρ1β1τp and UE 2 has between 4 dB and16 dB. ρ2β2τp The SNR difference is (a) shows the probabilities that each ρ2β2τp-ρ1β1τp of the UEs repeat the pilot in Step 3; (b) shows the probability of having an unresolved collision. www.ijmer.in 336 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Results analysis In this section, we show numerically how the SUCReprotocol performs in cellular networks. The simulation resultscan be reproduced using the Matlab code that is available at https://github.com/emilbjornson/sucre-protocol. Weconsider the center cell of the hexagonal network depicted in Fig. 2 and take the activities in the six neighboring cells into account. The radius of each hexagon is 250 m, and the UEs are uniformly distributed in each cell at locationsfurther than 25 m from the BS. The estimate ^approx2 of ∝t,k ∝t used in all estimations. A. Channel Propagation Models We will compare three different channel models. The first one is uncorrelated Rayleigh fading, where hk isdistributed as in (22) for k = 1; : : : ;K0. The second one is correlated Rayleigh fading with h ~CN(0, R w),here we consider a ULA at the BS modeled by the k βk k exponential correlation model with the correlation r = 0:7between adjacent antennas Fig. 6.1: Example of a distribution of the number of UEs that selects each RA pilot. It is used in Figs. 8and 9. www.ijmer.in 337 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 The third model describes pure line-of-sight (LoS) propagation when the BS is equipped with a ULA with half-wavelength antenna spacing B. Probability to Resolve Collisions We will now illustrate that the SUCRe protocol is capable of resolving collisions, even when the system is over loaded. We consider a scenario with p = 10 and K0 = 5000 inactive UEs in the cell, where each UE accesses the network with a 0:5% probability in a given RA block Fig. 6.2 : Probability of resolving collisions, as a function of the number of BS antennas, in a highly loaded cellular network with or without inter-cell interference The probability to resolve collisionsisdefined as www.ijmer.in 338 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 As a baseline, we also consider a conventional protocol where pilot collisions are only handled by retransmission in later RA blocks. Specifically, using Fig. 1, all UEs deterministically repeat the pilots in Step 3 of the access protocol and proceed to the process of centralized contention resolution. Fig. 8 shows the probability to resolve collisions and we notice that the SUCRe protocol is able to admit roughly four times as many UEs per RA pilot than the baseline scheme. We also notice that inter-cell interference only causes a minor degradation in performance, except in the LoS case where performance is almost unaffected. The full-power LoS case performs similarly to the other channel models in this case, C. Tuning Probabilities using Bias Term Next, we consider the same scenario but focus on uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channels and study the probabilities of resolving collisions, false negatives, and false positives. We will demonstrate how the bias term ∈k can be utilized to tune the decisions by setting Before a link has been established with a terminal, the base station has no way of knowing the channel response to the terminal. This means that no array beam forming (spatial filtering) gain can be harnessed. In this case, some other form of space-time block coding is optimal. But, once the terminal has been contacted, the base station can learn the channel response and operate in coherent MU-MIMO mode, reaping the power gains offered by having a very large array www.ijmer.in 339 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Fig. 6.3: Probability of resolving collisions, false negatives, and false positives for different biastermsinthedecisionrule,for uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channels The probability of resolving a collision is naturally decreasing as the number of colliding users increases. Our simulation results reveal that the SUCRe protocol with δ = 1 resolves 92% of the two-UE collisions, 82% of the five-UE collisions, and 71% of ten-UE collisions. Note that it is unlikely to have more than a handful of colliding UEs per RA pilot, except when the network is extremely overloaded D. Average Number of RA Attempts in Crowded Scenarios We have previously shown that the SUCRe protocol can resolve RA collisions, but the main purpose of an RA protocol is that every UE should be admitted to the data blocks after as few RA attempts as possible. We study this performance indicator in a scenario with M = 100, =10 τp www.ijmer.in 340 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 Fig. 6.4: RA performance in a cellular network, where each UE accesses the network with 0:1% probability and sends 10 RA pilots before giving up. The SUCRe