University of Nigeria

Research Publications

ELECHI, Evaristus Emeghara

Author Author

PG/ Ph.D/98/26000

The Anambra- Imo River Basin and Rural

Title Development Authority (Airbrda) 1976-2001

Arts Faculty Faculty

History and International Studies Department Department

May, 2006 Date

Signature Signature

THE ANAMBRA - IMO RIVER BASIN AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY (AIRBRDA) 1976 - 2001

t EMEGHARA, EVARISTUS ELECHI PG / Ph. D /9&126,OOO.

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES. UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

MAY, 2006. I I THE ANAMBRA - IMO RIVER BASIN AND RURAL DEVELOP EN7 AUTHORITY (AIRBRDA) 1976 - 2001

EMEGHARA, EVARISTUS ELECI-CI PG I Ph. D /!18/26,000m U.A.,M.A. (NIGERIA), MPA (IMSU), PGDE (CAIABAR) .

A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph-D) IN ECONOMIC HISTORY t~ THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA. ... 111 DECLARATION

THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS DECLARES AS FOLLOWS: That Emeghara, Evaristus Elechi, a postgraduate student in the

Department of History and International Studies, with Registration ; Number PGI Ph.D/98/26,000,l~assatisfactorily fulfilled the requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economic titstory. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted, in part or full, for any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.

Supervisor

...... Professor 0. N. Njoku Date Internal ~xaininer

External Examin0."' r Date

...... ~,J.L~. t.h...... Mr. J. 0.~hazue$ Date Head of Department DECLARATION

THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS DECLARES AS FOLLOWS: That Emeghara, Evaristus Elechi, a postgraduate student in the .

Department of I-iistory and International Studies, with Registration ; Number PG/ Ph.D/98/26,OOO, has satisfactorily fulfilled the requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economic History. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted, in part or full, for any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.

......

Prof,. #

Professor 0. N. Njoku Date Internal ~xaminer

External Examinow r Date

. .?.?/04-/...... 6 42 Mr. J. 0.Ahazuem Date Head of Department iv , ABSTRACT

The cardinal role of sustainable agricultural productivity and rural transformation in the developmerit process of developing countries is self-evident. However, devising an appropriate and consistent paradigrn to adequately taclde the worrisome and vexed issues of rural i~nderdevelopmentand stagnation has been problematic. This is evident in the number of development strategies and approaches that have been put to test, adopted and jettisoned over the years. Thus, development experts are being challenged to come to grips with the issue of rural underdevelopment by providing apt solution in this regard. Like other developing countries, ,Nigeria has used parastatal organizations as catalysts for socio-economid development. From available evidence, the results have not been as encouraging as anticipated and have not justified the huge investments. At best, the impsct has been insignificant and marginal. Against this background, this study was carried out with the broad objective of evaluating the role and impact of the Anambra-lmo River Basin and Rural Development Authority (AIRBRDA) towards enhanced

I agricultural and rural development in the South-eastern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. At inception in 1976, the AIRBRDA, like the other Authorities nationwide, was widely expected to bring the benefits of modern agriculture to the local population. It was also anticipated to launch the region on the path of sustainable economic and social development. Expectedly, since inception, the Authority has attempted, though with certain constraints to achieve its statutory goals. These goals mainly include: development of land and water resource potentials of the South-eastern zone of Nigeria for agricultural purposes and v development of rural infrastructure. This is aimed at improving the standard of living of the local population. m It IS also germane to emphasize that the social, economlc and other coi-wderations which influenced the establishment of the AIRBRDA are in consonance with the problem in the South-eastern zone of Nigeria as well as in other zones. However, admittedly, almost three decades of its establishment, there appears to be a marked disparity between its objectives and what has really been achieved. So, whilst some of the objectives have been accomplished, others have been partially achieved and yet some have remained unachieved. This

state of affairs IS attr~butableto a variety of factors, prominent among t which include shortage of funds, inconsistency in government policies, * inadequate operational autonomy as well as frequent governmental interference in the running of the Authority and adoption of exotic and inappropriate technology. Others are dearth of qualified manpower in key areas. problems in procuring spare Pp& for broken down equipment, plants and vehicles, inadequate supply of agricultural inputs like agro-chemicals, fertilizers and irrigation water, inadequate feasibility studies on the project and lack of foresight on the part of the planners who failed to fully include the local population at the inception of the . project.

-.r

It is, therefore, argued that for the AIRBRDA to continue to exist and perform its statutory functions satisfactorily in the South-eastern zone, it imperatively needs to redefine its strategies. If not, its impact on ------people of its area of coverage will continue to be insignificant DEDICATION

CL This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty for the zeal He has given to me'to conclude it. .ID. DEDICATION

4. i This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty for the zeal He has given to me'to conclude it. vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Undeniably, in an effort to produce a work of this nature, I I accumulated a huge load of gratituds and indebtedness to several persons and institutions too many to be all acknowledged here individually. First and foremost, I wish to express my profound gratitude arid special appreciation to my supervisor, Professor J.O. Ijoma, for his encouragement, guidance, patience and co-operation since 1999. As a matter of fact, during this period , sometimes, he went out of the normal and official student-teacher relationship to assist me. Without his support, this study would not have been zampleted. Also, I acknowledge my indebtedness to other academic staff of the Department of History and International Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN), whom I had to consult at times of need or difficulty. Deserving mention in this regard are: Professor 0.N. Njoku, J.O. Ahazuem, (the current Head of Department), Dr. Uchennw Anyanwu and Paul Qbl-Ani, I am equally grateful to my reliable and indefatigable friend and colleague at the UNN, Chief Dr. Uwakwe O.A. Esse, who 'through discussions, helped to improve my focus and ideas on this study. He also rendered very valuable assistance in making available to me vital archival and other materials. My sincere thanks also go to the staff c?f the Nnamdi Azikwo Library, UNN, especially to Mrs. Patience Okere, Messrs Omeje and Eze, for their assistance in making available certain research materials relevant to the study. Finally, I wish to thank my wife, Chinyerem and our children, Chinazaekpere, Chisomaga and Chukwuebuka, who kit ldly allowed this .. . Vlll study to encroach on their time. For their understanding and patience, I am truly grateful. While I remain genuinely and profoundly appreciative to the people and institutions mentioned above, the errors or omissions that may exist in this study are not theirs. They are entirely mine and I accept full responsibility for them.

Evaristus E. Emeghara, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. October, 2005. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page Declaration Ill Abstract iv-v Dedication v i Acknowledgements viwiii Table of Contents ix-xii List of Maps xiii List of Figures xiv List of Tables XV List of Abbreviations

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Statement of Problem Purpose of Study Relevance of Study Literature Review Scope of Study Methodology and Sources Organization Notes

CHAPTER TWO: SOUTH-EASTERN ZONE OF NIGERIA BEFORE THE ------

--- EMERGENCEOF THE AIRBRQAINI~?~ 43 Geography, Land and People 43-47 Economy 47-50 The South-Eastern Zone Before the Creation of the AIRBRDA in 1976 50-75 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page II ... Declaration Ill Abstract iv-v Dedication vi Acknowledgements vil-viii Table of Contents ix-xii List of Maps xiii

List of Figures 6 xiv List of Tables XV

11 List of Abbreviations xvi-xix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Statement of Problem Purpose of Study Relevance of Study Literature Review Scope of Study Methodology and Sources Organization Notes

CHAPTER TWO: SOUTH-EASTERN ZONE OF NIGERIA BEFORE THE

------EMERGENCEE OFTHE AlRBRDAIN19f6 43 Geography, Land and People 43-47 Economy 47-50 The South-Eastern Zone Before the Creatron of the AIRBRDA in 1976 50-75 Notes

CHAPTER THREE: THE AIRBRDA Creation and Historical Perspectives Aims and Objectives Organizational Structures Sourc.es of Finance

Notes

CHAPTER FOUR: PROJECTS AND PROGRAMMES ? OF THE AIRBRDA - Irrigation Projects Small Earth Dams Programme Underground Water Resources (Borehole) Development Programme Soil ErosionlFlood Control and Watershed Management HydrologicallHydrometerological Data Collection Programme Physical Plant Maintenance Project Headquarters and Liaison Offices Development Programme

Notes

CHAPTER FIVE:IMPACT OF THE AIRBRDA ON THE PEOPLE 133 Introduction of New Technology 134-140 Development of Basic Infrastructures 140-144 Employment Generation 144-145 Urbanization 145-147 Improvement of Quality of Life 147-A 50 TT Provision of Agro-allied Services/ Agricultural Production Rural - Urban Migration Phenomenon Problem of Land Scarcity Environmental Impact

Notes

CHAPTER SIX: CONSTRAINTS OF THE AIRBRDA Shortage of Funds

Insufficient StatisticallPlanning Data b - Adoption of Inappropriate Technology Land Tenure System Inconsistency In Government Policies Political Pressures Excessive Ministerial Control Problem of Manpower in Key Areas Spareparts Problem Prohibitive Operational Cost Pervasive corruption

Notes

CHAPTER SEVEN: SUMMARY, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION Summary Suggestions Conclusion SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources

w Secondary Sources xii

Page

LIST OF MAPS

Map 1: Map of Nigeria showing the South- eastern

Geopolitical Zone

Map 11: .Map showing Imo and Anambra rivers &

Drainages and some towns.

Map 111: Location of Major Projects of the AIRBRDA. LIST OF FIGURES

Figure I: A Section of the an Ultra-Modern Rice Mill Omor, Anambra State. llla

Figure II: The Asphalted 2 - Kilometre -Agbala Junction - Egbelu Obibi-Ezena Road built by the AIRBRDA. 143a

b Figure Ill: Farm Road Rehabilitation and a portion of the Head Race Canal of the LAIP, Omor. Figure IV: Maize Plot at Isi- Uzo Minor Irrigation Project Ikem, Enugu State. LIST OF TABLES Table I: Buc1geta1-yAppr-opriationIActc~aI Releases of the

AIRBRDA 1992 - 1997 '1 03

Table II. Capital atid Recut-rent Expenditure of the AIRBDA

Tahle Ill. PI-odcrction of Some Food Crops ~n Pilot Fal-111s 115-1'16

Table IV: LAlP Yearly Cropping Activities 1987- 1997 117

Tahle V: List of Irrigation Projects by some RBRDAS 137-1 118

Table VI: The Eleven RBDAs and Budgetary Allocations

Table VII: Outstanding Projects and Progra~nmesof the AIRBRDA 165-'1GG

Table VIII: Ncmber of Machinery and Equipment of the AIRBRDA

befot-e and after the Corn11ie1-c~alizat~onPI-ogt-aninie 1 76 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS i

ACGS: Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme. ADA: Agricultural Development Authority. ADB: 'Agricultural Development Bank. ADC: Agricultural Development Corporation. AIRBDA: Anambra -Imo River Basin Development Authority. AIRBRDA: Anambra -Imo River Basin & Rural Development Authority t ARBDA: Anambra River Basin Development Authority. BIP: BaKolori Irrigation Project. BLRWP: Better Life For Rural Women Programme BORBDA: Benin - Owena River Basin Development Authority BPE. Bureau for Public Enterprises CMCs: CareTaker Committees CRBDA: Cross diver Basin Development Authority DFRRI: Directorate for Food, Roads & Rural Infrastructure DRD: Directorate for Rural Development ECS: East Central State ECSADC: East Central State Agricultural Development Corporation ECSN: East Central State of Nigeria FAO: Food & Agricultural Organization FEAP: Family Economic Advancement Programme FOS: Federal Office of Statistics FRN: Federal Republic of Nigeria FSP: Family Support Programme GRP: Green Revolution Programme. HJRDDA: Hadejia-Jamaare River Basin Development Authority t. ,% 1-IVA: Hunter Valley Authority IFAD:International Fund for Agricultural Development IRBRDA: lmo River Basin & Rural Development Authority IRD: Integrated Rural Development JVA: Jordan Valley Authority LAIP:'LOW~~Anambra Irrigation Project. LBRBDA: Lower Benue River Basin Development Authority LNRBDA: Lower Niger River Basin Development Authority MVA: Missouri Valley Authority * NACB: Nigerian Agricultural & Cooperative Bank NACRDB: Nigerian Agricultural Cooperative and Rural Developmetit Bank NAE: National Archives, Enugu NAFPP: National Accelerated Food Production Programme NALDA: Nigerian Agricultural Land Development Authority NDBDA: Nigei Delta Basin Development Authority NDE: National Directorate For Employment NIFOR: National Institute For Oil Palm Research NRBDA: Niger River Basin Development Authority NSPFS: National Special Programme For Food Security N'TC: Nigerian Tobacco Company OECF: Overseas Economic Co-operative Fund

OFN - - - - Opelation-Eeed_clTheNat~~------O&M: Operation and Maintenance OORBDA: Ogun-Oshun River Basin Development Authority RBS: Rural Banking Scheme RBDAs: River Basin Development Authorities .RBRDAs: River Basin& Rural Development Authorities .b i . . I , XVlI RTEP: Root & Tuber Expansion Programme i. SAP: Structural Adjustment Programme. SRRBDA: Sokoto - Rima River Basin Development Authority. SRRBRDA: Sokoto - Rima River Basin & Rural Development Authority TCPC: Technical Committee on Privatization & Commercialization TVA : Tennessee Valley Authority UBRBDA:' Upper Benue River Basin Development Authority. UNRBDA: Upper Niger River Basin Development Authority UNVDA: Upper Nun Valley Development Authority USDI: United States Department of Interior * _ Q CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Back~/mundto the Study: The Imperative of Rural Development Thz central position occupied by the rural sector in Nigeria as rt is the case in most African countries, is self-evident. This is especrally with respect to food production, labour force and population dynamics. At present, about 75 per cent of Africa's population live and work in the rural arms; the overwhelming rural base of the economy of African countries is also obvious in the high proportion of the working population engaged in farming and cognate activities. In Nigeria, for example, in $ 1980 agriculture accounted for about two-thirds of the total gainful emp!oyment (mainly self-employment) in the economy. Even in the context of the (short-lived) oil boom, rural economic activities still constituted and seems likely to continue to form the mainstay of the Nigerian economy.' It was clearly indicated in the Third National Development Plan (NDP) (I975-80), for instance, that the agricultural sector would continue to generate the bulk of employment opportunities, meet the food requirements and raw Material inputs for processing . industries and export to enhance foreign exchange earnings in the country.' Yet, despite its centrality to the economy of Nigeria, unfortunately the rural sector has not been accorded the attention it rightly deserves. As Ukwu I. Ukwu aptly puts it, ''rural development as a specific national policy is a latecomer in our national planning

-experience1'? Ln fact practical- - -terms, ------* development- - - - has so far been ------unduly urban-biased. Experience has shown that the rural areas are remembered only during elections and perhaps in terms of food production to feed the bourgeoning or rapidly expanding urban population. The attendant result of this, is more or less rural neglect and stagnation. But it should be noted that a country's development efforts ought to be balanced and integrated. Doing this requires a holistic approach, focusing simultaneously on both the rural and urban economies as equal components of the same economy. This is because both rural and urban development reinforces each other. One is undermined without the other. The term rural development is used here to.mean essentially, "a broad-based human process which is concerned with the improvement of the l~vrngstandards of the low-income population living in the rural areas on a self-sustaining basis through transforming the socio-spatial * structure of their productive a~tivities".~Available evidence depicts that efforts made so far to meaningfully effect rural development in Nigeria, have been grossly inadequate, unbalanced and unintegrated. The ugly result is that the living conditions of rural dwellers have further deteriorated, rather than improved. As M.O. Ijere, U. Lele and K. Adu- Nyako rightly observe, the glaring manifestations of the above situation include: general poverty trap, low productivity, especially of labour, underutilized andlor unutilized natural resources, high level of illiteracy, . . ignorance, disease and malnutrition. Others are:near absence of social and physical infrastructure (like all-season roads, potable water, electricity, good schools, health centies etc) and political powerlessness, gullibility and high a level of general vulnerabi~it~.~Hence, the quest for sustainable rural development through increased agricultural productivity and improvement of the living conditioni of rural dwellers is now the focus of considerable attention. However, as John ldode observes, a great disparity exists between the promulgated goals of rural development and the actual results of implementation effork6 In view of the critical importance and role of the rural sector in Nigeria's economy as clearly and adequately highlighted above, rural development and transfo'rmation should be truly made an integral part of her overall development process. In this perspective, development experts have stressed that if "development" rn Nigerra is to take place and become self-sustainrng, it will have to start in the rural areas in general and the agricultural sector in particular. They have further observed that the transformat~onof the rural sector holds the key to economic development in Nigeria, as in most developing nations. The imperative of seif- sustaining and effectwe rural development IS further emphasized by Michael Todaro, who once asserted that "there can be no national development without rural deve~opment."~He* further stated that "the core problems of widespread poverty, growing inequality, rapid population growth and rising unemployment, all find their or~ginsin the stagnation and often retrogression of economic life in the rural area^."^ Hence the rural areas should be meaningfully transformed and provided with socio-economic amenities such as good roads, safe, clean and potable water, electricity, cottagelagro-allied industries, modern health centres, .improved housing facilities and modern agricultural facilities, among others. Such a measure will certainly and drastically reduce the current acute rural poverty by significantly increasing both rural income and output levels. This in turn would result in marked improvement in the standard of living of rural dwellers. All these will ultimately lessen the present unwholesome socio-economic disparity between the urban and rural areas. This is particularly with regard to urban-rural per capita incomes and consumption patterns. For instance, according to World Development Report for 1981, urban- rural income differential rose from 2.6 in 1960 to 4.6 in 1977.' Similarly, available statistics on urban-rural income disparity from the Federal Office of Statistics (FOS), Lagos, during the period 1980-1987, indicate that the average urban family income stood at 8116,919, while that of the average rural family stood at W,400:40. Also in 1992, the average per capita expenditure of rural households was one-fifth of their urban counterpart^.'^

Trends in Rural Development in Nigeria. Although in Nigeria, efforts at rural development date back to the colonial era, rural development inputs during the period were principally cen&+xi on the improvement of cash crops. Consequently, the British colonial government, in the main, paid patchy attention to rural development. This was because efforts in this regard were grossly insufficient and unbalanced. Under colonial rule there was minimal investment in local welfare. It is, perhaps, pertinent ts point out that during the period, rural development policies in the country were mainly governed by the socio-economic process which had arisen as a result of the Industrial Revolution. This epoch-making Revolution created high and unprecedented demand for cheap industrial raw materials and basic foodstuffs obtainable from the colonies. The period was thus largely dominated by efforts to develop cash crop production for the use of Western European industries. Development efforts, during the period were therefore geared towards opening up the bulk of rural Nigeria, considered as the reliable source of the needed industrial raw materials, and basic foodstuffs. Rural development was, as result, perceived as being more or less synonymous with encouraging the rural farmers to undertake substantial changes in their production systems. As C.K. Eicher and C. Liedholm succinctly put it: .

------cash croppiing inpartkutr beeame- a-sallent -feature- of tk rural economy as small-holder peasant farmers undertook

substantial changes in their production systems. " So, given the primacy of its commercial interest, the colonial government concerned itself chiefly with producing for export. It also concentrated on infrastructural development mainly in export-producing areas and on providing access from these areas to the coast. For instance, cocoa growing in South-western Nigeria and the groundnut trade in Northern N~geriavery much provided the impetus for the construction of the f~rst modern transportation infrastructure (railway) in the country. Not much later, the palm-belt of the South-eastern Nigeria and the coal mining areas of the Udi (Enugu) were linked up to facilitate the exploitation and evacuation of these resources. Similarly, cocoa, rubber and oil palm plantations in Western and Eastern Nigeria, were established by government and commercial interestsI2. Witb the introduction of a federal system of government in October, 1954, Special Development Plans tagged the 1955-60 Economic Development Plans were drawn by each of the three regional governments (including Southern Cameroons) and the Federal Government. Under the Plans, a network of extensive services, water resources and irrigation projects were embarked upon in Northern Nigeria. In Southern Nigeria, rural-based farm settlements at Bende, Igbariam, Iwopin, Uzo-Uwani, Ohaji, etc, were also established and over 75 per cent of the agricultural 'budgets of the Eastern and Western Nigerian Governments went into their establishment and financing. l3 This trend continued for most of the First Republic (1960 - 66) and the First NDP period (1962-68) Thus, from the foregoing, it can be rightly argued that rural development from the onset of colonial administration .up to the First NDP period was essentially characterized by increase in agricultural ------production for export. There was apparent lack of interest in the welfare of the rural people which ought to be uppermost in any meaningful and sustainable rural development programme. However, in order to reverse the poor trend, governments, military and civilian from the 1970s recognized the great need to substantially and significantly improve agricultural and rural development in the country. To this end, they introduced some radical and far-reaching measures which resulted in the formulation of a myriad of policies and adoption of well-articulated strategies and programmes ostensibly aimed at achieving the above desired goal. Yet, this remained largely ~maccomplished as Nigeria became increasingly a food-dependent country, wh'ile the living conditions of her rural population became worse. The period witnessed the creation in 1973 of the Federal Ministry of ~~riculture'~charged with the responsibility of developing agriculture and related activities. Also in the same year, the Nigerian Agricultural # and Co-operative Bank (NACB) now the Nigerian Agricultural, Co- operative and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB) and the National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP) were launched. All this was aimed at aiding small-scale farmers have access to credit and other basic farm inputs like artificial fertilizers, high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seed plants, agro-chemicals, etc, at subsidized prices. However as Omotayo Olaniyan observes, "the implementation had often aborted such noble objectives as officials charged the farmers exorbitant

Also undertaken were the Integrated Rural Development (IRD) schemes which led to the launching of the diver Basin and Rural Development Authorities (RBRDAs), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) and the Green Revolution Programme (GRP) in 1976, 1978 and 4980, respectively. The RBRDAs, one of which is the Anambra-lmo River Basin and Rural Development Authority (AIRBRDA), the central focus of this study, were established by Decree Number 25 of i5thJune, 1976, to achieve a regional and much more comprehensive rural development effort than hitherto. Modelled on the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in the United States of America (USA), their mandates at inception included expansion of agricultural output through the provision of water for irrigation from dams, wells and boreholes; provision of rural water schemes; construction of feeder roads for evacuation of farm produce, generation 'of power for rural electrification; establishment and running of agro-service centres and provision of improved seeds for farming cornmunitie~.'~Therefore, it is clear that RBRDAs' projects are very capital-intensive and highly dependent on imported technology and hardware. Research on their performance reveals that government has spent heavily on them but the results have not justified the investment. At best the impact has been marginal. As O.N. ~jokirrightly observes, between 1976 and 1982, the RBRDAs had gulped the staggering sum of 812.78 billion.I7 Also, from available evidence, the Authorities are bedeviled by large-scale corruption. All these partly explain the current calls on the government by some observers to either dissolve or privatize the Authorities. As stated above, the OFN was launched on 21 May, 1978 by the then Military Head of'State Lt. General Olusegun Obasanjo at Dodan Barracks, Lagos. It was essentially a political programme for the mobilization of the teeming population for the- attainment of high agricultural production through better agricultural practice. It was also a special programme instituted by the Federal Military Government (FMG) and not rooted in the Third National Development Plan which was being implemented at the time of its launching. Appraisal of the Programme shows that it made modest achievements before its disbandment in 1980. This is especially in the mobilization and awakening of peoples' consciousness towards farming and. increasing supply of agricultural inputs like seeds, artificial fertilizers, agro-chemicals etc, to farmers. Nonetheless, critics of the Programme described it as hugely '*( extravagant and lacking in proper role assignment, which milrtated against its continuation. The OFN was succeeded in 1980 by the GRP, which was just a change of nomenclature from it (OFN). It is, perhaps, germane to point out that the concept of "Green Revolution" (GR) was not original to Nigeria as it had been previously used in the United States of America (USA) to facilitate massive food production research in Asia to overcome famine threatening the region. Government's adoption of the concept was therefore expected to propel massive food production in Nigeria. It was also the popular view that improved agricultural productivity would + reasonably reduce Nigeria's undue and heavy reliance on oil export for her foreign exchange earnings. This was in addition to save and

. conserve the colossal amount of money spent annually on food , importation. Thus, the launching of the GRP on April 14, 1980, by President Shehu Shagari was received with great euphoria, high hopes and enthusiasm. The GRP set out to actualize, among others, three major goals. First, to increase production of food and raw materials to meet the needs of a growing population and rising industrial production. This was with a view to attaining self-sufficiency in basic staples in about five years. Second, to increase production and pr'ocessing of export

4) crops with a view to expanding and diversifying the country's foreign. exchange earnings. This was with the aim of restoring Nigeria's crop expart capability in about seven years. Finally, to increase the production of livestock and fish to meet domestic needs and create a surplus for export.I8 To underscore the importance attached to the Programme, a G.R. Council consisting of ministers whose ministries had direct bearing on agricultural production with President Shagari as Chairman, was formed to oversee and co-ordinate the activities of the different ministries in the areas of production, processing, marketing and research. Under the G.R., World Bank-sponsored or assisted Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) were established in Gusau, Gombe and Funtua, before being extended to Lafia, Bida, Ilorin, Oyo, Jalingo, Ayangba, etc. This was aimed at promoting rural infrastructural development, boosting input distribution and extension services network and disseminating improved agricultural techno~ogies.'~In addition, there was a range of input subsidies which formed an important element of the GR Programme. For instance, up till 1983, subsidies on artificial fertilizer were as high as 80 per cent of market va~ue.'~Similarly, insecticides, tractor-hiring facilities, improved planting materials and other essential inputs were heavily subsidized to enhance the production capacity of farmers. Government also intervened directly in the procurement and distribution of these inputs. For instance, in 1980, government procured and distributed to farmers, 200 tractors, 50 ten-tonne lorries, 250 mobile ridge threshers, and 250 small irrigation pumps. Other items purchased and distributed included 250 sorghum and millet threshers and 1,800 maize she~lers.~'Also procured and distributed were 10,000 breeding cattle, 10,000 tonnes of cotton cake and 5,000 tonnes of cotton seed. Also vaccines and drugs valued at 44900,000 were imported for distribution to farmers at subsidized .prices for the control and cure of animal diseases." Apart from making agricultural inputs available to 'small-scale farmers at subsidized prices, government still felt that large-scale plantation farming would complement its efforts at massive food production. To this end, the RBRDAs, which are'essential components of the G.R. Programme, were re-invigorated and more funds injected into them to enable them achieve their desired goals. Another area of government assistance and support to farmers was in the provision of more and better credit and loan facilities. Consequently, it attempted to improve and increase access to the facilities by farmers. This was to enable them improve their productwrty. Hitherto, farmers had found it extremely difficult to obtain these facilities. Consequently, the Federal Government re-organized the NACB through the opening of .branch offices in all the states of the federation. More funds were as a result made available to farmers by the government in the form of Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme (ACGS). For instance, in 1980, the sum of $430.9 million was disbursed to farmers by the b government in the form of ACGS. In 1981, the amount was increased to N33.1 million. Between January and June 1982, a total of 513 loans amounting to b415.4 million were guaranteed to farmers. From the inception of the Second Republic to mid-1983, a total credit of 44124.3 million had been guaranteed to farmers under the scheme.23 To further ensure availability of rural credit, government directed commercial banks to provide an increasing fraction (12 per cent by 1985) of their loan

portfol~o to the agricultural . sector.24 Also, the government through Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) started the Rural Banking Scheme (RBS) in 1977. As a result, commercial banks were mandated to establish

% branches in rural areas. By 1984, the number of such branches stood at 227.25All these were geared towards providing banking facilities in the rural areas as well as inculcating good banking habit in the people. On the whole, it can be argued that the G.R. Programme was a well-intended strategy towards accelerated agricultural and rural development. However, it failed to make any serious impact on either the agrrcultural sector in particular or the rural sector in general. This is. because it suffered from poor and faulty planning and implementatron. 11

Moreover, it was deep rooted in fraud as certain politicians saw it as an avenue through which to satisfy their personal desires. In 1986, government introduced the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), aimed at restructuring the economy in order to solidrfy the industrial base of the rural sector. To this end, the National Directorate of Employment (NDE), and the Directorate For Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), now called Directorate for Rural Development (DRD) were established. The NDE was well-intended and had a sharp focus, namely, to - effectively tackle the worrisome problem of vass unemployment. So, its mandate was employment generation via a series of programmes designed to create work, develop skills and support small-scale enterprises. To achieve the above goals, the' Directorate was empowered to give loans to deserving applicants, train the unemployed and assist small-scale entrepreneurs in various ways. However, in spite of its sharp focus and lofty objectives, statistics on the overall performance of the organization reveal that it has not performed well or as envisaged: This is notwithstanding the colossal amounts of money it has gulped. Its major defects include lack of quality staff and management. Also available records show that the NDE has been largely unable to cope with the needs of the ever expanding applicants in the face of seeming inadequate fund. Hence its sustainability currently appears highly questionable. The creation of DFRRI signalled the most serious commitment to rural development by any Nigerian Government. This is because it was a major programme established by the Federal Government with the aim of not only opening up the rural areas but also improving the conditions .

of the vulnerable poor. Equally, the Programme committed an unusually I high proportion of public funds to foods, roads and rural infrastructure.

I i. What is more, .it was the first serious attempt to address the problems of rural development holistically, to tackle them in the context of grassroots mobil~zation,institution-building and involvement and rn an operational framework of multi-level functional integration. In short, the Programme was so broadly conceived that it saw all rural areas as its constituency. In addition to the Federal Government, the other two tiers of government were invo'lved in the execution of the Programme. Again, statistics on the performance of DFRRl indicate that the project gulped whooping sums of money which in the estimation of Njoku, is out of tune with what was claimed to have been achieved.26 # The project suffered such major defects as imprecise and faulty goal specification, poor co- ordination and integration. Then came the Better Life for Rural Women Programme (BLRWP), which was conceived in 1987. It was mostly gender specific and was meant to improve the life of rural women. Among the major goals of the Programme, were harnessing the potentials of the Rural Women in order to boost their economic activities with a view to improving their incomes. As Njoku aptly opines, the primary objectives sf BLRWP were to stimulate and motivate women in rural Nigeria towards achieving a higher standard of living; raise their consciousness about their social,

7% political and economic rights and responsibilities; mobilize them to seek leadership roles in all spheres of national life; and educate them on such matters as simple hygiene, family planning and the importance and systems of child care.27 The principal strategy adopied by the BLRWP to actualize the above objectives was the formation of Women Co- operatives, which by 1983 had risen to 9,422 from 4123.~~ Although the Programme, while it existed, made modest achievements especially with regard to political education or enlightenment of women, the actual target -- the rural women were skipped. Apart form gulping colossal sums of money, the Programme was hijacked by position-seeking individuals. This resulted in the use of its resources for selfish and personal aggrandizement, rather than for the set objectives. Hence, it was more rhetoric than pragramatic. The Programme collapsed in 1998 and was replaced by the Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP) which later becqme the Family Support Programme (FSP). In the same vein, the FSP collapsed no sooner than it was enunciated. This was because it failed to avoid the pitfalls and mistakes of its predecessor -BLRWP. Another way the government tried to encourage agricultural and + rural development was the establishment of the Peoples' Bank and the Community Bank in 1989 and 1990, respectively. The central objective of both institutions was the provision of easy credit for rural farmers and small-scale industrialists in the country ,While the Peoples' Bank has been merged with the NACB to form the NACRDB, Community Banks are still operating in specific communities who also generate part of their capital . Whilst it existed, Peoples' Bank did not make much impact on the lives of rural dwellers as its activities were more urban - than rural-based. Conversely, statistics on the performance of Community Banks show that since inception the banks have assisted in mobilizing rural savings, some of which have been invested in the agricultural sector. This is apart from inculcating in rural dwellers disciplined banking habits. However, their impact has been largely limited by cash or liquidity difficulties and inadequate monitoring and supervision. Also established during the period for the purpose of encouraging agricultural and rural development was the Nigerian Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA), which was gazetted on December 31, * 1992. The broad aim of setting up this Authority was to exect8+-.r~e a national agricultural land development programme, with a view to moderating the chronic problems associated with low utilization. of abundant farmland. The main target of the Programme was the development of 30,000 - 50,000 hectares of land in each state during the

1992 - 94 National Rolling Plan Period. Also, it had the mandate to see to the placement of at least 7,500-12,500 farmers within the area developed. This was aimed at ensuring that each farmer lived within 3km-5km radius of his farm~and.~'Thus, the objectives of NALDA appeared to be potent in Nigeria's bid towards agricultural development, hence government invested much in it. For instance, an average of N300 million was allocated to the Authority by the * Federal Government annually in 1991 and 1992; State and Local Governments were to allocate suitable tracts of land to the Authority, in addition to token contributions towards the funding of its programme.30 By the end of 1995, NALDA had developed a total of 16,000 hectares of land, out of which 81.'1 per cent was cultivated with various crops.3' Although the Authority had been scrapped, while it existed, its performance was constrained by inadequate and untimely release of funds and inadequate farm machinery /equipment. To further improve the quality or standard of living of rural dwellers, the Federal Government has within the same period, undertaken several - rural water and electrification schemes. As a result, some communities have been provided with boreholes for potable water supply and transformers and electrical accessories for electric power supply. Yet, a lot of other rural communities currently do not have access to these amenities. Also, under the current political administration of President Olusegun dbasanjo, Poverty AlleviationlEradication Programme was introduced in 1999 to further better the lives of people, especially the rural folk. To this end, government has granted soft loans to small-scale traders and artisans in order to widen their income-generating capacities. Correspondingly, government has provided commercial transport operators with brand new vehicles (mainly buses) and motor- cycles under concessionary hire-purchase arrangement. This initiative

was aimed at creating jobs and enhancing ' the income-generating capacity-of unemployed persons particularly the youths. Laudable as this initiative appears, its impact has been limited due to the identified problem of inability to recover loans and hence make them revolving. A good number of loan beneficiaries tend to regard the loan as nothing more than free money or their own share of the so-called 8 "national cake". This of course, is the attitude of many Nigerians towards government programmes. There are also other issues like insufficient funding and corruption, which have affected the Programme in varying ways. Recently, the National Special Programme for Food Security (NSPFS) was introduced to boost farmers' overall productivity and income as well as enhance the quality of their lives. Undoubtedly, food security has instructive and far-reaching political, social and economic backdrop. Hence, food security is a goal every country strives to achieve. In the first instance, food has become a very powerful tool in both national and international politics and relations. For instance, countries that are self-sufficient in food production often send out surpluses as aids to needy and food-insecure countries. Such countries can flex their political nhscles and use their food power to influence

pppppp------depensetit nafions -if -and when the need or situation arises. For example, according to E. Onucheyo, the USA, with her workable agricultural policy, wields a lot of political influence all over the word.32 . As he further points out, the USA at a time threatened to withhold sale of .. wheat to the then Soviet Union in order to keep her (Soviet Union) in a Also, some nations Nigeria inclusive, have employed food power to win civil wars. In the same way, food crisis or shortage can bring about unrest and discontentment which is capable of destabilizing the government in power. There have been cases where food issues had toppled governments in the past. It is a truism that only a well- nourished population can develop into an economically productive and socially active citizenry capable of contributing significantly to national growth and development. To promote patriotism food security is an imperative and must be guaranteed. Food security entails making available good quality and quantity food to all at affordable price. In recognition of the above critical facts, the Federal Government in 1996, requested for the Food and Agricultural Organization's (FAO) assistance in the execution of Food Security Programme in Nigeria. Consequently, on May 11, 2000, President Obasanjo on behalf of the country, signed an agreement with FA0 which led to the birth of the NSPFS.~~The Programme is entirely financed by the Federal Government with the FA0 lending technical assistance. The broad objectives of theSprogramrneis to attain food.security in the broadest sense, and alleviate poverty in Nigeria. This is to be

w- achieved by assisting farmers in attaining their potential for increasing output and productivity and consequently their incomes on a sustainable basis. The Programme realizes that for the Nigerian farmer to improve his methods of farming and conseqyently his yield per hectare, he needs convincing demonstrations and satisfying proof of assured benefits from

------new methods. The NSPFS accordingly disseminates through participatory methods (bottom-up approach), proven and accessible technologies that will enhance crop production and incomes of poor rural and perhaps peri-urban farmers while ensuring sustainability. Currently, the Programme is being executed in 109 farming communities across . the country with each Senatorial District having a site.35 Package assistance so far given to farmers include rainfed inputs like seeds, herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers, and land preparation/ irrigated crop inputs like irrigation infrastructure, diesel pumps, petrol pumps, etc. Results thus far obtained are fairly encouraging hence the Programme holds a promise for the people. To achieve the desired impact and ensuie adequate food security for. the country, provision of an enabling environment, especially adequate funding, in addition to conducive social and political framework is essential Likewise, in a bid to further boost the production of food crops, the Federal Government in 2001, launched thb Root and Tuber Expansion .- Project (RTEP). The conception of the Project was predicated on the . success scored by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Cassava Multiplication Programme in Nigeria. The aim was to consolidate the gains of the Programme in Nigeria by focusing more on Cassava processing, utilization, diversification and marketing. The broad objective of the RTEP is to encourage farmers to massively produce such root and tuber crops as yams, cocoyam, cassava and potatoes. Funding is provided chiefly by the Federal ~overnment'with the states contributing through the counterpart fund arrangement. The IFAD lends technical assistance. The assistance offered to farmers is in the form of provision of improved and high yield varieties of tuber and root crops; provision of cassava processing machines like graters, sievers, fryers etc, and training and extension

the Federation, including Imo, Benue and Kogi states. Thus far, like the NSPFS, the RTEP has made modest achievements. To enable the project achieve the desired goal, the identified constraints of transport and logistics problem for timely operations and efficiency and inadequate funding ought to be taken care of. While admitting that the objectives of the above-adumbrated agricultural and rura'l development policy measures, strategies and programmes appear quite lofty, laudable and noble, empirical evidence would however, readily.reveal that these objectives are yet to be fully realized. Hence, these policy measures, strategies and programmes of "great expectations" have so far not been able to really come to grips with the issue of agricultural and rural underdevelopment or stagnation. Thus, the desired and anticipated effects on rural areas are yet to be b apparent. This is to the chagrin of the masses and perhaps the governments that embarked upon them. Thus, the projects and programmes have more or less proved elusive to sustainable and effective agricultural and rural development in Nigeria. This is particularly evident in the fact that food production or supply has .persistently been below the demand level. For example, while food production grew at an average rate of 2.3 per cent annually between 1960 and 1975, the demand for food grew at a yearly average of 3.4 per cent for the same - period.36Also, according to the FA0 Report of 1984, between 1971 and 1980, the average growth rate of 2.5 per cent per year in food production could not meet the 3.7 per cent annual growth rate in the demand for

food. Also, a CBN Report in 1997 : - estimated the output of some major crops in Nigeria between 1993 and 1997 at an. average growth rate of 3.0 to 5.7 per cent.37This is far less t'han what is required.

