HOLOCENE GLACIER FLUCTUATIONS 525 a possible few small stagnant ice masses or semiperma- Tirich Mir (7,690 m) and Noshaq (7,492 m) massifs tower nent snowfields remaining after years of drought and high enough to intercept sufficient monsoonal moisture to melting. produce a very few glaciers up to 24 km in length.

Middle or Central Hindu Kush Summary This region occurs to the northeast and east of the Kabul The Hindu Kush ranges of Afghanistan and the Pakistan Basin, and includes all of the mountains of Nuristan south border region can be subdivided into a Western, Central, and east of the Panjshir Valley and over the Anjuman Pass and Eastern Hindu Kush, as well as a Northern or Khwaja to the Dorah Pass into Pakistan near Chitral, down to the Mohammed Range. Collectively the Hindu Kush ranges Kunar River Valley, all of which are in the Kabul River have many small glaciers that are dominantly only a few drainage basin. The Mir Samir glacierized area near the km in length. Meltwater from these glaciers constitutes Panshir Valley (Gilbert et al., 1969) is important to any a vital late season supply of critical irrigation that is threat- study because it received some of the first glaciological ened with climate change in this chronically drought-torn work ever done in Afghanistan (Shroder and Bishop, region. 2009). Bibliography Eastern Hindu Kush Braslau, D., 1974. The glaciers of Keshnikhan. In Gratzal, K. (ed.), This mountainous region extends east from its Kokcha Hindukusch; Ősterreichische Forschungsexpedition in den River border with the Khawaja Mohammed Range, and Wakhan 1970. Graz: Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt, east to the Ab-i-Panj river border of the Wakhan Corridor, pp. 112–116. as well as from the Anjuman to Dora Pass valley route to Burrard, S. G., and Hayden, H. H., 1907. A sketch of the Geography – and Geology of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet. Survey of Chitral, as far as Baroghil Pass along the Afghanistan India, 359 pp. Pakistan border in the Wakhan where it terminates. The Gilbert, O., Jamieson, D., Lister, H., and Pendlington, A., 1969. Eastern Hindu Kush therefore includes all the high peaks Regime of an Afghan glacier. Journal of Glaciology, 8(52), along the Afghanistan–Pakistan border, including Noshak 51–65. (7,492 m), the highest peak in Afghanistan, as well as Grötzbach, E., 1990. Afghanistan: Eine geographische Tirich Mir (7,706 m) above Chitral in Pakistan. In the Landeskunde (Wissenschaftliche Landerkunden). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 449 pp. west, close to the Kokcha River border with the Khwaja Shroder, J. F., Jr., and Bishop, M. P., 2010. Glaciers of Afghanistan. Mohammed Range, occurs the Koh-i-Bandaka area of gla- In Williams, R. S., Jr., and Ferrigno, J. G. (eds.), Satellite Image ciers that have been mapped and studied recently (Shroder Atlas of Glaciers of the World. U.S. Geological Survey Profes- and Bishop, 2010). The Keshnikhan Glacier in sional Paper 1386-F-3, F-167-F199. Afghanistan a few km NNE of the Noshaq and Tirich Mir peaks was first mapped and studied by an Austrian Expedi- tion of 1970 (Braslau, 1974), and is again the focus of HOLOCENE GLACIER FLUCTUATIONS recent attention (Shroder and Bishop, 2009).