protocol can handle substantially higher user loads, K0, than conventional methodsFig.10(a) shows the average number of RA attempts that each UE makes, as a function of K0, while Fig. 10(b) shows the fraction of UEs that fails to access the network (i.e., made 10 unsuccessful attempts). The SUCReprotocol can easily handle up to K0 = 6000 under inter cell interference and K0 = 8000 when the adjacent cells are silent in the RA blocks. For larger values of K0 around 0–15% of the UEs will fail to be admitted. Notice that at K0 =10000 there will on average be K 0:001= p = 1 UE that selects each RA pilot, meaning 0 τ that the network is fundamentally overloaded. Nevertheless, an astonishing 90% of the UEs can still access the network successfully, which matches well with the 90% probability of resolving. This behavior remains also for K0> 10000. In contrast, the baseline protocol requires more retransmissions when K0< 3000 and as K0increases in the range K0 ` Conclusion In Massive MIMO the pilot sequences are valuable resources as they permit the BS in the spatial domain to distinct the UE’s [20]. In most www.ijmer.in 341 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 real-world cases,[21], [22] the no. of UE’s that exist in a cell is much higher than the no. of avail. pilots, therefore the pilots required to be temporally assigned only to the UE’s that have data to retrieve transmitter. The projected SUCR random access protocol delivers an effective way for UE’s to allocate pilots for data transmission in Massive crowded LTE MIMO network. The protocol achieves the favorable propagation assets to allow dispersed collision detection and resolving at the UE’s, where the competitor with the strongest signal gain is the one being acknowledged. The numerical results demonstrate that the SUCRe protocol can resolve around 90% of all collisionsand that it is robust to inter-cell interference and choice of channel distribution References 1. A. B. Ericsson, “Ericsson mobility report: On the pulse of the Networked Society,” Ericsson, Sweden, Tech. Rep. EAB-14, vol. 61078, 2015. 2. M. Fallgren, B. TimusZ and others, “Scenarios, requirements and KPIs for 5G mobile and wireless system,” METIS deliverable D, vol. 1, p. 1, 2013. 3. F. Boccardi, R. W. Heath, A. Lozano, T. L. Marzetta and P. Popovski, “Five disruptive technology directions for 5G,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 52, pp. 74-80, 2014. 4. J. Hoydis, S. Ten Brink and M. Debbah, “Massive MIMO in the UL/DL of cellular networks: How many antennas do we need?,” IEEE Journal on selected Areas in Communications, vol. 31, pp. 160- 171, 2013. 5. E. Björnson, E. G. Larsson and M. Debbah, “Massive MIMO for maximal spectral efficiency: How many users and pilots should be allocated?,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. www.ijmer.in 342 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE OVEMBER V 6, I 11(5), N 2017 15, pp. 1293-1308, 2016. 6. A. Ashikhmin and T. Marzetta, “Pilot contamination precoding in multi-cell large scale antenna systems,” in Information Theory Proceedings (ISIT), 2012 IEEE International Symposium on, 2012. 7. J. Jose, A. Ashikhmin, T. L. Marzetta and S. Vishwanath, “Pilot contamination and precoding in multi-cell TDD systems,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 10, pp. 2640-2651, 2011. 8. E. Björnson, E. De Carvalho, E. G. Larsson and P. Popovski, “Random access protocol for massive MIMO: Strongest-user collision resolution (SUCR),” in Communications (ICC), 2016 IEEE International Conference on, 2016. www.ijmer.in 343 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 AGRICULTURE FINANCING BY COMMERCIAL BANKS IN INDIA Mr.A.Nagaraju Prof.K.Ramakrishnaiah Ph.D (Part-Time) Research Supervisor and Dean, Department of Commerce, College Development Council, S.V.U.College of CM&CS, Department of Commerce, S.V.University, Tirupati S.V.U.College of CM&CS, S.V. University, Tirupati INTRODUCTION Agriculture is a dominant sector in the Indian economy. Agriculture, in most developing economies, is the core sector providing a livelihood to a significant proportion of the population, especially in rural areas. Since this sector faces the largest proportion of under employment, unemployment and poverty, a growing agriculture and allied sector is expected to contribute vastly to overall growth and poverty alleviation. It has been suggested that due to limited scope for expansion of arable land there is a need to increase yields technically highest levels through appropriate investment in basic infrastructure, human development, and research and extension of services. Of all the inputs credit is the most important input for the said purpose. In India, since independence, a large number of institutions are involved in the extension of credit to agriculture sector but still the farmers depend on the non-institutional agencies. Banking