------In a bid to buffer the food supply or production deficit, governments ...... embarked upon massive food importation. Available records show that about 53 per cent of the 1.472 million metric tomes of rice consumed in Nigeria in 1978 was imported, while over a staggering sum of N2.billion was expended on food importation in 1981 alone.38 Similarly, as F.S ldachaba points out, between 1992 and 1997, Nigeria imported rice to the tune of 699,054 tonnes and about 1,608, 802 tonnes of wheat. He further states that the value of food import and live animal imports grew at the rate of 130.17 per cent per year over the period of 1990-97?' Apart from its heavy drain on the foreign exchange (forex) earnings, food importation, as earlier stated, often has certain political implications which make it very unreliable as a food security measure. What is more, food importation with its attendant rise in food prices results in hunger, malnutrition and misery among the low income urban and rural households. Another proof of the inability of thk above-enumerated policy' measures, strategies and programmes to achieve the desired results is . further noticeable in the uncontrollable and disturbing issue of rural- urban migration. This cankerworm is consequent upon the general economic stagnation of the outlying rural areas and the near absence of basic social and economic amenities there. However, other factors such as rapid population growth, soil impoverishment or poverty, inadequate

funding or government deficit financing, change in the consumption . pattern of Nigerians, the emergence of oil, among others, have been identified as playing contributory roles in the slow pace of agricultural and rural development in Nigeria. Many factors have been attributed to this poor state of affairs by researchers and commentators. For instance, ldachaba has aptly stated that:

the- - dismal- - - performance- - - - of the agricultural and rural ------sector can be attributed to serious neglect of the sector, occasioned by the upsurge in oil revenue since the 1970s, rural-urban migration of able-bodied young men and women, leaving behind an aging farm labour force, inadequate and ineffective extension services, resulting in inadequacies in the supply of farm inputs and inadequate rural physical infrastructures (sic)"' Another factor is poor policy measures. Furthernlore, as ldachaba points out, undesirable agricultural policies were at the centre of Nigeria's agricultural decline during the period of the 1940s to the 1990s". He further states that harsh policy environment, design and implementation of unworkable agricultural policies were said to have also contributed immensely to poor agricultural development. He lamented that famers and policy consumers were not highly involved in 6 the design of new policies; instead public bureaucrats, policy analysts in academia and private consultants, mainly formulate and design policies. All these, he argues, have resulted in poorly formulated policies that were either poorly implemented or sabotaged!' In the same way, it has been observed that more often than not the rural population for which the development is meant is left out of the development process. This stems from what some development planners and experts have referred to as "the confusion about tkie philosophy of rural development in Nigeria". Thus, M.O. ljere rightly opines that "rural development projects in Nigeria are more of a - response to the needs of the urban political economy than a response to the yearnings and aspirations of the rural people".'%e further states that the projects command national attention in direct proportion to the increasing severity of the problems of the urban political economy that theypare implicitly meant to He also argues that the level of integration of rural development projects is directly proportional to the "root" problems of the urban economy as perceived by the urban el~te

and their planners.45 k In order to address the problems or issues mentioned above, government introduced the RBRDAs. The idea of harnessing rivers and their basins for optimal agricultural and other uses is of great historical antiquity. The drainage basin of earliest civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and North-West India are just few examples. Similarly, in Northern Nigeria, where limited rainfall restricts the length of crop growing season, the type of crops and the yields, irrigation has been an important elernerlt in government investment policy even in the colonial times." To this end, Njoku has stated that "irrigation schemes had been prosecuted for instance, at Yau on the Yobe river, at Ebiji, east b Maiduguri, Wurno in Sokoto, in Kano and smaller ones around ~0s."~~ However, modern integrated river Basin Development is credited to TVA in the USA. This is why modern river basin planning is regarded as an American innovation. The TVA experiment has been replicated with remarkable degree of success in other parts of the world including Nigeria. Notable examples are the Hunter Valley Authority (HVA) in Australia, Plate River Valley Authority (PRVA) in South America, involving Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil and Bolivia, Missouri Valley Authority (MVA) in the USA, Danube Valley Authority in Europe located in-between Rumania and Bulgaria and Jordan Valley Authority (JVA) located between Israel and Jordan, just to mention a few. The first attempt in Nigeria to develop a basin's water resources was made by Decree Numbers 32 and 33 of 1973, when the Chad Basin Development Authority (CBDA) and the Sokoto-Rima River Basin Development

Authorityppppppp------(SRRBDA) were created. The introduction of the RBDAs in Nigeria and these other countries was not only planned as instrument of water resources development but also that of agricultural, rural and regional - development. This is because their activities are directed principally towards the rural areas and people. The changes brought about very much affect the rural man and his environment. The Basin Authorities are essentially physical regions with a dualistic environment - urban and The inhabitants of these environments differ fundamentally in standards and value patterns. Landscape, communication, accessibility, availability of basic amenities, economic conditions, all vary tremendously within the region. The presence of the Basin Authorities could be seen as a way of bridging the gap between the two societies, thereby making better use of the resources in the rural areas for deve~oprnent.~~ Therefore, the degree to which this has 'been achieved or otherwise by the AIRBRDA in its area of operation, which comprises the . states in the South-eastern geopolitical zone of Nigeria, namely, Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States, constitutes the chief concern of this study.

Statement of Problem Clearly, one of the nagging problems facing Nigeria, like most other developing countries, is how to spread to her preponderantly rural population the benefits of socio-economic growth and development usually concentrated in the urban centres. This is by considerably overcoming rural underdevelopment and stagnation. To this end, attention to the rural sector by both governmental and non-governmental .organization (NGOs) appears to be on the increase in recent times. Yet, thedesiredimp~tenthis very impatantsectac appears notto_have- been made. Consequently, the great disparity between the urban and rural areas seems to be widening. In an attempt to redress the great inequality between urban and rural areas, the Federal ~overnmentinter alia established eleven

-7 RBRDAs in 1976. The RBRDAs were established to raise agricultural productivity and income levels amongst rural dwellers. This was to be achieved through increased production of food crops and optimal harnessing of the country's water resources. Government believed that increased water supply through irrigation and crop production in intensively cultivated area could improve food crops development substantially. The RBRDAs were in addition, charged with the responsibility of stemming rural-urban flight of youths by stepping up rural income and output levels and raising the quality of rural living and working environment. This is through agricultural mod~rnization,rural industrialization, provision of employment opportunities and basic socio- economic infrastructure. It is, however, pertinent to state that notwithstanding the creation of the RBRDAs and other similar establishments in Nigeria, agricultural and rural development have not improved to the level desired. The performance of the RBRDAs has not shown much tangible results. When related to government's investments in the Authorities, the achievements in the words of Njoku pale into in~ignificance.~' i / Consequently, the expected benefits would appear to have eluded people of their -catchment areas. The expected benefits mainly include increased agricultural production, enhanced earning power and improvement in the quality of life of people through the provision of such basic amenities as motorable roads, potable water, electricity, health and educational facilities and shelter. This unsavoury and appalling state of affairs arising from the inablility of the RBRDAs to achieve their stated objectives calls for a serious evaluation of the rationale behind their (RBRDAs) establishment as agents of agricultural productivity and rural transformation. Again, despite the importance of the RBRDAs as veritable vehicles for rural

r!-q5;fllr I + e~~l~*.ht*

.

Purpose of Study The objective of this study is to evaluate the role of the AIRBRDA towards agricultural and rural development in South-easthern geopolitical zone, its area of operation. Thus, the study undertakes a b critical examination of activities of the AIRBRDA in the zone with a view to ascertaining its expected as well as actual role as a development agency. This is particularly with regard to reduction of rural poverty and improvement of the standard of living of rural dwellers. It also evaluates the prospects and problems of the Authority in achieving its statutory functions of rural development. Finally, it proffers suggestions on how the Authority could better serve its catchment areas. Consequently, the study focuses on the relevance of the projects embarked upon by the Authority to the needs of its catchment areas. It also examines the changes that have occurred in these areas as a result of the presence of these projects. Again, the study assesses the extent to which the projects have helped to improve the socio-economic conditions of rural dwellers. Also, the study focuses on the strategies to be adopted by the Authority for sustainable rural development in its area of operation.

Relevance of Study Research performs a variety of useful functions in society As Charlesworth aptly states, research arises when there are problems to solve.51 Similarly, Osuala, argues that research serves such useful functions as proffering solutions to practical problems, improving the quality of life of people and improving human knowledge5* The present study is no exception. The study is worthwhile for a number of reasons. First is that the centrality of the rural sector in the overall development process of Nigeria argues strongly and cogently for this study.The rural sector .will continue to play very crucial roles in Nigeria's overall development process. Therefore, a study of this very important sector is imperative to bring about improvements through suggestions that can engender continued performance of its desired and expected role in the development process. + Also, the enormity of the population within AIRBRDA1s sphere of influence makes the study relevant and rewarding. The overall population of the area is estimated at 12,405,044 53, with the rural population accounting for about 70 per cent. Thus, at least 8 million people are affected directly or indirectly by the activities of the Authority. Moreover, it is noteworthy, that despite government's avowed efforts to stem the tide of rural-urban drift from our area of study, the problem has remained a very nagging one. This is exemplified in the . army of youth drifting in large numbers to cities like Onitsha, Aba, - Enugu, Owerri, Nnewi, Awka, Abakaliki, Umuahia, etc. This problem is also noticeable in the entire country. This thesis will hopefully provide new insights into the dynamics of rural-urban migration and possible solutions to the socio-economic malady. I ------

Furthermore, it has been -observed that rural resea~ch-hasbeen ------I grossly neglected and fragmentary in our area of study. In spite of the availability of vast agricultural and mineral potentials, virile and dense I population in our area of study that can engender rapid socio-economic

.. .. growth and development, the region is yet to attract the scholarly research attention it rightfully deserves. It is, thus, hoped that this study will not only extend the frontiers of our knowledge of rural economics of the area, but will also contribute its quota to the current development debate in Africa. What is more, the conclusions drawn from this study will hopefully serve as an important and empirical base for people in the areas of urban and regional planning, geography, agriculture, sociology, economics, political science etc, who often show interest in rural development studies. In addition, the inferences drawn from this study are expected to advance government's future strategies and decisions on rural development. * Finally, it appears that this research work is one of the very few major works of this magnitude on the AIRBRDA since its creation in 1976. A critical appraisal of its expected role and performance so far will hopefully offer the Authority a good empirical resource for reviewing its activities, stock-taking of its operations, during twenty nine years of its existence. Literature Review

' Evidently, there is dearth of studies on the AIRBRDA. This is despite the existence of a plethora of source materials on rural development in Nigeria. Thus, it is hardly surprising that prior to now, there has been very few comprehensive studies on the activities of the AIRBRDA. The few .studies conducted on it and the other Authorities across the country were carried out mainly by agricultural and social scientists. Among such studies is 0. Oculi's seminar paper entitled 7he Political Economy of Planning the Bokolori Irrigation Project (BIP) of the Sokoto-Rima River Basin and Rural Development Authority (SRRBRDA) 1970-1980".~~The study chiefly examines the harmful impact of River Basin Projects in Nigeria on the local population with particular emphasis on the BIP. It states that River Basin Projects in Nigeria have been accompanied by much suffering, pointing out that the BIP, for instance, drowned the homes and farms of over 13,000 people and disrupted water supply to 20,000 hectares of land that was traditionally farmed by river bed irrigation down stream. Although the study is not on the AIRBRDA per se, it -provides the current researcher with certain vital information. For instance, it makes useful suggestions on how to make the River Basin Scheme beneficial to local inhabitants. S.K Saha's "River Basin Planning as a field of study : Design of a

Course Structure for Practitioners" 55 mainly highlights the need for the planning of River Basin schemes in Nigeria. It contends that the need for River Basin Planning arises mainly from the mismatch between human needs for water and its spatial and seasonal distribution. It further argues that there is a great need for River Basin planning in areas with long period of water deficits owing to inadequate rainfall. Like the previous study, the work lies outside the present study and does not shed some light on the activities of the AtRBRDA. Of more relevance, is Alfred Chima Nwaka's Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree project entitled "Water Management Procedure in Anambra-lmo River Basin Development ~uthority."~~The principal focus of the study is an analysis of the hydrological management procedures and practices in the>Authority.Also, due mainly to its limited scope, the work fails to spotlight the socio-economic impact of the activities of the NRBRDA orrits areaof operation. In 1984, again, B.C. Osakwe successfully completed a study entitled "Benin-Owena River Basin Development Authority (BORBDA): A critique of its agricultural programmes in Bendel ~tate".~'The work is a - good assessment of the agricultural programmes of the Authority in the former Bendel State. It argues that despite good encouragement to the Authority by the government through improved funding to enable it improve its agricultural programmes, the problem of food shortage and high cost of food still persisted in the area. Admittedly, the focus of the work is outside the present study but it provides useful sidelights from which the researcher can glean a few bits of information. Ttie recommendations it proffered if adopted, could improve food production and rural development in Nigeria, which is of special interest to this study.

117 1985, Patrick K. Maru successfully produced+ a B .Sc. degree project entitled "The Role of River Basin Development Authorities in Rural Development in Nigeria: A Case Study of the Lower Benue River Basin Development Authority (LBRBDA)".~' The work is a critical appraisal of the extent of success or otherwise of the LBRBDA as a rural development agency in the development of the rural areas in its area of operation. The study falls outside the geographical scope of the present work, and does not contain useful information on the activities of the AIRBRDA. Also relevant, is I.V.0 Modols doctorate degree thesis entitled "New Maradun- A creation of the Sokoto-Rima River Basin and Rural Development Authority (SRRBRDA): An Examination of the place and impact of River Basin Development Authorities on Nigeria's ~evelo~ment"."The thesis is a critical examination of the degree of success attained by the SRRBRDA and others in tackling the twin problems of food crisis and rural underdevelopment. The study argues that: although we often blame the decline in food production on marginal problems such as lack of spareparts for tractors, harvesters, ridges, etc; on illiterate farmers and corrupt River Basin officials, we do not consider the indigenes of the dams/ irr~gated agricultural sites even when it is obvious that strained relationship between the Authority and its farmers can jeopardize the agricultural aspects of the irrigated project.60 He, therefore, emphasizes the need for a cordial relationship between the various Rwer Basin Development Authorities in the country and the . indigenous small-scale farmers in their various areas of operation. Furthermore, he points out that the small-scale farmers are the true backbone of the agricultural sector as they produce 90 per cent of the food requ~rementsof the people. Modo's thesis is Gseful to the present study especially his chapter five which dwells on the place and impact of River Basin Development Authorities on Nigeria's .development. It is, however, germane to stress that the study treated the AIRBRDA in a most fragmentary and patchy form. For instance, out of the 580 pages of the thesis, only four were devoted to it (AIRBRDA). As a result, the study leaves us with scanty and incomprehensive data about the socio- economic consequences of the Authority for its areas of operation, the principal concern and focus of the present study. What is more, as a non-historian, Modo neglects the time dimension in his study. In 1986, Chukwu Awa completed Master of Science (MSc.) project report entitled "An Evaluation of the Impact of the Imo River Basin and Rural Development Authority (IRBRDA) on Agricultural Development in lmo state?' Like the previous work,.the study evaluates mainly the extent of success attained by the now defunct IRBRDA in the realization of the goal of improved food production in its area of operation. The study in spite of its limitation; provides useful data from which the present researcher can benefit. In this respect, information on crop and livestock production is most instructive and revealing. In 7986 again, A.T. Salau produced a work entitled "River Basin Planning as a Strategy for Rural Development in ~igeria".~'The study is a good account of how the River Basin scheme can be used to accelerate rural development in Nigeria. It argues that the chief effect of river basin planning has been the potential mutilation of the impact of drought or inadequate annual rainfall. It further states that irrigation has enhanced the creation of new cycles of production which allow more than one harvest in the year. According to the study, while increased yields are reported in areas of irrigation projects, certain problems have been highlighted. The study in the main, presents a broad overview of the role of River Basin scheme in rural Development. Although the study - is not specifically on the AIRBRDA, all the same, it provides the present researcher with a broad spectrum of information. For instance, it looks at issue like irrigation practices and technology, farmer participation and involvement in irrigation agriculture, improved crop yields, etc. Again in 1986, L.C. Umeh produced a paper entitled "River Basin Development strategy in Nigerian Experience: A Massive Thinking in Rural ~irection."'~The study states that the implementation of the River Basin projects has not only given rise to a range of investments such as hydro-electricity, boreholes, roads and bridges necessary to complement .- the agricultural ones, but has also provided additional returns to the society. However, the paper argues that it is debatable whether or not the achievements of the River Basin schemes in Nigeria have justified the heavy financial and other investments involved. Essentially, the work is a very concise overview of the positive impact of the establishment of the River Basin Development Authorities on Nigerian rural landscape. It only makes oblique reference to the AIRBRDA and leaves us with very inconsequential information on the socio-economic impact of the

\

I AIRBRDA on its catchments areas. Nevertheless, it illuminates the statutory functions and financial provisions of the Authority. Also worthy of mention, is B.C Herbert's "An Assessment of the Performance of the Lower Benue River Basin Development Authority (LBRBDA) Under Partial Commercialization Programme in ~igeria".? The study is principally a critjque of the performance of the Authority under semi-commercialization programme in Nigeria. It asserts that the Authority should be partially privatized to enable it perform better. Although the work has a different focus from the current study, it provides us with certain valuable background data. Also important, is Fab 0. Onah's M.Sc! thesis entitled "Administrative Constraints to Management of the Anambra-lmo River Basin ~evelopment~uthority".~~The study, in the main, highlights the administrative constraints militating against the effective management and performance of the Authority. It contends that excessive external control of the Authority runs against iFperformance. Also, owing to its limited focus and scope, the study fails to examine the socio-economic impact of the activities of the AIRBDA bn its area of coverage. Moreover, - Onah is a non-historian, hence his study is timeless. Nevertheless, the study contains certain insightful information on the present study. Its background data on the antecedents of the river basin scheme are most instructive. C.A. Ngwa's Ph.D thesis entitled "The Upper Nun Valley Development Authority (UNVDA) in the Social and Economic Development of the Ndop Area of Cameroon since 1970"~~is also relevant and useful to this work. The study is a critical review of the activities of the UNVDA in the Ndop Area of Cameroon since its creation in 1970. It examines the socio-economic transformations in the area following the establishment of the Authority. The work, though sets outside the time-frame and geographical scope of the present study, it nonetheless contains certain useful background information or data from which the present researcher can benefit. There are a few studies on the AIRBRDA which deserve special mention because they have a direct bearing on the present study and provide us with very useful material which could enhance our understanding of the internal dynamics of rural development in our area of study. These studies are: U.C Chukwumaife's "The role of River Basin Schemes in Rural Development in Nigeria: A case study of the Anambra-lmo River Basin Development ~uthority'"' and lkechi Amaefula's "Assessment of River Basin Development Authorities in Rural Development: A case study of the Anambra-lmo River Basin . Development ~uth~rit~".~~ Both studies are good efforts at ascertaining the expected role and performance of the Authority towards the actualization of the objectives of enhanced food production and rural transformation in its area of operation, since its creation in 1976. The studies argue that notwithstanding government's colossal financial and other resources in the.Authority, like in others across the country, and high expectations of the people, the anticipated and desired results such ' as improved food production, reduction of income inequality, rural-urban drift and unemployment in its area of operation, are yet to be attained. Chukwumaife and Amaefula are geographers, and as such are able to illuminate and acquaint the present researcher with some technical details of the Authority, which the latter would have ordinarily found

------dfflcult Ao- grapplewith In this perspective, data on hydro-geological ------

operations like irrigation water management procedure, earth- daam-- design and construction and land preparation, all contained in their

studies are most instructive and revealing. But regrettably, their studies I do not critically and elaborately discuss and analyze the socio-economic impact of the establishment of the AIRBRDA on its area of operation. Other works that deserve mention include P.I. Dike's "An Appraisal of Anambra-lmo River Basin Development Authority as a strategy for agricultural and rural deve~opment"~~and I.C. Alhaji's "An Appraisal of the Anambra-lmo River Basin Development Authority as a strategy for agricultural development in ~igeria".~'Whilst the former provides a critical evaluation of the role of the Authority in the attainment of the goals of improved food/agricultural production and rural transformation within its area of operation, the latter is a good critique or review of the expected role of the Authority as a stratehy for boosting agricultural productivity in its area of operation. But like the previous works, the studies patchily examine the socio-economic effect of the Authority on its area of operation.

Also relevant is R.O. Ogbo's "The Impact of the River Basin . Development Authorities in Nigeria: A case study of the Anambra-lmo River Basin Development ~uthority"~'.The study with its evaluative approach focuses chiefly on the role of the River Basin Development .Authorities in Nigeria with specific reference to the Anambra-lmo River Basin Development Authority within it's catchments areas. It argues that the River Basin schemes are aimed at raising rural output by improving the standard of living of the rural dwellers through agricultural modernization, rural. industrialization and the provision of basic socio- economic amenities. The study further asserts that thus far.the impact of the Anambra-lmo River Basin Development Authority on the target population has not been encouraging. This, it points out, is because the anticipated benefits of the Authority have eluded. the areas and their people. Though Ogbo's work is related to the present study at least in terms of focus, it however, fails to carGF;illy and objectively examine the socio-economic impact of the establishment of the Authority on

catchment areas. : i Thus, from the foregoing, it is evident that there has not been any 6 ',

detailed and comprehensive study from economic history perspective of , *'' the assessment and review of the activities of the AlRBRDA in its area of operation since its creation in 1976. Hence, the socio-economic ~, conseque~cesof the presence of the AIRBDA for the South-easterq I ' zone of Nigeria have remained under-studied. This study seeks to fill this

Scope of Study The territorial focus of this study is the South-eastern Zone o Nigeria. The region is composed of five states, namely, Abia, An Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo states, which are situated east of the Riv Niger. This region is chosen because, as earlier stated, it falls within the

area of operation of the AIRBRDA. However, a too rigid or water-tight , delimitation is not being proposed as references transcending the study area might be made whenever the need arises. I The time-span of the work is 1976 - 2001. The choice of 1976 was informed by the fact that it was in that year that the AIRBRDA was

5. established. The terminal year (2001) was chosen for two reasons: first, a period of two and a half decades of the Authority provides a good and I logical base for stock%king. Second, the time-frame appears reasonable

enough to permit * us to carefully 'and objectively examine the

perf

Methodology and Sources of Materials. Expectedly, any proper study on rural development ought to take account not just of the historical trends but such other related disciplines as agriculture, sociology/anthropology, economics, geography, political science, etc. This entails adopting a multi-disciplinary approach to make for a balanced and valid analysis of data. Studies conducted by researchers in these other disciplines tend to ignore the h~stor~cal dynamics of their subjects, thus making their studies lack time dimension. They thus tend to approach their subject only from their own disciplinary perspective which, in the main, explains only part of the problem being studied. This study, however, intends to benefit from the contributions of researchers from these other disciplines. This is in consonance and compatible with the current historical research methodology and the growing emphasis on quantitative approach in Economic History. The study employs a thematic approach. It also adopts a comparative analysis of some other River Basin and Rural Development Authorities as its tool for evaluation and impact assessment of the AIRBRDA. The data used for th~sthesis are der~vedfrom both primary and secondary sources. The former includes oral evidence, government documents and very limited archival materials. The researcher accordingly conducted personal ~nterviewswith the local populat~onof the South-eastern zone where the Authority has its projects. He also conducted interviews with serving and retired public servants especially those of the AIRBRDA and Ministries of Agriculture and Natural Resources at Owerri, Enugu, Abakaliki, Awka and Umuahia. Equally interviewed were some traditional rulers and persons from Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR) in Abuja. Oral information so far collected has been cross-checked against some written records while some opinions expressed in written records were verified against oral information. This is important to assess the validity or. otherwise of each source. Secondary sources include a corpus of literature such as books, journals, seminar papers, magazines, newspapers, theses, etc which are relevant to the subject of study. .. Organization To ensure an orderly, coherent, and empirical presentation and analysis of data, this thesis is organized into seven chapters. Chapter one is the introduction which provides the background and overview of the entire work. Chapter. two explores the ethno-geographical and economic setting of South-eastern Zone of Nigeria, situating it within the geopolitical boundaries of the country. It also gives a pre-1976 or pre- AIRBRDA ovetview of the area of study. This is essential to enable the reader to appreciate the changes that have occurred in the area as a result of establishment of the AIRBRDA. +, Chapter three looks at the coming into being of the AIRBRDA, with highlights on its creation, aims .and objectives, organizational structure and sources of finance. Chapter four examines the various projects and programmes of the Authority with a view to ascertaining their effectiveness in agricultural and rural development of the Authority's area of operation. Chapter five evaluates the. impact, both positive arid negativeI of . the presence of the AIRBRDA on the people of its area of operation. chapter six focuses on the factors hampering the effective performance of the AIRBRDA in its efforts to bring about rapid agricultural and rural development in its catchment areas. Chapter seven which is the conclusion, appraises the AIRBRDA and proffers suggestions aimed ' at improving its operation and performance. Notes Aderanti Adepoju, Rural Migration and Development (Ile-lfe, University of Ife Press, 1982) p.24. Federal Republic of Nigeria Third National Development Plan 1975-80 (Lagos, Federal Ministry of Economic Development, 1975), p. 63. U.I. Ukwu, "Co-ordination and Integration in Rural Development" Paper presented at the Workshop on Rural Development in Nigeria, Nsukka Department of Economics, University of Nigeria, 1987. A.L. Mabogunje, The Developmertt Process: A Spatial Pers~ective (London, Hutchinson University and Co. Publishers, 1980), p.30. M.O. ljere, Leadinq Issues in Rural Development (Enugu, Acena Publishers 1992) p.20; 0. Lele and Adu-Nyako "Integrated Strategy Approach for Poverty Alleviation: A Paramount Priority for Africa" African Development Review, vo1.3, No. I) 1991) pp. 1-29. John B. Idode, Rural Development and Bureaucrac~in Niqeria (Lagos, Longman Nigeria Limited, 1989) p. 1. Michael Todaro, Economics for a Developing World (London, Longman ~igeiiaLimited, 1977) p. 227. Todaro, Economic for a Developing World, p.227. World Bank, Accelerated Development in Sub-saharan Africa. An Anenda for Action, (Washington, 1981). Federal Office of Statistics, The Nigerian Household (Lagos, 1992) Carl K. Eicher and Carl Liedholm (eds) Growth and Development of the Nigerian Economv (Michigan, Michigan State University Press, 1970) pp. 1-5. 12. lkechi Amaefule, "Assessment of River Basin Development Authorities in Rural Development: A case study of the Anambra - Imo River Basin Development Authority", B.Sc Project, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus (UNEC), 1993, p.2. 13. U.C. Chukwumaife, "The Role of River Basin schemes in Rural Development in Nigeria: A case study of Anambra-lmo River Basin Development Authority", B.Sc Project, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, UNEC, 1990, p.3. 14. Newswatch, October 5, 1987, pp 21 -24. 15 R. Omotayo Olaniyan, "Performance of the Economy" in Victor Ayeni and Kayode Soremekun (eds.) N.iqeria1sSecond Republic (Apapa, Lagos Daily times Publications, 1988) p. 260. 16. The New Nigeria (April 19), 1983. 17. Onwuka N. Njoku, Economic History of Niaeria lgth and 2oth Centuries (Enugu, Magnet Business Enterprises, 2001 ) p. 214. 18. F.S. Idachaba, Food Policy in Nigeria: Towards a Framework of Analysis, Agricultural Research Bulletin Vol.1 N0.1, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Ibadan, 1980. 19. U.C. Nwogwugwu, N.C. Ebomuche and R.C. Ezeonye, "Strategies for Improving Nigeria's Rural Industrial Base" in A.E.C. Ogunna and U. Uchegbu (eds.) Local Government and Communitv Development (Owerri, Great Versatile Publishers 1997), p.120. 20. Nwogwugwu, Ebomuche and Ezeonye "Strategies for Improving Nigeria's Rural Industrial Base," p. 121. ' 21. Okion Ojigbo, Shehu Shanari. The Bioqraphy of Nigeria's First

- -

- - - Executive -Preside& fMta&nsk& tlnjiga - Ljubljana,Yugostav7a1- 1982) p.504. 22. Toyin Falola andhlius lhonvbere, The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's Second Republic 1979-84 (London, Zed Books Limited, 1985) p.124. ~hehuShagari, Beckoned to Serve: An Autobioaraphv (lbadan, Heinemann Educational Books, 2001) p.417. Nwogwugwu, Ebomuche and Ezeonye, "Strategies for Improving Nigeria's Rural Industrial Base, p. 120. Herbert. 0. Maduekwe, "Financing Rural Development in Nigeria" in Michael S.O. 0.iisa and Johnny .I. Obiukwu (eds.) Rural Development in Niqeria: Dynamic and Strategies (Awka, Mkkslink Publishers, 1992) p. 335. Njoku, Economic Historv of Nigeria ... , p. 219. Njoku, Economic Historv of Nigeria ... p. 220. Njoku, Economic Historv of Nigeria ... , p. 220. J.C. Anyanwu et all The Structure of the Nigerian Economv (1960 - 97) (Onitsha, Joanee Educational Publishers Ltd., 1997) p. 30. Anyanwu, et all The Structure of the Nigerian Economy ..., p. 30. Anyanwu, et all The Structure of the Nirrerian Economy ..., p. 30. E. Onucheyo, Political Decision in the Nigerian Agricultural lndustrv (Zaria, Tamaza Publishing Company, 1998) pp. 1-4. E. Onucheyo, Political Decisions in Nigerian... ,Pp. 1-4. National Special Programme For Food ~ecuritv(NSPFS): The Journey so far, (Abuja, Government Printer, Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2003)~p.2. National Special Programme for Food Securitv ..., P.2. M.O. Ojo, "Food Supply in Nigeria 1960-75", Economics and Financial Review Central Bank of Nigeria Lagos Voi. 15 No.2, 1977, pp 12-19. Central Bank of Nigeria, Annual Report and Statement of Account for the year 1997. Central Bank of Nigeria. Economic and Financial Review, Vo1.21, N0.2 1983, p.5. F.S. Idachaba, Desirable and Workable Agricultural Policies for Nigeria and Topical Issues in Nigerian Agriculture (Ibadan, University Press, 2000) pp.7-8. Idachaba, "The Green Revolution: A Food Production Plan for Nigeria" (Final Report) Vol. 1: Main Report (Lagos, Federal Ministry of Agriculture, 1980) Idachaba, Desirable and Workable Aariculturat Policies.. . , pp 7-8. Idachaba, Desirable and Workable Aqricultural Policies... , pp 7-8. M.O. Ijere, "Leading Issues in Nigerian Rural Development" (Unpublished material, Department, of Agricultural Economics UNN, 1981).