Khwaja Mohammed Range Johannes Koch Department of Earth Sciences, Simon Fraser University, This northernmost of the main Hindu Kush ranges extends Burnaby, BC, Canada northward from the southern boundary along the line of the Andarab–Khwak Pass–Anjuman Pass, between the Kokcha River on the east and the Surkhab–Kunduz River Definition on the west. Holocene is the most recent geological Epoch spanning – North of the Hindu Kush and still inside Afghanistan the past 10,000 12,000 years. are the Pamir ranges of Badakshan and the Wakhan Corri- Glacier fluctuations are advance and retreat phases of dor. Outside of Afghanistan to the north in Tajikistan and individual glaciers due to changes in their mass balance. neighboring states occur many more ranges of the Pamir, as well as the Pamir Knot. Introduction Collectively the diverse sets of Hindu Kush ranges are Glacier extent during the Holocene was limited compared characterized by 3,000 small glaciers in Afghanistan to the Pleistocene, but recent studies point to significant, that are almost nowhere more than a few kilometers in rapid fluctuations of climate throughout the Holocene length. The glaciers of the Hindu Kush are dominantly (e.g., Mayewski et al., 2004). One proxy of Holocene cli- nourished by winter westerly precipitation, although those mate variability that has long been used is alpine glacier in the southeast of Afghanistan can receive some summer fluctuations (e.g., Denton and Karlén, 1973). Most alpine snows from monsoonal augmentation from moisture glaciers react rapidly to changes in their mass balance and sources in the Indian Ocean. In fact, the largest glaciers thus to changes in temperature and precipitation, and stud- of the Hindu Kush actually occur on the south side of ies of past glacier fluctuations allow reconstruction of cli- the Eastern Hindu Kush of northwest Pakistan where the mate variability on centennial and decadal timescales. 526 HOLOCENE GLACIER FLUCTUATIONS

Reconstruction of Holocene glacier fluctuations is Early Holocene advances compromised by the fact that glacier advances in the Evidence for glacier advances prior to the 8.2 ka event is Northern Hemisphere during the last millennium were sparse. A few glaciers in western Canada advanced generally the most extensive of the Holocene and obliter- slightly between 9.5 and 8.5 ka (Koch et al., 2007). Alpine ated or obscured most of the evidence of previous glaciers in western Greenland advanced between 9 and advances. Older moraines have been identified at few of 10 ka (Kelly and Lowell, 2009), and glaciers in Norway the sites that have been investigated (e.g., Ryder and advanced around 9.7 and 9.2 ka, but this evidence has Thomson, 1986; Bakke et al., 2005), but dating control been questioned by more recent interdisciplinary studies of these moraines is often poor. More complete Holocene (Nesje, 2009). Nicolussi and Patzelt (2000) report histories have been inferred from sediments in lakes a short-lived advance in the Austrian Alps about 10.1 ka, downvalley of glaciers (e.g., Karlén, 1988; Bakke et al., while data from the central Swiss Alps indicate smaller 2005), but these records can be complicated by non- than present glaciers about 9.7 ka (Hormes et al., 2001). climatic factors. The most direct evidence for glacier In Tibet glaciers advanced 9.4–8.8 ka, and continental gla- advances that predate the last millennium is found in areas ciers in northwestern China around 9.3 ka (Owen, 2009). deglacierized in the twentieth century. Remnants of forests Glaciers in the Southern Hemisphere appear to have been in these forefields include in situ tree stumps and detrital as extensive or more extensive in the early Holocene than logs and branches. In addition, organic soils and detrital during the past millennium with two advances recorded wood are exposed in composite lateral moraines. High- in the Patagonian Precordillera and New Zealand quality data on Holocene glacier fluctuations have been (Röthlisberger, 1986; Gellatly et al., 1988; Wenzens, retrieved from many of these forefields and moraines 1999). (e.g., Luckman, 2000; Nicolussi and Patzelt 2000; Glasser et al., 2004; Holzhauser et al., 2005; Koch et al., 2007; The 8.2 ka event Barclay et al., 2009). This entry summarizes Holocene glacier fluctuations in Evidence for this event