sector in developing countries lend a much smaller share of their loan to agriculturalists as compared to the share of GDP of India. This limits the investment in agriculture by both farmers and agro-enterprises. Even when available, much of the agriculture funding tends to be informal and short-term, precluding longer-term investments. Availability and access to adequate, timely and low cost credit from institutional sources is of great importance especially to small and www.ijmer.in 344 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 marginal farmers. Millions of small farmers are producing million tonnes of agricultural production in India. Their intensity, effort and efficiency have helped them in raising yields per acre. Finance in agriculture act as a key input to farmers. But farmers‟ do not have adequate among with them and therefore they go for outside credit. Because of inadequate financial resources and absence of timely credit facilities at reasonable rate of interests, many of the farmers, are unable to go in for improved seeds and manures or to introduce better methods or techniques of agriculture. The farming community must be kept informed about the various sources of agriculture finance. Agricultural finance possesses its usefulness to the farmers, lenders and extension workers. The knowledge of lending institutions, their legal and regulatory environment helps in selecting the appropriate lender who can adequately provide the credit with terms and related services needed to finance the farm business. OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT PAPER The following are the specific objectives of the present paper; To analyze the targets and achievements of commercial banks in respect of agricultural credit To evaluate the agency-wise flow of credit to Agriculture in India To assess the performance of commercial banks in lending an agricultural credit. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The methodology of the study is both descriptive and analytical in nature and made use of secondary data only. The descriptive methodology is used to describe the role played by commercial banks in India in lending advances to priority sector with special focus on agriculture and allied activities. www.ijmer.in 345 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 SOURCES OF DATA The study is based on the secondary data compiled from diverse sources. The secondary data have been collected mainly from the data bases of Agricultural Statistics published by the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India and the like. The data on credit were also collected from the Reports on Currency and Finance, and the Hand Book of Statistics on Indian Economy published by the Reserve Bank of India, Trend and Progress of Banking in India and Statistical Tables relating to India. The data were collected from the Economic Survey, published by Ministry of Finance, Government of India. Data pertaining to investment credit were compiled from Annual Reports of NABARD. For the purpose of easier comprehension, indices have been worked out for credit flow from different institutional sources. PERIOD OF THE STUDY For the present study the researcher has taken data for the period from 2006-07 to 2015-16 so as to draw the meaningful inferences for the study. FLOW OF INSTITUTIONAL CREDIT TO AGRICULTURE At present, commercial banks, cooperative banks and Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) are the major financial institutions in the rural credit delivery system. Details pertaining to the flow of credit from the said financial institutions to agriculture are presented in table 1; www.ijmer.in 346 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table 1: Bank sector wise credit flows to agriculture from 2005- 06 to 2015-16 Year Co- Commercial Regional Others Total operative Banks Rural Banks Banks 2005- 39404 125477 15223 382 180486 06 (21.83) (69.52) (8.43) (0.22) (100) 2006- 42480 166485 20435 - 229400 07 (18.52) (72.57) (8.91) (100) 2007- 48258 181088 25312 - 254658 08 (18.95) (71.11) (9.94) (100) 2008- 45966 228951 26765 226 301908 09 (15.23) (75.83) (8.87) (0.07) (100) 2009- 63497 285800 35217 - 384514 10 (16.51) (74.33) (9.16) (100) 2010- 78121 345877 44293 114 468291 11 (16.66) (73.86) (9.46) (0.02) (100) 2011- 87963 368616 54450 - 511029 12 (17.22) (72.13) (10.65) (100) 2012- 111203 432491 63681 - 607375 13 (18.31) (71.21) (10.48) (100) 2013- 119964 527506 82653 - 730123 14 (16.86) (72.25) (11.61) (100) 2014- 138469 604376 102483 - 845328 15 (16.47) (71.34) (12.19) (100) 2015- 153295 642954 119261 - 915510 16 (16.74) (70.23) (13.03) (100) Source: Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Annual Reports from 2006-07 to 2015-16. Table 1 shows the credit extended by different banks viz., Co-operative banks, Commercial banks, Regional rural banks, others www.ijmer.in 