Ijere, "Leading Issues. ...I1 Ijere, "Leading Issues.. . " Njoku, Economic Histow of Nigeria.. . , p. 2 13. Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria.. . , p. 213. Patrick K. Maru "The Role of River Basin Development Authorities in Rural Development in Nigeria: A case study of the Lower Benue River Basin Development Authority" (B.Sc Project, Department of Geography, UNN, 1985) p.3. . Maru "The Role of River Basin Development Authorities ...I1,p.3. Njoku, Economic Historv of Niaeria.. . ,p.214. J.C. Charlesworth, Contemporarv Political Analvsis (New York, Free Press, 1967) p.53. . E.C. Osuala, Introduction to Research Methodoloay (Benin, llupeju Press, 1987) p.1. Chimaroke Nnamani, "Ndi Igbo, Can Your Generation Sustain Our Igboness?" Special Guest Lecture, First Edition of Annual Lecture Series, South-East Development Initiative (SEDI) Owerri, December 14th 2001, p.31. 0. Oculi, "The Political Economy of Planning the Bakolori, Irrigation Project 1974 -80" Proceedings of Seminar on Planning and Plan Implementation, Yankari, 12-16 May 1980, p.274. S.K. Saha, "River Basin Planning as a field of study: design of a course structure for practitioners" in S.K Saha and C.S. Barrow (eds.) River Basin Planning; Theory and Practice (New York, John Wiley 1981) p.10. Alfred Chima Nwa ka, "Water Management Procedure in Anambra- Imo River Basin Development Authority" (BSc. Project, Department of Geography, UNN, 1984). B.C. Osakwe, Benin-Owena River Basin Development Authority (BORBDA): A Critique of its Agricultural Programmes in Bendel State7'(B.Sc Project, Department of Geography, UNN, 1984). Maru, "The Role of River Basins Development Authorities. .. ," I.V.O. Modo, "New Maradun - A creation of Sokoto-Rima River Basin and Rural Development Authority: An Examination of .the Place and Impact of ~iv&Basin and Rural Development Authorities on Nigeria's Development" (Unpublished Ph. D thesis Department of Sociology1 Anthropology, UNN, I986). Modo, "New Maradun ...," p.6. Chukwu Awa, " An Evaluation of the lmpact of the Imo River Basin and Rural Development Authority (IRBRDA) on Agricultural Development in Imo State'' (MSc. Project Report, Department of Agricultural Extension, UNN, 1986). A. T. Salau, "River Basin Planning as a strategy for Rural Development in Nigeria" Journal of Rural Strategies, Vo1.2. No. 4, 1986, p.323. 63. L.C. Umeh "River Basin Development Strategy in Nigerian Experience, A massive thinking in Rural Direction" Working Paper, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, UNEC. 64. B.C. Herbert, "An Assessment of the Performance of the Lower Benue River Basin Development Authority (LBRBDA) Under Partial ~ommercializationProgramme in Nigeria" (M.Sc. Project Report, Department of Agricultural Economics, UNN, -1994) 65. F. 0. Onah, "Administrative Constraints to Management of Anambra-lmo River Basin Development Authority" (M. Sc. Thesis, UNN, 1988). b 66. C.A. Ngwa, "The Upper Nun Valley Development Authority (UNVDA) in the Social and Economic Development of the Ndop Area of Cameroon Since 1970" (Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Department of History, UNN, 1999). 67. Chukwumaife, "The Role of River Basin Schemes ... ," 68. Amaefule, "Assessment of River Basin Development Authorities. .. ," 69. P.I. Dike, "An Appraisal of the Anambra -Imo River Basin Development Authority as a strategy for Agricultural--and:@u1;71 Development" (B.Sc. Original Essay, UNN, 1992).

70. I.C. Alhaji, "An Appraisal of the Anambra-l+* *. 8 Development Authority as a strategy for Agricultu in Nigeria" (Unpublished B.Sc. Original Essay, UNN, 1982).

71. R.0 Ogbo, "The Impact of ' the River Basin Development Authorities in Nigeria : A case study of the Anambra - Imo River Basin Development Authority" (Unpublished B.Sc. Original Essay, UNN, 1984). CHAPTER TWO THE SOUTH-EASTERN ZONE BEFORE THE BIRTH OF AIRBRDA

This chapter focuses on geographical features and people of the South-eastern zone of Nigeria. It also discusses economy of the zone before the advent of the AIRBRDA in 1976, with emphasis on agriculture. his is important to enable us to really appreciate the transformations that occurred in the sector in the area as a result of the establishment of the AIRBRDA.

b Physical Features And People South-eastern geopolitical zone is one of the current six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. The other zones are North-eastern, North- central, North-western, South-western and South-south. South-eastern zone covers five out of the thirty-six (36) states of Nigeria. The states involved are Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. The region is located on the South-east corner of Nigeria. It is bounded on the west by the River Niger, which lies Delta and Edo States; on the south by Rivers State; on the south-east by Akwa-lbom State; on the north-east by Cross-River State; on the north by Benue State and on the north-west by Kogi State. South-eastern zone lies between latitudes 4'15 and 7' 05 North and longitudes 6'00' and 8' 30' ~ast.'It covers a total surface area of approximately 41,000 square kilometres,' (sqkms). The area is easily accessible by road from all parts of the country. Train services in the region are currently available in parts of Abia, Ebonyi, and Enugu states, which are connected with rail network. Air services in the area are at present available in Imo and Enugu states that have airport facilities. The availability of these transport facilities has aided in promoting economic, social and political activities in the zone through movement of people and materials or goods from one place to another. Important cities and towns found in the South-east include, among others, Aba , Abiriba, Abakaliki, Afikpo, Awka, Enugu, Isuikwuato, Umua ia, Nsukka, Ohafia, Arochukwu, (j\L P Okigwe, Oguta, Onitsha, Nnewi Owerri, -. The area had a total X1 population of about 9,246,388 in 1963 and probably between 11 and 14 million at present13with the rural population accounting for over 75 per cent. It has a population density of 247 persons per square kilometre, which is far in excess of the national average of 96 persons per square kllometre4. Generally, areas with high population density in the zone are Orlu, Owerri, Nnewi, Awka, Onitsha and Awgu. Available data show that only two states in Nigeria viz: Lagos and Kano approximate the average population density of the zone. And going by the general description of Nigerian population as comprising mainly people of young age, with only 3.3 per cent of the population aged 65 years and above, the human resource potential of the region is clearly enormous. It is also instructive that the populations of Lagos and Kano States and indeed the populations of other states in Nigeria contain a reasonable and sizeable proportion of people from the zone. The region is blessed with a number of waterways, the most important being the River Niger, the third longest river in ~frica.~0th-er waterways in the zone include Anambra, Imo, Njaba, Ulasi, Nworie, Ebonyi, Cross River and many others. Also, the region has three major lakes, namely: Oguta and Abadaba lakes in Imo State, which are important and rich tourist centres, and the Uburu lake in Ebonyi State, from which salt is mined. Some of these waterways provided, as they still do, channels of communication and trade between the various peoples of the region and beyond. Conspicuous in the

geographical landscape of the area is the absence of mountains - a situation which has further enhanced interaction and communication among the various communities of the zone. The main feature of the topography of the region is a ridge of escarpments running from the Nsukka-Udi Highlands in Enugu State southward^.^ The South-eastern zone lies within the tropical rain forest belt with high temperatures and rainfall. The region, like other parts of Nigeria, possesses two distinct seasons: a rainy season and a dry season. While the former stretches from mid-April to mid-October, the latter spans from m~d-November to mid-March. The prevailing wind during the rainy season is the south-west trade wind, whereas the north-east trade wind is prevalent during the dry season. There is a dry sp&l generally in August locally known as "August breakn7and there is another period of dry, dusty and chilly condition generally in December, January and February known as harmattan (ug~ru).~The driest month is December, whilst March is the hottest month with a mean monthly temperature of 80' F.' Humidity oscillates around 75 per cent. Rainfall peaks in July and September. The annual mean rainfall is about two metres.'' The beginning and end of rainy season in the region are characterized by dazzling flashes of lightning usually accompanied by deafening thunderstorms." Destructive wind storms are also prevalent n the zone during the rainy season. Closely related to climate is vegetation. The dominant vegetation in the region is the tropical rain forest with luxuriant and prolific growth of trees such as iroko, obeche, mahogany, oil and raffia palm, etc, the last two being the most important. Owiglargelyto Lopulatio_n pressure and ------pppppp-p-- its attendant scarcity of land, almost all the original tropical forests have been cleared to make room for settlements and farms in the region. What now exists as "forests", according to lgnatius Azubuike Uleanya, may be referred to as secondary growths which are farm fallows.'* The South-eastern zone is endowed with favourable ecological and agroclimatic conditions that can promote all-year crop production. The tremendous agricultural potentials of the region were well demonstrated during the Micheal Okpara's administration as Premier of the Eastern Region. This was manifested eloquently in the soaring success in this sector during the period. The region, in addition, has substantial reserves and deposits of oil and gas which exist nearly in all its States. Also the region is richly endowed with various minerals which form the basis for the establishment of a number of manufacturing industries in the region. These minerals include among others: b * Leadlzinc ore (Ebonyi State) 4 million tonnes. * Koaline (Irno, Enugu, Abia and Anambra States) 6 million tonnes * Coal (Enugu, Ebonyi, Anambra and Irno States) 2,245 million tonnes. * Limestone (Enugu, Ebonyi and Abia States), I million tonnes * Iron-ore (Anambra and Enugu States) 50.8 mi(lion tonnes * Glass sand (Abia, Anambra and Enugu States) substantial. * Clay (Abia, Anambra, Imo, Enugu and Ebonyi States) substantial. * Brine (Ebonyi and Abia States) substantial. * - Silica (Enugu, Abia, Irno and Anambra States) substantial. * Bentonite (Irno, Abia and Ebonyi States) substantial.I3 It is estimated that given the market value of these minerals both locally and overseas, they are capable of generating billions of dollars

- - - annuallg Also, eviden-ce reveals that large- -percentage ------of - all - oil- - and - gas ------and petrochemical business in Nigeria is in the South-eastern zone, while a great proportion of privately-owned and lgbo controlled industries in the country is located within the region. This is complemented with major trading centres especially in Aba, Nnewi and ~rjiiiha,which%f'?' b; reputed as hosting the biggest single market in the entire West African sub-region.I4 All these confer on the region considerable economic role and value in both national and international terms. Ethnically, the South-east zone is a homogenous entity. It i peopled by the lgbo who constitute one of the three largest ethnic groups in Nigeria. The language of the people of the region is Igbo, though there exists dialectal variations or differences. Marriage and Kinship bound and still bind the people together. Marriage was and still is exogamous. The people have rich cultural heritage. A good example is the Ahiajoku festival which is observed to herald the harvest season. Also, the people have entertaining traditional music and dances which b include: Abigbo, Ikoro, Ekpe, Okonko, Omabe, Ijele, Alija, Okorosha, j,p ;h,$;$;. h Nwokorobo, Owu, among others. I I The typical lgbo family is patrilineal and patrilocal. Polygyny is widely practised. Children particularly males are highly valued as they are instrumental to the achievement of lgbo "big compound'' ideal, confer social prestige, perpetuate the lineage, supply labour for the farm and provide old age insurance. Government at the lgbo village level "involves all the lineages and requires the political participation of all the male adults. Though it forms part of the village group (town) the widest political community the village or town is autonomous in its affairs and accepts no interference or dictation from any other group.I5 Economy Although, the lgbo are engaged in various economic activities, their principal and traditional occupation has remained agriculture. The sector has continued to be the most pervasive of all economic pursuits of the people, engaging the labour of men, women, and children alike, either on a full-time or part-time basis. In this perspective, some scholars have emphasized the antiquity, pervasiveness and role of agriculture in Igboland. For instance, A.G. Hopkins describes it "as the matrix in which

the lgbo economic activity is set." l6Also taking cognizance of the pride of place enjoyed by agriculture (farming) in Igboland, V.C. Uchendu describes it as "the lgbo staff of life."I7 He further states emphatically

that: I I5 to remind an lgbo that h+ Orie mgbe ahia loro (one who eats only b when the markets holds) is to humiliate him. This does not impb ,

Being in the forest belt with favourable agroclimatic and ecological conditions like adequate rainfall and fertile soil, the area is well adapted for the cultivation of such food crops as: root crops - yarns, cassava, and cocoyam; cereals - maize and rice; vegetables - melons, tomatoes, okro, African spinach, water leaves, etc; and legumes - groundnuts and beans. Main tree crops cultivated on a commercial scale are oil and raffia palms, rubber, cocoa and cashew. Fruit trees such as coconuts, citrus, pears, breadfruit (ukwa), mango and kola are also grown, but to a lesser extent. As an essentially agricultural society, land is the most essential facforofproductZxiin3he area: Because-ofthis, peopldsattackmen+tcr it is very strong. Also land tenure, that is the individuals' right and access to land forms a central aspect of the overall socio-economic arrangement. Another vital factor of production in lgbo agriculture is labour. Agriculture in Igboland, as in other parts of the country, is labour- intensive with very limited mechanization. As a result, the virtue of hard work and dexterity is valued and emphasizd while the vice of indolence is deprecated. The unit of agricultural labour is primarily the family, nuclear or extended, supplemented mainly by hired or associational labour.20 There appears to be a division of labour by which men concentrate on such activities as clearing the bush, preparing mounds and sowing seed yams in them and planting, prunning and havesting of oil palm trees. The women, on the other hand, are responsible for planting and transporting home products from' the farm especially cassava, yam, cocoyam and maize. However, as ljere points out, this division of labour is by no means rigid as both sexes may engage in the same farm operations such as bush clearing and cultivation of crop^.^' Leith Ross seems to corroborate Ijere's view. According to her, division of labour as between the sexes does not seem so clear- cut among the lgbo as among other tribes. In agriculture, division 2 2 of labour is strict in theory, variable in practice,.. . The method of cultivation is rotational bush fallow. This is a system whereby a farmer after farming on a piece of land for a year or - more, leaves the land uncultivated to enable it to recorver its nutrients and fertility. The farmer in the subsequent year would clear a new forest for his crops. The farming tools are simple and locally produced. As J.O. ljoma aptly points out, "early enough the lgbo acquired the knowledge of iron working and this helped them to overcome the ecological difficulties of the forest en~ironment."~~In this regard, the lgbo are a classical example of successful adaptation to the tropical rain forest of West Africa. The farming implements are mainly matchets, diggers and hoes. Matchets are employed in clearing the woody fallows for cultivation, .vhile diggers are used to dig up yams. Small blade hoes are deployed or weeding and medium-sized hoes for making yam mounds. However, n very few communities, large-sized hoes are used for making mounds. Zlass~cexamples in this regard are the Ezza, the expert yam producers, ~homake mounds that are unusually large. This is why in the words of Njoku they are r9 yred to as Oqu-Ukwu "people of large hoe" in some ethnographic ~iterature.~~ From the foregoing, it is obvious that agriculture has remained the zhief occupation of the Igbo. THE South-eastern Zone Before the Creation of the AIRBRDA in 1976. + It is, perhaps, relevant to first and foremost point out that the . Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970) had very adverse effect on the agriculture of the South-east zone of Nigeria as it had on other sectors of the economy. Before the war, the region had attained a very high level of development in agriculture. Mention has previously been made of the tremendous agricultural potentials of the region which were well demonstrated during Okpara's administration as Premier of Eastern Region. During this period, the region recorded towering success in agriculture and allied activities. In fact, the regime of Okpara was described as the golden age of lgbo agriculture. Also, in assessing the impact of Okparals.agrarian revolution, G.E. Okeke stated that "the revolution was vibrating throughout all the nooks and corners of Eastern

Nigeria". 25 The era witnessed the development of Farm Settlements 2 encouragement of private indigenous investment in large-scale farming, development of plantation farming, attempts at mechan~zation of agriculture and the modification of land tenure system. The overall objective of the Farm Settlement Scheme was to attract young school leavers to farming as a career, employing more modern techniques of farming under the supervision of government. By so doing, efforts were geared towards raising the standard of living of farmers and their productivity both in quantity and quality. Under the 1962-68 Development Plan Period, farm settlements were established at places like Uzo-Uwani, Igbariam, Erei, Ulonna,

Ohaji, Bende and Boki. 26 By 1968, there were more than 600 settlers in five farms. To be brief, the Okpara government accorded top priority to agriculture. During the period, food as well as cash crop production received equal attention. Rice mills were set up in rice-producing areas such as Udi, Awgu, Nsukka, Bende, Onitsha and Abakaliki, which alone had 122 rni~ls.~~Theaim was to encourage people tq cultivate rice. In the development of agriculture in the zone, government played the role of providing technical and financial assistance to interested and bona fide farmers. The overall objective was to make agriculture more attractive and profitable. To this end, people were encouraged to establish plantations, poultry farms and animal husbandry. New cash crops such as cocoa, tobacco, rubber, cashew, Soya beans, coconut, among others, were introduced for further diversification in cash crop production. In the area of animal husbandry, improved and prolific breeds of animals like sheep, goats, rabbits , pigs and cattle were sold to farmers at subsidized rates.28 There were also efforts at mechanization in the cultivation of food crops as a means of enhancing their productivity. But this had very limited effect, owing mainly to exorbitant cost of agricultural equipment

especially -tractors ------and more importantly the unsatisfactory land tenure ------system. Mechanization was limited to farming operations fwdto -De ------economical and feasible such as in rice cultivation and threshing. Mechanized weeding and harvesting had proved more difficult in yam cu~tivation~~than in other areas. However, it is noteworthy that -, improvement in the quantity and quality of palm produce was achieved

< mainly through mechanization of the extraction process. Mechanization in the palm oil industry was achieved through the establishment of pioneer oil mills. The mills brought about a more efficient method of palm oil production. It was necessary because palm produce represented about 80 per cent by value of the region's export trade. howe ever, regrettably, as stated above, during the civil war, these numerous agricultural gains were destroyed and shattered. This was because the region was the principal theatre of the war. Farmers in the region suffered terrible losses. Most of their farms were looted. Poultry farms were ravaged and birds looted. ~uilding&,heavy agricultural machinery, plants and equipment were damaged and battered. In some cases, these equipment were lost. Oil palm trees were also severely prunned, rubber trees were indiscriminately cut down and used as poles to erect huts. The plantations that escaped the devastation of the war were either abandoned or could not be maintained. They were completely swallowed by high towering weeds or bush.30 By the time the war ended on January 15, 1970, agriculture in the zone had suffered terrible large-scale devastation. Its oil palm, rubber, cocoa and cashew plantations, in addition to the farm settlements had

- been abandoned. Nearly all the birds and other domestic animals such as goats, sheep and cows had been slain. In short, agriculture in the region during period was in total ruin. The entire sector suffered a severe setback. It suffices therefore to state that facilities and infrastructure necessary and essential for agricultural development in the region were largely devastated. Consequently, there was acute shortage of planting materials, credit, tools, machinery, fertilizers and other farm inputs. Programmes initiated in the 1962-68 Development Plan to modernize agriculture and make it a viable enterprise were as a result disrupted by the war. Little wonder therefore that soon after the war there was an acute shortage of foodstuff. The situation was such that many people ,. , came to depend on the relief agencies for their supply. The immediate concern of the Government of East Central State under Ukpabi Asika, was how to reactivate agriculture in the state and restore it to its pre-war level. The need to produce enough food for a people who had lost everything including their tools became most urgent. There was need also to reconstruct the damaged agricultural infrastructural facilities including roads and bridges. As a first step towards increased agricultural production

government by Edict Number 18 of 1970 established+ the East Central State Agricultural Development Corporation (ECSADC). This body was "charged with the duty of securing the investigation and formulation of projects for developing the agricultural and animal resources of the state with a view to the expansion of production and processing of foodstuff and raw materials and for other agricultural developmentn3' The ADC was thus a multi-purpose agricultural organization with the mandate to facilitate massive production of food crops which were considered viable in the area. It was also charged with the responsibility to undertake livestock farming. The Corporation attempted to actualize these laudable goals through direct provision of farming implements, seedlings, fertilizers, fishing gear, animal feed, veterinary drugs and equipment, credit facilities to farmers and fishermen and by the reactivation of extension services among others.32 For instance, 4000 day-old chicks were distributed to poultry farmers in Afikpo Division between November 1970 and August 1971. Within the same period, farmers in the same area received from the Corporation: 40,000 seed yams, 157 bags of rice seeds, 144 bags of maize seeds, 1700 oil palm seedlings, 316 bags of 'ertilizer and several farming implements. j3 Similarly, in August, 1972, -arty-five towns and villages in Mbaise Division received the under-listed tems: 300 pick axes, 500 shovels, 5,100 Indian hoes, 200 local hoes 3nd 200 hoe handles . Also, 630 fishing nets and tackles valued at 11,428 were given to co-operative societies and fishing communities in Jkwa Division. Furthermore the UmukabiIAbueke communities in the =titi Division received nets and other fishing gears worth f 170, whilst lshermen co-operative societies in Mbaise Division got fishing (:quipment valued at f 1,000.~~ Also, in order to reduce the negative impact of the structural rigidity ;uch as the small holding system, the Corporation assisted co-operative bl+~ ;ocieties, communities, associations, etc, , could provide between P' ive and fifteen acres of farmland for the cultivation of yam, cassava, naize and other staple food crops. Fifteen acres of land was required for arge-scale farming. The main purpose of imposing minimum acreage vas to discourage fragmentation of holdings by encouraging land ,:onsolidation which could facilitate the development of commercial clgriculture. Other reasons for emphasizing land consolidation were to lacilitate economic use of mechanization of farm holdings and to ensure dfective technical supervision of farms by extension staff.35 However efforts by the ADC to increase food crop production was - oampered by the same old structural rigidity which had been the main characteristic of agriculture in the region, the use of obsolete farming 1-chnology, ineffective extension services, inhibitive land tenure system and poor transportation network. ------Therefore, achievements by the ADC in the production of- ;idequate food immediately after the civil war were not remarkable. Lack of progress was owing to insufficient financial provision and dearth of dher farm inputs like yam seedlings, fcrtilizers, farm tools and implements. The people of the region had just emerged from the most debilitating civil war and farmers had no money to revive their farming xtivities. The government of East Central State could not rely on its Internal revenue source to finance its agricultural programmes. It lepended on the Federal Government to finance its agricultural xogrammes. It depended on the Federal Government for financial issistance. But the flow of fund from the Federal Government to the 'State Government was grossly inadequate. Also attempts at creating large farms did not make any appreciable progress as was envisaged. It was in a bid to meet the challenges of adequate agricultural Aevelopment in the region that government forvlated and adopted new strategies. The strategies consisted of measures aimed at generating an appreciable increase in the income of farmers and laying proper emphasis on all aspects of the agricultural development process zspecially the hitherto ,neglected secondary process of storage, transportation and marketing. The agencies for implementing the new policy were the Agricultural Development Authority (ADA), the Ministries of Agricultural Extension and Agricultural Production and Animal Husbandry and the Forestry Commission. We shall examine the roles of these agencies one after the other in agricultural development in the region during the period under consideration.

The Agricultural Development Authority (ADA) The ADA was established by Edict Number13 of 1973.~~This was consequent upon the repeal in 1973 of the East Central State of Nigeria (ECSN) Edict Number 19 of 1970, which set up the former ADC. In his inaugural speech, the State Administrator, Mr. Ukpabi Asika, said "the aims of the ADA included mainly the improvement of agricultural production, improvement of the living conditions of farmers and creation of employment opportunities in the new agro-allied industries and

services". 37 To realize these lofty goals, government empowered the Authority to engage in the production, processing, storage, packaging, marketing, development and manufacture of agricultural products. .It was also authorized to promote activities of agencies genuinely interested in agricultural development; to enter into partnership with such bodies if desirable and to give them credit facilities to enable them execute their programmes. So, the ADA sought to popularize agriculture in the state by engaging in direct production. This was by providing farmers with inputs and other necessary facilities which they hitherto lacked and by

... demonstrating that agriculture could be a profitable enterprise. In engaging in direct production, the ADA did not intend to compete with farmers or to displace them. Rather, its intention was to complement the efforts of farmers by providing them with such services and technical expertise which they on their own could not provide or afford. Therefore, to achieve its twin goal of popularizing agriculture and stepping up food production, the Authority encouraged active participation of private business organizations and private farmers in joint venture with it. To this end, farmers were encouraged to form progressive co-operative associations instead of struggling individually against several odds. It .I was hoped that, apart from wielding great bargaining power, such associations could raise or generate capital for their operations more easily than individual farmers. Efforts to organize into associations culminated in the launching of the Farmers1 Council by the State Administrator, Mr. Ukpabi Asika in June, 1973.~~This was after similar associations had been launched at divisional and community council levels. These associations were to serve as channels of communication t etween the Government and the farmers. By so doing, they assisted to ublicize agricultural extension programmes, initiate and promote group xtivities and provide feed-backs on government's agricultural extension xtivities. This was essential to enable government asses the success or Mure of its extension services. Young Farmers' Clubs were also organized to inculcate the echniques of agriculture in the youths in the state. By the end of 1973, here were 222 clubs in the state with a membership of 5,400 young ~oysand girls.39 There were 663 group and individual projects. The srojects included vegetable gardening, livestock rgaring and planting of food crops like maize, yam, cassava and riceq4' The formation of the Young Farmers' Club was informed by the fact that in order to actualize the state's dream of improved agricultural development, the youths should be involved in agriculture. This was deemed better than flocking into the urban centres in search of white-collar jobs on leaving school. It must, however, be admitted that in spite of this Programme, most able- bodied young men and women drifted to the towns in search of jobs that were rarely in existence. In consequence, aged men and women with very low productive capacity were left on the farms. This problem has continued till date. The net result of course has been low productivity of the agricultural sector. Another area where the ADA played a vital role in the development of agr~culturein the South-east region, was the Small Holders' Scheme. In keeping with its mandate to engage in direct production, the ADA established and developed a number of agricultural projects and allied industries strategically located in various parts of the region. Many of these projects were built on existing facilities since the Authority inherited the assets of the ADC. With the conversion of the pre-war farm settlements and the Ministry farms into State farms, the ADA, had in 1973 ten farms located at Uzo-Uwani, Ulonna North, Ulonna, South Erei, Abakaliki, Ohaji, Nekede, Igbariam, NkwellelEzunaka and ~zillol~kalagu.~'The Authority cultivated each of the state farms in partnership wrth local farmers. This was in furtherance of government's policy of assisting farmers to achieve high productivity. It cultivated a port~onof the farm as a nucleus demonstration centre and allocated the remaining portion to accredited local farmers. This was under the small- holders' arrangement whereby farmers were provided with improved seed varieties, fertilizers and agro-chemicals and given agronomic advice and processing facilities. The Authority tilled the soil using modern agriculture machinery which was not affordable by the local farmers. To further stimulate primary production and increase output through mechanization in selected areas of agricultural activity, the ADA introduced a pilot tractor-hiring scheme. This scheme rendered mechanized agricultural service to farmers participating in the nucleus centre small holder pilot projects at EzilloINkalagu, Ibite-010, Uzo-Uwani and the Nigeria Tobacco Company (NTC) farms in Anambra division.42 This practical demonstration of mechanized farming, albeit, on modest scale, lessened for the farmers involved in the small-holder scheme the drudgery often associated with the use of traditional agricultural technologies. This was in addition to increasing their efficiency and productivity and making farming an attractive venture. Furthermore, the ADA set up fabrication workshops at Aba and

Abakaliki to produce farm tools and equipment for farmers. 43 The Aba workshop produced household equipment such as chairs and tables, metals doors and windows, iron beds, etc, to replace those destroyed during the war. The Abakaliki workshop, on the other hand, turned out bicycle trailers, hand carts, poultry feeders and drinkers, rubber-taping knives and feed scoops. The sum of 4452,189.82 was spent on the fabrication projects during the period. ' Also undertaken by the ADA was the Food Crops Development Programme. One of t e criticisms of the state's pre-war agricultural p( y Lac'7 policy was that it . undue or too much emphasis on cash crops at the A- expense of food crops, perhaps due to the foreign exchange earnings of the former. This gave rise to food shortage. Worse still, the large-scale devastations of farms during the Civil War helped to aggravate the problem of food shortage after the war. The situation, was, however, shortly corrected by according food production the attention and b emphasis it deserved in the efforts to boost agricultural productivity in the region. To this end, the ADA cultivated more than 4,688 hectares of cassava in its farms at EzillolNkalagu , lbite 010, Ugwuoba , Emeabiam 45 and Obiti . Cassava was and still is the major staple food crop of the people of the region. It is the source of garri, fermented cassava (akpu), starch, flour, chips, tapioca and sago and various products used in textiles, adhesives, gum and the cardboard industry. However, the industrial potentialities of cassava were not fully exploited. Furthermore, the ADA vigorously embarked upon massive rice production in a bid to make the South-eastern region self-sufficient in rice. Consequently, 1,000 hectares of rice plantation at Uzo-Uwani were rehabilitated soon 'after the war and an expansion programme involving the participation of the Japanese was worked out. In 1973, the Rice Development Unit of the ADA cultivated well over 24,000 hectares of rice.46 The Authority provided facilities for its rice cultivation to guard against crop failure resulting from drought. Indeed in areas where irrigation facilities existed rice was cultivated twice a year rather than once as was the case in places without irrigation facilities where cultivation was chiefly seasonal. Rice production has been one of the most lucrative agricultural undertakings

', in the zone. As at 1973, the Zone had many rice processing mills all over its major rice producing areas such as Abakaliki, DO-Anambra, the Imo, Mamu , Niger and Cross River Basins. The ^rice processing unit of the ADA was provided with five "satake" rice mills, four of which had already been installed at Ikwo, Abakaliki, Etiti and Uzo-Uwani. The fifth one was set up at Aguleri to maximize rice production in the areas mentioned above. Each mill had a capacity of over 1,300 tonnes of milled rice per ann~m.~~The ADA's milled and package rice was commended on account of absence of sand and stones. To further enhance cultivation of the crop, the Authority intensified its cultivation at such areas as Uzo-Uwani, lbite 010, Umumbo, Ugwuoba, . Achalla, Igbariam, Ishiagu, Odekpe, Ulonna North, lmo River, EzilloINkalagu, Abakaliki, Amaeke Abam, Ndi Oji Abam, Uzuakoli, Ozuitem and Uboma in Etiti Division. Of all these, the EzilloINkalagu farm was the most spectacular in terms of achievements. Apart from its extensive size of 4,800 hectares, it developed into a model diversified farm. The Farm undertook large-scale cultivation of other crops like cassava and maize. It also undertook garri processing, cattle fattening and market gardening . Investment by the Authority in rice in 1973 stood at N1, 419,086.44.~~Small holders working in partnership with it (ADA) under its Nucleus Centre Small Holders1Scheme succeeded in cultivating well over 24,000 hectares. Similarly, the Authority, through the Maize Development Unit, embarked upon the cultivation and processing of maize into flour and livestock feed. Apart from its food and nutritive value, maize is useful in the production of syrup, adhesives, livestock feeds, dextrins and paper. However, the quantity and quality of maize produced during the period could neither satisfy local needs nor industrial uses. Also, the ADA undertook yam cultivation. But this was to a much infinitesimal extent. Although yam was one of the most important food crops in the Zone, it appears to have received much less official attention than such other food crops as cassava and rice during the period under review. Available evidence would suggest that production of the two other crops somewhat overtook yam production in the region. Worse still, yam was not included in the list of food crops to be experimented upon for large-scale cultivation by the Authority. The reason for this was that, unlike cassava and rice, the required machinery for mechanized yam production was not available. Hence, the crop, like I cocoyam, was mainly cultivated by traditional methods. However, the ADA provided necessary inputs and agronomic advice to farmers in the rich alluvial riverine areas of Anambra, Niger and Oguta and ecologically and agroclimatically favourable areas especially Abakaliki, where massive yam cultivation was restricted. Equally noteworthy was the Cash Crops Development Programme of the Authority. Cash crops, because of their foreign exchange earning capacity, received special attention in the region. For instance, tree crops got an allocation of N8.8 million in the East Central State's 1970 - 74 Development Major cash crops that engaged the attention of the ADA were oil palm, cashew and rubber. Let us briefly examine each of these major cash crops. Oil Palm As earlier stated, the oil palm industry which was the largest tree crop industry in the Zone was severely hit by the civil war. But it made quick recovery through the efforts of the ADA and other government agencies. The ADA rehabilitated many of the state-owned plantations. The rehabilitation scheme involved the felling of wild oil palm trees and replacing them with high-yielding Nigerian Institute For Oil Palm Research (NIFOR) species and providing participating farmers with fertilizer and cover crops. More than frC500,OOO was spent on oil palm rehabilitation in the state.50 Furthermore, the Authority considerably encouraged private and corporation participation and control of the industry which had proved economically viable. Thus, the growing of the oil palm was largely under private control. However, the ADA handled the processing aspects of the crop in order to encourage farmers to produce more palm fruits. It also purchased farmers' palm fruits for processing at its various mills. This was in addition to buying the palm oil from the villages so as to minimize the difficulties of transportation and marketing. During the period, the ADA opetated nineteen oil mills. Also, modern small-scale palm oil presses were installed to handle farmers' oil palm plots dotted all over the region. In addition, small-scale cracking machjnes were installed to take care of farmers' palm kernels in the villages. Similarly, the Authority's palm oil mill development unit installed a palm oil upgrading and bottling plant in Enugu. The plant refined palm oil to provide special edible oil. The rate of production of this grade of oil was fifty tonnes a month with sales averaging N7, 500 per month Cashew - Another cash crop of considerable economic potential was cashew. The ADA had its major cashew plantations at Oghe, Mballa and Oji River. These plantations had suffered the devastation of the Nigerian Civil War but were reactivated in 1973. The Oghe plantation produced processed-fried as well as unfried cashew nuts. In January 1973, the factory handled 702 tonnes of raw cashew nuts, out of which 494 tonnes 7 were purchased from private farmers. The ADA's packaged cashew nuts were in great demand. But it was not possible for the Authority to meet the high demand for the product. The reason for this was the dilapidated dnd faulty nature of its decorticating machine which needed -eplacement. In June, 1973, a new machine was purchased and nstalled to enhance efficiency and productivity of the factory. During this 2eriod, the ADA had invested the sum of N30,067 in the cashew ndu~tr~.~~ 3ubber Although the rubber industry appeared to have lost it initial vitality ..md attraction due to the debilitating effect of the civil war, serious efforts %veremade to reactivate it at the end of the war. To this end, the ADA

xquired and rehabilitated about 93,240 hectares+ of rubber in various ;)arts of the state. The plantations were located at Obiti and Emeabiam

I:I Owerri Division, Amaeke Abam and Ndi Oji Abam in Ohafia Division ,~ndOhaji in Oguta ~ivision.~~The Authority also assisted rubber farmers

1-1 the region in the exploitation of their mature rubber plantations. In iiddition, it provided processing facilities for their latex. Available widence shows that the ADA produced rubber sheets used locally by i Jgochukwu and Michelin factories. The Authority equally established Crumb Rubber Processing Factory at Nekede rn Owerri Urban Division fxthe fullest exploitation of its (ADA) plantations as well as the produce f-om local farmers. Investment in the project during the period stood at - i~298.356.33.~~ Furthermore, the ADA engaged in livestock development. It cjperated commercial livestock projects at EzilloIN kalagu, (Ishielu), /I,dada (Nsukka), Og he (Udi), Abakaliki, Nkwelle IEzunaka (Anambra),

