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The Social Environment of Public Transport

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The Social Environment of Public Transport THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT By Jared Austin Peter Kay Thomas A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology Victoria University of Wellington 2009 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A special thanks to Jess, my chief editor, muse and better half. Thanks to Marc for his insightful comments, the “you’re doing great” pep talks (despite how great I was doing), his vigilant procurement of vouchers in the face of adversity, and his excellent sense of humour which kept me sane. For his “Yoda- esque” wisdom, brilliant concepts and injection of enthusiasm, my thanks to Darren (my words may not be waltzing but at least they are doing a third form shuffle now). Honourable mentions go to my quasi-supervisors, Frank and Maree whose early guidance was vital in putting me on the right track. I would also thank Frank, Sam and Graham, whose very constructive feedback greatly improved the quality of my arguments. Thanks to Marty (and sister) for the character building early mornings, braving the dark, windswept, freezing tundra of the dreaded train platforms, and even going above and beyond to rescue wayward questionnaires. Thanks to Tiff and Jerry for their sweet proofreading skills. Thanks to Matt, Jerry and Lisa for being posers. If you ever give up your day jobs to become models I will give you a reference. Big ups to the crew from the labs for all of their support, taunting and table tennis tips: Josh, Stephen, Tiffany, Steve, Kate, Nobuko, Angus, and William. To all the great people I met while riding the bus and train, in particular the friendly staff. You are the soul of public transport, and you have the ability to produce communities out of strangers. A massive thanks to the car, train or bus goers that responded to my questionnaires, your time and feedback was truly appreciated. I would also like to thank The Foundation for Research Science and Technology (FRST), the Tertiary Education Commission (TEC), Greater Wellington Regional Council (GWRC), Toll, and Opus International Consultants for their endorsement of the research. ii ABSTRACT Crowding is identified both internationally and in New Zealand as a key issue in public transport. Unfortunately, the concerns of public transport providers are focussed on economic imperative rather than a concern for the actual experiences of patrons. The social needs of public transport passengers are neglected, both in practice and in research. This research examines the delicate balance between the need for privacy and the need for social interaction in the setting of public transport. These needs are examined through naturalistic observation of 1703 passengers’ behaviours, such as seat selection, activity use, and conversation on buses and trains. This was followed by a survey-based Exploratory study examining a range of individual difference variables. Based on the findings of this Exploratory study measures were identified for use in a series of subsequent surveys of public and private transport users. Specifically, questionnaires measuring the attitudes and self-reported behaviour of train (N = 319), car (N = 305) and bus commuters (N = 216). Results suggest that the seating layout of public transport forces people into an intimate distance with strangers, causing social discomfort. Hall’s (1966) proxemic theory suggests that these intimate distances are typically reserved for people with closer relations. People compensate by adapting to this close yet impersonal social situation. There is evidence that interactive strategies such as talking and positive body language with other passengers reduces the level of social discomfort, whereas defensive strategies do not reduce discomfort, but do form a negative relationship with social interaction which helps perpetuate a socially stagnant atmosphere. Discomfort from close interpersonal distance and less positive attitudes towards other passengers, while not as important as instrumental variables (such as longer trip durations), are still potential barriers to public transport patronage and should be given greater attention. In conclusion, interactive behaviours are determined to be necessary to reduce social discomfort in public transport. Festinger and colleague’s (1950) passive contact theory (PCT) is interrupted in the public transport setting, and it is posited that pro-social behaviours, such as smiling, and acknowledging other passengers with greetings are a precondition for successful interpersonal interaction. iii PREFACE Take one socially and physically sterile environment, pack in more people than there are available seats, ensure most of the people are strangers, and you have public transport. At the outset of my PhD I proposed to monitor the social environment of rail and bus public transport facilities, identify ways to improve these seemingly socially sterile environments, determine what interventions might encourage social acceptance, and whether this would lead to an increase in patronage. The social environment involves concepts such as comfort, politeness, atmosphere, enjoyment, sociability, prestige and acceptability. The central hypothesis recognises that unless the social factors associated with public transport are attended to, it is unlikely that public transport will compete successfully against the popularity of the private automobile. Everyone has a public transport story. I learned this shortly after embarking on this research. In the course of this research I was rescued from the torrent by friendly bus drivers out at Eastbourne, where I temporarily gained shelter with the crew in the staff room, a hot cuppa and some friendly banter. I lost questionnaires to the train tracks at Johnsonville. I was serenaded by a train commuter, singing along to his radio at the top of his lungs. I was deposited in locations I had never been before, sometimes without knowing if or when another bus would pick me up. Sorry for the spoiler, but the next service did inevitably come, otherwise you wouldn’t be reading this thesis. I survived bus trips around narrow roads on treacherous hills where another passenger gasped “oh my god, we’re gonna die!” as the driver narrowly avoided another vehicle. It was not all narrow escapes from death and sing-a-longs. I stuffed many an envelope, stuck many a sticker, and signed many a letter. There are many key elements to the dynamic environment of public transport, but one thing that is clear is that the conditions cause discomfort, some of which is physical, but most of which is social or psychological. Under such circumstances it is no wonder that public transport is not currently competitive with the motor vehicle. iv CONTENTS Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. ii Abstract ................................................................................................................. iii Preface ................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ........................................................................................................ viii List of Figures.......................................................................................................... x Chapter 1: General Introduction .............................................................................. 1 Interpersonal Discomfort in Public Transport .............................................................................. 2 Personal Space Theory.....................................................................................................................4 Public Transport in Context........................................................................................................... 13 A Socially Stagnant Perception of Public Transport ................................................................... 13 Stereotype Use ................................................................................................................................ 16 Predicting Public Transport Use ................................................................................................... 17 Mitigators of Interpersonal Discomfort ...................................................................................... 20 Defensive Adaptation ..................................................................................................................... 21 Interactive Adaptation ...................................................................................................................23 Barriers to Social Interaction in Public Transport ...................................................................... 25 Adaptive Measures in Practise ..................................................................................................... 29 Lessons from Other Public Transport Modes............................................................................... 31 Research Aims ................................................................................................................................32 Chapter 2: Observations of Train and Bus Passenger Behaviours .......................... 34 Background .................................................................................................................................... 34 Method...........................................................................................................................................
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