347 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 and the total of all the Banks. The total credit extended by all the banks together has been increased from Rs.180486 crore in 2005-06 to Rs.915510 crore in 2015-16. The agricultural credit extended by co- operative banks increased from Rs.39404 crore in 2005-06 to Rs.153295 crore in 2015-16. The growth in the agricultural credit extended by co- operative banks in absolute terms is much impressive from 2005-06 to 2015-16 except in 2008-09. The credit share of co-operative banks in the total credit of all banks is not satisfactory because the growth in the credit share of co-operative Banks is fluctuated from 2005-06 to 2009- 10. The same is increased from 2010-11 to 2012-13 and decreased from 2013-14 to 2014-15 and increased in 2015-16. The agricultural credit extended by commercial banks in absolute terms increased continuously from 2005-06 to 2015-16. The agricultural credit extended by commercial banks was Rs.125477 crore in 2005-06 and has increased to Rs.642954 crore in 2015-16. The agricultural credit share of commercial banks was fluctuated from 2005-06 to 2015-16.The growth in the agricultural credit extended by Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) in absolute terms increased continuously from 2005-06 to 2015-16. The agricultural credit extended by RRBs was Rs.15223 crore in 2005-06 and was increased to Rs.119261 crore in 2015-16. The credit extended by others is very insignificant and very often. The total credit extended by all the banks increased continuously from 2005-06 to 2015-16. The agricultural credit extended by all the Banks were Rs.180486 crore in 2005-06 and was increased to Rs.915510 crore in 2015-16. The quantum of agricultural credit extended by Commercial Banks is voluminous than agricultural credit extended by Co-operative Banks and RRBs. The agricultural credit extended by Co-operative Banks is voluminous than the agricultural credit extended by RRBs. The growth in the total credit extended by all the banks is continuous and progress. The growth in the credit extended by Co-operative Bank is continuous all in the year except in one year i.e., 2008-09. The growth in the agricultural credit of Commercial Banks is continuous. www.ijmer.in 348 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 SOURCES OF AGRICULTURAL CREDIT Credit sources of agricultural can be classified into two broad categories; Non-Institutional Agencies: Non-institutional agencies include the local village money lenders and their agents and landlords. Institutional Agencies: Institutional agencies include cooperatives societies, commercial banks, regional rural banks and the NABARD. The share of non-institutional and institutional credit in India is given in the following table.2; Table 2: Share of Non-Institutional and Institutional Credit in India Sl. Sources of No 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2013 Credit . Non- A. Institution 92.70 81.30 68.30 36.80 30.60 38.90 36.00 al Agencies of which Money 69.70 49.20 36.10 16.10 17.50 26.80 29.60 Lenders Institution B. 7.30 18.70 31.70 63.20 66.30 61.10 64.00 al Agencies of which Co- operatives 3.30 2.60 22 29.80 30 30.20 28.90 Societies / Banks Commercial 0.90 0.60 2.40 28.80 35.20 26.30 30.70 Banks others - - - - 3.10 4.40 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 (A+B) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Source: Agriculture statistics, 2016 www.ijmer.in 349 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table 2 depicts the share of non-institutional and institutional credit over a period of more than five decades from 1951 to 2013. The non-institutional credit availed by agricultural farmers decreased gradually from year on year i.e., from 1951 to 2013 except in 2001. In this year the credit availed by the agricultural farmers in India extended by non-institutional agencies especially money lenders significantly high. However, the credit extended by money lenders decreased from 1951 to 1981 and increased from 1991 to 2013. The size of the credit extended by institutional agencies is very minimum in 1951 but gradually increased till 1991 and decreased in 2001 and increased in 2013. The credit extended by Co-operative Banks increased from 1951 to 2001 and decreased in 2013. The credit extended by Commercial Banks increased from 1951 to 2001. TARGETS AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL CREDIT The Government of India has initiated several policy measures to improve the accessibility of farmers to the institutional sources of credit. The emphasis of these policies has been on progressive institutionalization for providing timely and adequate credit support to all farmers with particular focus on small and marginal farmers and weaker sections of the society to enable them to adopt modern technology and improved agricultural practices for