E nd Nekede (Owerri). Ezillo INkalagu, and Adada were cattle fattening

L nits. The Oghe farm specialized in broiler production and processing. It 1 roduced 200 dozens of eggs daily; 7,000 broilers and twenty porkers weekly. The poultry unit of the Abakaliki farm had 5,900 layers ( 64 '*C,+Jj 1 \4; 4,500 table eggs a day and 500 broilers per week. The Nekede farm ' D. produced day-old chicks for sale to farmers. During the period, 4,000 day-old chicks were hatched per week for sale to farmers and for the stocking of other ADA's farms? Also in September 1973, the Authority established a paper-pulp plant in Enugu to producer empty cartons for packing eggs. The plants turned out 38,000 cartons a month, using waste papers collected from government offices and printing houses. The production target of the plant was 500,000 cartons per annum or approximately 42,000 monthly. A similar plant was also installed at Aba. But the target was hardly met. # The ADA also launched a Cold Store Complex in 1973 in ~nu~u.'~ The Store was initially established in 1962 by the Eastern Nigeria Development Corporation (ENDC) and was reactivated in 1971 by the ADC - the forerunner of the ADA at a cost of 8121 1,090.~~The Cold Store provided a retail outlet for some of the Authority's products such as meat, packaged rice, corn flour and cashew nuts. The Store also had an ice block making unit which was established in 1972 to provide cooling facilities for drinks and perishable food, especially in areas where refrigeration facilities were not readily available. The unit was expanded to produce forty-five ice blocks daily. Total investment in this regard stood at N20,I28.74.58 In addition, the ADA embarked upon livestock facilities feeds development. This was aimed at considerably reducing the prices of feeds by increased production using local ingredients. Hitherto, high cost of livestock feed and the frequent shortage of feeds had prevented many farmers from embarking seriously upon poultry farming. As a result of the ever-increasing demand for livestock feeds, the Authority established a feed mill at the "Ninth Mile Corner" near Enugu with a production capacity of 12,000 tonnes per year. Another livestock mill was w established at Nekede near Owerri. Like the first one, the mill had a production capacity of about 12,000 tonnes annually. The aim was to supplement the mill at thdl~inthmile Ministry Of Agricultural Extension In recognition of the critical importance and role of agricultural extension service in agricultural production, the Ukpabi Asika administration in 1973 created the new Ministry of Agricultural Extension. This was as a result of the split of the former Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources into two ministries -- Ministry of Agricultural Extension and that of Agricultural Production and Animal Husbandry.The creation of the new Ministry of Agricultural Extension was principally motivated by the desire to bring about modernization of agriculture in the state. Accordingly, efforts were geared towards adequate and proper introduction of farmers to new and scientific methods of farming. This was with a view to improving their productivity. Before this period, this had proved very difficult. The contributions of the new Ministry to agricultural development in the Zone could be looked at under the following broad headings: Fertilizer Promotion Programme Under this Programme, the Ministry sought to popularize the use

.. and application of fertilizers in farming activities amongst local farmers. This was in an effort to increase their crop yields. Consequently, it vigorously carried out fertilizer promotion campaigns. It also established numerous fertilizer demonstration plots measuring between 0.2 and 0.8 hectares in different parts of the Zone. Similarly, the Ministry conducted 1,000 fertilizer demonstrations in farmers1plots during the period. On the whole, it expended the sum of 44741, 860 on the Programme, with more than 100,000 farmers receiving fertilizer ed~cation.~'Twenty per cent of them immediately became regular and accustomed users of fertilizers. 'i To make the input easily available and affordable, the Ministry opened fertilizer stores at Enugu, Umudike, Abakaliki, Orlu, Awka, Aba, Nsukka, Owerri, and ~gidi.~'There were also seventy three sub-stores located in various parts of the Zone. The product was heavily subsidized in all the stores as it was sold to farmers at fifty per cent less than the market price. Food Crops Development Programme Like the ADA, the Ministry of Agricultural Extension embarked upon food crops development programme. The strategy it adopted in this regard was to organized farmers effectively to grow essential food crops such as rice, cassava and maize on a large-scale. The' Ministry provided them (farmers) with all necessary inputs and agronomic advice. Under the Programme, the Ministry obtained up-to- date high-yielding crop varieties, multiplied and distributed same to genuine farmers for mass food production. For instance, in 1974, the Ministry procured and distributed several bundles of improved cassava stems and seed varieties to farmers. Also, it established a total of 277.2 hectares of maize and 182 hectares of rice multiplication plots at various centres in the state to enhance the seed multiplication scheme!* Soil Conservation and Irrigation Schemes The Ministry of Agricultural Extension also undertook soil conservation and irrigation projects. This was necessary to mitigate the harmful effects of soil in the state. The effects of soil erosion included steady reduction in fertility of soil and diminution of cultivable land. The areas with serious erosion problems included Agulu Nanka, Amucha, Ozuitem, Ohafia, Abiriba, etc. Of these, the Agulu Nanka was the most serious as it has continued to be. So serious was the problem in the area that an anonymous concerned citizen in 1974 called on the State Government to urgently come to the aid and rescue of the community.63 The Measures employed by the Ministry in battling the erosion menace during the period included, among others, construction of concrete structures and drainage channels, ridging, contour ploughing, effective use of cover crops and controlling the extent and timing of bush burning However, available evidence would suggest that the above methods achieved very marginal results. This is evident in the fact that the South-east zone is still battling with the problem of erosion. Also executed were minor irrigation works to ensure double cropping on arable land. Furthermore, irrigation projects at Ifite-Ogwari in Uzo-Uwani, lboko in Izzi, Item, Ikwo, Igbere, among others, which were destroyed by the war, were reconstructed and rea~tivabd?~ Tree Crops Extension Programme Under its Tree Crops Extension Programme, the Ministry of Agricultural Extension provided various kinds of assistance to aid farmers rehabilitate their rubber holdings. By 1973, the Ministry had 103,000 rubber seedlings in its nurseries for the rehabilitation of farmers' p~antations.~~It also provided them (farmers) with necessary tapping equipment. The Ministry in addition planned to effect the establishment of 4,000 hectares of rubber plantations under the small-holders' scheme during the 1970-74 Development Plan. Furthermore, it planned to establish 8,000 hectares of small-holder cocoa plantations during the same period. But from available evidence, all this was not executed. Ministry of Agricultural Production and Animal Husbandry This Ministry also contributed to agricultural development in East Central State. First, it encouraged massive cultivation of staple food crops such as cassava, rice, maize, yams, etc. Thus, through its input distribution and multiplication scheme, it assisted farmers with improved and high-yielding varieties of seeds, seedlings and stems. In addition, the Ministry installed grain storage silos in the major ~naizelriceproducing state farms. This was in furtherance of government i~olicyof providing storage facilities for the preservation of farm products. - - wo of these silos were first set up at Ezillol Nkalagu state farm, three at he "Ninth Mile Corner" (near Eungu), while fifteen others were later at various places. Hitherto, a high percentage of staple food ~roducewas'lost annually due to deterioration as a result of absence of ;torage facilities. The sum of P1206,OOO was spent on grain storage .aci~ities.~~ Also, like the Ministry of Agricultural Extension, the Ministry of 4gricultural Production and Animal Husbandry engaged in fertilizer jromotion programme. Accordingly, it conducted several fertilizer demonstrations in farmers' plots. The principal aim here was to further popularize the use and importance of fertilizer amongst farmers with a view to raising their productivity. Furthermore, the Ministry massively engaged in the development of animal husbandry and veterinary services. As previously pointed out, East Central State suffered heavy losses during the civil war. The State lost about N50 million worth of livestock during the war.67The Livestock and Veterinary Division alone recorded war damages estimated at more than N2.5 On the whole, thirty-five Veterinary Centres were ravaged. To rebuild these damaged facilities and restore livestock and veterinary services in the state, the Ministry in 1973, expended nearly N2

- - - -millton.- Thebre;tkdowa -cornprisec~M240,000on veterinary- -drugs, - - - N100,000 on veterinary and livestock manpower training and development, W100,OOO on animal and animal products inspection, N600,OOO on livestock development and 44378,000 on rebuilding fifteen Veterinary Centres in fifteen divisions of the State. Some these were A lkpo, AjalliINawfia, in Aguata Division, Arochukwu, Enugu-Ezike in Icbo-Eze Division, Ehamufu in Isi-Uzo Division, Ezzikwo, Ezzamgbo in Isielu Division, Ohafia and Onitsha, which were are different stages of rcconstru~tion.~~in order to develop animal farming in its various rE mifications and ensure high productivity, the Ministry set up five broad units; namely: Veterinary Public Health, Clinical Services, Preventive aiid Advisory,. Training and Investigation and Livestock and Poultry Edension Services. It was also engaged in measures to control and e:adicate animal diseases through a regulated system of medication i~cluding vaccination and also by maintaining a strict medical s:~rveillanceon .imported animals. + Modern abattoirs were built in such major towns as Enugu, Umuahia, Owerri, Onitsha and Aba with facilities to examine animals p .ior to and after slaughtering. Similarly, slaughter houses with lairages wre constructed at Abakaliki, Nsukka, Afikpo and Aguata, at the cost of R2 million.70 In pursuit of the modernization policy in the livestock and vderinary services, government reconstructed veterinary centres in the twenty-three other administrative divisions of the State at a total cost of &300,000.~'Also built were rural Veterinary Centres at the community level. In all, there were thirty-eight Divisional Veterinary Centres and t\:enty-three rural Veterinary Centres in the State. In 1973, these centres

H ere re-equipped at the cost of ~1430,000.~~ Furthermore, livestock and poultry demonstration farms were set us at Agbogugu in Awgu, Aba, Afikpo, Agu-Awka, Urualla in Orlu, Prochukwu, Ogbaru, Opi in Nsukka and Ozubulu in Nnewi Division at a total cost of N1,125,000.~~Also control post for medical surveillance over ti ade cattle were established in Aba, Ehamufu, Nkalagu and Onitsha. Efforts were als PCfind a market for the well-flayed hides and skins v hich became a big waste during thr: This was because the A lkpo, Ajallr/Nawf~a,in Aguata Division, Arochukwu, Enugu-Ezike in Icbo-Eze Division, Ehamufu in lsi-Uzo Division, Ezzikwo, Ezzamgbo in Iselu D~vision,Ohafia and Onitsha, which were are different stages of re construction.69 In. order to develop animal farming in its various rz m~ficationsand ensure high productivity, the Ministry set up five broad uiiits; namely: Veterinary Public Health, Clinical Services, Preventive a,~dAdvisory, Training and Investigation and Livestock and Poultry Edension Services. It was also engaged in measures to control and e adicate animal diseases through a regulated system of medication irduding vaccination and also by maintaining a strict medical s rrveillance on imported animals. + Modern abattoirs were built in such major towns as Enugu, huahia, Owerri, Onitsha and Aba with facilities to examine animals p lor to and after slaughtering. Similarly, slaughter houses with lairages were constructed at Abakaliki, Nsukka, Afikpo and Aguata, at the cost of bZ mill~on.~~In pursuit of the modernization policy in the livestock and veterinary services, government reconstructed veterinary centres in the twenty-three other administrative divisions of the State at a total cost of &~00,000.~'Also built were rural Veterinary Centres at the community level. In all, there were thirty-eight Divisional Veterinary Centres and t\/enty-three rural Veterinary Centres in the State. In 1973, these centres viere re-equipped at the cost of ~1430,000.~~ Furthermore, livestock and poultry demonstration farms were set us at Agbogugu in Awgu, Aba, Afikpo, Agu-Awka, Urualla in Orlu, Frochukwu, Ogbaru, Opi in Nsukka and Ozubulu in Nnewi Division at a total cost of N1,125,000.~~Also control post for medical surveillance over tt ade cattle in Aba, Ehamufu, Nkalagu and Onitsha. Efforts were for the well-flayed hides and skins v hich became a big waste during thr: p~riod.~~This was because the

I industries that utilized them (hides and skins) were destroyed during the war. It was encouraging to note that the incidence . - of animal diseases was markedly reduced with intensified vaccination of animals within the State. For instance, in the later half of 1973, 1,982,649 animals were ~noculated.Slaughter animals inspected during the same period included 45,613 heads of cattle, 50,285 goats, 11,774 sheep, 5194 pigs and 3,450 others including rabbits.75 Also, the Ministry of Agricultural Production and Animal Husbandry encouraged poultry farming through the-day old chick subsidy scheme. This scheme afforded a poultry farmer the opportunity to purchase day - old chicks and feeds at reasonably subsidized prices. Consequently, many farmers availed themselves of the opportunity and took to poultry farming, which soon became a worthwhile venture in most parts of the State. To further ensure stable progress in animal husbandry, farmers were advised to have regular consultations with the livestock and veterinary extension staff in their respective areas. Government also made attempts at the revival and development of the fisheries industry. The damage to government fisheries extension establishments during the civil war was estimated at ~72,000.~~The private sector, however, suffered much more than this as fishermen lost almost all their fishing nets, canoes, processing equipment and houses at the f~shingports. As a matter of fact, it was not possible to estimate the actual loss to the private sector. In short, the industry in the State could rightly be described as starting from scratch after the war. Government objectives in fisheries development in the state were geared towards the attainment of the highest level of fish production.77 This was in order to provide a steady source of good quality animal protein at affordable prices for local consumption. Next was to make hing a lucrat~veoccupation for fishermen in the State. The primary sk of government was, therefore, the rehabilitation of fishermen by oviding them with proven high quality fishing gear and good ocessing kilns for smoking the fish caught. Under this rehabilitation ogramme, government received a donation of 8755 nylon nets with xessary mounting accessories valued at N50,000 from "Save the hildren Fund" for distribution to fishermen. A total of 109 fishing ~mmunitiesand organizations and seventy-four families were provided

ith fishing materials under the programme. 78 Three modified Altona- pe'smoking kilns were also built with funds provided by "Save the hildren Fund" at Akili-Ogidi and Odekpe in Ogbaru Division and atallah

I Olumbanasa in Anambra Division. These kilns which were capable of andling a half-tonne of wet fish at a time, were built for the use of the ifferent fishing communities. The aim here was in order to encourage ollective processing. Plans were also made to establish additional kilns ~tother suitable places of high fisheries activities. As well, there was a Fish Stock Improvement Programme aimed at insuring that the right type and quantity of fish was available to be aught by the fishermen. A pilot indoor hatchery system valued at J54,000 was constructed at ~guta.~'The hatchery produced 60,000 fish ngerlings of selected species per annum. These were used to ehabilitate the State's non-productive lakes and to replenish the over :xploited ones. The supply of good quality fishing materials and stocking of the 3kes and other enclosed bodies of water would be meaningless if the shermen were not taught the right methods of fishing. To this end, pvernment immediately established a Gear Demonstration and Control iection. The Demonstration Unit of the Section taught fishermen through ve demonstration on how to use the newly introduced nets. The Control Unit ensured that noxious fishing methods such as the use of fish poisons, explosives and small mesh size nets were not adopted. Only one unit of the Gear Demonstration and Control Section was established at Onitsha on the River Niger. Additional units, were however, planned for other rivers in the State. Furthermore, fish culture through the development of fish production in natural flood ponds, artificial fish ponds and irrigation reservoirs was undertaken. Thus, a Fish Culture Branch was established at Umuna in Okigwe Division. The Division operated a Fish Culture Demonstration and Hatchery Station. This station provided facilities for the training of private fish farmers on fish culture praytices and produced fish fry and fingerlings of local and exotic species used to stock ponds and reservoirs in the State. The Station which consisted of thirteen hatchery ponds was reconstructed at a cost of N70,000 and commenced operations in 1971.80 The Station's annual fry production was estimated at I5,OOO1 from which1 young fishes were supplied to fish farmers to enable them stock their ponds and reservoirs. In addition to engaging in fry production and distributions, the fish culture branch offered advisory service for prospective fish pond owners. Government provided technical assistance for the inspection, survey and planning of fish pond sites and approved ponds. By 1973, about seventy locations in various divisions of the State were surveyed by the fisheries division for the establishment of fish ponds. Also, nearly twenty private fish ponds were constructed under the supervision of the fish culture extension staff. These fish ponds included three at Umudike in Umuahia, two at Uboma, Etiti Division, one at Agulu - Ezechukwu in Aguata, seven at Uturu in Okigwe and one at Mgbe, Orlu. Capital investment on fishery in 1973 totalled W49,I 00. Out of this sum, the Federal Military Government contributed about 81121,046.~' Forestry Government forestry development policy was aimed at sustaining its agro-based economy and the establishment of enough timber resources to satisfy the needs of domestic wood consumption and those of the wood-based industries. The above was in addition to the conservation of the wild-life heritage. There were therefore intensified attempts at soil conservation, woodland regeneration and expansion and preservation of wild-life, which were developed for protein production, recreation and tourism. Forestry establishments in the State suffered extensive damage during the civil war. The Enugu Zoo alone suffered losses estimated at ~400,000.~~At the end of the war, a capital investment of N2,078,650 was made on forestry development in the ~tate.'~The Federal Military Government contributed ,nearly 73 per cent of the amount. During the period, government developed twenty-one Forest Reserves, prominent among which were Mamu River Forest Reserve in Njikoka division, Umuahia lbeku Forest Reserve, Oji River Forest Reserve in Udi, Ohaji Forest Reserve in Oguta division and Ubibia Forest Reserve in Bende division. There were also plans to create and constitute more Forest Reserves in the State through the acquisition of lands, especially the unarable type and converting them into Forest Reserves. Communities were expected to play a major role in forest acquisition and regeneration in the State. By 1973, more than 16,000 hectares of marginal or derelict land were offered to the State Government by various communities for reforestation or afforestation. Of these, nearly 8,000 hectares were planted with different species of tree seedlings. Also, the 23.2- hectares Zoo in Enugu, which as stated above was affected by the civil war, was revived. As a result, it was equipped with a wide variety of rare plants and animals which offered educational and -ecreational satisfaction to tourists and the general public. For instance, xch rare animals as leopards and elephants were in the Zoo. In addition,a Game Reserve and a National Animal Park in Anambra and NsukkaJUdi areas, respectively, were estab~ished.~~ Government as well engaged in massive planting of tree as a measure of combating soil erosion in several areas of the State. During the period, about thirty-four, hectares of eroded land mainly in the areas of Aguata, Amachara in Umuahia and Ngwo Asa in Udi were planted with gmelina and cashew trees to check erosion. Furthermore, in 1974 - 75, efforts were made to tackle the erosion problems in such areas as AgululNanka in Aguta and Njikoka divisions, lmol~zi&na/~nichain Mbaise division, Nkissi in Onitsha and Alor/Nnobi in ldemili di~ision.'~ From the above survey, it becomes evident that sustained and concerted efforts were made to develop and encourage agriculture and allied activities in South-eastern Zone of Nigeria during the period under review. The most obvious in this regard would appear to be the emphasis on food crops development. This was in an effort to meet the food requirements of the zone and correct the pre-war imbalance in the primary production which unduly and heavily favoured tree crops development. Yet, from available evidence, there was the noticeable -. irony of rising food price in the face of serious effort to increase food production. The principal explanation for this state of affairs was inflation which had hit the entire world economy. It is, perhaps, germane to point out at this juncture that the agricultural development programmes embarked upon by the East Central State Government came to a close in February 1976. This was as a result the creation of seven additional states by the Federal Military Government (FMG) under Bridgadier Murtala Ramat Mohammed. This exercise split the former East Central State into two - Anambra and lmo Ir States. However, in a bid to further improve agricultural and rural development in the South-eastern Zone, the FMG in June the same year, established the Anambra -Imo River Basin and Rural Development Authority (AIRBRDA). This will form the central focus of the next chapter. Notes G.E .K Ofomata, "lntroduction" in G. E K Ofomata (ed.) of the Iqbo Nation (Onitsha, Africana First Publishers Limited, 2002) p. 1. Ofomata, "lntroduction" G.E.K Ofomata (ed.) A Survey of the Igbo Nation, p. 1. A. lkechukwu Okpoko, "The lgbo State Systems1' in J. lsawa Elaigwu and Erim .O. Erim (eds.) Foundations of Niqerian Federalism: Pre- Colonial Antecedents (Abuja , National Council on Intergovernmental Relations, 1996) p.82. 8 Nnamani, "Ndi Igbo", p. 31. Njoku, Economic History of Niqeria . . . ,p.6. B. Floyd, Eastern Nigeria, A Geographical Review (New York F Praeger Publications, 1969) p. 96. E. E.Emeghara, "The Growth and Development of Owerri as an Urban Centre (1902-1991)", (M. A Project Report, Department of History, UNN, 1997), p. 17.

Emeghara, "The Growth and Development of Owerri . . . , p.17. Imo State Handbook (Owerri, Ministry of Information and Culture 1990) p. 16. N.P Iloeje, A New Geography of Nigeria (London, 1970) p. 50. Imo State Handbook, p.16. lgnatius Azubuike Uleanya, "Missionary Activities in Northern Ngwan(B.A.Thesis, Department of History , UNN, 1978), p. 1.

Nnamani, "Ndi Igbo", p. 33. Nnamani, "Ndi Igbo", p. 31. V. C. Uchendu, "The Igbo of Southeast Nigeria (New York Rinehart Holt and Winston , 1965 ), p. 41. A.G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973). Uchendu, The Igbo of Southeast Nigeria, p.30. Uchendu, The Igbo of Southeast Nigeria, p. 27. M.O. IjerelUTheAgricultural Economy of Igboland" lgbo Economics paper presented at the 1989 Ahiajoku lecture (Onugaotu) Colloquium, Owerri, Ministry of Information & Culture, 1989, p. 33.

Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria..., p.37. ljere, "The Agricultural Economy of Igboland," p. 34. Sylvia Leith Ross, African Women: A Study Of The Ibo of Nigeria (London, 1939) pp.2-5. J.0 Ijoma, "lgboland: A t-listorical Perspective", G. E. K Ofomata b (ed.), A Survey of the Igbo Nation, p. 42. Njoku,-- Economic History of Nigeria" . . . , p. 13. G.E. Okeke, Minister of Economic Planning, Speech during the Presentation of Eastern Nigeria Development Plan 1962-68. Annual Report Agricultural Division 1961- 62, First Progress Report Eastern Nigeria Development Plan, 1962-68 Annual Report for Agricultural Division, 1961-62, p.10. Annual Report for Agricultural Department, 1957-58, p.28 Dr. Bede. N. Okigbo, "The need for Dynamic and Effective Agricultural Development Policy for the East Central State" in M.O. ljere (ed.), Prelude to the Green Revolution in the East Central

-State of Nigeria (Enugu, Nwamife Publishers, 1W2), p.35. lkenga R.A. Ozigboh, A History of laboland in the 2oth centurv (Enugu, Snaap Press, 1999) P. 187. Dr. Bede. N. Okigbo, "Present Policy and Structure of the Agricultural Development Corporation: As assessment and Recommendations" M.O. ljere (ed.) Prelude to the Green- Revolution... , p .70. East Central State Government Plans for Farmers and Fishermen In Government Publications (ECS) NAE Box 149 (Government Printer, Enugu, 1972) p.3. Paul Obi-Ani, Post-Civil War Social and Economic Reconstruction of Igboland: 1970-1983 (Enugu, Mikon Press, 1998) p.47.

Obi-Ani, post-Civil War Social and Economic Reconstruction.. . , p. 47. Three Years After the Civil War, Official Document Number6 of 1974, pp. 40-41 . &ricultural Development in East-Central State (Enugu, Government Printer, 1974) p.6. "Revolution in Agriculture", The Renaissance, 0ctober'9, 1974,p.1 . Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.7 Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.7 Interview with Mr. G.C. Egbuchulam, C. 58 Years, Chief Agricultural Superintendent, Ministry of Agriculture, Owerri at the Imo State Secretariat Owerri, on 12 May, 2003. Interview with Mr. E.N. Agbo, C. 57 Years, Principal Agricultural Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Enugu, at Enugu State Secreteriat, Enugu, on 17 May, 2006. Agbo, Interview cited. "ADA Projects Launched", The Renaissance, October 4, 1974, p.1. "ADA Projects Launched", p. I. lntereview with Mr. B.C. Chukwu, C. 54 Years, Chief Agricultural Superintendent, Ministry of Agriculture Owerri, at Imo State Secretariat Owerri, on 12 May, 2003. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p. 15. &ricultural-- Development in East Central State, p.17. Amcultural-- Development in East Central State, p.15. Agricultural-- Development in East Central State, p.19. "Revolution in Agriculture" The Renaissance, October 9, 1974, p. I. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p. 21. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p. 22. "93,240 Hectares of Rubber Rehabilitated" The Renaissance, November 2, 1974, p. 1. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p. 22. "ADA Projects Launched" The Renaissance, October 4, 1974, p. I. "ADA Cold Store Launched" The Renaissance, February 6, 1973, p. 16 "ADA Cold Store Launched"' The Renaissance, 1974, February 6, p.16. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.29. Aqrkultural Development in East Central State, p.29. Aqricultural Development in East Central State p.10 lnterview with Mrs. C. A. Okoye, C. 58 Years, Chief Agricultural Superintendent, Ministry of Agriculture Enugu, at the Enugu State Secretariat Enugu, on 17 May, 2006.

Agricultural- Development in East Central State, p. 15 "Erosion Menace at Agulu Nanka, _The Renaissance, November 2, 1974, p.13. lnterview with Mrs. P.I. Orji, C. 55 Years, Principal Agricultural Superintendent, Ministry of Agriculture, Umuahia, at Micheal Okpara Secretariat, Umuahia, on 15' May, 2006. &cultural Development in East Central State, p.23. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.5. &ricultural Development in East Central-- State, p.23. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.23. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.24. lnterview with Mr. James Oko, C. 54 Years, Assistant Chief Livestock Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Abakaliki, at the Ministry's premises on 16' ' May, 2006. lnterview with Mr. P.I. Amadikwa, C. 63 Years, Retired Chief Livestock Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Umuahia, at Aba, on 15 May, 2006. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.25. lnterview with Mrs. Edith Okeke, C. 61 Years, Retired Assistant Chief Livestock Officer, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Awka, at Awka, on 18.- May, 2006. lnterview with Mr. Ambrose .A. Nwachukwu, C.55 Years, Assistant Chief Hides and Skin Technologist, Ministry of Agriculture Owerri, at the Imo State Secretariat, Owerri on 3 July, 2003. Agricultural Development in East Central State, 0.26. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.30. lnterview with Mr. Anselem Nwangwu, C. 57 Years, Senior Fish Overseer, Ministry of Agriculture Owerri, at 41 Douglas Road, Owerri on 28 December 2003. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.31. Agricultural Development in East Central State, p.31. Nwangwu, lnterview cited. Agricultural Development in East Central State,p.32. Agricultural Development in East Central State,p.34. Agricultural Development in East Central State,p.34. lnterview with Mr. Alexander Ebere, C. 59 Years, Chief Forest Overseer, Ministry of Agriculture, Owerri, at the Ministry's premises on 3 April, 2003. 85. lnterview with Mr. Marcellinus Chibueze, C. 58 Years, Forest Attendant I,Ministry of Agriculture, Owerri at that the Ministry's premises on 1oth ~une, 2003. CHAPTER THREE THE BIRTH AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF AIRBRDA Creation and Historical Perspectives Nigeria is a vast country with varied and diverse agroclimatic and -fk ecological zones. Rainfall varies from one place tobother both in terms of distribution and duration. For instance, while the extreme North-East receives limited rainfall, the Southern part receives adequate rainfall in a year. Also, the duration of rainfall period varies between I00 and 230 days in the Northern part, while it is between 279 and 300 days in the Niger Delta region of the South. Thus, the length of the rainy season, and ipso facto the growing season, type and yield of crops vary from the Northern to the Southern parts of the country. This situation increases the risk, vagaries, and uncertainties in agricultural and similar activities, particularly in the northern zone. As Are Kolawole puts it, "these variations have sometimes occasioned periodic droughts, massive crop failures, food crises and famine."' A case in point was the 1972-4 drought which had far-reaching devastating consequences. For example, the drought led to a drastic fall in the Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P) from 18.4 per cent in 1971-2 to 7.3 per cent in 1972-3. It also - resulted in rapid rise in price index for food stuffs and relative decline in non-oil export^.^ Moreover, the "oil boom" which occurred during the period, resulted in almost utter neglect of the agricultural sector. As a result, there became an increasing gap between food supply from faltering rainfed agriculture and demand from a rapidly increasing population. This increased demand was taking place as the availability of land and

water for agriculture was decreasing. Consequently, in the face of such \ shrinking food production, the country was confronted with the painful 1 option of directing scarce foreign exchange resources to the importation of food. This option was of necessity resorted to in a desperate effort to meet the country's food demand, which has continued to expand since the 1970s. All these factors, especially the drought menace must have impressed on the government the great need to consider irrigation as an integral and essential factor in the food production process. For this reason, the development of the nation's water resources for optional agricultural development was given prominence. In Nigeria, attempts at development of a river basin scheme began in 1963 when the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) embarked on the study of the land and water resouhe potentials of the Sokoto Rima basin. In the following year, 1964, the Chad Basin Commission was created and was charged with the responsibility of conducting studies needed for the optimal development of the basin. The member States of the Commission were Niger, Chad, Cameroon and Nigeria. On the technical request of the Commission, the FA0 and the United Nations, Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) conducted a detailed feasibility study of the land and water resource potentials in the Chad Basin in 1965. This study was completed in I970 and the result indicated a very high potential for the development of irrigated agriculture in Nigeria at the Lake Chad basin. It showed that the Nigerian side of the basin had more than 400,000 hectares of fertile land which could be irrigated with water from the lake. Also, in 1965, the Bureau of Reclamation of United States Department of Interior (USDI) carried out a study of the Kano River Basin which led to the establishment of the Kano River Project in 1968 by the Kano State Government. As a result of this and other similar studies and activities, the Federal Government formally established two River Basin Development Authorities namely, Chad Basin Development Authority 213 pbv (CBDA) by Decree Number 32 and the Sokoto RimaABasin Development Authority (SRBDA) by Decree Number 33, both of Mth~ugust, 1973.~ However, the enormous revenue from the "oil boom" of the 1970s, coupled with the desire to mitigate the effects of future droughts and the need to optimally harness the country's vast water resources for enhanced agricultural development necessitated the review of the Third National Development Plan (1975-80) by the Federal Military Government (FMG) of General Olusegun Obasanjo. The review of the Plan was to increase the number of river basins nationwide to eleven. Consequently, in June 1976, the FMG divided the whole country into eleven River Basin Development ~uthoritiek (RBDAs). This was consequent upon the promulgation of Decree Number 25 of 15" June, 1976, which established ten of these Basin Authorities. The eleventh, the Niger Delta Basin Development Authority, was set up by Decree Number 37 of 3rdAugust, 1976.~Each of the Authorities was placed in charge of a designated area, though as O.N. Njoku has observed, "the demarcation sometimes followed geopolitical rather than geomorphological profiles'? The Authorities and their catchment areaslterritorial extent and headquarters are as follows:

SIN NAMEOF CATCHMENT AREAS AUTHORITY AND TERRITORIAL HEADQUARTERS EXTENT IN SQ.KMS. a. Anambra-lmo River Abia,Anambra, Ebonyi, Basin Dev. Authority Enugu and Imo States. Ag bala-Owerri. (AIRBDA) (26, 400sq.kms) This Authority is the central focus of this study. b. Benin-Owena River Edo, Ondo and Basin Dev. Authority Ekiti States. (BORBDA) (52,200sq. kms). k

c. Chad Basin Dev. Borno and Yobe Maiduguri. Authority (CBDA) States (77,4OOsq, kms).

d. Cross River Basin Cross River & Calabar. Dev. Authority Akwa lbom States (CRB DA) (53,400sq. kms).

e. Hadejia-Jama'are Kano and Hotoro- * - River Basin Dev. Jigawa States Authority (HJRBDA) (1 05, 6OOsq. kms).

f. Lower Benue River Benue, Plateau and Makurdi. Basin Dev. Authority Nasarawa States (LBRBDA). (79,200sq.kms).

g. Niger Delta Basin Dev. Rivers, Delta. . and Port-Harcourt. Authority (NDBDA) Bayelsa States (30, 700sq.kms).

h. Ogun-Oshun River Oyo,Ogun, Oshun & Abeokuta Basin Dev. Authority Lagos States (OORBDA) (60,800sq.kms).

~-- - - I. Upper Benue River- Bauchi,Taraba ------Yola - - - Basin Dev. Authority Adamawa & Gombe (UBRBDA) States (178,000 sq kms).