is also sparse. Detrital wood mountainous areas around the world in chronological along with an increase in clastic sediment in proglacial order. The summary benefits from recent regional reviews lakes in the Coast Mountains indicate a minor advance (Barclay et al., 2009; Briner et al., 2009; Geirsdóttir et al., coeval with this event (Menounos et al., 2009). Alpine 2009; Hall, 2009; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2009; Kelly and Lowell, glaciers on Baffin Island advanced (Briner et al., 2009), 2009; Menounos et al., 2009; Nesje, 2009; Owen, 2009; and glacier expansion in Scandinavia was widespread Rodbell et al., 2009). Data presented here cover western (Nesje, 2009), with some glaciers likely more extensive North America, the North Atlantic region (Baffin Island, at this time than during the past millennium. Brief Greenland, Iceland), Europe (Scandinavia, Alps), Asia advances of limited extent occurred in Austria (Nicolussi (Tibet, Himalaya, Tian Shan, Pamir-Alai, Altai, Caucasus, and Patzelt, 2000), but Hormes et al. (2001), argue for Polar Urals, Yakutia, and Kamtchatka), Africa, South less extensive glaciers in the central Swiss Alps. Glaciers America, New Zealand, and Antarctica. Chronological advanced in the Himalaya and Karakoram (Owen, 2009), control for most of these studies was provided by dendro- as well as in Kamtchatka (Yamagata et al., 2002). chronology, lichenometry, radiocarbon dating of fossil Moraines well beyond the past millennium extent were wood in moraines, cosmogenic surface exposure dating, deposited in the Patagonian Precordillera (Wenzens, proglacial lake sediments, tephras, and radiocarbon dating 1999) and near the Northern Patagonian Icefield of basal organics in pits, bogs, and lakes that provide min- (Rodbell et al., 2009). imum limiting ages. 7.3–5.9 ka events Evidence for these events is widespread in both hemi- Global Holocene glacier fluctuations spheres. Glaciers in the Coast and Rocky Mountains in There is evidence for broadly synchronous periods of gla- western Canada advanced during this time (Menounos cier advance around the world at 8.6–8.1, 7.3–5.9, et al., 2009), and the data indicates that glaciers advanced 5.1–4.2, 4.2–1.9, 1.9–0.9 ka (ka is used here instead of two or three times and reached positions within 1 km of cal. years BP), and during the past millennium. The broad their Holocene maximum extent (Koch et al., 2007). age ranges of the six periods of more extensive glaciation Hubbard Glacier in coastal Alaska advanced and remained are the result of large uncertainties introduced by calibrat- extensive for the next millennium (Barclay et al., 2009). ing radiocarbon ages. Glacier extent at the end of each of Glaciers in the Brooks and Alaska Ranges advanced, and the six periods, however, was much greater than at the some may have attained greater extents than at later times beginning of the following advance period. Several areas (Calkin, 1988). Evidence from the European Alps also presented here were still heavily glaciated in the early indicates three advances (Nicolussi and Patzelt, 2000), Holocene as glaciers retreated from their Last Glacial with less extensive glaciers than today between advances maxima, and there is strong evidence that glaciers might (Hormes et al., 2001). Glaciers in western Greenland and have disappeared completely prior to about 6 ka in some Scandinavia underwent two minor advances (Karlén, Northern Hemisphere locations. 1988; Kelly and Lowell, 2009; Nesje, 2009), while HOLOCENE GLACIER FLUCTUATIONS 527 glaciers in Iceland, on Baffin Island, in Kamtchatka, in there is some evidence for glacier advances in Greenland continental northwestern China, and on Mount Kenya (Kelly and Lowell, 2009). Multiple advances, up to five, advanced once (Karlén et al., 1999; Savoskul, 1999; occurred in the European Alps (Nicolussi and Patzelt, Briner et al., 2009; Geirsdóttir et al., 2009; Owen, 2009). 