increasing agricultural production and productivity. The Policy lays emphasis on augmenting credit flow at the ground level through credit planning, adoption of region-specific strategies and rationalization of lending Policies and Procedures. These policy measures have resulted in the increase in the share of institutional credit of the rural households. Year-wise targets and achievements of agriculture credit flow are given in table 3: www.ijmer.in 350 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Table 3: Year-wise targets and achievements of agricultural credit in India from 2003-04 to 2015-16 (Rs. in Crore) Year Short Term/ Long Term/ Total Crop Loans Term Loans 2006-07 138455 90945 229400 2007-08 181393 73265 254658 2008-09 210461 91447 301908 2009-10 276656 107858 384514 2010-11 335550 132741 468291 2011-12 396158 114871 511029 2012-13 473500 133875 607375 2013-14 548435 181688 730123 2014-15 635412 209916 845328 2015-16 705443 171780 877224 Source: 1. Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Annual Report from 2004-07 to 2015-16 2. Department of Agriculture, Co-operation & Farmers Welfare State Agriculture 2006-07 to 2015-16 Table 3 explains the year-wise targets and achievements of agricultural credit in India from 2006-07 to 2015-16. It is understood from the table above that the achievements are more than the targets in all the years of ten year study period. The growth in the targets of agricultural credit in absolute terms is impressive for all the years of ten year study period. The growth in the achievements of agricultural credit continuous and progressive. The size in the achievements attained is voluminous than the size in the targets of agricultural credit. Achievement in the agricultural credit is more than hundred per cent in all the ten year study period. www.ijmer.in 351 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 INSTITUTIONAL CREDIT TO AGRICULTURE Statistical information pertaining to Institutional credit to Agriculture during the period from 2005-06 to 2015-16 is presented in table 4; Table 4: Institutional credit to Agricultural Sector from 2005- 06 to 2015-16 (Rs. in Crore) %of Year Targets Achievement achievement 2006-07 175000 229400 131.09 2007-08 225000 254658 113.18 2008-09 280000 301908 107.82 2009-10 325000 384514 118.31 2010-11 375000 468291 124.88 2011-12 475000 511029 107.59 2012-13 575000 607375 105.63 2013-14 700000 711621 101.66 2014-15 800000 845328 105.67 2015-16 850000 877224 103.20 Source: NABARD Annual Reports from 2006-07 to 2015-16. Table 4 depicts year-wise information on short term and long term loans extended by the financial institutions over ten year period from 2006-07 to 2015-16. The short term loans extended by financial institutions has been increased from Rs.138455 crore in 2006-07 to Rs.705443 crore in 2015-16. But in case of long term loans extended by financial institutions such continuous increase is not observed from www.ijmer.in 352 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 2006-07 to 2015-16. The long term term loans increased Rs.90945 crore to Rs.132741 crore except in 2007-08. The long term / term loans decreased in 2011-12 and increased from 2012-13 to 2014-15 and decreased in 2015-16. The total credit extended by financial institutions increased continuously from 2006-07 to 2015-16. The total credit extended by institutions increased from year on year. PRIORITY SECTOR ADVANCES OF SCHEDULED COMMERCIAL BANKS The bank sector-wise priority sector advances of scheduled commercial banks over ten year period from 2005-06 to 2015-16 is presented in table 5: Table 5: Bank Sector-Wise Priority Sector Advances of Scheduled Commercial Banks over ten year period from 2005- 06 to 2015-16 (As on 31st March) (Rs.in Crore) Public Private Foreign Sector Sector Total Year Banks Banks Banks 2006-07 489847 130961 34665 655473 2007-08 574861 151721 47683 774265 2008-09 681331 176958 51607 909896 2009-10 834381 201730 55399 1091510 2010-11 1009676 242272 63913 1315861 2011-12 1117574 280992 72764 1471330 2012-13 1252236 311877 76988 1641101 2013-14 1452701 376583 85567 1914851 2014-15 1605294 439886 89434 2134614 2015-16 1737056 558936 99388 2395380 Source:1) Indian Banks Association, Performance Highlights from 2007 to 2016 www.ijmer.in 353 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 2) Statistical Tables Relating to Banks in India from 2007 to 2016 Table 5 shows the growth in the agricultural credit extended by different banking sectors viz., public sector, private sector and foreign banks. The total credit extended by all the scheduled banks increased from Rs.655473 crore in 2006-07 to Rs.2395380 crore in 2015-16. Keeping the guidelines issued by RBI in view the commercial banks have been significantly extended the advances to the agricultural sector. The advances extended to priority sector by public sector banks are voluminous