J- Sokoto-Rima River Basin Dev. Authority Zamfara & Kebbi States GQ/U~ (SRRBDA) (112,800sq.kms). k. Lower Niger River kwara & Kogi States llorin Basin Dev. Authority (76, 100sq.kms). and (LNRBDA)

L. Upper Niger River Niger & Kaduna States Minna Basin Dev. Authority & Federal Capital Territory (UNRBDA) (FCT) (120.100sq.kms).~

# The last two Authorities initially functioned as the Niger River Basin Development Authority (NRBDA) before it was later split. According to the Decree, the Authorities had the followilig functions in their respective areas of operation:

I. to undertake comprehensive development of both surface and underground water resources for multipurpose;

II. to undertake schemes for the control of floods and erosion, and for watershed management; . . . II I. to construct and maintain dams, dykes, polders, wells, boreholes, irr~gationand drainage systems and other works necessary for the achievement of the Authority's functions under this section; iv to develop irrigation schemes and livestock and to lease the irrigated land to farmers or recognized associations in the locality of the area concerned, for a fee to be determined by the Authority concerned with the approval of the commissioner; v. to provide water from reservoirs, wells and boreholes under the control of the Authority concerned for urban and rural water supply schemes on request by the State Governments and when directed to do so by the commissioner; vi the control of pollution in rlvers and lakes in the Authority's area in accordance with nationally laid down standards ; and vii. to resettle persons affected by the works and schemes specified in (iii) and (iv) above or under special resettlement ~chernes.~In addition to all these, the RBDAs as originally planned were also assigned the responsibility of assisting States and Local Governments, in rural development projects. The area of assistance included the construction of dams, feeder roads and the sinking of wells and boreholes; provision of power for rural electrification; establishment of grazing reserves; and the training of staff for the running and maintenance of rural development schemes and extension service^.^ $ It is, however, important at this juncture, to stress that since the inception of the RBDAs in the 1970s, they have undergone a number of re-organizations, some minor while others were radical and fundamental, representing major policy shifts in their original phi~osophy.~For instance, in 1984, the FMG of General Muhammadu Buhari, while expressmg satisfaction with the tenets of the RBDAs increased their number to eighteen (18). By this arrangement, each State was covered by a River Basin except Lagos and Ogun States which shared only one River Basin. It is also instructive that the 1984 re-organization enlarged the functions and responsibilities of the Authorities to include rural development. This naturally changed their nomenclature to River Basin and Rural Development Authorities (RBRDAs). The change, apart from emphasizing rural development functions, perhaps underscores the fact that agriculture and rural development have strong nexus and are like shmese twins+teneeow without 4he Ofher is practically unthinkable. RBDAs were therefore transformed into instruments not only for water resources development but also for agricultural and rural development and transformation. However, owing to criticisms by certain observers especially, with regard to the political, social, environmental, commercial , and economic implications of the 1984 re-organization of the Authorities, a more rational approach was embarked upon when the Authorities were returned to their original eleven (11) in 1986." Their activities also became streamlined in order to avoid duplication of functions with other cognate or related rural and agricultural development organizations. In the same vein, by Decree Number 35 of 1987, the RBRDAs were divested of direct agricultural production functions. They were, as a result, restricted to their original role of water resources development, flood control and provision of infrastructure for farmers without direct involvement in food production and processing. #The new policy also partially privatized the Authorities nationwide." The creation of the AIRBRDA dates back to June 1976 when the FMG under General Olusegun Obasanjo promulgated Decree Number 24 of 1976, which established the RBDAs. Among the specific functions of the RBDAs was the development of irrigation schemes for the production of crops and livestock, etc. The Decree brought about the establishment of pilot agricultural projects for both crops and livestock production (including fisheries) by the Authority at various locations within the then Anambra and Imo States. The above Decree, however, passed through series of amendments until 1987 when Decree Number 35 was promulgated. This Decree excised agricultural production from the functions of the RBDAs. This exercise thus resulted in the sale of all the agricultural projects (tagged non-water projects) of the Authority by the then Technical Committee on Privatization and Commercialization (TCPC) now called Bureau for Public Enterprises (BPE). The AIRBRDA was therefore, charged chiefly with the development of water resource potentials of its catchments area. At present, it covers the South-east geopolitical Zone of Nigeria comprising Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States. \

Aims and Objectives To ensure proper, meaningful, efficient and effective management of material and human resources, all formal organizations are expected to state in clear terms their objectives and aims. The statement of objectives, in effect, becomes a statement of purpose which applies essentially to the organization's raison d'etre.I2 The aims and objectives of the AIRBRDA as re-defined and specified by Decree Number 35 of 1987 are enunciated as follows: 1. the comprehensive development of both surface, and underground water resources for multi-purpose use with particular emphasis on the provision of irrigation water, the control of flood and erosion and watershed management; 2. the supply of water from the Authority's completed schemes to all users for a fee; 3. the construction, operation and maintenance of dams, dykes, polders, wells, boreholes, irrigation and drainage systems and other works necessary for the achievement of the Authority's functions and hand over all lands to be cultivated under the irrigation scheme to farmers; 4. the construction, operation and maintenance of infrastructural services such as roads and bridges linking project sites; 5. the development and keeping of up-to-date comprehensive water

- - ~SOL~FC~Smater plan, identifying all water_resourcesrequirements ---- in the Authority's area of operation, through adequate collection, collation and analysis of water resources, socio-economic and environmental data.13 In order to realize the aims and objectives mentioned above, the AIRBRDA has adopted a number of strategies and within the limits of resources available to it, various projects and programmes have been executed in the five states of its coverage. Whilst some of these projects have been completed, others are still on-going. These projects and programmes will be the focus of attention of the next chapter. organizational Structures Almost all operating organizations, whether private or public, business or industrial are given formal structure. The purpose of structuring is to assign responsibilities and duties so that the functions of t the organization can be accomplished in an orderly manner. Accordingly, L. Urwick states cogently that organizational structuring is: a process consisting of the divisions of all the activities for any purpose. The division involves the arrangement of all the activities into groups, each group to be assigned to an individual or a group of persons acting in a corporate capacity in a position or post, every such post carries responsibility for the supervision of others.I4 The AIRBRDA has its headquarters at Agbala which is situated at kilometre ten along the Owerri-Aba highway. The headquarters oversees and co-didinates activities of the Authority in the five states which make up its catchmentp area. The Authority also has liaison offices located in Enugu and Abuja. Proposals have reached an advanced stage to establish liaison offices at Awka, Anambra State; Abakaliki, Ebonyi State; and Umuahia, Abia state? The Authority is a parastatal under the supervision of the Federal Ministry of Water Resources and fully owned and funded by the Federal Government. At the apex of the organizational structure, is the office of the Honourable Minister. The Ministry through the Board of Directors (BODS) is responsible for the general policy formulation and supervision of activities and operations of the Authority. In the main, the Federal Ministry of Water Resources is a supervisory body of the Authority. Following in descending order is the Board of Directors consisting of not less than seven (7) members:I6

(I) Chairman (ti) Managing DirectorIChief Executive (iii) Executive Director (Operations) (iv) Executive Director (Finance and Administration) + (v) A representative of the Federal Mmistry of Water Resources and (vi) two others. Usually, every state in the South-east geopolitical Zone has a member on the ~0ard.l~ All members of the Board serve on a part-time basis. They are required by law to meet at least three a year. However, emergency sessions can be held when the need arises. Essentially, the Board functions as the policy-making organ of the Authority. It can also appoint --ad-hoc committees to examine more elaborately and suggest to it sensitive matters that can be discussed at board meetings. It is also the responsibility of the Board to hire and fire staff from salary grade level 07 and above. It also handles the promotion of this category of staff. The Board receives reports concerning the day-to-day administration of the Authority from management. By so doing, policy decisions are taken and gu~delines set appropriately on sensitive and important issues for management to implement.I8 In this way, the Board serves as a review body for the Authority's policies and strategies. This is, in addition, to acting as a supervisor of its (Authority's) top management performance. By and large, the efficiency of the Authority depends to a great extent on how well the Board courageously and efficiently performs the afore-said functions.Ig Nonetheless, it (the Board) is not expected to interfere in the day-to-day executive functions of the Authority. These functions belong exclusively to the Management headed by the Managing Director and Chief Executive Officer of the Authority. This notwithstanding, the Board in its capacity as supervisor of top Management has the responsibility to identify poor performance and other shortcomings of the Authority and proffer solutions to them. It is also its responsibility to see that all ministerial guidelines are strictly adhered to and to resolve any difference when ~uch'~uidelinesconflict with the objectives of the Authority through appropriate means.*' It is, perhaps, important to stress that the affairs of the Authority have been sometimes managed by Caretaker Management Committees (CMCs) and by an Implementation Committee of the TCPC (now BPE). This was as a result of the dissolution of former substantive BODs. Since I inception, the Authority has had six substantive BODs, two CMCs and one Implementation Committee of the TCPC (now BPE). The first BOD of the Authority was inaugurated on Ist November, 7976. It comprised a Chairman, Mr. S.C. Eluwa and three other members, namely: Mr. L.C. Okigbo, Mr. B.S.C. Nzenwa and Mr. I. Ogbonna. The Board was dissolved on 28th 'November, 1979. It was immediately followed by a C.M.C., which functioned from 1st December 1979 to 30th November, 1981.This Committee had Barrister Ferdinand Eke as Chairman and four other members viz: Engineer Bobu Nwogbo, Mr. Ndidi Chinwuba, Mr. S. Onyeso Nwachukwu and Mr. P.A.C. Obidigwe. Next was a 13 - member Board which existed from 1st December, 1981 to 31st December 1983. It was headed by Nze Macaulay A. Nwankwo. The other twelve members were: Engineer Bobu Nwogbo, Mr. Ndidi Chinwuba, Mr. P.A.C.

%m Obidigwe, Mr. U.N. Anya, Mr. Ossy lyizoba, Mr. Kalu K. Ugah, and Mr. Evaristus Igwe. Others were Mr. Hyginius Aghazie, Mr. Golden Mgbemeneh, Mr. Ali Agala, Dr. C.0 Ezenwere and Mr. Benedict lgu." The Authority did not have any Board or CMC from January 1984 to December 1986. The reason for this was FMG's decision to increase the number of RBDAs nationwide during the period. Every existing RBDA was as a result split into two. Consequently, the AIRBDA became two Authorities - the Imo River Basin Development Authority (IRBDA) with headquarters still at Agbala - Owerri and the Anambra River Basin Development Authority (ARBDA) with headquarters at Aguleri near Onitsha. However, another Board was constituted for the AIRBDA in February 1987.This was as a result of the FMG's decision to merge the two Authorities like others across the country into one. The new Board functioned until February 1990 when it was disbanded. It had Colonel C.C. Ude (Rtd.) as Chairman and seven other members, viz: Alhaji Ahmad Hameed, Professor C.0 Njoku, Hajiya Zainab Ahmed, Alhaji Magaji Donjo, Dr. A.B. Ogunkanmi, Dr. K.B David-West (then Director Federal Livestock Department) and W.0 Okonkwo, the then General Manager of the ~uthority." Next was a -four member Implementation Committee of the TCPC, which was in existence from 15th April 1990 to 20th Novemberl991. Its Chairman was Mr. Charles 0. Spiropoulos. The other members were: Barrister Chris N. Okeke, Mr. Gabe Adimorah and Engineer E.C. ~wude.~~Following this was another Board which was in office from 1st Januar~l992to tOthdune1993.tt was made up efseveo rnembers_withp Engineer E.0 Ekekwe as Chairman. The other members were: Engineer J.C. Umolu, Prince O.S. Dike, Alhaji lbrahim G. Kura, (Representing the Federal Ministry of Water Resources), Engineer E.C. Nwude, the then M.D. of the Authority, Engineer A.0 Nnachi and Mr. E.C. Chukwu, then Executive Directors Operations and Finance and Administration respective~y.~~The next Board came into being on 18th October 1993 and was dissolved on 30th June 1995. It had Sunny Oguagha Esq. as Chairman and six other members, viz: Mr. A.D. Nnodi, Mr. Dike Ngwube, Mr. P. Yakowa (Representing the Federal Ministry of Water Resources), Engineer E.C. Nwude, the then M.D. of the Authority, Engineer A.0 Nnachi and Mr. E.C. Chukwu, then Executive Directors, Operations and Finance and Adininistration respectively. The affairs of the Authority were managed by a CMC from August 1995 to September 1999. It comprised the following members: Engineer M.N. Gundiri, Chairman, Engineer R.A. Oyewole, whows in charge of Operations, Alhaji S. Yahaya, who was in charge of ~dminishationand Mr. E.0 Bambe in charge of ~inance.~~The last Board of the Authority was inaugurated in June 2000 by President Olusegun Obasanjo and functioned until May 2004 when it was disso~ved.~~Its composition was as follows: Chief Eleri Anwara, Chairman, Dr. 1.1. Onwubuya, M.D., who was later relieved of his appointment, Engineer C.A. Uzoho, Executive Director Operations, who was later appointed the M.D. - a post he holds till date, Mr. D.0 Chinyere, Executive Director Finance and Administration, Engineer J.N Ezeanyanwu, Chief Uzodinma Okpara and Mr. C.E.0 Obidike (Representing the Federal Ministry of Water ~esources.~~ Next in the hierarchyJ is Management headed by the Managing Director, who is also both the Chief Executive and accounting officer of the Authority. The Management comprises eight members: (a) Managing DirectorlChief Executive (b) Executive Director (Operations) (c) Executive Director Finance and Administration). This is in addition to the following principal officers: (i) Head of Corporate Planning Division; (ii) Head of Operations and Maintenance Division; (iii) Head of Administration Division; (iv) Head of Accounts Division; and (v) Legal AdviserISecretary to the ~0at-d.~~ The internal and day-to-day proper and efficient management of the Authority is the key function of the Management. To effectively perform this function, Management co-ordinates and controls the activities of the different arms of the Authority such as departments, divisions, units and sections. The Management in addition, ensures and maintains cordial relationship with external and corporate bodies. it also assists the Board of Directors in the formulation of policies and strategies for the achievement of the Authority's mission. For the purposes of ensuring orderly and smooth functioning of the Authority, the organigramme had been split into several departments, divisions, sections and units. However, only two departments, viz: Operations and Finance and Administration are currently operational in the Authority. This is based on the approved framework for partial commercialization of certain River Basin Development Authorities in Nigeria including AIRBRDA, as enunciated by the TCPC now called BPE. A sub-department of Corporate Planning and Extension Services, functioning directly under the Managing Director (MD) also exists. There are in all, two departments, and seven divisions. There are also several sections and units. See organizational chart). ORG AiiIZATIONAL CHART OF AIRBRDA

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF WATER I I RESOURCES I sBOARD OF DIRECTORS MANAGING DIRECTOR I

I EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR (FINANCE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR & ADMINISTRATION) (OPERATIONS)

ASST. DIRECTOR ASST. DIRECTOR (ADMINISTRATION) (OPERATIONS & (PLANNING. DESIGN & 1CONSTRUCTION) I FINANCE & ACCOUNTS WORKSHOP & OPERATIONS & 1 DESIGN 8 WATER SHED MGT CONSTRUCTION

I. CASH OFFICE 2. STAFF ACCOUNTS 2. OPS. IRRG 8; CIVIL 3. FMAL ACCOUXTS WORKS DESIGN PUMPS 3. GENERAL PLUBMG 4. COMMERCIAL DRILLING 3. DATA BANK 8; ESTIMATION

-J 1. lNTERNAL AUDlT I 2. COMPANY'S SECRETARYLEGAL - ADVISER A DIVISIONS (MAXAGING B- DIVISIONS (FINIADMIN. DEPT ) C- DI\'ISIONS (OPERATIONS DEPT.) 3. CORPOR4TE PLAhXING DIRECTOR'S OFFICE) 1. FINANCE AND ACCOL'NTS 1. PLAhYNG. DESIGN AND 4. CORPORATE AFFAIRS 2. ADMlNlSTRATlON 5 PROJECT OFFICES CONSTRUCTION 2. OPtKAl lOSS AhD hWIN IENANCE The two Departments are Operations and Finance and Administration, both of which are headed by Executive Directors. The Operations Department is mainly responsible for the execution of the Authority's construction and design works as well as maintenance of existing infrastructure. The Operations Department is sub-divided into two main divisions, viz: Operation and Maintenance Division (0 &M) and ~lann'ing,Design and Construction (PDC) Division which are headed by Assistant Directors. There are also five sections under the two major divisions. These are: (a) Workshop and Plants This section is charged with the' responsibility of maintaining, rehabilitating, refurbishing and servicing of all light and heavy duty vehicles and plants, machines and equipment of the Authority. It is made up of a garage, spareparts store, and a fuel dump. The Section in consultation with other sections assigns vehicles, tractors and other 1 equipment or plants to those requiring them. (b) Operations and Maintenance This handles maintenance works of the Authority both at the headquarters and project sites or liaison offices. (c) Surveys Its central function is to carry out soil surveys for agricultural and related purposes. It. also engages in surveying of new irrigation sites, parcellation of land, land administration, production of relevant maps and other similar functions. (d) Hydrogeology and Watershed Management

. This Section sees to the study, design and construction of appropriate control measures in order to reclaim the eroded and flooded agricultural land within the Authority's area of coverage. It also handles the surface and underground water problems of the Authority. (e) Design and Construction This Section carries out all engineering designs of all new projects proposed for implementation. It also handles the supervision of construction works at erosion sites, irrigation and small-earth dam projects and boreholes, among others.2g The Finance and Administration Department, on the other hand, is chiefly responsible for effective and efficient utilization of the Authority's human and material resources, especially finance in order to achieve set goals. It is sub-divided into three major divisions, viz: Finance/Accounts, Administration and Commercial divisions. These are headed by Assistant Directors and a Chief Commercial offitcer, respectively. The FinanceIAccounts division is charged with the responsibility of looking after the financial resources of the Authority. This is necessary to make sure that funds are prudently managed and properly utilized and that accounts are correctly kept. To this end, the division keeps records of all books of accounts and computes monthly pensions. In addition, it maintains stores ledgers, gives reliable financial information on all on- going projects and other accounting information for the Authority. The Administration division has as its major responsibility, the promotion and implementation of sound personnel or human resources and general administrative policies and strategies for the Authority. Accordingly, it principally performs personnel management functions of the Authority. These functions include recruitment, deployment, traininglmanpower development, promotion, advancement and career planning, appraisal and discipline of staff of the Authority. Besides, the division co-ordinates activities of all the various departments, divisions, sections and units of the ~uthority~'. The Commercial division is in charge of the Authority's rice mill. It generates revenue for the Authority through the registration of contractors and sales of tender documents and agricultural products particularly palm products. The division, also handles the auction of the Authority's unserviceable property. There are two divisions and three units in the office of the Managing Director (MD). The Divisions are Corporate Planning and Corporate Affairs, while the units are legal, Internal Audit and Security. The Corporate Planning Division performs the following functions for the Authority: *3 conceptualization of projects including identification and analysis and feasibility studies; *3 monitoring and evaluation of projects, using appropriate parametres to ensure optimal performance; *3 developing data bank and documentation; *:* *:* budgeting for short and long terms and identification of fundamental resource^.^'

The Corporate Affairs Division, on the other hand, portrays the corporate image of the Authority to the public through media relations, protocol and general public relations. To achieve the above, the Division arranges at proper periods for the Chief Executive Officer (CEOIMD) to meet with the pre& and other media houses to explain the programmes and functions of the Authority. It also produces newsletters or bulletins on specific activities of the Authority for general public information. The Division also produces calendars and dairies to further project the corporate and good image of the ~uthority?~However, as a result of Federal Government's recent directives to its agencies, parastatals, extra-ministerial departments, ministries, etc, to discontinue the production of calendars and dairies, the Division no longer performs this < - function." Thus, its function has been somewhat curtailed. The Legal Unit is manned by a lawyer, who also serves as secretary to the Board of Directors of the Authority. The Unit handles all legal matters of the Authority, including litigation. It also interpretes for the Board matters with legal implications. The Internal Audit Unit maintains and enforces checks and balances on the management and disbursement of the Authority's funds. More essentially, it ensures that all financial regulations are adhered to In the main, the Unit carries out prepayment audit to detect and correct * anoma~ies.:'~The Security Unit ensures the security and safety of both human and material assets and resources of the Authority. It is, perhaps, important to emphasize that the operationallorganizational structures or arrangements have impeded rather than helped in the efficient and smooth running of the Authority. Available evidence would suggest that since the inception of the AIRBRDA, like others nationwide, there has been the tendency towards over-centralization of its control and decision-making or taking machinery by the controlling agency-the Federal Ministry of Water Resources. This has had a crippling effect on the operational efficiency ** and effectiveness of the Authority. To be able to transform into an economically viable and worthwhile concern, the AIRBRDA should be made not to operate strictly in line with the civil service structure. This is in view of the bottlenecks, delay, inertia and red tapism with which most, if not all bureaucratic organizations are bedeviled. Hence, there is a definite need to decentralize decision-making or taking and control system of the Authority. Sources of Finance An organization's financial resources, no doubt, play a catalytic :ole in the attainment of its goals. Such financial resources include the assets that enable it to meet its operating costs, expand, conduct research and development, borrow additional funds, and so on. An organization's financial position affects its service and product profile, its ability to raise additional capital and its ability to take advantage of profitable opportunities when they arise. A financially sound and stable organization can borrow money at lower interest rates, insist on special services as a highly valued customer and maintain the goodwill of suppliers, creditors and others. A financially unstable and weak organization, on the other hand, most likely will find it difficult to raise capital, maintain a highly competitive position or take advantage of income-producing opportunities. The AIRBRDA, like most other parastatals and public enterprises in Nigeria, depends largely on two major sources of finance to discharge its statutory functions. These are internal and external sources. The former consists of internally generated revenue (IGR) such as fees charged for services rendered to farmers and other people. The latter comprises essentially government grants, subventions and allocations to the Authority. Evidence shows that the Authority has more frequently resorted to the latter than the former source. The foremost reason for this is that internal sources have proved grossly inconsequential. The result is that the Authority depends almost solely on the external source for its operations. The above situation, however, is not without its problems. For instance, the Nigerian economy is a mono-product economy which depends on oil as the chief source of revenue. Development projects are compelled to share from oil earnings in stiff competition with other sectors of the economy. Whenever oil prices plummet, as has been the cases in recent times, oil revenue also dwindles. Expectedly, subventions and allocations to public enterprises equally decline and sometimes become irregular. Also included as the Authority's external source of finance are loans from both domestic and foreign financial institutions and agencies. For instance, the Overseas Economic Co-operation Fund (OECF) of Japan in 1981, provided the Authority with a soft loan of 16.9 billion Yen (about 86.21.4 billion or $ US 161 million), with which its largest project -- the Lower Anambra Irrigation Project (LAIP) Omor was executed. In the same way, such other international agencies as the World Bank, African Development Bank (ADB) and the Food and Agricultural 'Organization (FAO) provided substantial financial assistance which led to the establishment of the Ibu Dam and lrrigation Project (Imo River lrrigation Also, as part of the financial provisions of the AIRBRDA, the Decree which established it requested it to maintain a fund from which should be defrayed all expenditure incurred by it. There shall be paid or credited to the fund: i. such sums as may be provided by the Federal Military Government or by the Government of any State in the Federation for the purposes of the Decree either by way of loans or grants, and ii. such other assets as may from time to time accrue to the Authority. In addition, the Authority was expected to keep and maintain proper accounts in respect of each financial year. Besides the Authority was requested to cause such accounts to be audited as soon as the end of the financial year to which the accounts relate by a firm of auditors approved in respect of that year by the Federal Commissioner for ~inance.~~ On the whole, the AIRBRDA has relied almost entirely on Federal Government grants, subventions and statutory allocations to finance its " programmes and projects. The actual release of the grants, subventions and allocations has very much depended on oil revenue. The result of this state of affairs is that whenever there is a shrinkage in oil revenue, there is a corresponding cut-back in the funding of the Authority's programmes and projects. For instance, between 1992 and 1997, the LAIP, Omor had a total appropriations of N137.975millionl whereas actuali releases for the same period were 441 19.960 mi~lion.~'Worse still, available statistics show that there were periods when funds were neither appropriated nor released for some of the Authority's programmes and projects. What is more, the Authority is yet to diversify or broaden its activities in order to geherate more internal revenue to make up for shortfalls in government funding. The tables below show Budgetary Appropriations/ActuaI Releases of the Authority from 1992-97 and its capital and recruitment expenditure from 1980-1992.

104 Table 2: Capital and Recruitment Expenditure of the AIRBRDA

Total government Capital Recruitment Years releases (N) expenditure (N) expenditure (N)

Source: Anambra-lmo River Basin Development Authority Statement of Accounts, 1980 - 1992. 105 Notes Are Kolawole, "Commercialization and Future of RBDAs in Nigeria" in A.O. Sanda (ed.) Manaqinq Jrriqation Projects in Niqeria (Ibadan, Spectrum Books Ltd., 1992)p.59. Federal Republic of Nigeria: Third National Develo~mentPlan 1975-80 vol. 1,(Lagos, Federal Ministry of Economic Development, (Government Printer, 1975) p.2. 'Amefula, "Assessment of River Basin Development Authorities.. . ," p.25. Amaefula, "Assessment of River Basin Development Authorities ...," p.25. Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria, ... p.213. Federal Military Government: River Basins Development Authorities Decree Number 25, 1976. River Basins Development Authorities Decree Number25, 1976. Olu Ogunnika, "RBDAs Irrigation Project and the Future of the Small-Scale Farmers: Lessons from the Chad Basin Development Authority's (CBDA's) Experience in Rural Borno" in A.0 Sanda (ed.) Managing Irrigation Proiects ..., p. 79. lnterview with Engineer Greg Ugwueze, C. 50 Years, Executive Director Operations, AIRBRDA, at Agbala-Owerri, on 20 September, 2000. Interview with Mazi G.K Okoro, C. 70 Years, Retired Assistant General Manager (AGM) Finance and Administration, AIRBRDA, at Plot 80 Chisarauwa street, Prefab. Extension, Owerri, on 18 October, 2003. Mazi Okoro, Interview cited. H.L.Sisk, Management and Organization (Cinannati, South West Publishing Company, 1973), p. 63. AIRBRDA Annual Report for 1999, p.3 106 L. Urwick, The Element of Administration (London, Pitman Publi- shing Company, 1974), p.36. lnterview with Chief Mrs. L.C. Obikpe, C. 48 Years, Chief Administrative Officer, AIRBRDA, at Agbala- Owerri, on 22 April, 1999. lnterview with Mr. Chris Odobor, C.52 Years, Chief Information Officer, AIRBDA, at Agbala -Owerri, on 20 April, 1999. Mazi Okoro, Interview cited. lnterview with Nze Macaulay Nwankwo, C. 71 Years, Chairman Board of Directors AIRBRDA from I December, 1981 to 31 December, 1983, at 132 lkot Ekpene Road, Aba, on 5 October, # 2004. Nze Nwankwo, Interview cited. Nze Nwankwo, lnterview cited. Nze Nwankwo, lnterview cited. Engineer Ugwueze, Interview cited. Engineer Ugwueze, lnterview cited. Odobor, Interview cited. Engineer Ugwueze, lnterview cited. Engineer Ugwueze, lnterview cited. Engineer Ugwueze, lnterview cited. Chief Mrs. Obikpe, lnterview cited. Engineer Ugwueze, lnterview cited. Chief Mrs. Obikpe, lnterview cited. Engineer Ugwueze, lnterview cited.

~$obor,l&wiewcited- - - - - Odobor, lnterview cited. Engineer Ugwueze, lnterview cited. Anambra - Imo River Basin and Rural Development Authority, Profile of Activities (No place of publication and Date). p.9. 107 36. River Basin Development Authority's Decree Number 25, 1976. 37. Federal Republic of Nigeria: Water Resources Development: The Journey so far 1992 - 1997 (Abuja, Federal Ministry of Water Resources, Government Printer, Garki - Abuja, 2000) p. 56. 108 CHAPTER FOUR PROJECTS AND PROGRAMMES OF THE AIRBRDA. As stated in the previous chapter, the AIRBRDA was established to perform certain functions in the South-eastern geopolitical zone, its area of operation. In an attempt to carry out its statutory functions, the Authority has over the years executed a number of projects and programmes. While some of these projects and programmes have been completed and are at different stages of implementation, others are still on-going. The projects and programmes are as follows: (A) lrrigation Projects which comprise: Large-Scale or Major lrrigation Projects with net irrigable areas

above 1000 hectares and 8 Small-Scale or Minor lrrigation Projects with net irrigable areas below 1000 hectares ' Small Earth Dam Programme Underground Water Resources (Borehole) Development Programme. Soil Erosion, Flood Control and Watershed Management Programme HydrologicaI/Hydrometeorological Data Collection Programme. RehabilitationIRefurbishment of Plants and Machinery Programme. Headquarters and Liaison Offices Development Programme. These projects and programmes are discussed below: IRRIGATION PROJECTS (a) Large-Scale lrrigation Projects These consist of the Lower Anambra lrrigation Project (LAIP) ------and the lbu Dam and lrrigation Project also known as fie-lmoRiverP - lrrigation Project. The Lower Anambra lrrigation Project (LAIP) 109 Historical Background The antecedents of the LAlP began with a study conducted in March, 1973, by a Japanese consulting firm, Nippon Koei Company Limited. The study was aimed at ascertaining the overall development possibilities of the Do-Anambra Rivers area covering a gross area of 100,000 hectares (ha).' On the request of the Agricultural ~evelo~ment Authority (ADA) of the East Central State of Nigeria, a master plan of the area was made in I?$+ by the same Consultants. In the master plan, Seven (7) irrigation projects were formulated for the area, out of which two: Uzo Uwani Pioneer lrrigation Project covering 1000 hectares and Lower Anambra Irrigation Project covering 5,000 hectares were given high priority rating. This was owing to high economic returns and socio-economic impact in and around the project area. Feasibility stud~es concluded in 1974175 proved the two projects technically sound and economically viable. After the reorganization of the ADA into the Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC) and the establishment of the AIRBDA in 1976, the implementation of the Lower Anambra lrrigation Project was transferred to this Authority in 1978.~The Nigerian government approached its Japanese counterpart for financial assistance to implement the Project. Thus, shortly, negotiation for a soft loan was concluded between the Overseas Economic Co-operative Fund (OECF) of Japan and the Nigerian government for 16.9 billion Yen, equivalent of 8121.4 billion or $ US 161 million loan for a period of seven (7) years with 3.5 per cent interest rate per annum and ten (10) years m~ratorium.~Consequently, the implementation of 5,000 hectares (ha) irrigatlon project took off in 1981. In the course of the execution, various problems were encountered, which necessitated the scaling down of the command area to 3850 ha net. The construction of the Project was completed and commissioned by President General lbrahim Badamosi Babangida in ~unel98T6 110 Concerning the economic background of the Project, it is germane to state that although over seventy per cent of the Nigerian population have earned and still earn their livelihood through agriculture, much of Nigeria's agriculture still depends on rainfall. With a high population growth rate, the FA0 once predicated that Nigeria might not be able to feed herself by the year 2020, if she were to depend on rainfed agriculture. It was, therefore, to avert this calamitous situation that the LAlP was evolved in the South-eastern region with the specific objectives to : i. produce sufficient food for the ever growing population ; ii. raise the living standard and increase the production capacity of the people in and around the project arka ; iii. improve population distribution in the project area by means of creating new farmlands with infrastructure and above all; iv. introduce irrigated agricultural practice in the South-eastern part of Nigeria, thereby creating gainful employment all-year for the rural population. As a result, since it was commissioned, the LAlP has as its most important activity, the cultivation of improved, early-maturing, high- yielding, disease-resistant and palatable rice varieties. The cultivation is undertaken on a double sewepr, cropping basis - wet and dry seasons. While the former is designed to run from June to November, the latter lasts from December to May. However, this calendar is by no means watertight as logistics difficulties sometimes call for the modification of the cropping pattern and activities. The irrigation area is distributed into

North - East Zone = 1,022 ha; South -East Zone = 660 ha North-West Zone = 1,378 ha and South West Zone = 790 ha 11 1 Total = 3,850 ha. From inception to March I991, the sum of MI,l67,226.79 was released for the project, whilst P174.999,696.9 was actually spent.' The project area lies between two rivers - the Anambra to the west and the Do to the south. It has a flat and gently undulating topography slopmg down at an average gradient of 1:300 metres from north to south, with elevations ranging between 45 and 24 metres approximately. It is located at Omor in the Ayamelum Local Government Area of Anambra State. The project area is about 55 kilometres (Kms) west of Enugu. It is easily accessible from Onitsha through the Onitsha - Nsukka highway and Enugu through the "Ninth Mile Corner" along lwollo - b Umulokpo - Omor road. It is the largest irrigation project east of the River Niger. The Project is designed to pump water from the Anambra River at Ifite-Ogwari through a pumping station into a 16.5 kilometre head race canal. This is in order to irrigate the command area of 3850 hectares for double cropping of paddy rice annually. At optimal or full capacity production level, the project has the potentials of producing an average of 27,000 tonnes of rice paddy per annum or equi alent of 18,000 tonnu of milled rice? An improved and palatable variety# rice is chiefly grown in A the project. This variety is called the "1R 416", which is comparable to any imported rice due to its grain size, and excellent table qualities. Local farmers benefit directly from the project every cropping season. While cultivation of rice is carried out by the farmers, the LAlP provides logistics or services such as irrigation water, land preparation, irrigation technology and extension aids that facilitate production processes. The LAIP has also additional 350 hectares of land for rainfed cropping of staple food crops such as maize, yam, cassava, cowpea, vegetables, etc. Figure I: A Section of the 3.3 Tonnes per hour Ultra Modern Rice Mill located at the Lower Anambra Irrigation Project (LAP), Omor, Anambra State. 112 Apart from the pumping station and equipment and a 16.5 kilometre head race canal mentioned above, the LAlP has such other facilities as secondary tertiary drainage canals and a network of roads; a maintenance workshop and equipment for repairs and maintenance of vehicles, plants and machinery of various models and make; agricultural

P equipment, especially Kubota tractors and Rotavators, threshers and other farm implements and their accessories; a-4 hectare Demonstration Farm Plot for the conduct of trials on various rice varieties, seed multiplication and demonstration of new farming technique; a 3.3 tonne per hour industrial modern rice Mill capable of producing grade "A" polished rice, which as noted above, is as good * as any imported brand of rice; office block and residential complexes provided with electricity and water supplies; a basic training centre for the training of both project staff and farmers on new and improved irrigation management techniques in rice and agronomic practice^.^ In addition to the above main components, other facilities have also been put in place to complement the existing infrastructure and for the smooth operation of the project. These include installation of water treatment plant to supply potable water to the project, construction of earth dam for domestic water supply, extension of National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) high tension line to the project and the pumping station and establishment of staff medical clinic, canteen and guest house for the welfare of the

staff .lo

The Ibu Dam and Irrigation Project (Imo River lrrigation Project). The Project is located at Ndi-Onuoha in the ldeato North Local Government Area of Imo State. It stretches from Ndi-Onuoha through lhitte Uboma also in Imo State to Owerrinta in Abia State. It was initially designed to harnesslutilize the abundant water resources of the upper reaches of the lmo River by constructing a-22 metre high dam at Ndimoko in ldeato North Local Government Area of Imo State and 113 creating reservoir capacity of 80 million cubic metres. This was for the purpose of irrigating a net area of 3,500 hectares of land for rice production. Owing mainly to lack of necessary funds initially, and ,a review of government's policy on construction of large dams, the execution of the Project was stalled. However, subsequently, the FA0 and the ADB indicated interest in financing the Project and in effect instituted an appraisal mission. This was to evaluate the Project with a view to ascertaining its viability or otherwise. Following the recommendations of the Appraisal Team, the Project was reviewed and reformulated for the development of minor or small irrigation schemes and construction of diversion weirs along the lmo Fiver Basin. This was for the purpose of cultivating a total of 1,200 hectares with rice, maize, cowpea and vegetables. The locations are as stated below: I bu - 250 ha lgwu - 400 ha lhitte Uboma - 400 ha Owerrinta - 150 ha, making a total of 1,200 ha. Meanwhile, the construction work on the development of the 71 ha plot farm is about 30 per cent completed, while design of the reformulated Project (now Imo lrrigation Project) is at an advanced stage of comp~etion.'~

(b) Small-Scale or Minor lrrigation Project. This involves. the development of small irrigation schemes of between 100 and 500 hectares of land at various locations within the five states of the Authority's catchments areas. The Scheme or Project is mainly operated by direct pumping of water from perennial rivers within ------each location, using hydro-flo pumps for the production of rice, maize, vegetables, cowpeas, etc, or by the construction of weirs across the rivers. At present, the Project is being implemented at the lgwu Minor lrrigation Project located at Ndi-ebe in the Arochukwu Local Government , nnr Area of Abia State and at Isi-Uzo Minor Irrigation Project located at lkem I 1 114 in the lsi-Uzo Local Government Area of Enugu State. In the former, so far 71 hectares of land have been canalized for double cropping of rice, I while in the latter about 10 hectares have been put into perennial vegetable prod~ction,'~using sprinklers. Also, more land has been acquired in lsi-Uzo for rainfed rice production. Other proposed minor irrigation sites in which either studies and designs have been completed or are at various stages of completion include: a. Egbema Minor lrrigation Project, 112 hectares (Design completed); b. Isi-Uzo Minor lrrigation Project, 100 hectares ; c. Udi Minor lrrigation Project, 100 hectares ; d. Asu-Ezeaku Minor lrrigation Project, 500 hedares ; - e. Ahiazu -1keduru Minor lrrigation Project, 100 hectares; f. Achalla Minor lrrigation Project, 200 hectares ; The Small-Scale lrrigation Programme holds tremendous potentials for implementation by the AIRBRDA. This is because perennial rivers with surrounding irrigable areas abound within the catchment areas of these locations. From the foregoing, it is evident that the lrrigation Projects of the AIRBRDA were executed essentially to step up agricultural productivity in its catchment areas. This is particularly with regard to the cultivation of essential and staple food crops like cassava, rice, maize, vegetables, cowpeas, etc. Two"major strategies were to be employed in achieving this laudable and worthwhile goal. The first was effective and proper mobilization of rural farmers in the project areas to encourage them grow

------

thecml Next was topromptly- and adequately - provide theem (farmers) with vital inputs such as improved planting materials (seeds, seedlings and stems), agro-chemicals, fertilizers, tractor, threshers and I trailing services. Others were relevant agronomic advice and irrigation

I water to make farming an all-year activity. How successful or otherwise

13 I IS the irrigation projects have been in realizing the goal of improved food production in the South-eastern zone is examined hereunder. Available evidence tends to show that from inception up till the later part of 1990, the irrigation projects were instrumental in enhancing food production and by extension incomes of the participating farmers in zone. This was made possible through effective mobilization of rural farmers and timely and sufficient supply of necessary inputs including agronomic advice to them. For instance, in 1982, the NACB gave a total loan of N5 million through the AIRBDA for disbursement to interested farmers? Also, during the same period the Authority obtained the latest high-yielding planting materials from research institutions which it multiplied and distributed to farmers for mass food production. Other forms of assistance to farmers included tractor-hiring services, allocation of plots and provision of fertilizers and agrochemica~s'~.To further increase food crops production, some pilot food crops production centres were developed. The Table below shows the production of some important food crops in different locations in the project areas in 1985 and 1986 Table 3: Production of Some Food Crops in Pilot Farms 1986