2000; Holzhauser et al., 2005), with glaciers being possi- Evidence for two advances comes from the central and bly less extensive than today between some of these the southern Andes (Rodbell et al., 2009), the Northern advances (Hormes et al., 2001). Glaciers in Scandinavia Patagonian Icefield (Rodbell et al., 2009), the Patagonian expanded several times, in some cases to limits beyond Precordillera (Wenzens, 1999), and the central Andes near those of the past millennium (Karlén, 1988; Bakke et al., Mendoza (Espizua, 2002), where moraines were depos- 2005; Nesje, 2009). Glaciers advanced several times in ited well beyond the past millennium moraines. Glaciers the Himalaya and Karakoram, in Tibet, in the former on the Antarctic Peninsula and South Atlantic islands fluc- USSR, and on Mount Kenya (Serebryanny and Solomina, tuated (Hall, 2009), and in New Zealand moraines were 1996; Karlén et al., 1999; Owen, 2009). Glaciers in the deposited (Schaefer et al., 2009). tropical Andes advanced once, and possibly twice in the Patagonian Andes, the Patagonian Precordillera, the 5.1–4.2 ka events Cordillera Darwin on Tierra del Fuego, and the south- central Andes (Wenzens, 1999; Espizua, 2002; Glasser Evidence for one or more advances during this time is et al., 2004; Rodbell et al., 2009). Glaciers in South widespread in both hemispheres. Glaciers in the Coast America were generally more extensive at this time than and Rocky Mountains in western Canada advanced twice during the past millennium (Espizua, 2002; Glasser (Menounos et al., 2009). Similarly, glaciers in Alaska et al., 2004). Three separate advances that deposited appear to have advanced one or two times (Calkin, 1988; moraines have been identified in New Zealand (Gellatly Barclay et al., 2009), and there is evidence for an advance et al., 1988; Schaefer et al., 2009), and glaciers in Antarc- in the Cascades (Davis, 1988). Moraines were deposited tica advanced (Hall, 2009). in Iceland (Geirsdóttir et al., 2009), and glaciers in Scandinavia expanded in some cases to positions outside maximum past millennium limits (Karlén, 1988; Nesje, 1.9–0.9 ka events 2009), while in northern Folgefonna glaciers reformed Glacier advances during this time have been identified in (Bakke et al., 2005). Glaciers in Austria advanced twice both hemispheres, and numerous sites show evidence for (Nicolussi and Patzelt, 2000), while glaciers in the central multiple phases. Evidence for this event is widespread in Swiss Alps appear to have been less extensive than today western Canada (Menounos et al., 2009), but glacier (Hormes et al., 2001). Glacier advances are recorded in the extent generally appears to have been smaller than during Himalaya and Karakoram, in northwestern China, in the the previous and following events. In the Brooks and former USSR, and on Mount Kenya (Serebryanny and Alaska Ranges moraines indicate up to three advances Solomina, 1996; Karlén et al., 1999; Owen, 2009). (Calkin, 1988), and glaciers in maritime Alaska show Glaciers in the tropical and Patagonian Andes advanced a peak of activity around AD 600–650 (Barclay et al., (Glasser et al., 2004; Rodbell et al., 2009), and some 2009). Some glaciers on Baffin Island, in Greenland, and deposited moraines well outside their past millennium in Iceland advanced in the first millennium AD (Briner margins (Wenzens, 1999). Evidence from New Zealand et al., 2009; Geirsdóttir et al., 2009; Kelly and Lowell, also indicates two advances during this time (Gellatly 2009). Ice cover in Scandinavia expanded twice (Karlén, et al., 1988), while evidence in Antarctica is poorly 1988; Bakke et al., 2005; Nesje, 2009), and some glaciers constrained (Hall, 2009). were more extensive then than during the past millennium (Karlén, 1988; Nesje, 2009). Up to three advances are well 4.2–1.9 ka events documented in the European Alps, each separated by sig- Glacier advances during this time have been identified in nificant recession (Nicolussi and Patzelt, 2000; Hormes both hemispheres. Many glaciers in Canada achieved et al., 2001; Holzhauser et al., 2005). Maritime-influenced extents only slightly smaller than during the past millen- glaciers in southeastern Tibet advanced once, while gla- nium, with evidence that some were even more extensive ciers in the Himalaya and Karakoram advanced twice (Ryder and Thomson, 1986). Multiple advances, up to (Owen, 2009). Glaciers also advanced in the former USSR three, are evident in the Canadian Rockies and Coast and on Mount Kenya (Serebryanny and Solomina, 1996; Mountains (e.g., Koch et al., 2007). Three advances Karlén et al., 1999). Glaciers in the tropical and Patago- deposited nearly synchronous moraines in the Brooks nian Andes