and their progress in absolute terms is continuous over ten year study period. The advances extended by public sector banks is so voluminous and continuous. The advances of public sector banks in 2006-07 was Rs.489847 crore and were increased to Rs.1737056 crore in 2015-16. The advances of private sector to priority sector increased from Rs.130961 crore in 2006-07 to Rs.558936 crore in 2015-16. The advances of foreign banks to priority sector in India increased from Rs.34665 crore in 2006-07 to Rs.99388 crore in 2015-16. The quantum credit extended to priority sector by public sector is so sizeable and this growth in the advances to priority sector is so continuous. The growth in the priority sector extended by private sector banks and Foreign Banks is also continuous. Based on the analysis above it is understood that the total advances extended by all scheduled commercial banks increased from year on year continuous and more over the size of the advances extended by the said banks on an average is voluminous. The quantum of advances extended by public sector banks is so sizeable. www.ijmer.in 354 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 REGION-WISE AGRICULTURE OUTSTANDING LOANS South North North Central Eastern Western Year East Region Total Region Region Region Region Region 2006-07 612786 13378 374395 200493 486257 859610 2546918 2007-08 696300 24360 459882 267604 616130 1016593 3080868 2008-09 755802 27312 569417 342575 616515 1329934 3641555 2009-10 1094408 30858 711123 406025 735550 1654918 4632881 2010-11 1133105 37772 771105 437553 813655 1878567 5071756 2011-12 1183281 57426 936759 513370 894344 2248253 5833433 897588 2852550 6454333 2012-13 1170858 60582 946824 525931 2013-14 1517209 74503 1158666 667244 2099071 3397772 8914465 2014-15 1704101 75801 1329933 697064 2196798 3702051 9705748 2015-16 2124995 109318 1525465 839791 3057033 4074380 11730982 The Region-wise agriculture outstanding loans over ten year period from 2005-06 to 2015-16 is presented in table 6; Table 6: Region wise agriculture outstanding loans over ten year period from 2006-07 to 2015-16 (As on 31st March) (Rs. in Million) Source: Statistical Tables Relating to Banks in India from 2006-07 to 2015-16. Table 6 shows an outstanding agricultural loans in different regions of India viz., North, North East, Central, Eastern, western, www.ijmer.in 355 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 south regions and total over all India over ten year period. It is clear from the table that the total outstanding loans of agriculture in India increased year on year from 2006-07 to 2015-16 continuously. Whereas the outstanding agricultural loans in north India increased from year on year over the entire study period i.e., from 2006-07 to 2015-16 except in 2012-13. The outstanding agricultural loans in the remaining regions, Eastern, western, south regions of India have increased continuously year on year from 2006-07 to 2015-16. Based on the analysis above it is understood that the outstanding loans from agricultural farmers increasing tremendously. This kind of indication is not good for the economy in general and the financial institutions in particular. CONCLUSION Availability and access to adequate, timely and low cost credit from institutional sources is of great importance especially to small and marginal farmers. Millions of small farmers are producing million tonnes of agricultural production in India. Their intensity, effort and efficiency have helped them in raising yields per acre. Finance in agriculture act as a key input to farmers. But farmers‟ do not have adequate finance with them and therefore they go for outside credit. Because of inadequate financial resources and absence of timely credit facilities at reasonable rate of interests, many of the farmers, are unable to go in for improved seeds and manures or to introduce better methods or techniques of agriculture. The growth in the agricultural credit of Commercial Banks is continuous. The credit extended by Co- operative Banks increased from 1951 to 2001 and decreased in 2013. The credit extended by Commercial Banks increased from 1951 to 2001. Achievements in the agricultural credit is more than hundred per cent in all the ten year study period. The total credit extended by financial institutions increased continuously from 2006-07 to 2015-16. The total www.ijmer.in 356 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 credit extended by institutions increased from year on year. Total advances extended by all scheduled commercial banks increased from year on year and more over the size of the advances extended by the said banks on an average is voluminous. The outstanding loans from agricultural farmers increasing tremendously. This kind of indication is not good for the economy in general and the financial institutions in particular. REFERENCES 1. Mohan, R. (2006), “Agricultural Credit in India: Status, Issues and Future Agenda”, Economics and Political Weekly, March (18-24), Vol. XLI No.11, pp. 1013-1040. 