.-. - - - .. -- - Project area Hectarage I Yeild Hectarage Y ~eld Crop / (tonnes) (tonnes)

- - Aguler~food Maize 33.3 34 5

crop farm Cassava - Rice 34 5 96 6 Mgbakwu Maize Irrigated Rice - Project Cassava 19 228 Cowpea 0.14 0.12 Odekpe Rice 57 I36 8 Project Maize -

- - -

Abakaliki Rice F-ood crop Maize - Farm I-okpanta Maize Integrated Cassava Project Plantains ------Ndionuoha Maize Ndimoko Rice Project Vegetables - Egbema Maize Oguta Cowpea Project Pineapple Cassava -- Agbala Maize Project Cassava Plantains Miniset (Yam) - - - -- Ntigha Maize Umunwanwa Rice Project Plantains

Source: Chukwumaife (1990) From the .above table, it is clear that although yields might not have been up to the level desired and figures on all food crops

production . are not available, the production figures of maize, cassava and rice were generally higher for 1985 than in 1986. This was attributed mainly to seasonal fluctuations in farm inputs especially fertilizers Also at the LAIP, Omor, some of the local farmers interviewed by thc researcher were unanimous about the enabling role of the Project to them from inception up till the later part of 1990.ir+ .This, they stated, in turn resulted in their optimal performance measured in terms of total acreage cropped, cropping intensity and crop yield in tonne per hectare. w 1'7 The farmers confirmed that during the period, they were able to reach their production target of 27,000 tonnes of rice paddy annually!? This situation was not different in the other irrigation projects of the Authority. el ow is statistical data showing yearly cropping activities of the LAIP, Omor between I987 and 1997. Table 4: LAIP Yearly Cropping Activities I Year / Season Area Total Yield of / (H~) Involved 1 /T/Ha I Paddy

1 1989 1 Rainy 1 3,350 1 3,350 1 4.1 . 1

1991 Rainy 2,900 2,900 1.75 ( 1 1 1 ! 5 1 I 2,000 2,000 2.9 ! - I Rainy 2,100 2,100 2.9

Project, Omor. 1 lX However, as can be seen from the table above, from 1991 things began to change negatively. This is with the result that the LAP could no longer serve the needs of the local farmers to enable them carry on with d thkir agricultural activities aCcordingly as had been the case hitherto. Most of the farmers confirmed that the LAIP has become most ineffective. The resultant effect of the above situation is a marked decrease in the number of farmers participating in the AIRBRDA1s agricultural programmes. For instance, in 1990, the number of participating farmers in the LAIP, Omor was 6,680. But by 1992, the number had decreased to 4,100. It was discovered that ineffective 1 * I mobilization of. the farmers by the project officfals was and is still responsible for the situation. The farmers also complained about non- availability of modern agricultural inputs at the appropriate time and in the right quantity.''~ccording to them, this was and has been a principal

reason for their non-adoption of the Authority's innovation package. , Adoption of the Authority's innovation package was discovered to be markedly related to farmer participation in the Authority's agricultural programmes. What all this means is that farmers' satisfaction during the period was at a very low ebb. This contrasts sharply with the pre-1991 30 period when farmers' satisfaction was very high. The pertinent question, therefore, is: what was responsible for the sudden change in both the quality and quantity of services rendered to the farmers by the Authority's irrigation projects, which resulted in their (farmers') non-performance and perhaps their current. preference for non-farming activities? Put differently, what is answerable for the non- sustainability of the initial success recorded by the irrigation projects of the AIRBRDA? Many factors have been attributed to this poor state of affairs by staff of the Authority and the rural farmers alike. For instance, the Project Manage; of the LAIP, Omor, has argued that "the situation can be FIG 3: MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF ANAMBRR-\MO R\VER BASIN AND RUN4 L DEV ELOPNIENT AUTHORITY PROJ-ECTS. i i') 24 ted to economic and technical factors", He identified the principal as inadequate funds to support the overall activities of the ts. Another factor he identified, is frequent breakdown of nes, pumps, pump engines, etc, at project locations. Corroborating love view, the Project Manager of Usi-Uzo Minor lrrigation Project, pointed out that "lack of necessary finances to fund the Authority's its' has militated against its effective performarice.;'P The Acting :t Manager of lgwu Minor Irrigation Project, Ndi-ebe, Arochukwu, I that "proper funding is the only panacea for the problems of the

While it is incontestable that inadequate funding is partly nsible for the situation, it is, however, equally true that there are contributory factors. For-instance, the local farmers at the LAIP I . were of the view that the main problem was and still is the political of frequent appointment of BODS for the Authority and their rship or management styleelt is instructive that a virile, pragmatic, ell focused BOD was in place from 1987 up till February 1990. g this period the Authority discharged its statutory functions of ?ing effective mobilization of farmers and provision of necessary to them. This, as can be seen from the above table led to optimal rmance of the farmers. But after this time, a period of deterioration with the inauguration of a 4-man Implementation Committee of the :. As events would reveal, this Committee did not accord the LAIP,

lajer-pqe~t-ef Ake-Auhorit)r, _theAtenlion-it-deserved ----- for - optimal - - - .s Rather, it underplayed the importance of the Project. Available :es point to the fact that the situation has remained more or less the

I till date. The other irrigation projects of the Authority were found to experienced the same fate.

According to the farmers, allied with the above, is the issue of sistency in government polices. It is, perhaps, relevant to point olit ) )I/

'" that from the beginning up to 1987, the AIRBRDA like others, was actively involved in direct food production. This function was however, taken away from the RBRDAs following the promulgation of Decree Number 35 of 1987. Apart from resulting in rising cost of farm inputs particularly fertilizers and agrochemicals, the measure! : also led to a decline in interest of farmers. Reliable sources reveal that initially many farmers were keen on food crop project but their interest declined since the prices of farm inputs became almost unaffordable and the AIRBDA was no longer directly involved in supplying the inputs to them. What emerges from the above analysis is that efforts of the b - AIRBRDA in boosting agricultural production in its catchment areas have not yielded the expected results. At best the impact has been so far insignificant. This can been seen in the continuous dearth of staple food crops and the unabated rise in their prices. Therefore, it suffices to state that the presence of the Authority has not helped appreciably in ameliorating the poor agricultural situation in the South-eastern geopolitical Zone. Nor has its presence assisted in bringing about a noticeable improvement in the standard of living of the rural fariners for

whom the irrigation projects were intended. All this is notwithstanding .. - government's colossal or huge investment in the Authority like others 9. across the country. The small-scale farmer still bears the main burden of feeding the people as he has always done. This is because he still produces the bulk of the food requirements of the people of the Zone and indeed those of other parts of the country. In this perspective, Njoku

- rates the-smalkc-ale farmer-as the-phs-moven-oL Ugeriak agricultureS~einforcing the above fact, Olayide notes emphatically that "the importance of the small-scale farmer in national economic development cannot be overemphasized".?b He goes further to assert that: t %II the small-scale farmer has been looked upon as the ultimate saviour for the nation's drive' toward self-sufficiency in food production programme.*

SMALL EARTH DAMS PROJECT The Programme involves the harnessing or development of surface water resources or potentials of the five states of the catchment areas of the Basin Authority. This is particularly in areas where provision of water through drilling of boreholes is not feasible. In other words, the Project serves as an alternative source of water to communities where

m tapping of ground water either for domestic ltse or irrigation purpose or both is not possible. The Project, which commenced in 1985, involves the construction of small dams for the purpose of impounding water meant for use subsequently. The AIRBRDA has over the years completed the construction of small earth dams for potable water supply I at the following locations: Lokpanta - Abia State; Ebunwana, Ikwo, lzzi and Ohatekwe - Ebonyi State; and lgbakwu - LAIP, Omor - Anambra State."rS Findings- made by the researcher show that since the completion of the water projects, water has been flowing in the above-mentioned places and has been serving the needs of people accordingly. 1 The Mgbowo small earth dam in Enugu State, Ututu - Arochukwu small earth dam in Abia State, lhitte Uboma and Nkwerre small earth dams in Imo State, Ishiagu/lvo small earth dam in Ebonyi State and Nsugbe small earth dam in Anambra State are still under construction. When completed, the Ihittq Uboma and Ututu-Arochukwu earth dams

will be used for cultivation of rice. .

It IS worthy of note that the small earth dams project of the Authority has been greatly hampered by paucity of funds. Hence its I w limited impact on the Authority's catchment areas. 173 UNDERGROUND WATER RESOURCES (BOREHOLE) DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME This Programme began in 1981.' It involves the provision of potable water to communities within the catchment states of the Authority. This is executed through the drilling of boreholes in areas where geophysical investigations confirm the feasibility of drilling boreholes. The Authority also offers borehole. drilling services to individuals, communities or corporate bodies on a commercial basis. The Authority has made remarkable progress in its Underground Water Resources Development Programme. It has over the years completed 84 out of the 104 boreholes it inherited 'from the National Borehole C or * Programme (Phase I.? With the exception of a few, these completed boreholes were discovered to be functioning. It has' also completed 15 boreholes under its Commercial Borehole Drilling Services, while 28 others have been completed under the Special Borehole Drilling scheme8 The Authority's Borehole Drilling and Development Programmes, which include provision of generating sets, submersible pump, pump houses, over head tanks etc, have been completed at different sections of the South-eastern geopolitical Zone of Nigeria. These include the following: Abia State: Amokwe Item, lsiala Ngwa, Obeaja-Ugwunabo, Ozuitem, Nnono-Oboro, Abagwu- Arochukwu and Isuochi. Anambra State: Achina II, Nnewi, Eme Court1 and Nnewi Ill Mbanagu, Otolo-Nnewi, Achalla, Uli, Umuleri, Otuocha, Nnokwa, Ekwulobia and

-oCtol------Ebonyi State: Owutu-Ed&. Enugu State: Udi, and Akpugo-Nkanu. Irno State: Okwu-Emekuku, Amafor-lmerienwe, lhitte Uboma, Umuowa- Orlu, Okwuato-Mbaise, Obibi Ogbaku, Amaimo and Egbelu-Umuhu ~~or.*whilea good number of the borehole projects have been 1" commissioned, others are awaiting commissioning. In addition to the above, drilling, casing, development and installation works are in progress at the under-listed locations: lsiala Ngwa II, Ubaha-Umuahia, Abia State; Umudim, Nnewi, Oko II, All Hallow's Seminary, Onitsha and Ichida, Anambra State; Ahiazu and Umunoha, Imo State; and Ndeaboh Awgu, Enugu State. Furthermore, pre-drilling geophysical investigations have been completed at Akpo-Aguata and Ufuma, Anambra State; 33 Ibito-010, Eha- Amufu and Ikem, Enugu State; and Uturu, Abia State., While the Borehole Development Programme of the Authority has been comparatively successful, it is, however, germane to state that the desired impact is yet to be made. This is behause many of the Authority's catchment areas are yet to have access to this amenity over .. .

twenty years,. of the inception of the Programme. The chief reason *;5 adduced for is inadequate fund allocation. rl\ SOIL EROSION, FLOOD CONTROL AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROJECT. Erosion and flood control constitutes another important mandate of the AIRBRDA in its area of operation, South-eastern geopolitical Zone of Nigeria. The Zone is erosion-prone. Soil erosion and flood are scourges that have adverse impact on the region like on other regions of Nigeria. Their devastation on agriculture, residential, industrial and related resources is common in several parts of the region just like 2 elsewhereLnNigeria. However, the degree of occurrence varies fi considerably from one of the region to the other. For instance, whilst it is true that soil erosion and flood are one of the most striking features on the land surface of central and northern parts of the region particularly Anambra, Abia and lmo States, only rare occurrences of the phenomenon are recorded in the other states of Enugu and Ebonyi. Also varied are the factors responsible for the inception and development of erosion, as well as the types that exist in several sectors of the Zone. I ?/I

*1 The AIRBRDA, has as one of its statutory functions, the control ot erosion and related problems in its catchment areas. The project involves reclaiming eroded and flooded agricultural lands within the five states controlled by the Authority. This is through the study, design and construction of appropriate erosionlflood control measures. It also involves the supervision of major erosion and flood control projects under contract- as' well as maintenance of all completed erosion and flood control works including afforestation and grassing of the sites to enhance stabilization of the areas. he project also involves production of forest trees, ornamental and fruit seedlings for sale to the public. , . Thus far, the AIRBRDA has succdssfully carried out the e supervision'and completion of erosion control projects at the following sites within its catchment areas:

I. Abia State: Ndiegoro, Ebem-Ohafia, and Agbagwu (Barracks) Arochukwu; .. 11. Anambra State: Uga, Enugu-Ukwu, Oraukwu and Otolo-Nnewi; .. . rrr. Ebonyi State: Ebunwana and Enyibichiri Azuofia; v. Enugu State: Obollo-Afor, lkem and University?f Nigeria Teaching A Hospital (UNTH), Enugu. vi Imo State: Nekede, Oke - Uvuru, Amaukwu - Amaumara, 1 -r Ihioma-Orlu, Okwu - Emekuku, Ekwerre-Ezinihitte and Isiekenesi. Of all these projects, the Ndiegoro is the most spectacular,34 The Authority has in addiition completed studies and designs of erosion control measures at the following sites:

- - - Abia-State: AmuzukwLc -- Urn~~hia,_Ov&,-L-ibrary - - Avenue------Umuahia ------Landslide and Amaekpu - Ohafia. Anambra State: Okija, Obiaja Alor Ngeneocha Spring - Nawfia, St. Paul's College Awka, Ogbunike and Oko.

* Imo State: ~mu8haml~chara-~bo-~mekuku,lbeku Okwuatol Oboama- Aboh Mbaise, Oguta and Omuma isiaku?~hat is more, the Authority 7 has completed reconnaissance soil surveys at: Umunwanwa-Urnuanta and Amachara-Abia State; Adazi-Nnukwu, and Ekwulu-Mmili-Anambra State; and Eziudo Ezinihitte Mbaise-lmo State. Besides, the Authority has over the years executed production of Vertiva grass and other forestry and ornamental seedlings such as gmelina, orange, pineapple, ternunalia, among others, for its grassing and afforestation programme. ~ehabilitationof forestry nursery shed as well as land capping and maintenance of wood lots are also being undertaken. 34 Likewise, paucity of funds has considerably reduced the impact or effect of the project. This is because many erosion devastated areas in # -. South-east region are yet to receive attention. Also, inadequate fund allocation has stalled the completion of outstanding works at the on- going projects.

HYDROLOGICALIHYDROMIETEROLOGICAL DATA COLLECTiON PROGRAMME Hydrometerological and hydrogeological data form the backbone or pivot of water resqurces project, evaluation, planning, development and management. This Programme is, therefore, aimed at collecting, collating and analyzing hydrological and hydrometerological data for the designing and planning of water resources projects. This is especially with regard to irrigation schemes, earth dams and boreholes. It also involves the publication and maintenance of Hydrometreological Year Books. In order to carry out these functions, the AIRBRDA established 47 guaging stations at all major rivers wlthin the five states of its coverage and Also the Authority has published two Hydrmeteorological Books, 1983 - 1984 and 1984-1 989P8 These books have been made available for sale to consulting firms, universities, research institutes and all those involved in water resources ;It development. 1 ?6 REHABlLlTATlONlREFURBISHMENT OF PLANTS AND MACHIMEKY PROJECT. The River Basin scheme demands very heavy investment of capital and technology. It involves a massive- construction of hydro- agricultural projects like dams, irrigation works, drainage channels, dykes, polders, etc. This is apart from large-scale mechanized clearing and cultivation of land and often massive evacuation and resettlement of people. These projects are very dependent on imported technology and hardware. But excessive dependence on importation of sophisticated machinery has 'not augured well for the country. Most of the equipment imported for Nigeria's irrigation projects break down 60 sonner than they are taken to the field for operations. The spareparts ordered to reactivate them often do not arrive in time for one reason or the other. To further aggravate the situation, prices of these machineries are often highly exorbitant. Also, at times, expatriate technicians and engineers are flown down to repair and service the machines. Indisputably, all this further depletes Nigera's foreign exchange earnings. It was in an effort to address the' above problem that informed the inauguration of the Rehabilitation/Refurbishment of Plants and Machinery Programme of the River Basin and Rural Development Authorities, including the AIRBRDA.~However from available evidence, this measure has not succeeded in addressing the foreign dependence syndrome. The Programme involves the rehabilitationlrefurbishment of existing plants and machinery (both heavy and light), equipment and . vehicles as well as procurement of necessary spareparts for their repair. Replacement of out-dated machines, plants and equipment is also undertaken. This is essential to ensure optimal performance at both project sites and the various offices. To guarantee this, the AIRBRDA established a mechanic workshop where the rehabilitation works are carried out. It also provides Plant Hire services for an agreed fee to 1 ?_ ,;I people and corporate bodies. Since inception of the programme, efforts have been made to rehabilitate/refurbish petrol engine vehicles such as Peugeot cars, Pajeros Land Rovers, Mazda pick-ups, etc. Also rehabilitated/refurbished were diesel engine heavy plants and machinery like a number of dozers, excavators, dump trucks, water tankers, low bed tractors, road rollers, graders, generating sets, among othersf;CD Furthermore, some broken down heavy duty plants and machinery like Omega PH Crane 51845 and Fiat Allis 14C track payloader were recovered from locations/sites where they were abandoned? Efforts were also'geared towards procuring and stocking necessary spareparts b for the vehicles and machines for subsequent use. As laudable as this project of the Authority may appear to be, critical and empirical evaluation would however; reveal that its impact . has so far been grossly inconsequential. This is evident in the number of broken down unserviceable and abandoned vehicles, plants and machinery which the researcher noticed litter both the Authority's headquarters and the various project sites for which spareparts are not availabld2~hesevehicles and plants and machinery were found to be at various stages of deterioration or decay. Available sources indicate that the Authority took delivery of certain new vehicles and equipment and spareparts last in 1987,~lnconsequence, the Authority's inability to procure new equipment or effectively maintain existing ones has brought about a drastic reduction in the total number of equipment in its custody and has in turn led to the depreciation of those currently in use. Typical

- - - - - examples-ae the -~apan&se-rn&hbata tractors at-the LAIP,--- Omor. ---- It is instructive that in 1987 these machines were 136 in number, but have been reduced to just 2 during the researcher's fieldwort! This scenario has had untoward effect on the performance of Operation and Maintenance (0 & M) functions, which are more or less indispensable for 1.18 the overall performance of irrigation schemes, the cornerstone of the River Basin Development Projects.

HEADQUARTERS AND LIAISON OFFICES DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME. The headquarters of the AIRBRDA is located at Agbala which is ten kilometres east of Owerri. The headquarters is the hub of the Authority as it oversees and co-ordinates its activities (projects and programmes) within its area of operation. The development Programme also envisages establishing liaison offices at Umuahia and Abakaliki while that of Abuja has already been established. Construction and infrastructural facilities development commenced at the Agbala headquarters in 1979. Since then the underlisted facilities have been put in place: Main Administrative block, Staff Canteen, Guest House, Staff Clinic, Central Stores, Very Important Personality (VIP) Guest House, Workshop, a network of estate roads, external telephone, computer network, residential quarters, among others.45 The Programme also involves the rehabilitation and renovation of the facilities mentioned above, most of which were at the time of this study at different stages of dilapidation or disrepair. Evidence shows that over the years, the Authority has been maintaining these facilities despite its dwindling financial resources and ascalating or rising costs. This is due to its avowed efforts to ensure conducive and congenial work environment capable of increasing the efficiency and productivity of staff. From the foregoing, it becomes clear that the AIRBRDA, like others nationwide, has since inception established myriads of projects and programmes in the South-eastern geopolitical zone, which is its area of coverage. This is in its efforts to bring about or ensure effective rural and agricultural development in the region. However, the researcher's findings at the various projects and programmes especially the irrigation

I project at the LAlP Omor, would suggest that the operational 1-0 of these projects and programmes can be said not to have been very satisfactory. This srtuation has been attributed to many and varied factors, which will be examined subsequently. I30 Notes Anambra-lmo River Basin and Rural Development Authority (AIRBRDA) Profile of Activities, March 1998, (No Place of Publication) p.7. Anambra - Imo River Basin and Rural Development Authority, Profile on the Lower Anambra Irrigation Project (LAIP), Omor (No Place of Publication and Date), p. 1. "Profile of the LAIP, Omor", p.1. "Profile of the LAIP, Omor", p.1. "Profile of the LAIP, Omor", p.1. lnterview with His Royal Highness (HRH), lgwe Udemezue, C.78 Years, Traditional Ruler of Omor, at his Palace, Omor, on 25 May, 2006. Amaefule, "Assessment of River Basin Development Authorities". . . ,p.45. AIRBRDA, "Profile of Activities", p.9. lnterview with Mr. E.1. Maduka, C. 54 Years, Project Manager, LAIP, Omor, at the premises of the LAIP, Omor, on 3 April, 2000. Maduka Interview cited. AIRBRDA Annual Report for 1999, p. 17.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, Water Resources Development... , p.51. This observation derives partly from the researcher's findings in the field and from interviews with some famers at the Isi-Uzo Minor lrrigation Project, Ikem. The farmers include the following: Mrs. Euphemia Odo, C. 48 Years, Mrs. Mercy Ugwu, C. 38 Years, Mrs. Eucharia Eze, C. 40 Years and Mrs. Janeth Ugwu, C. 52 Years. The interview was conducted in Ikem, on 29 May, 2006. lnterview with HRH lgwe B. Okwor, C. 78 Years, Traditiona Ruler of Umuaram Autonomous Community Ikem, at his 'alate, Umuaram Ikem, on 29 May, 2006. AIRBDA, Animbasin News, Vol. 1 January-June, 1981. lnterview with Mrs. Cecelia Amadi, C. 40 Years, and Mrs. C I i nyere Okere, C. 45 Years at Agbala, on 10 May, 2006. The Local farmers who complained vehemently and bitterly about the current deterioration and non-performance of the LAIP agreed that from inception in 1987 up till 1990, the Project tremendously I: I that from inception in I987 up till 1990, the Project tremendously aided and enhanced their farming activities. They equally said that they very much wish the LAlP could once more be rehabilitated in order to serve them accordingly again. Among the many farmers interviewed were: Christiana Onyi, C.50 Years, Celestine Tagbo, C.49 Years, Fidelis Anyanwu, C.48 Years and Anthonia Nwabueze, C. 40 Years. The lnterview was held at Omor on 24 March, 2003. GroupMerview with Mrs. Mary Muofuanya , C. 40 Years, Mrs. Edith Ofuonye, C. 40 Years , Mrs. Justina Ogugua, C.50 Years, Mr. Fredrick Anierobi, C.40 Years, Anthony Ikegbuna, C.30 Years and Mrs. Rose Okafor, C.30 Years, local farmers, Omor, at Omor

on 27 March, 2003. 4 Farmers were unanimous in attesting to the fact. Most of them have been clamouring for return to the pre - 1991 period. Maduka, Interview cited. Interviews with Mr. C.A Onyeokoro, C. 48 Years, Project Manager Isi-llzo Minor lrrigatioin Project Ikem, at the AIRBRDA's headquarters Agbala, on 11 April, 2000. lnterview with Engineer V. C Adikuru, C. 41 Years, Acting Project Manager, lgwu Minor Irrigation Project Ndi-ebe Arochukwu, at AIRBRDA headquarters, Agbala, on 11 April, 2000. Muofuanya, Ofuonye, Ogugua, Anierobi, lkegnuna and Okafor,

lnterview cited . Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria.. . , p.218. A. Olayide, "Agricultural Policies of the Military Era" in the Proceedings of Economic Society on Nigerian Econotny (Kaduna. Gaskiya Press 1980), p.8. Olayide, "Agricultural Policies of the Military Era... , p.8. AIRBRDA, " Profile of Activities", p. 11. Engineer Ugwueze, Interview cited. AIRBRDA Annual Report for 1997, p.21. Engineer Ugwueze, lnterview cited. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Water Resources Developmej.t. p.53 I .:I that from inception in I987 up till 1990, the Project tremendously aided and enhanced their farming activities. They equally said that they very much wish the LAlP could once more be rehabilitated in order to serve them accordingly again. Among the many farmers interviewed were: Christiana Onyi, C.50 Years, Celestine Tagbo, C.49 Years, Fidelis Anyanwu, C.48 Years and Anthonia Nwabueze, C. 40 Years. The lnterview was held at Omor on 24 March, 2003. Group.interview with Mrs. Mary Muofuanya , C. 40 Years, Mrs. Edith Ofuonye, C. 40 Years , Mrs. Justina Ogugua, C.50 Years, Mr. Fredrick Anierobi, C.40 Years, Anthony Ikegbuna, C.30 Years and Mrs. Rose Okafor, C.30 Years, local farmers, Omor, at Otnor

on 27 March, 2003. b Farmers were unanimous in attesting to the fact. Most of them have been clamouring for return to the pre - 1991 period. Maduka, Interview cited. Interviews with Mr. C.A Onyeokoro, C. 48 Years, Project Manager Isi-lJzo Minor lrrigatioin Project Ikem, at the AIRBRDA1s headquarters Agbala, on 11 April, 2000. lnterview with Engineer V. C Adikuru, C. 41 Years, Acting Project Manager, lgwu Minor Irrigation Project Ndi-ebe Arochukwu, at AIRBRDA headquarters, Agbala, on 11 April, 2000. Muofuanya, Ofuonye, Ogugua, Anierobi, lkegnuna and Okafor,

lnterview cited . Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria.. . , p.2 18. A. Olayide, "Agricultural Policies of the Military Era" in the Proceedings of Economic Society on Nigerian Economy (Kaduna, Gaskiya Press 198O), p.8. Olayide, "Agricultural Policies of the Military Era... , p.8. AIRBRDA, " Profile of Activities", p. 11. Engineer Ugwueze, Interview cited. AIRBRDA Annual Report for 1997, p.21. Engineer Ugwueze, Interview cited. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Water Resources Development p.53 33. Engineer Ugwueze, Interview cited. 34. Nze Nwankwo, lnterview cited. 35. lnterview with Jude Ononobor, C. 40 Years, Chief Surveyor Assistant, AIRBRDA, at the headquarters, Agbala, on 12 June, 2001. 36. Ononobor, lnterview cited. 37. AIRBRDA," Profile of Activities," p. 12. 38. AIRBRDA " Profile of Activities", p.12. 39. lnterview with Mr.O.O.Ndukwe, C.55 Years, Chief Works Superintendent (CWS) AIRBRDA at the headquarters, Agbala, on 15 June, 2002. *

.*, 40. Ndukwe, Interview cited.

41. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Water Resources Development... , p.54 42. The Researcher was astonished to find a good number of broken down unserviceable and abandoned vehicles, plants and tnachinery littering the Authority's headquarters and the various project sites/locations. 43. lnterview with Mr. Francis Nnadozie, C. 55 Years, Machine Operator, LAIP, at Omor, on 24 March, 2003. 44. lnterview with Mr. Kenneth, Chima, C.45 Years, Plant Mechanic, LAIP, at Omor, on 24 March, 2003. wv 45. The researcher was conducted round the facilities at the AIRBRDA1s headquarters during his field work.. CHAPTER FIVE IMPACT OF AIRBRDA ON THE PEOPLE. In the preceding chapter, we examined the performance of the various projects and programmes of the AIRBRDA with emphasis on construction of irrigation schemes, flood and erosion control works, small earth dams, sinking or drilling of boreholes, provision of rural infrastructure such as feeder roads, bridges, etc. The aim is to ascertain their performance in agricultural and rural transformation in the Authority's area of operation. The present chapter evaluates the impact or effect of the AIRBRDA on the people of the South-eastern States of Nigeria, viz: Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. It seeks to find out + any changes that have occurred in this part of Nigeria, consequent upon .c m the establishment of the AIRBRDA. In attempting to do this, we may have to take a cursory glance at the statutory functions of the AIRBRDA. As stated before, the Authority since its inception in 1976, like the others across the country, has undergone several remarkable institutional and structural changes, resulting in alteration or modification of its declared functions and responsibilities. So, its functions have been dynamic rather than static. Also, as already emphasized, the core aspects of the Authority's functions as amended by Decree Number 35 of 1987, include development of water resource potentials of its L* catchment areas. Section 4 of that Decree states that the AIRBRDA as well as the other Authorities nationwide, is officially expected to do the following: water resources development, water supply to farmers for irrigation, and to individuals and associations, control of floods, erosion and pollution, construction of dams, boreholes dykes , polders as well as irrigation schemes and the resettlement of affected persons. t-lence impact of the Authority on its area of operation may be viewed against

the backdrop of its statutory functions. All this tends to condition the I

expectations of the people with regard to the Authority. In addition, I "I I 3-1 however, all the functions are supposed to be performed with a view to improving the standard of living of the people and the reduction of poverty through enhanced income-generation opportunities. It is true that these latter objectives may not be clearly shown in the written objectives of the AIRBRDA, they, no doubt, inform its policy environment. However, the impact of the establishment of the AIRBRDA on the

people of its catchment area will be discussed under the following sub - themes: introduction of new technology, development of rural infrastructure, provision of employment opportunities, urbanization, improvement of the standard of living of rural dwellers, provision of agro-allied support services, checking rural-urban migration, creation of 6 land scarcity and environmental impact. In this impact assessment, we shall undertake a comparative analysis of the AIRBRDA and few other Authorities. Introduction of New Technology Whereas science is a systematic body of knowledge obtained by observation and verification of facts, technology in its broad sense refers to the application of knowledge to practical tasks of life. According to Forge, technology may be perceived as "sets of instruments or tools, materials, know-how and capabilities employed to meet community needs and augment its control."' In his own view, Ohiorhenaun refers technology to as "the devices, methods and processes employed by man to mediate his relationship with nature."* Massaquoi opines that "technology generally includes skills, knowledge, processes or methods used to carry out man's a~tivities."~Therefore, technology consists of both equipment and tools used in and the knowledge behind the processes of production and consumption. In other words, technology extends to processes and methods of provision of services by non- productive sectors like commerce, administration, banking, law, health, etc. It goes beyond techniques used in agricultural and manufacturing 1 ;:\ sectors. However, as Egbeke Aja points out, how technology is applied

-, greatly determines the place of man in society and man in nature."%e further states that "the type of technology applied by a given society equally determines the nature of its developmental processes.'~~or instance, capital-intensive technology implies alienation of man in society and development from above. Conversely, labour-intensive technology stipulates harmonious incorporation of man in society and development frorn below. Be that as it may, our tnajor concern here is with technologies used or usable in agriculture. By agricultural technology, we mean those machines, equipment and implements, processes, steps and techniques applied in agricultural production, b storage, processing, marketing and management. In other words, * agricultural technology includes engineering or mechanical inputs (like hoes, matchets, diggers tractors,etc), chemical inputs (like fertilizer-, agro-chemicals etc), and biological inputs such as improved, resistant and high-yielding planting materials, improved livestock breeds and genetic materials.). It also embodies social and physical infrastructure that aid production directly and indirectly. Agricultural technology, therefore, encompasses all farm management practices in place. In the words of Padmanabhan, a given technology represents a particular combination of factors of production.6 He goes on to contend that a new v' technology ~mpliesthe introduction of changes in this combination by adding a new factor, dropping an existing one or by changing them in one way or another.' The establishrnent of the AIRBRDA in 1976 in what is now South- eastern geopolitical zone of Nigeria, introduced the people of the area to new agricultural technology and innovations in farm practices These I mnovations are considered pre-conditions for sustained improvement in

levels of output and productivity. As shown in the previous chapter, the I Authority has over the years, acquired such machines and equipment as I L 170 sprinklers, tractors, dozers, hydro-flo pumps, water tankers, scrapers, dredgers, crawlers, combined harvesters, etc. With the acqulsit~onof these hydro-agricultural equipment and machines, the practice of irrigation agriculture became possible. lrrigation can be defined as the application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying moisture essential for crop growth. lrrigation may be supplementary in which case water is applied to supplement deficient rainfall or it may be total when all the crop water requirements are supplied by irrigation as a result of total lack of rainfall. lrrigation holds one of the keys to the stabilization of Nigeria's food production as an assured water supply protects Nigerian agriculture from erratic and # unpredictable rainfall patterns. Efficient irrigation also ensures stability in

R market prices of food since farming can take place all year, lrrigation facilities are best utilized by co-operative societies as large expanse of land is collectively farmed by the co-operators. It is, perhaps, vital to point out that the South-eastern zone just like the South-western and South-south zones, was only used to rainfed agriculture prior to the creation of the RBRDAs. As a result, it can be rightly asserted that the advent of the Southern-based RBRDAs introduced irrigation technology to regions that hit herto relied chiefly on rainfall for their agriculture. This is especially true of communities where

1 .r the ~rragtionprojects of the Authorities are located. In the South-eastern, region, the communities include Omor, Umumbo, Umuelum Anaku, lgbakwu and Iffite-Ogwari, all in Anambra State; Isi-Uzo, lkem and Ehamufu, Enugu State; Ibu and lgwu Abia State; and Ndimoko- Arondizuogu, Imo State. In the South-western region, they include Mokoliki and Igbonla, Lagos State; Asa, Iwo and Ipetu-ljesha Oyo State and Oke Odan, Itoikin, Yewe and Enyilnwo, all in Ogun State In the South-south zone the communities are Anyama-Ogbia, Fando- Onopos,lsampou and Peremabiri, Bayelsa State; Koko and Ewulu, Delta '0. 177 State; Ekere-Ekiti, Ondo State; Itu and Abak, Akwa-lbom State; and Obubra and Ogoja, Cross River State.9 The above is in contrast with the northern region which has a long tradition of irrigation agriculture. However a comparative analysis of the AIRBRDA and such other Authorities as OORBRDA and the CBRDA would suggest that the latter have made greater impact in irrigation agriculture on their catchment areas than the former. This is in terms of number of projects executed and hectarage developed and by extension increased employment opportunities for rural farm families.The table below shows list of both major and minor irrigation projects by the Authorities.

b Table 5: List of lrrigation Projects by Some RBRDAs

Name of Locatlon Hectarage RBRDA AIRBRDA LAP, dmor Anambra 3,850 ha Operational but State undergoing

.. - -- - -. -- - AIRBRDA Ibu Dam & Irrigation Imo State I ,200 ha Construction for 7 1 ha Project has reached 50%

AIRBRDA lgwu Minor lrrigation Ab~a 500 ha 71 ha Farm (Phasel) Project State completed & operat~oni

-- - - AliiBRDA Is1 Uzo Minor lrrigation Enugu 100 ha Project State - -. OORBRDA Oyan Dam lrrigat~on ogun 12,500 ha 3,000 ha completed R (Lower Ogun lrrigation State operatlonal Project)

- OORBRDA lkere ~eor~eDam 3,000 ha (Phase 1) oGJn-- -- - 12,500 ha , lrrigation (Middle Ogun State completed & operation lrrigation Project) --- - OORBRDA l~pperSasa Basin oyoState 250 ha Completed & lrrigation Project lpetu operatlonal ljesha 17s - OORBRDA Lower Osun lrrigaion Lagos 141 ha & Completed & Projects Itoikiri & State 50 ha operatiorial lgbonla respect~vely OORBRDA Yewa Basm lrr~gation Ogun 40 ha & 5 ha plot irr~gat~ Projects Okeo-Odan & State 300 ha schenie co~iipleted& Eyinwa respect~vely operational OORBRDA Upper Ogun Basin Oyo State 2,000 ha Completion of 80 ha Irrigation Projects each Sprinkler System at (Sepeteri, Ofiki & Sepeter~ Igbojaiye) --- -. CBRDA Borno 49,000 ha Completed & Project (SCIP) Phases State operatiorial 1 &2 + CBRDA Baga Polde Borno 20,000 ha 1,000 ha completed & ~ (BPP) State operat~onal CBRDA Dzurok/M~ch~kaR~ce ~damawa 500 ha I00 ha completed & Project State operational

- - CBRDA Gashua WheatlR~ce %be 1,000 ha 100 ha completed & Project State

-.- - -- - CBRDA Ambursa Rice Project Borno 200 ha completed & State operat~onal . . - - --- CBRDA Mana Waji Rice Project Borno 100 ha completed 8 State operational

- -- - CBRDA Abar~Rice project - Borno 500 ha 100 ha completed & State operat~onal

CBRDA Ngalda Wheat project- - Yo be 20 ha conipleted 8 State operat~o~lal I - - Source Extracted orn the Federal Ministry ( Water Resources Development The Journey so far.