advanced (Glasser et al., 2004; Rodbell and the Alaska ranges (Calkin, 1988). Many glaciers in et al., 2009), and moraines were deposited in the coastal Alaska as well as the Wrangell Mountains also Patagonian Precordillera (Wenzens, 1999) and the tropical expanded at this time, but the advances were less exten- Cordillera Blanca (Rodbell et al., 2009). On the Antarctic sive than those of the past millennium (Barclay et al., Peninsula and on South Atlantic islands glaciers advanced 2009). Moraines were deposited in Iceland by two (Hall, 2009), and moraines in New Zealand provide evi- advances (Geirsdóttir et al., 2009), up to three advances dence for three separate advances (Gellatly et al., 1988; are recorded on Baffin Island (Briner et al., 2009), and Winkler, 2004). 528 HOLOCENE GLACIER FLUCTUATIONS

0.9–0.1 ka events evidence, and detailed reconstructions are available for Evidence for these events is ubiquitous in both hemi- many glaciers. Most glaciers throughout the world spheres, and the period is generally referred to as the Little receded during the twentieth century, but some tidewater Ice Age (Grove, 1988). Abundant evidence for several and surging glaciers in Alaska and Patagonia are at or near advances has been reported from numerous glaciers in their Holocene maxima, while some glaciers in Scandina- Canada, and most reached their maximum Holocene via and New Zealand advanced late in the twentieth cen- extent during this interval. The Little Ice Age here began tury. Most records show slow recession between 1900 about AD 1050 and lasted until the early twentieth century and about 1910, followed by stillstands and minor (Luckman, 2000; Menounos et al., 2009). Evidence sug- readvances in the second and third decades of the century. gests that glaciers fluctuated significantly throughout this Recession was most rapid between about 1930 and the time period, but generally were more extensive than they 1950s, followed by another period of stillstands and minor were in the late twentieth century. Similarly, the Little readvances in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. Most glaciers Ice Age in Alaska began as early as AD 1100 (Barclay have receded rapidly since the mid-1980s. et al., 2009) and continued until the late nineteenth century (Calkin, 1988; Barclay et al., 2009). Most glaciers in Conclusions Alaska achieved their maximum Holocene extent during Holocene glacier advances in both hemispheres are the Little Ice Age. In the Cascade Range, Olympic Moun- broadly synchronous at timescales of centuries and tains, and Montana Rocky Mountains early advances occurred during six periods: 8.6–8.1, 7.3–5.9, 5.1–4.2, occurred before the thirteenth century and continued until 4.2–1.9, 1.9–0.9 ka, and the last millennium. Recent stud- the early twentieth century (Davis, 1988). Glacier ies provide evidence that most of these events were advances on Baffin Island, in Greenland, and in Iceland marked by glacier behavior as complex as that of the past are generally the most extensive since late-glacial time millennium. Synchronicity implies that one or more mech- (Briner et al., 2009; Geirsdóttir et al., 2009; Kelly and anisms have operated on a global scale to force Holocene Lowell, 2009), but moraines deposited at Langjökull ice glacier fluctuations. Early Holocene glacier advances in field in Iceland indicate smaller extents than during earlier the Southern Hemisphere were generally more extensive advances (Geirsdóttir et al., 2009). Little Ice Age fluctua- than late Holocene advances, but dates are minimum ages tions of glaciers in the European Alps have been and dating control is often not well constrained. In con- reconstructed in detail back to AD 1100, and indicate sev- trast, early Holocene advances in the Northern Hemi- eral distinct advances, which were the most extensive in sphere were generally less extensive than those of the the Holocene (Nicolussi and Patzelt, 2000; Holzhauser late Holocene, with the latter, however, often wiping out et al., 2005). Historical records for many glaciers date evidence of previous events. A more complete and com- back to the mid-seventeenth century (Nicolussi and plex picture of glacier behavior since the Last Glacial Patzelt, 2000; Holzhauser et al., 2005). 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