2. Golait, R. (2007): ‘Current Issues in Agriculture Credit in India: An Assessment’, RBI Occasional Papers 28, Pp.79-100. 3. Abhiman Das, Manjusha Senapati and Joice John (2009) “Impact of Agricultural Credit on Agriculture Production: An Empirical Analysis in India” Reserve Bank of India Occasional Papers, Monsoon, Vol. 30, No.2, Pp.75-107. 4. Thitte,M.K., (2012) “Importance of Agriculture Finance in India”, Indian Streams Research Journal, Vol.2, Issue.7, 2012, Pp.1-2. 5. Kewal Kumar and Atul Gambhir (2013) “Financing of Agriculture by Commercial Banks – Problems Faced by Farmers (An Empirical Study)”, ABHINAV National Monthly Refereed Journal of Research in Commerce & Management, Vol.1, Issue. 5, Pp.79-84. 6. Tripathy. K. K. (2013) Status of Rural and Agricultural Finance in India, Kurukshetra Vol.62, No.2, December, Pp.3-8. 7. Ratan Lal Godara, Partap Singh & Sanjay Singla (2014), Agriculture Credit in India: An Analytical Study, International www.ijmer.in 357 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Journal of Latest Trends in Engineering and Technology (IJLTET), Vol. 3 Issue 3, January, Pp.326-335. 8. Pooja Giri R.V. (2015), “Agriculture Credit in India”, International Journal of Science technology and Management, Vol. 4, No.7, July, Pp.158-166. 9. Kirti Ranjan Swain and Niranjan Nayak (2016), Agricultural Financing: A Challenge For Banking Sector In India, Primax- International Journal of Commerce and Management Research, Vol. 4 , Issue No.1, April- June, Pp.1-10. www.ijmer.in 358 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 JAHAHO-THE LAND OF BHARAT : A VIEW Dr.P.Venkata Subba Rao Asst.professor, Dr. C.S.RAO PG Centre, Sri Y.N.college (NAAC-‘A’), NARASAPUR-534275,W.G.Dt,A.P., Key Words:Unity and Diversity,Culture,Shresta Bharat,Uniqueness BHARAT, the vast land, cared and reared, like a small baby, for time immorial by the mighty Indian ocean, Arabian sea, Bay of Bengal on the three sides and great Himalaya on the forth. The land of envy for invaders from the Alxander of Greece to the Changeg khan of magnolia.The goal of many sea adventures from magellan to Vasco-De- Gama. The land of spices. The land of Thar desert, rain and deciduous forests. The land of Bengal tigers, rhinos, elephants, peacock and the king Cobra. The land loved and nourished by mother ganges, satlaj, Krishna, Godavari and periyar. The land of Lord Rama, Akbar the great and the mighty Ashoka. The land of Guru Nanak, Mira, Kabir and Tulasi Das. The land of Subhash, Nehru, Patel and Abul Kalam Azad. The land of Dhyan Chand, Kapil, Sachin and Kohili. The land of Amitab, Sharukh, Megastar Chiranjeevi and Amirkhan. The land of many for centuries. The land once known as Bharat and Golden sparrow. The land also called ‘Indian peninsula’ on the world map became the abode of many races and cultures in course of time. All of them flourished together side by side and entwined into an inseparable strands of ‘Unity in Diversity’, the DNA of great India. Now, atpresent it is divided into various states from North to South and East to West, having their own cultures and languages. Every state has own and special entity. The beautiful valleys surrounded by snow clad sky, touching mountain peaks in Jamuna & Kashmir, the heaven on earth, the lengthy and barren cold desert of www.ijmer.in 359 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Ladakh, the land of lamas, boasting of the silk route and double hump camels, the vally of flowers, abode of millions fully bloomed petals of uttarakhand, fertile or chards of delicious fruits of Himachal Pradesh, the land if gods, together make the crown worn by the great peninsula. These states are always on the top charts of the tourists and adventures. Some of the most allusive and endangered species like snow leopard yak, double hump camel, musk deer, bharals, monal etc.are found here. The most beautiful lakes and mighty glaciers make it rich terrain and help the plains by nourishing and watering them. Siachin glacier boasting as the highest battle field in the world. The herds of yaks and pashmina goats along into lamas in maroon robes and their tent colonies make a picturesques view in the foreground of the barren cold desert. The chants of ‘Allah Hu Akber ’ in mosques and Om Mani Padme Hum rhymes vibrate and echo in the gompas of these valleys. Punjab, the land of five rivers, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the land of Buddha and Mahavir, together constitute the most fertile plains on earth. These states are the known as feeder states of the India. Hence the throne of Delhi always remained the fantasy and envy of the invaders. Rajasthan, Maharastra, Gujarat, the land of worriers, who fought for their land till the last drop, constitute