The pertinent question therefore, is: what is responsible for the disparity in performance between the AIRBRDA and the two other River Basln and Rural Development Authorities? Investigation by the researcher In thls regard at the Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR) Abuja reveals that the principal reason for the disparity is better 1 .iO funding by the Federal Government in favour of the other two

-.I Authorities. For instance, while Federal allocations to the two other Authorities from 1987 to 1990 amounted. to N70, 025, 000 and N155, 304, 000 respectively, that of the AIRBRDA for the same period was N50, 205, 000. The table below indicates budgetary allocations of the RBDAs from 1987 to 1990 and perhaps illustrates the point clearer.

Table 6: The Eleven RBDAs and Budgetary Allocations, 1987 - 1990 Roll~ngPlan Allocat~on

Anambrallmo 48,352,000 RBDA Ben~n-Owena 40,700,000 REDA Chad Bas~nDA 51,990,000 Cross Rivers Bas~n 40 775,000 DA t ladejra-Jama'are 58 997,000 RBDA Lower Benue 42,969 000 RBDA N~gerDelta BDA 37,751,000 N~gerRBDA 46,249,000 Ogun-Oshun 53,346,000 RBDA Sokoto-R~ma 51,266,000 RUDA

Upper Benue 53,726 000 RBDA 526,121,000

- .-I Source: ana aging ~rri~atioiProjects in Nigeria, page 46. Also, research has indicated that the two other Authorities place more premium on irrigation agriculture than the AIRBRDA This perhaps accounts for the presence of more dams in their catchment areas than those of the AIRBRDA'. I ,I0 However, it is germane to stress that the change in policy from direct agricultural production to only water resources development by Decree 35 of 1987, adversely affected the performance of irrigation projects of the RBRDAs nationwide. We shall examine this in due course.

Development of Rural Infrastructure Incontrovertibly, infrastructure contributes immensely to the development of rural areas. They help to bring about structural transformation needed in our rural areas. Accordingly, F.S. Idachaba, has stressed that "rural infrastructure consists of physical, social and institutional forms of capital facilities, which did rural residents in their

.- production, distribution and consumption activities as well as enhance the quality of rural ~ife."'~He classifies rural infrastructure in Nigeria into three--physical, social and institutional. The rural physical infrastructure includes rural transportation facilities such as roads, footpaths, bridges, railroads, ferry services, etc; storage and processing facilities such as

. silos, warehouses, mills, etc; irrigation, flood control and water resources development facilities. The rural social infrastructure includes health facilities, educational facilities and rural utilities. Rural institutional infrastructure includes co-operative societies, farmers' unionlgroups, rural self-help institutions, rural financial institutions and agricultural extension and training facilities, among others. The relevance of these facilities in the socio-economic development of the rural areas cannot be underestimated. For instance, availability of all-weather and motorable roads and other

- efkcimt &nsporLservi~gs iff the rual areas makes far easy movement of people and evacuation and marketing of agricultural products. The inadequacy or absence of these facilities on the other hand constitutes great constraint to rural development. This is because farmers in such areas are bound to suffer losses in revenue or income. I .I0 However, it is germane to stress that the change in policy from direct agricultural production to only water resources development by Decree 35 of 1987, adversely affected the performance of irrigat~on projects of the RBRDAs nationwide. We shall examine this in due course.

Development of Rural Infrastructure Incontrovertibly, infrastructure contributes immensely to the development of rural areas. They help to bring about structural transformation needed in our rural areas. Accordingly, F.S. Idachaba, has stressed that "rural infrastructure consists of physical, social and institutional forms of capital facilities, which aid rural residents in their production, distribution and consumption activities as well as enhance the quality of rural ~ife."'~He classifies rural infrastructure in Nigeria into three--physical, social and institutional. The rural physical infrastructure includes rural transportation facilities such as roads, footpaths, bridges, railroads, ferry services, etc; storage and processing facilities such as

, silos, warehouses, mills, etc; irrigation, flood control and water resources development facilities. The rural social infrastructure includes health facilities, educational facilities and rural utilities. Rural institutional infrastructure includes co-operative societies, farmers' unionlgroups, rural self-help institutions, rural financial institutions and agricultural extension and training facilities, among others. The relevance of these facilities in the socio-economic development of the rural areas cannot be underestimated. For instance, availability of all-weather and motorable roads and other ------efficient transport services in the rural areas makes for easy movement of people and evacuation and marketing of agricultural products. The inadequacy or absence of these facilities on the other hand constitutes great constraint to rural development. This is because farmers in such areas are bound to suffer losses in revenue or income 1 .! 1 This is because their agricultural outputs can hardly be evacuated to the urban centres where commensurable prices could be offered for them The nexus between infrastructure and rural industrialization is also strong and direct. Rural industrial enterprises really need to be serviced by a good network of roads to facilitate movement of raw materials and finished products. Besides, they need to be connected with steady supply of electricity to work the machines and provide them with water for processing. In the same way, workers in rural establishments ought to have access to health care and educational services. In the views of E.C Okafor and A.C. Onokerhoraye, the absence of rural infrastructure # is "a push factor of migration that leads to rural depopulation, which is an obstacle in the wheel of rural development."" Apart from the above essential roles which infrastructure plays in the economic life of the rural populace, they also perform crucial roles in the maximization of the social welfare of the ruralites. All this very much underscores the need for sustainable development of rural infrastructure in Nigeria, as elsewhere, as the basis for rural socio- economic growth and development. Evidently, one of the statutory objectives and functions of the AIRBRDA, like the other Authorities, is the provision of rural w infrastructure especially rural water schemes and feeder or rural roads to rural communities within its area of coverage. This is with a view to improving the standard of living of rural dwellers. The importance of a good source of water and sanitation in society cannot be underestimated. This is particularly with regard to prevention of water-borne diseases and reduction in man-hour loss associated with searching for water. Like the other Authorities, the efforts of the AIRBRDA in water supply are in two categories - Underground Water Resources Development (Borehole) Programme and Small-Earth 1 12 Programme. Here again, a comparative analysis of the AlRBRDA and

**. other Authorities like OORBRDA, CBRDA and UNRBRDA would deptct that the OORBRDA has made more efforts in construction of earth dams than the the other three. From available evidence, the OORBRDA has constructed earth dams in six places within its area of operation. The places include Sepeteri 'A', Sepeteri 'B', Ofiki I, Ofiki II, Lekan Are, Okeodan and Igbojaiye. This is compared with five by the CBRDA, namely Moku, Mandaragrau, Askira, Ribadu, and Gulani; five by the AIRBRDA, namely Ikwo, Lokpanta, igbakwu, Ebunwana and Ohatekwe and five by the UNRBRDA which comprises Rijau, Nasko, Kerawa, Daga and ~asan~a."Thus it can be said that the AIRBRDA, CBDA and UNRBRDA are operating at par in the area of earth dam development. 3 In the sphere of Underground Water Resouces Development (Borehole) Project, the AIRBRDA has as at 2001 drilled 128 boreholes in different parts of the basin drained by it in its efforts at exploiting ground water resources. This is compared with 254 boreholes drilled by the OORBRDA, 90 by the CBRDA, 68 by the NDBDA and 118 by the UNRDRDA'~.The provison of the boreholes to the communities by the Authorities seems to have reduced the incidence of water-bornty -. diseases especially guin&wm infestation in their catchment areas. For instance, investigation by the researcher reveals that the incidence of guinea worm infestation in Abakaliki and Afikpo areas and their environs has now drastically lessened. Hitherto these areas were

-conspicuous-for-highoccurrence ofguinea worm------infestation.'" ------The crucial role and importance of an efficient road network in the socio-economic and other aspects of peoples' lives cannot be overemphasized. For one thing, roads enable farmers to evacuate their produce to the markets. Also, P.S Villaneuva has stressed that: 1'13 the tremendous effect of roads in the economy is clearly evident. Almost everything that one buys is moved once or several times by land transport. Roads have equally important social values. Roads accelerate acculturation and culture innovation.. . 15 Over the years, the AIRBRDA has made efforts to construct, rehabilitate and maintains a few kilometers of roads. An example is the Agbala junction - Egbelu Obibi Ezena road, near Owerri, which it asphalted in 1982.'~imilarly,the coming into being of the Authority influenced the construction of the Onitsha-Adani-Nsukka highway and the Iwollo- Umulokpa-Omor road. The construction of these roads was T necessitated by the need to make Omor, the headquarters of the multi- million naira LAIP easily accessible from Onitsha and Enugu. It would be recalled that prior to this period, the area was more or less inaccessible. Furthermore, the Authority has constructed bridges, culverts and internal roads at the different project sites and locations. From records, the Authority has been carrying out maintenance work on these roads periodically.For example, it grades the Agbala-Emii road near Owerri, thrice yearly. The impact of these roads is the enhancement of transportation and movement of goods, especially agricultural products 1 and people within the South-eastern region and between it and other places. In this regard, farmers are unanimous that during the hey days of the LAIP, traders converged from various places to buy agricultural products particularly rice.'7 In spite of the above, effc&s of the AIRBRDA in rural road construction has not been as expected. It has not been able to construct enough feeder roads in its catchement areas for easy evacuation of farm produce. The same appears to be applicable to the other Authorities. v Figure 11: The Asphalted 2 - Kilometre Agbala Junction - Egbelu Obibi-Ezena Road built by the AIRBRDA. I44 As regards the construction of soil erosion, flood control and watershed management schemes, the AIRBRDA has fared better than the OORBRDA, CBRDA and UNRBRDA. This is because it (AIRBRDA) has successfully completed erosion control project in 18 places within its area of operation. The places are listed at page 124. The efforts of the OORBRDA in this regards has not been remarkable as it has only successfully completed such projects in a few areas within its catchment areas. The CBRDA and UNRBRDA, on the other hand, have not tnade any impact here, perharps owing to their ecology which makes them be more concerned with the problem of desert encroachment rather than erosion or flood control'". b Provision of Employment Opportunities. The AIRBRDA has made an impact on the people of its area of coverage in the sphere of employment. In 1998, the Authority had a total of 560 staff distributed as follows: Headquarters Agbala, 351; LAlP Omor, 186; Liaison Office Enugu, 21 and Liaison Office Abuja, 2. Whilst 202 are senior staff, 358 are junior staff.'"his is compared with such other Authorities as OORBRDA, UNRBDRDA and LNRBRDA with 453, 366 and 438 respectively20. This is in addition to numerous casual employees in the various project sites and locations of the Authorities.

T Also, it is noteworthy that in the process of constructing irrigation schemes at certain sections of the Authorities' areas of coverage, some physical structures like dams, canals, offices, staff quarters, roads, amongst others, were constructed. The execution of the projects offered jobs to various categories of people. During this period, the socio- economic status of these groups of people became lifted markedly. What is more, as already stated, development of irrigation agriculture by the Authorities in their areas of influence has offered farmers the opportunity for an all-year crop production. This is because with irrigation

F7 infrastructure rural farmers crop extensively during both rainy and dry Figure Ill: Farm Road Rehabilitation and a Portion of the Head Race Canal of the LAIP, Omor. 1.15 seasons, thereby making land more productive. Consequently, farmers

+- who otherwise would have been idle during the dry season were gainfully employed, thereby checking rural-urban migration. However, comparatively, the two other Authorities have offered more jobs to farm families than the AIRBRDA. This is because these two other Authorities have more - have developed A more irrigation schema than the AIRBRDA. For instance, while the number of participating farmers in the LAlP of AIRBRDA in 1990 was 6680, that of the Auna (Kontagora) Irrigation Project of the UNRBRDA was 10,000 in the same period.2' But, as already emphasized, since 1991, this impact made by the LAlP has been drastically limited. For + - instance, farmers at Omor, confirmed that since then they have principally been carrying out rainy season cropping. The reason for this situation has been identified as inability of the LAlP to render necessary services to them as in the pre-I 991 period.

Urbanization. Our discussion here will focus chiefly on Omor, the headquarters of the LAIP. This choice is predicated on the fact that from investigation, Omor has witnessed a higher degree of urbanization consequent upon the establishment of the AIRBRDA than any other place in our area of study. * The concept of urbanization lacks a clear-cut and watertight definition. However, in this study, urbanization will be taken to mean the process by which a non-urban area becomes a semi-urban or an urban centre. According to experts in urban and related matters, indices and yardsticks used in measuring urbanization of an area include, among others, growing economy, existence of transportation and communication services, presence of educational facilities, population dynamics, etc. Based on the above parametres, let us examine

‘II urbanization process in Omor and its effects on the area I 40 Omor, before the emergence of the AIRBRDA and the LAlP in 1976 and 1987 respectively, has been described by Mr. Francis Nnadozie as a "bushy, swampy and highly inaccessible community with- out modern socio-economic facilities like pipe-borne water, electricity, telephone services, banks, markets, et~."~~Reminiscences are recalled of how Omor by 1976, was akin to a small hamlet. In the words of Mazi G.K Okoro, former Assistant General Manager, Finance and Ad'ministration of AIRBRDA, Omor was "a mere tiny settlement with mainly huts and one or two primary schools."23The above situation has, however, changed in many respects. Today the place can boast of such structures as several filling stations, a modern and large market with # numerous close up and open shops, an ultra-modern rice mill and six other mills, several bookshops, three banks and several drug stores.'" Also, the town enjoys such other facilities as electricity, water and telephone services. Therefore, from the above infrastructure, it becomes clear that Omor has undergone transformatory changes in its economy Furthermore, traditional architectural styles have noticeably reduced. This can be seen in the roofing of houses and also in house furniture. Francis 0koyelZ5 can still recollect clearly that before the 1980s, there were very few houses with corrugated iron sheets in Omor. The practice then was to build with mud and roof with thatch. He further rv stated that the traditional ruler of Omor was the first person to build a house with corrugated iron sheets in the town.26 But today, there are modern houses in almost every nook and cranny of the town. These range from bungalows to storey buildings with modern facilities like water closeth. The educational sector has equally witnessed growth. During the period of this study, the town had ten primary schools, eight secondary schools and one Teachers' ~nstitute.~~It would be recalled that before 1-17 the establishment of the LAIP, there were only three primary schools and three secondary schools in Omor. In the sphere of transportation, Omor has also witnessed major changes. We have noted elsewhere that the establishment of the LAIP

played a role in the construction of two major highways - the On~tsha-

Adani - Nsukka highway and the lwollo - Umulokpa Omor road. This IS in addition to the construction of internal roads, bridges and culverts at the various sites and locations of the LAIP. As earlier stated, these roads have facilitated movement of people and goods both within and outside the town. They have also culminated in the emergence of such cottage industries as carpentry and welding workshops, n;lotor and radio mechanic workshops, grinding mills, video bars and beauty and - barbaring salons in the town.28 Findings made by the researcher also show that the establishment of the other RBRDAs has aided the urbanization of certain communities within their areas of coverage. For UNRBRDA the communities include Wushishi, Kontagora and Nasko, all of which have worn new looks. For the CRBDA they include Ribadu, Baga, Moku, etc. For the OORBRDA they include Okeodan, Ipetu-ljesha , Lekan Are, among others.

Improvement of the Standard of Living of Rural Dwellers.

T -L- In real terms, the ultimate objectives of the AIRBRDA, like others across Nigeria are to raise productivity, increase farm output and to ensure enhanced income and higher standard of living for rural dwellers. Available evidence would suggest that these goals appear to have been realized at the initial period up until the later part of 1990. For instance, in its hey day, that is from inception in 1987 up until 1990, the LAIP Omor, engaged over 6,000 participating farmers annually.29During this period, there was massive rice production from 22,400 to 95,505 tonnes based on double cropping - dry and rainy seasons (see table 4 at page II 117). This was made possible by the application of irrigation water and 14s supply of other essential inputs which increased farmers' yields. As a - result, farmers were able to exceed their annual production targets of 27,000 tonnes of paddy rice. Also, during the period, farmers' income levels were enhanced, with each receiving approximately real income of N90,000 annually. Mr Francis Okoye, who was one of the successful rice farmers during the period, recalled vividly that rice money conferred on farmers enormous social and economic status. Money accruing from the LAIP was referred to as "strong or hot money." This was as a result of the powerful and fast effect it had in changing the status of the people who earned it.30 Another feature of rice wealth in Omor was that it provided initial - capital for people to begin other businesses. ~onle~got from rice was invested in trading. Investigation shows that the major shops and stores in Omor today are owned by veteran rice farmers. Also, since the advent of the LAIP, social life in Omor has improved tremendously. This is especially evident in the sphere of housing. Urbanization of Omor has brought about a change in architectural pattern of the town in favour of modern designs.Empirical evidence shows that majority of the population have abandoned the single-room style houses in preference for self-contained bungalows and storey buildings. As Francis Okoye, a veteran rice farmer puts it "for * every six houses seen in Omor, four are owned by rice farmer^."^' He told the researcher that he erected a storey building in 1988 which was almost completed within six months. As a matter of fact, farmers in the town have attested both collectively and individually to the positive influence of rice money in the building of their houses." They have further pointed out that in the hey days of the LAIP, the number of houses a farmer possessed served as an index of his success in rice I 40 Another contributory factor is the positive role rice money has

b played in the education of children in Omor. Available evidence would suggest that most farmers in our area of study show interest in sponsoring their children in schools. Eventhough, rice cultivation has been and still is a profitable venture and that children could be involved in it, especially during the holidays, the researcher found that virtually all parents would not wish their children to become full-time farmers without acquiring formal education. Hence farmers see it as a challenge to sponsor their children in schools. Mr. Celestine Tagbo told the researcher that with money from rice, he has produced three university

With regard to health, farmers confirmed that money accruing 'li

I) from rice enabled them to cater properly for their medical needs. As a result, they were able to defray their medical costs and those of their dependants without much difficulty. In a nutshell, they attested to a more enhanced financial ability to get modern medical attention. This situation, they further stated, positively influenced their occupational efficiency and effectiveness Apart from improved housing and medical services, increase in the income level of farmers in our area of study, manifested in the increasing number of rural households owning items like motor cars, bicycles, radio '*, and television sets, etc. Reminiscences are recalled of how almost all rice farmers in Omor by I988 owned various household and other equipment. In fact, Mr. Celestine Tagbo, a veteran rice farmer opines that almost all his household belongings, including a 504 peugeot car, were bought with rice money between 1987 and 1990.~" Another evidence of enhanced level of income of farmers in Omor, is the high patronage they give to business houses like beer and liquor "parlours." These parlours are many in the area and are often stocked

I with various brands of beer, soft drinks, raffia palm wine and "hot drinksn- 1.50 ogogoro/mmanya oku. It is not uncommon to see people drinking after * working hours, even sometimes well into late hours of the might. These parlours are complemented by video clubs and hotels. The same was discovered to be true of LAlP employees. Also at the headquarters of the AIRBRDA Agbala and project offices like the Minor Irrigation Project Ikem-lsiuzo, the situation was found to be the same. Not surprisingly, social misdemeanours and crimes especially illicit sex relations among certain people exist in these places. Nonetheless, the places have served and still serve as veritable fora for socialization as people from different socio-cultural backgrounds converge there to relax. All the above appears to be true of the other Authoyities.

4 Provision of Agro-allied ServiceslAgricultural Production. Among the statutory functions of the AIRBRDA is to assist farmers in its catchment areas to step up their agricultural productivity through the provision of essential inputs particularly irrigation infrastructure and rendering of agronomic advire to them (farmers). By so doing, the projects of the Authority are essentially "farmer based", aimed mainly at motivating and encouraging farmers. Since creation, the AIRBRDA has attempted to carry out the above I functions in order to improve agricultural production in its catchment r areas. The LAlP Omor, will be used for our analysis as it is the largest agricultural project of the Authority. The LAlP Omor, was established in 1987 for mass production of rice paddy by the use of irrigation infrastructure. From inception up until the later part of 1990, the LAlP appreciably improved agricultural production in the area. Mention has already been made of how the participating farmers slightly exceeded their production capacity of 27,000, tonnes of rice paddy yearly. Evidence exists to show that before the advent of the LAIP in Omor, rice cultivation was predominantly carried out in the wet season by the use of w non-modern methods. Farm income also increased due to enhanced

I I --- Figure IV: Maize Plot at lsi-Uzo Minor Irrigation project kern, Enugu State - - 131 productivity based on double cropping of rice with the use of irrigation facilities. All this notwithstanding it can be argued that the AIRBRDA has failed as an effective vehicle for achieving a regional self-sufficiency in food production. Its impact in this regard was felt between 1976 and 1990. The continued scarcity and high cost of rice and other essential food items since this period clearly illustrates this point. It is common knowledge that the Authority has the capacity to produce all the rice requirements of South-eastern region. This assertion should not be taken or seen as a mere hypothetical postulate. The AIRBRDA can borrow a leave from Iran. For instance, the Gilan province of lran (Persia) on the Capsian Sea coast has a population of about 1.5 million. This population is 5 per cent of the total population of lran with only 1 per cent of Iran's land area. It is on record that this province pr~ducesover 400,000 tonnes of rice per annum, that is about 50 per cent of the Persian rice production per ann~m.~~Rice is the &ple food of Iran. Gilan which is referred to as the "Garden of Iran," is a verdant province with thriving agriculture. The vegetatior! and productive land of Gilan contrasts sharply with the arid semi-desert: climate of tl-tc Iranian plateau. .. . st? farming takes 68 per cent of the tz:al iand ur,der cui'iivatior; in Gilai?. 3 7 , i IL. ppince also produces over 90 per cent of the tea required ir! Iran. Liirz Xi~eria,petroleum is the mainstay of the Iranian ecocomy arid both

:, zk:n 7! ymt deal of climatic and economic sirnilariti~s.Likewise, the

L5. ?CW:JA has the unrealized potential of providins raw materials for

I I;-- 5: industries-in its area of ope:aticji7.

Check~gRural-Urban Migration As C.A. Ngwa points out, studies on migration trends in develgping countries are usuaily beset with several difficu~ties.~'Proniinenl ainocg these difficulties is paucity or complete absence of vitai and necessary 152 ".I statistica! data. The few data that exist in this regard often tend to be

%P most unreliable. Rural-urban drift has continued to be a worrisome social and economic malady in Nigeria, just as in other developing countries. The condition is known for its deleterious effects on development efforts of countries. Accordingly, the establishment of the AIRBRDA in the South- eastern geopolitical zone, like the others across Nigeria, was envisaged as a veritable tool to stem the rapid rural-urban drift which was the attendant problem of the "oil boom" era. Two principal measures were to be adopted in actualizing this laudable goal. First, was the creation and expansion of job opportunities for rural dwellefs. This was in order to enhance their income-generation capabilities. Next was the provision of socio-economic facilities that make life worth living, particularly -'xtricity, modern health centres, safe, clean and potable water, banks, xational institutions, among others, in the rural areas. These facilities

'YX~been largely concentrated in the urban centres. This measure was expected to act as a counterpoise between the urban and rural areas and discourage rural-urban drift. Our area of study, just like other places in Nigeil-a, has continued to experience the problem of rural-urban ,:,l,,;;-atioi~ This is exemplified in the army of youth drifting in large numbers to cities like Onitsha, Aba, Enugu, Owerri, Awka, Nnewi, Abakalilii, Umuahia, etc. There is no gainsaying the fact that since inception, the AIRBRDA has mace effor-ts to tackle this socio-economic problem in its catchment ,AX. VL1e have noted elsewhere that the Authority has as at 1998 provided paid job opportunities for 560 people deployed to its various offices and projects. This is in addition to the numerous casual employees attached to its different project sites and locations. Mention has also been made of the Authority's irrigation schemes, particularly the ' I, LAlP Omor, which between 1987 and 1991 provided the local farmers 153 with efficient irrigation facilities for all-year cropping activities. Hence farmers were effectively and gainfully engaged during the period. Still noteworthy, is the rural infrastructural development efforts of the Authority which resulted in the provision of electricity, potable water and construction of roads in certain sections of its area of operation. Regardless of all the above, close and careful evaluation and appraisal would show that the efforts of the AIRBRDA, like those of the other Authorities in curbing rural-urban migration in its area of operation have been comparatively insufficient. Evidence depicts that not much seems to have been achieved in this respect. This is evident in the large number of unemployed people particularly the youth that still drift from the rural to the urban areas of our area of study and indeed other areas in Nigeria. The main reason for this movement was discovered to be the desire to secure employment opportunities, which have remained grossly inadequate. Besides, the deteriorating state of the Authority's irrigation schemes, especially the LAlP Omor, has rendered majority of the participating farmers more or less idle or at best largely underproductive. In a group interview with the researcher, some farmers at the LAlP Omor confirmed that since 1991, they have mainly been carrying out single rather than double cropping, that is more or less only rainy season cropping.3% consequence, many of them have drifted to the urban centres like Onitsha, Enugu, Awka and Nsukka, where some have taken to petty trading or paid employment. Worse still, the socio- economic amenities put in place by the Authority which were expected to create a favourable balance between urban and rural areas are grossly inadequate in most places of our area of study. Even the few of these amenities that are in existence have been most unreliable and irregular. Typical example is electric power supply which is more interrupted in the rural than urban areas. All these as we noted earlier, lead to a steady influx of people to the urban centres. Creation Of Land Scarcity. The establishment of the AIRBRDA has created the problem of land scarcity in some parts of our area of study. From investigations, of all the areas, Agbala, the headquarters of the Authority, appears to be the most adversely affected. The size of land occupied by the Authority's headquarters is over 301 hectares. The acquisition of such a large expanse of land from the community has brought with it certain far- reaching negative effects on the area. First, there is an obvious scarcity of land for agriculture. It should be noted that Agbala is a rural community, with agriculture as the mainstay of its economy. The 4 acquisition of this massive size of land has augured ill,for the area. As should be expected, it has considerably reduced the availability of agricultural land in the area. The inevitable corollary of the above I situation has been shortage of staple foodstuffs, especially yam, maize, vegetables and cassava and their concomitant high cost. In consequence, there now exists hunger and starvation in the community. In response to this unbecoming situation, the people of Agbala now look for agricultural land elsewhere especially in neighbouring towns like Emii, Naze, Ulakwo and Imerienwe. Some of them have also taken to petty trading and paid employment. Besides, the acquisition of land for establishment of the AIRBRDA1s headquarters and the payment of little compensation to a few indigenes of Agbala caused great socio-economic and political upheavals that horribly shook the stability of the town. The trouble followed series of allegations levelled against some groups of individuals who were said to have embezzled the money meant for the compensation of people whose lands were acquired by the Federal Government for the establishment of the Authority's headquarters. All these, in the words of the traditional ruler of Agbala, HRH Eze Leonard .O. Onyeneke the Olele Ill contrast sharply with the pre-AIRBRDA period / 155 i when the Agbala community was very stable and did not experience any of the aforesaid problems. Similarly, a neighouring community of Agbala, Egbelu Obibiezena appears to suffering the same fate. In a interview with the researcher, the traditional ruler of the area HRH Eze Leonard Ezenwa Ishiguzo, the Ezeana II confirmed that the establishment of the Authority in the area has not been as beneficial to his people as anti~ipated.~'The above tallies with the opnio two communities whom the researcher also In comparison, the establishment of such other RBRDAs as . CBRDA, HJRBRDA and UNRBRDA, has far less land problems for communities within their areas of operations. Phis is because these communities have much more larger tracts of land than those within the area of operation of the AIRBRDA. Environmental Impact Ideally, before a project is initiated, planned, designed and executed, there ought to be well conducted feasibility studies. Such studies, should among other things, put into consideration the impact such a project might have on the people it is meant for as well as thkir environment. This is necessary because projects differ in their impact on their beneficiaries and their environment. While some projects have - 2

.cTI impacted positively on their beneficiaries, others have impacted negatively or adversely on them. Our findings show that the AIRBRDA has impacted negatively on the ecology of some communities in its catchment areas. In the first

instance, the construction of hydro-agricultural projects in certain 'S sections of the Southeastern geopolitical zone has resulted in massive dislocation of many peasant farmers. It was discovered for instance, that the construction of the LAlP at Omor, has severely dislocated the

I ecosystem of the Lower Anambra River Basin. Consequently, some of I

I I, the peasant farmers in the area have been displaced and alienated from when the Agbala community was very stable and did not experience any of the aforesaid problems. Similarly, a neighouring community of Agbala, Egbelu Obibiezena appears to suffering the same fate. In a interview with the researcher, the traditional ruler of the area HRH Eze Leonard Ezenwa Ishiguzo, the Ezeana II confirmed that the establishment of the Authority in the area has not been as beneficial to his people as anti~ipated.~'The above tallies with the opnio two communities whom the researcher also In comparison, the establishment of such other RBRDAs as CBRDA, HJRBRDA and UNRBRDA, has far less land problems for communities within their areas of operations. This is because these communities have much more larger tracts of land than those within the area of operation of the AIRBRDA. Environmental Impact Ideally, before a project is initiated, planned, designed and executed, there ought to be well conducted feasibility studies. Such studies, should among other things, put into consideration the impact such a project might have on the people it is meant for as well as thkir environment. This is necessary because projects differ in their impact on their beneficiaries and their environment. While some projects have I impacted positively on their beneficiaries, others have impacted negatively or adversely on them. Our findings show that the AIRBRDA has impacted negatively on the ecology of some communities in its catchment areas. In the first instance, the construction of hydro-agricultural projects in certain sections of the Southeastern geopolitical zone has resulted in massive dislocation of many peasant farmers. It was discovered for instance, that the construction of the LAlP at Omor, has severely dislocated the ecosystem of the Lower Anambra River Basin. Consequently, some of the peasant farmers in the area have been displaced and alienated from 156 the flow of the river, hence their economic and socio-cultural life has * been put into jeopardy. As earlier stated, more than 3850 hectares of land were acquired for the LAIP. Empirical evidence would suggest that alternative lands were not allocated to the displaced farmers who hitherto held customary titles over their farmlands. This is contrary to the provision of the 1978 Land Use Decree. Section 6 (6) of the Decree is explicit on the matter: where land in respect of which a customary right of occupancy is revoked under this decree was used for agricultural purpose by the holder, government shall allocate to such holder alternative land for the same + - Confirming that they received no alternative land allocations, majority of * the alienated farmers interviewed in the course of this study stated that the loss of titles over their farmlands became obvious when absentee farmers started investing in them (the lands).43In the same way, some of the displaced peasants revealed that paltry compensations were received only in few instances where ensuing court litigations turned out in their favour. The net outcome of the above is that in the midst of their privations, the peasants appear powerless and defenceless, losing their rights and means of sustenance and became increasing pauperized. Many of the peasants were not only ejected from their farmlands, but

va also from their traditional places of residence. According to Kenneth Omeje, an estimated 35,000 peasants or 28 per cent of the population, have hitherto suffered partial or total alienation in the lower Anambra area.44 A major outcome of the above injustices has been series of peasant violence. Disputes over land at times involving whole communities and certain investors are also on the increase. For instance, in 1998, there was war between the two major farming communities of the LAP, viz: Omor and Igbakwu, which resulted in o project farmers abandoning their homes and rice farms for safety.45 157 The above situation is comparable to the explosive Bakolori

U) incident on 1979 during which a detachment of Mobile Police fired on and killed several defenseless peasants demonstrating against government expropriation of their farmlands. It is, perhaps, on the basis of the foregoing that some observers have argued that some people are victims rather than beneficiaries of irrigation projects in Nigeria. The overall picture which can easily be drawn from the above analysis is that the AIRBRDA, like the other Authorities, has made some efforts to bring about transformatory impact on its area of coverage. However, close, and critical appraisal tends to show that the efforts have so far not been as expected. This is particularly* evident if we take

TI cognizance of the huge amount of resources committed by government into the Authority, like the others dotting the country. This view tallies with Njoku's who states that "no matter how generously considered, the achievements of the River Basin Authorities pale into insignificance when related to investment^."^^ He goes further to state that "between 1976 and 1982, the Authorities had gulped the staggering sum of N2.78 billion."47The pertinent question therefore is: what is responsible for this state of affairs? Evidence points up to the fact that the activities of the AIRBRDA have been riddled and fraught with many and varied problems and constraints. That these problems and constraints have impacted 'w badly on the operational effectiveness of the Authority is not in doubt. The next chapter will consider these problems and constraints. 158 Notes John W. Forge, "The Quest for Alternative and Appropriate Technology in Third Word Development," The Journal of Philosophy and Social Action, Vol. vii, No. 3 & 4, 1981, pp.37-47. J. Ohiorhenaun, "Technology Transfer and the Development Process: A Critical Perspective" The Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Studies, Vol 22, No. I,March 1980, pp. 109-121. J.G.M. Massaquoi, "Indigenous Technology for Farm Rural Activities," Indigenous knowledge and Development Monitor, Vol. 1(3), 1993, pp. 2-3. Egbeke Aja, "Technological Development: ,The Social Implications for the Third World," Journal of Liberal Studies, Vo1.9, Nos.1 & 2, 2001, p.165. Aja, "Technological Development," p. 165. K.P. Padmanabhan, Rural Credit: Lessons for Rural Bankers and Policy Makers, (London, Intermediate Technology Publications Limited, 1988), pp. 78-79. Padmanabhan, Rural credit.. . , p. 79. Federal Republic of Nigeria Water Resources Development pps1 50, 58, 74, & 105, Interview with Engineer I.K. Musa, C. 54 Years, Director of Irrigation and Drainages, Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR) Abuja, on 7 June, 2006. F.S. Idachaba, Rural Infrastructure in Nigeria, (Ibadan, University Press, 1985), p.40. E.C. Okafor and A.C. Onokerhoraye, Rural System and Planning: The Geography and Planning Series Study Notes, University of Benin, 1986. Federal Republic of Nigeira Water Resources Development, pp 50, 66, 105, & 120 159 Engineer Musa, Interview cited. lnterview with Mr. E.I. Arua, C. 47 Years, and Mr. E.O. Ugwu, C.45 Years, Public Servants at Abakaliki, on 21 May, 2003. P.S. Villanueva, "Value of Roads" in R.E. Boston , (ed.) Selected Reading to Accompany Getting Agriculture Movinq (New York), ADC Publishers, (1966), p.776. The researcher hails from the immediate neighbouring community of Agbala and Obibi Ezena called Imerienwe. He witnessed the asphating of the road in 1982. Group interview with Mr. Peter Nwaocha, C. 35 Years, Mr. Achaebe Omerika, C. 35 Years, Mr. Chinaelo Okoye, C. 42 Years, b Mr. lkechukwu Okafor, C. 40 Years and Mr. Emmanuel Emeka, C. 42 Years, all rice farmers .The interview was conducted at Omor on 21 April, 2002. Engineer Musa, Interview cited AIRBRDA Annual Report for 1998, p. 7. Federal Republic of Nigeira Water Resoueces Development. pps 91, 105 & 120 Federal Republic of Nigeira Water Resources Development. pp 50 & 120. Nnadozie, Interview cited Mazi Okoro, lnterview cited. These statistics were supplied by Mr. Nnadozie, lnterview cited. lnterview with Mr. Francis Okoye, C. 50 Years, Rice Farmer Omor, at Omor, on 24 March, 2003. Okoye, lnterview cited. Okoye, Interview cited. The researcher saw these cottage industries during his field work. He also interacted with their owners. "Profile of the LAIP, Omor," p.3. Okoye, Interview cited. Okoye, Interview cited. Nwaocha, Omerika, Okoye, Okafor, and Emeka, Group lnterview cited. lnterview with Mr. Celestine Tagbo, C.49 Years, Rice Farmer, Omor, at Omor, on 24 March, 2003.