the left arm of mother India. The great Thar Desert, Raan of Kuchh and Arabian sea are the jewels of these states. People are tall, stern and sturdy known for their different turbans and long moustaches. Seven eastern states, Assam to Arunachal Pradesh, are fondly known as ‘seven sisters’ are the right arm of mother India. The dense rain forests are making them rich in flora and fauna.Madhya Pradesh, Chhatisgarh, the land of Gonds, Orissa and Jarkhand are the mineral mines making the country energy rich. Most of the Indian tribes with original habits and habitats are residing in these states. www.ijmer.in 360 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 Southern states constitute the mighty legs of mother India. People are Dravidian race. Karnataka is the home of Science and Technology. Andhra and Tamil Nadu are the exporters of the sea foods. Kerala is the land of spices and Ayureveda. Sikkim is the leader of Organic Forming and West Bengal is famous for its “Adda on Chai” or tea argumentation clubs and the abode of music. The famous Howrah bridge of Kolkata is situated here on the Hugli River. Unity in Diversity: The land of such a great possession is stigmatized by some narrow minded and short sighted people. By their petty and selfish motives they are motivating and instigating the people towards the narrow attitude. They are some how limiting them into a small and narrow mentality of religion and region, which in turn is affecting the broad view of great India. The very foundation of the mighty Bhart will be eaten by these mites, If not controlled at the earliest. Instead of hauling the people into a region or religion and in one culture they must be encouraged and motivated to cris-cross the boundaries and learn from each other this is the real mantra of unity in diversity, the pride of any nation. Ths is the soul of the new scheme announced by government EK Bharat Shresta Bharat. This task must be supported by the Government at Centre as well as the State Governments. There must be some policies to award and sponsor such feats by Government Organizations and Non-Government Organizations. It must be the collective task of Civil Society and the Private Sectors to effectively implementing the policies of national integration and cultural mixing under the corporate responsibilities the private sectors must come forward and participate in such endeavors. They may lend their support and suggestions, if necessary, to the government. No government, alone, can implement its policies without the participation of the people. With the advent of transportation and communication the time and distance have shrunk and the world has become a global village. The revolution of the technology has www.ijmer.in 361 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 revolutioniized the speed, especially the smart phone and net revolution has provided the humans the long awaited freedom of expression. Today they can tell and vent their hidden voice boldly through the world on to the palm. The same tools can be effectively utilised by the government and the people to connect among themselves. The Government of India has taken some smart steps by itself in e-govrnment and digitalisation. Now anyone from anywhere in the world can suggest and comment in its policies. Now, people are more involved and feel themselves part of its. This inclusive approach is a big boost to the morale of people. But as it is always true that technology is a great friend and the worst foe, it must be carefully used and monitored or it could bring havoe and jeopardize the nation itself. To avoid such catastraophe the people have to shoulder the responsibilities and make the policies of the government, the movement as their own. The success stories of the successful people, who took the lead and risk, must be documented into films and biographies and circulated among people. There must be movement and zeal among people to know and learn about the other lands and cultures. Union is strength. Together we stand, divided we fall. We have been studying these lines since our childhood. So , let’s be one strong bundle of twigs rather than many weak twigs, broken easily by anyone. Let’s point these twigs, with the colors and hues of our cultures and uniqueness. Let’s make it make our land rather than my land. Only the one and great India can sustain the shock waves of the catastrophes and disaster around her. www.ijmer.in 362 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 363 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 364 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 365 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 366 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 367 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 368 I NTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 11(5), NOVEMBER 2017 www.ijmer.in 369