Tagbo, Interview cited. d Tagbo, lnterview cited. AmaefuIa,"-Assessmenl of River BasinDevelopment Authorities". . . ,p.73. Amaefula,"Assessmenl of River Basin Development Authorities". .. ,p.73. C.A Ngwa, "The Upper Nun Valley Development Authority". . . ,p.39. Nwaocha, Omerika, Okoye, Okafor and Emeka, Group Interview .*I cited. Interviews with HRH Eze Leonard 0. Onyeneke (Olele II), C. 78 Years, Traditional Ruler of Agbala Autonomous Community Owerri North L.G.A at his Palace Agbala on 5 July 2006 and HRH Eze Leonard Ezenwa lshiguzo (Ezeana II) C. 62 Years, Traditional Ruler of Obibiezena Autonomous Community Owerri North L.G.A at his Palace Obibiezena on 5 July 2006. Among the indigenes interviewed were: Mr. Egbu Abaleke, C. 50 Years, Mr Athanasius Oleru, C. 53 Years and Mr. Philip Unachukwum, C. 40 Years, all Agbala indigenes and M. Donald Ihejieto, C. 41 Years, Mr. G. Anuforo, C. 45 Years and Mr. G. Anoruo, 45 Years, all Egbelu Obibiezena indigenes. The interview was held at Agbala and Egbelu Obibieze on 5 July 2001 The Land Use Decree Number 6 Gazette Supplement, March, 1978. /? 161 43. Among the farmers interviewd were: Mr. Udoji ~wafuna~a,C.34 * Years, Mr. Ugochukwu Okafor C. 36 Years and Angela Ejike, C. 33 Years. The interview was held at Omor, on 12 February, 2002. 44. Kenneth C. Omeje, "Alienation and Displacement of Peasant Cultivators: "An Example of Human Rights Violation" in E.C Eboh, C.U. Okoye and D. Ayichi (eds.) Rural Development in Nigeria Concept, Processes and Prospects(Enugu,Auto-Century Publishing Company, (1995), p.294. 45. AIRBRDA Annual Report for 1998, p. 13. 46. Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria ..., p. 214. 47. Njoku, Economic Histow of Nigeria ..., p! 214. CHAPTER SIX

. I CONSTRAINTS OF THE AIRBRDA The AIRBRDA since its establishment has had to grapple with problems and constraints in the execution of its statutory functions. Ostensibly, these problems and constraints have tended to impede the

11 1- effectiveness and impact of the Authority as a veritable instrument for rural transformation in its area of operation. These problems and constraints are multifarious and range from economic, technical, political, cultural to social issues. In general, the most prominent of the problems and constraints are those associated with shortage of funds, insufficient statisticaVplanning data, adoption of inappropriate technology, land tenure system, inconsistency in government policies, and political pressure as well as excessive ministerial control. Other constraints include dearth of qualified, skilled and experienced manpower in key areas, problem of procuring spareparts for broken down pumps, engines and vehicles, high operational cost and pervasive corruption. These issues are discussed below. Shortage Of Funds Projects and finance are like inseparable twins. In other words, no matter how laudable or viable a project idea may be,'no matter the size of potential benefits or returns associated with it; no matter attention to details and willingness of both the project manager and the team to execute the project successfully, lack of necessary finance or even irregular funding can wreck havoc on the project or cripple it. Many a project that would have* been successfully executed for the benefit of

ppppppppppp------people have become stalled, delayed or abandoned totally for lack of finance. In fact, in Nigeria, the most important casual factor to the abandoned projects that litter almost everywhere is lack of funds or its twin evil, delay in the procurement of funds. This, in turn, often results in '-) '-) 161 Among the farmers interviewd were: Mr. Udoji Nwafunaya, C.34 Years, Mr. Ugochukwu Okafor C. 36 Years and Angela Ejike, C. 33 Years. The interview was held at Omor, on 12 February, 2002. Kenneth C. Omeje, "Alienation and Displacement of Peasant Cultivators: "An Example of Human Rights Violation" in E.C Eboh, C.U. Okoye and D. Ayichi (eds.) Rural Development in Nigeria Concept, Processes and Prospects(Enugu,Auto-Century Publishing Company, (1995), p.294. AIRBRDA Annual Report for 1998, p. 13. Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria ..., p. 214. Njoku, Economic History of Nineria ..., p. 214. 163 high cost over-runs or incessant upward review of project contracts and m cost estimates. One of the most devastating problems of the AIRBRDA is paucity of funds. Funding hydro-agricultural projects and programmes, especially construction of dams and irrigation schemes is highly capital-intensive, and import dependent. Nigerian economy is a monolithic one, depending almost solely on a single item earner (crude oil). Thus, development projects are forced to share from crude oil earnings in stiff . Y competition with other sectors of the economy. The AIRBRDA, like the other Authorities, lacks adequate funding for optimal and effective operation and perforn9ance. It depends almost entirely on Federal Government subventions and allocations. Apart from "I.. being inadequate, these subventions and allocations, which should ideally be released at the beginning of every year or quarter, are most times not released promptly. Also, evidence suggests that there have been periods when the authority received no allocations or subvention at all.' Worse still, there is evidence to show that money allocated for some of the Authority's projects is at times ill-utilized, owing to corruption and bad management. We shall return to this issue later. Moreover, before 1999, there was oil glut in the world market. This situation led to a decline in crude oil revenue. Correspondingly, allocations to hydro- agricultural projects as well as other development programmes also reduced. What is more, as a non-commercially-oriented parastatal, the Authority has paltry sources of internally generated revenue. For instance, while grants,. subventions and allocations from the Federal Government to the Authority in 1998 and 1999 were M179,302,507 and Nl68,444,OO5 respectively, which amounted to M347,746,5l 2, its, internally generated revenue during the same period, was 443,811 ,I50 and FJ2,375,007 amounting to 816,~86,l 57.2

I, 164 It is, relevant, to stress that poor funding has resulted in poor or ' B non-maintenance of the Authority's irrigation facilities, especially at the LAlP Omor. During the fieldwork for this study, these facilities were found to be in a very deplorable state. Of particular note were the conveyance structures - canals and drains which from investigations, have for long remained unmaintained and urgently require maintenance. This is particularly true in the area of clearing and desilting of canals, repair of side slopes and failed embankment, etc. The appalling condition of these conveyance structures has made water delivery to the rice fields extremely hard. This situation, to say the least, has been indeed upsetting to farmers. It must be noted that agricultural projects pursued - by the AIRBRDA, like the other Authorities in Nigeria, are often time bound and time-sensitive. Cropping for instance has seasons and these seasons are not constant and not subject to manipulation and control. When, the proper period for agricultural activities elapses, any money invested may be dissipated. Inadequate or irregular release of funds has also affected and still affects the procurement and maintenance of relevant materials and machinery necessary for effective operation of the Authority. Mention has earlier been made of several broken down vehicles, plants and machinery in the various offices, project sites and locations of the w Authority. At the time of this research, there was no expression of hope of repair of the broken down vehicles, plants and machinery. This is due to high rate of inflation in the country and the attendant high exchange rate. For instance, it was discovered that some of the vehicles and machinery that broke down three or four years ago, can only be repaired or replaced

a at about ten times the cost of doing this then. Furthermore, meagre financial resources have led to haphazard implementation and sometimes abandonment or failure of some of the Authority's projects and programmes. Consequently, the Authority has an 165 array of outstanding projects yet to be completed. Data obtained from - fieldwork show that this state of affairs has immensely slowed down the tempo of development activities within the Authority's area of operation. Below is a self-explanatory table showing some the Authority's outstanding projects and programmes and estimated costs of completing them as at December 31", 1998.

Table 7: Some Outstanding Projects and Programmes of the AIRBRDA and Estimated Costs of Completing them as at December

AMOUNT REQUIRED FOR JOB TO BE DONE COMPLETION N a) RehabilitationILining of Carting away of all bed materials Headrace Canal. and silt deposits, reshaping and building 100mm thick plain concrete. Cleaning and regarding of road, Of Pumping Station Road. providing compact approved borrowed materials of 150mm thickness and surfacing of the road. c) Rehabilitation of Project Canal structures, water treatment lnfrastructural Facilities. works, buildings, rehabilitation, etc. d) Completion of Pumping Overhauling of Numberl main Station Rehabilitation pump, repair of Numberl main Works and Replacement engine, overhauling and repair of of 4 No. Turbochargers Number 3 main pump and engine, maintenance of auxiliary equipment and provision of spareparts. e) Completion of Rehabilita- Reactivation of Water Treatment 1 tion Works on System Boiler unit, weigh bridge, The Rice Mill Complex. refurbishing of buildings, provision of r, tools and equipment and cleaning of premises. I - - .- -- --. - - ,f) Completion of Extension of- ~rovisionof materials for overhead NEPA High Tension line to line construction, provision of 500 / I 1 LAIP, Pumping Station. KVA,33/0.415KV Transformer, electrical materials, underground materials, civil and electr~cal construction works, etc.

------. - -- .- - -

Source: AIRBRDA Annual Report for 1998. The apt question therefore, is: which of the jobs have been executed by the Authority? Efforts made by the researcher to ascertain detail in this regard proved futile. This is due to the reluctance* of staff of the Authority to disclose the needed information. The researcher .I discovered that disclosure of such data would portray the Authority in bad light. Other uncompleted projects are construction of small earth dams at Mgbowo, Enugu State; Ndikelionwu, Anambra State; Ututu- Arochukwu, Abia State; Ishiagu/lvo, Ebonyi State; and lhitte Uboma, Imo State. Still others are minor irrigation projects at Egbema and Ahiazu- Mbaise, Imo State; Udi, Enugu State and Achalla, Anambra State. These are in addition to erosion control works and borehole projects being - executed at various locations and sites within the catchment area of the Authority. A major consequence of this situation is escalated cost of completion of the above projects. For example, the cost of completing the extension of NEPA High Tension Line to the LAIP Pumping Station Omor, jumped from N23 million in 1998 to over 8170 million in 2002.~ This, as indicated above, is as a result of the deleterious effect of the continual devaluation of the naira. 107 Insufficient StatisticalIPlanning Data

BY+ Adequate statistical data are prerequisites for proper planning, design, execultion and maintenance of hydro-agricultural projects such as dams, dykes, drainage and irrigation systems, which form the cornerstone of the RBDAs. With specific reference to water projects, relevant data are required for source selection and evaluation of various treatment technologies and operational techniques. Lack of basic data makes assessment of surface and ground water potentially difficult. Hydro- geological information, aquifer properties, meteorological records and so on are very important for the development of ground,water sources. In the same way, hydrological and meteorological data are essential for the development of surface water sources. Available evidence, however, shows that the AIRBRDA, like most other Authorities, lacks a reliable and comprehensive water resources data bank for the enhancement of water resources development in its area of operation. Such a data bank, facilitates the automation and computerization of data storage, analysis, retrieval and dissemination. Conversely, its inadequacy or total absence makes planning and design unrealistic as they may be based on a false and wrong premise. So, water resources data collected on a regular basis make forecast especially in hydrological events feasible and 'a- therefore provide early warning signal. Given, therefore, the absence of such a data bank in the AIRBRDA, and most other Authorities as indicated above, it should occasion no surprise that several water projects, especially underground water or borehole schemes being executed by it (AIRBRDA) and the other Authorities have failed. This is owing mainly to lack of adequate and reliable data necessary for long-term planning and adequate feasibility studies. In order to ensure environmentally sustainable and economically feasible production of water in their areas of operation, the AIRBRDA, and the '11 I OX other Authorities should carry out massive and systematic collection,

P processing and storage of physical planning data

Adoption of Inappropriate Technology. A corollary of the problem of inadequate statistical / planning data, is that of adoption of inappropriate technology. By appropriate technology, we mean the right type of production technique, i.e. one that employs factors of production in their least cost or correct proportion. In this perspective, Michael Todaro argues "that a technology that employs a higher proportion of labour relative to other factors in a labour- abundant economy, is in general terms, more appropriate than the one which uses small labour proportions relative 'to other factor^."^ So,

. " technology, is relative, contextual and non-environment neutral. There are two main types of technology: the machinery-intensive technology and labour-intensive technology. The machinery-intensive technology involves the use of sophisticated machinery and labour-saving devices in production processes. It produces goods of high quality. Also, it is capital-intensive and associated with monopoly of individuals and conglomerates having access to imported capital goods and technological information. On the other hand, the labour-intensive technology, in the opinion of P.F.Dunn, recognizes the potentials of a

C particular community and tries to help it develop. He further states that it is thoroughly amenable to management, maintenance and replication. Hence it can be improved upon through local research without added complications at lower cost and in harmony with trends in the society." Ample evidence exists to show that Nigeria, like most other African countries, has depended largely and unjustifiably on machinery-intensive technology in her development process and efforts. Yet, she is a labour- abundant economy with dire or acute shortage of capital. That the

importation of such modern technology has had certain debilitating I effects on the country's overall growth and development is well known. i I * 1 00 To this end, Njoku, has for instance, stressed that "the importation of - capital-intensive goods, spareparts, raw materials and expatriate personnel, has been a huge drain on the nation's treasury."%e further states that: the inability to fund these imports, has often led to closure of factories, industrial capacity under-utilization and retrenchment of industrial worker^.^ With respect to agriculture, Todaro has averred that: in the rural areas of most developing nations, where land parcels are small, capital is scarce and labour is abundant, the introduction of hqavily mechanized techniques is not only often ill-suited to the physical environment but more importantly often has the effect of creating more rural unemployment without necessarily lowering per unit costs of food prod~ction.~ He further asserted that " the importation of such machinery can therefore be anti-developmental since its efficiency requires large tracts of land".g With regard to the AIRBRDA, it is clear that since its inception, its technology, for all practical purposes, has remained capital-intensive. As Professor P.N. Mathur has pointed out, the creation and maintenance of 'C irrigation projects require not only expertise, but more important, foreign exchange until the country involved has become deve~oped.'~He further affirmed that irrigation necessitates a high level of organizational and investment resources." By and large, irrigation schemes, particularly in developing countries, are fraught with astonishing catalogue of difficulties. These difficulties are mainly linked with poor or non- maintenance of structures like canals, drains, side slopes, etc. With good logistical capacity at its disposal, and the anxiety or concern of the

ff people to experiment on a new technology, the AIRBRDA was able to 170 contend with these problems. This enabled it to perform well at the initial

% period. However, as evidence would reveal, these initial gains and achievements could not be sustained due largely to the Authority's failure or inability to develop indigenous and appropriate technology. Rather, from available data, the Authority, like the others in Nigeria, has relied almost exclusively on foreign and unsuitable technology which, has augured very ill for it. Schumacher has emphasized the need for technology to be compatible with local farmers' financial capacity, education, aptitude and above all organizational skills.I2 Similarly, the United Nation Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) has observed that technology involves not merely the systematic application of scientific and other organized knowledge to practical tasks, but w equally, considerations of the social and economic atmosphere within which such application has to take p~ace.'~Stressing further, Professor Mathur points out that technological innovation in the agricultural sector must take cognizance of the bio-economic factors conditioned by the crop-soil-climate complex of a given region.I4 In respect of machinery, the AIRBRDA uses sophisticated equipment for its operations. Over the years, it has acquired such equipment as bulldozers, tractors, excavators, graders, payloaders, lowbeds amongst others, and a fleet of service vehicles and transport "at trucks. During his fieldwork, the researcher observed that a good number of these equipment have become unserviceable and abandoned at the Authority's headquarters and various project sites and locations due to lack of necessary spareparts. Schumacher has equally underscored the need for equipment, particularly those used in the rural sector, to be "fairly simple and therefore, understandable and suitable for maintenance and repair on the ~pot."'~Apart from the fact that operation of the Authority's equipment is beyond the technical capacity and knowledge of most farmers, their proper maintenance has often created @ 171 enormous problems. The general agreement is that lack of funds for - procurement of spareparts is the main problem militating against proper maintenance of the Authority's equipment. However, in a comprehensive study conducted by the World Bank, entitled "Accelerated Development in sub-Sahara Africa" critics of .irrigation schemes have pointed out, inter -alia that: macroeconomic problems leading to a lack of foreign exchange and hence spareparts, fuel and machinery have been additional contributory factors to the failure of most irrigation projects.'6 The AIRBRDA's failure or inability to acquire new equipment or # properly maintain existing ones has resulted in the drastic reduction in the total number of equipment in its custody. Worse still, is the depreciation of those currently in use. Farmers have found this state of affairs very bothersome. The situation has also made it almost impossible for the Authority to fulfill its main obligations to the farmers. This is evident in the fact that the number of farmers requiring the services of the Authority and the total area of land which ought to be cultivated have often overstretched its working capacity. Obviously, the situation has adversely affected production and of course revenue of farmers. To start with, lateness in land preparation, sowing, harvesting, * etc, has led to poor crop yield and in some instances massive crop failure. Again, there has been a general reduction in the total acreage resulting in overall crop production in South-eastern region. Another feature of irrigation schemes like those of the AIRBRDA whcb makes their-oge~ationvulnerable is the-interdependent nature of the component structures. The result is that the slightest defect in one component is bound or likely to have a dysfunctional effect on the whole system. Thus, for the entire system to function properly, there should be sufficient maintenance. The researcher discovered that the canal and 172 drainage system of the LAIP, Omor have been heavily eroded and silted

*I up at various points. As a matter of fact, AIRBRDA's irrigation schemes in the region are fraught with numerous problems. In view of the afore-mentioned difficulties associated with foreign1 imported technology of irrigation schemes in Nigeria, there should be a great need and deliberate effort to focus attention on the adoption of locally-fashioned and indigenous technology. It must be pointed out that sustainable irrigation development re3res technological change linked A with social variables such that the beneficiaries should be the actual social carriers. Technological change has the best chance of success when it matches the prevailing farming system especially irrigation b

. )I technology. Land Tenure System Unarguably, the overwhelming majority of the people of Nigeria live and work in the rural areas. Their economic, social and cultural lives centre around agrarian and cognate activities. Since agriculture is the chief occupation of the rural communities, it is from this source that their basic requirements for food, shelter and clothing are met. Nigeria's agriculture, like that of other developing countries, is characterized by low productivity. This is partly because of the existence of large numbers

% of peasant farmers in relation to the area of cultivable land. Agriculture, no doubt, is still an important sector of the Nigerian economy, and the land tenure system considerably inhibits the productivity of this sector. The land utilization system in the country, in the words of Siyanbola Tomori, is "extremely complex and very resistant to change."I7 It is, perhaps, pertinent, to note that Nigeria covers a total land area of 98.3 million hectares, of which a third is cultivated. Land ownership system in the South-eastern zone militates

I against meaningful development. Control over land in the region is , 173 individuals do not have absolute control over the land in use and the sale

II of land is not easy. Consequently, the cultivator and his future

generations are confined to the family land? The practice of dividing farmland amongst wives who have male children is also widespread under this system. Indisputably, such an arrangement adversely limits the productivity of agricultural farmlands since fragmentation and excessive division of land result in uneconomic units. As a result, under existing land tenure, extensive, large-scale and commercial agriculture such as irrigation, which is contingent upon the existence of large farms, can hardly take place. Irrigation development entails pooling land

together for irrigation infrastructure like intakes, canals+ and on-field - distribution systems. Individual ownership of land does not encourage this as the land owners fear that they would lose their title to such lands. A case in point is the difficulty being experienced by the AIRBRDA in securing land from people of its catchment areas for development. Also, there have been incessant communal wars over land in our area of study. Mention has earlier been made of the war involving the two main farming communities of the LAIP, namely Omor and lgbakwu in 1998.

The Land Use Decree was enacted in March, 1978 l9to reform the land tenure system which was believed to constitute a formidable obstacle to the development of agriculture in Nigeria. This was aimed at tr satisfying the need for larger areas of land for agricultural and by extension non-agricultural purposes. Empirical evidence would however, reveal that the Decree has not yet made the desired impact in this regard. This is as a result of certain illogicalities in the Decree, prominent among which is the failure to spell out, clearly, the rights and powers of Federal, State and Local Governments over land. To this end, the World Bank has stated that "the Land Use Decree of 1978 should be radically reviewed with a view to making land more easily

" available and affordab~e."'~ 1 74 Inconsistency in Government Policies

-a Since the advent of the AIRBRDA, its functions, like those of the other Basin Authorities nationwide, have been severally rationalized, modified and re-organized. Whilst some of these re-organizations were minor, others were radical and fundamental. These changes often coincide with the inception of a new administration. For instance, during the Second Republic, the RBDAs were made to implement some of the Green Revolution Programmes of that administration. Also, the Buhari regime made the RBDAs the implementing agencies of all projects of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural Development in all the states, all of which were at the expense of # developing irrigation infrastructure. Furthermore, the lbrahim Babangida 1* administration, in 1986, introduced the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), which reduced the number of the Authorities from 18 to 11 and partially commercialized and privatized them alongside other parastatals. As a result, the RBDAs were directed to be self-financing, by generating enough funds for their operations. In consonance with the new re-structuring and re-organization, they were expected not only to pay their ways, but also to break even and even make profits. According to Decree Number 25 of 1988, commercialization is "the re-organization of enterprises wholly or partially owned by the Federal Military " Government in which such enterprises shall operate as profit-making commercial ventures and without subventions from the Federal Military ~overnment"~'. As a consequence, subventions and grants to the Authorities were reduced to the barest minimum. In addition, there was withdrawal of subsidies on diesel, petrol, lubricants and farm inputs especially, fertilizers, tractor-hiring services, agro-chemicals and improved seedslseedlings. Farmers were also expected to pay fully for all the infrastructural services enjoyed by them including irrigation water Also, in the wake of the commercialization and privatization ' * 175 programmes, all the non-water assets of the RBDAs, particularly

Yt agr~culturalmachinery and equipment, feed mills, poultry schemes, rice

mills, fish ponds, piggery, etc., were to be sold. This followed the promulgation of Decree Number 35 of 1987 which divested the RBDAs of direct agricultural functions. Therefore, the RBDAs were restricted to their original role of water resources development, flood control and provision of infrastructure to farmers. However, both the agro- service and extension functions were transferred to the state agricultural development agencies in their respective areas. The agricultural workers, especially those of the extension services, were as a result retrenched. So, in compliance with the above direqtive in 1987, all - serviceable and unserviceable vehicles, agricultural machinery and equipment in the Authorities were auctioned.22 It is instructive that the commercialization and privatization programmes have had some incapacitating effects on the RBDAs. For instance, the drastic reduction of subventions and grants to the Authorities has meant massive retrenchment of above 50 per cent of workers. Although salaries have continued to be paid to the remaining staff, especially the management cadre personnel, budgets for transport, office supplies and temporary labour have been considerably cut. This has, in turn, adversely affected the performance of operation and ,m maintenance (O&M) functions. O&M functions are essential for the overall performance of irrigation projects both in terms of increased agricultural output and system durability. Withdrawal of subsidies on agricultural inputs has led to astronomical rise in production costs, while lack of extension services has resulted in declining In addition, shortage of foreign exchange has resulted in the inability of the RBDAs to procure and replace equipment for system infrastructure, maintenance and operations of agricultural activities. As we have earlier

w stated, the resultant effect of the above situation is that broken down 1 70 vehicles, plants and machinery have become common and visible features in all RBDAs, including the AIRBRDA. The table below shows the number of machinery and equipment of the AIRBRDA before and after commercialization programme. Table 8: The Number of Machinery and Equipment of AIRBDA YEAR YEAR

. - .. - . ~ .~~~ -. d.41 Komatsu Dozer Fiat kllis-14c ~ozer 14 - I -

-~~ ~ -~ Champion Graders 720 5

~ .. - .. -~~~. ~.... -~ --... ~- .--. ~ Schafer Water Well Rig 1 3

- .. -- - . combined ~arvesters 15

D.6 Caterpillar Dozer I 1

Cranes I 4 Generating Sets. I

Source: Extracted from AIRBDA Annual Report 1999. 177 As stated above, neglect of O&M functions has some dysfunctional (C consequences for irrigation performance. First, poor O&M creates environmental problems that are detrimental to productivity, particularly water logging, salinity and weed infestation. It also leads to low water-use efficiency and presumably low yield. Second, lack of agricultural machinery and equipment has always resulted in late land preparation, sowing and harvesting, poor yields and in some instances, massive crop losses. For example, more than 30 per cent of the rice planted during the dry season in the LAIP Omor in 1987, was lost to early rains due to lack of combined harvester^.^" The farmers also had to harvest and thresh* rice manually during

p the 1990191 cropping season, which is time-consuming, laborious,

costly and wasteful. 2" Summing up, it can be argued that with the commercialization policy, the future of the RBDAs (AIRBRDA inclusive), became bleak as it has continued to be till date

Political Pressures Added to the above problems, is the issue of politics in the running and management of the AIRBRDA. Like most other public corporations, the AIRBRDA is expected to be directed and controlled

w by a competent Board of Directors. The critical importance of a competent board in an organization cannot be underestimated. This is particularly so with regard to its watchdog role, especially in a corruption-ridden country like Nigeria. Also, it is an unquestionable fact that the success or failure of an organization is, to a large degree,

affected by composition and ability of its policy-making board . This is especially true where the members are conscientiously committed to the aspirations of the organization. But from available evidence, with a very few exceptions, the boards that have served the Authority, have I* * been found to be incompetent and ineffective. 178 Also, it was discovered that the composition and structure of these boards did not provide for effective performance of legitimate tasks of the Authority. It may be necessary to note that the appointment of members into these boards was not made on the basis of competence. Rather, it was based mostly on ethno-political and other parcochial grounds. As a result, the members saw themselves as people appointed to protect the exclusive interest of their political parties, their places of origin or occupational group or the persons through whom they are appointed. The high response (up to 72 per cent) of the staff members of the Authority left the researcher with the impression that appointment of boards has impeded rather than facilitated the running and management of the organization. Th~sis because the overwhelming majority of the members have hardly perceived their appointments as an opportunity for the efficient and prudent management of the Authority with a view to recording worthwhile achievements. Rather, evidence abounds to show that the interest of the members has primarily been the award of contracts, recruitment of staff, allocation of amenities and related activities which attract gratification. The consensus appears to be that the continued appointment and retention of boards in the AIRBRDA as in other government-owned * establishments is parasitic. This largely explains why the Authority and most other public corporations in Nigeria have remained unviable. The overhead cost involved in servicing the boards and their mercenary disposition to the parastatals hardly justify their being retained by the government. To this end, Njoku states that "a major area of waste in public enterprises is their dire~torship."'~This, he further points out, is

because " board membership usually attracts a host of perquisites such as an official chauffeur-driven car, an official residence or hotel suite,

Q cooks, gardeners, etc., not to talk of heavy sitting allowances in cases 1 70 where salaries are not paid.1127~llthis has been at a great and colossal - cost to the AIRBRDA. Then, there is the crucial factor of heavy politicization of public boards and the concomitant government frequent interference. In this regard, A.E.C. Ogunna laments that "the government seems to lack the will and discipline to divorce pure commercial operations from the mainstream of He further contends that "the resultant confusion arising from the conflict of " business interest" and "political interest" leads to the sacrifice of the "commercial interest" at the altar of politics."2g For instance, the crisis of the Livestock

Development (poultry and piggery) Programme+ of the AIRBRDA and its eventual closure is a good example of an effect of unnecessary w political interference in public corporations. What is more, there is constant dissolution of Boards of the Authority, which was common during the military era. Each government in power appointed its own board members. The high turnover of Board

members of the Authority has not augured well for it . This is especially in terms of non-implementation and lack of continuity of some of its programmes and projects. Evidence suggests that certain Boards of the Authority discarded some of the projects and programmes of the precedessors in favour of new ones. There is need to allow Boards of .* public corporations adequate tenure to enable them carry out long-term planning of programmes and their implementation before dissolution. Even on dissolution, an incoming or new board should be made to continue with the good programmes and projects embarked upon by its predecessor. Also some projects of the Authority have been sited on political grounds rather than on logical and rational geo-morphological profiles or basis. A typical example is the siting in 1981 of the Livestock Feed Mill at Lokpanta, Abia State. Reliable source reveals that Lokpanta 180 was not the ideal location for the Project, particularly if rational issues

av like accessibility were taken into consideration. It was chosen because the Chairman of the Caretaker Management Committee of the Authority during the period, Mr. Ferdinand Eke, an indigene of the area,

insisted that the Project be located there. 30 For the fact that viability and sustainability of the Project were little weighted, it was hardly surprising that it collapsed within few years of existence. has Furthermore, it has been discovered that there been award of A water contracts to contractors who lack drilling experience, have no sufficient equipment, staff or financial resources to excute and undertake such projctects. Armed with strong political connection, such #

" contractors have used and still use inferior materials in construction and ignore technical specifications. This has resulted in the abandonment and failure of some water projects. So, brushing aside the problem of saddling the River Basin Authorities and similar parastatals with incompent Boards and preaching the gospel of sustainable rural and agricultural development are tantamount to making an omelette without breaking

Excessive Ministerial Control.

* Closely related to the issue of political pressures, is that of 4: excessive ministerial control or inadequate operational autonomy. Experience has revealed that the AIRBRDA, like the other Authorities and most public corporations in Nigeria, lacks sufficient operational autonomy, which is an indispensable factor for efficient and effective management. Empirical evidence has shown that the controlling agency

of the Authority - the Federal Ministry of Water Resources, Abuja - FCT exercises excessive control over it. This is to the extent of meddling in its day-to-day operations. For instance, it has been observed that that

rr the Ministry sometimes issues circulars of directives and regulations to 1x1 the Authority which are not congruous with its operations. Rather, they

'11 are in consonance with core civil service regulations and financial instructions. Thus, such rules and directives scarcely take into consideration the special and peculiar nature of the Authority as a public corporation. This situation, almost negates the whole purpose for which it was set up. The above assertionlallegation was couhfirmed by some officials of the FMWR, Abuja in an interaction with the

researcher. According- to them, the very essence of the control is to the activities of the ~uthorities.~' Given the above circumstance, the Authority, like the others, finds it extremely difficult to take quick and pro,mpt decisions on certain sensitive and important issues. As a result, it is compelled to operate w 4 under the environment of classic bureaucratic norms and principles. In this regard, Ogunna, has aptly observed that "excessive ministerial control and political interference defeat the primary purpose of "hiving off public corporations and therefore, are antithetical to effective performan~e".~~

Dearth of Qualified, Skilled and Experienced Manpower in key areas. Human resources constitute the ultimate basis of production activities. Capital and natural resources are passive factors of w production. Human beings are the active agents, who accumulate capital, exploit natural resources, build social, economic and political organizations and carry forward societal development. In short, human resources often used interchangeably with manpower are a nation's

pppppppppppppp------most valuable resources. In the opinion of Schultz, "they constitute a nation's human capital".33Without the required human capital in the form of stocks of skills possessed by human beings, physical capital in the form of machines and other technologies will not give rise to rapid

@ economic growth. Economists, particularly development economists, 1 X7 have tended in their treatment of Nigeria's economic problems to w concentrate principally on the difficulties arising from shortage of financial resources. Implicit in this line of thinking, is the assumption that if financial resources were available in adequate quantities, they would be well managed. Research has, however, shown that problems arising from shortage of skilled manpower, especially in the managerial, scientific, engineering and technical areas, are more serious than those associated and connected with mere scarcity of capital. With regard to the AIRBRDA, there is evidence to show that it does not have sufficient number of specialized, competent and top-flight personnel, mostly in the area of dam and irrigation engineering.* Out of its total staff strength of 597, the Authoritv can only boast of one or two w (if at all) dam and irrigation engineers. Worse still, research has indicated that the Authority has high turnover of other professionals like agricultural and civil engineers, agronomists, soil scientists, etc, who prefer to work in the private sector. This is, perhaps, because the sector has a better and more attractive remuneration and fringe benefits than the public sector. While conducting this study, the researcher gathered that the possibility of some of these few key personnel leaving the Authority soon for greener pastures is high. 34 This problem is not peculiarto the AIRBRDA. Evidence shows that such other Authorities as the OORBRDA and BORBRDA suffer it. ~orhstance,as at 1992, the whole OORBRDA had only three dam engineers and five irrigation engineers, one of whom had recently tendered his letter of resignation. During the same period the BORBRDA had no single irrigation engineer.35 A major outcome of all this is that most of the design and construction works or jobs of the Authority are given out to consultants at exorbitant Consequently, efforts should be made 13; to train more skilled manpower and to pay them commensurate

'I remuneration in order to keep them.

Problem of Procuring Spareparts Another serious problem facing the AIRBRDA has been how to promptly acquire necessary spareparts for the repair and maintenance of its plants, mahinery and vehicles. Investigation shows that most of these equipment and vehicles are old, having been acquired some fifteen to twenty years ago. Hence their frequent break down. Of foremost concern to the Authority, are turbo charger units for the pumping station at the LAIP, Omor. It was discovered that no meaningful dry season cropping can be embarked upon without,sourcing complete

+ turbo charger units. Allowing this to happen, will, therefore, negate the purpose for which the project was set up in the first instance. The problem of spareparts for maintenance of the Authority's plants, machinery and vehicles reached a crisis point in 1999, when its management took a remedial measure by setting up a technical team. This team succeeded in overhauling two pumps, two engines, few tractors and vehicles by direct labour." However, the problem still lingers as many of the Authority's equipmentlplants and vehicles are at various stages of disrepair and need rehabilitationlrefurbishment. In - December 1998, a total amount of N24,365,000 (twenty four million, three hundred and sixty five thousand naira) was required to reactivate the equipmentlplants and vehicles. Notable among the machines were Berliet TLR 280 Low bed, 100c Fiat-Allis Grader, Omega PH Crane 51845 and 320 KVA Dorman Generating set, said to have camshaft, engine, and transmission faults. The estimated costs of rehabilitating the machines were N700,000, N1,200,000, N 950,000 and 44 1,300,000, respectively.38 IS4 High Cost of Petroleum Products for the Operation of the Pumping .. Station This problem has seriously hampered the effective operation of the LAIP, Omor. At the inception of the Project, the issue of petroleum products, especially diesel and lubricants was taken for granted as they were comparatively cheap and readily available. However, in recent times, the products have not only become less readily availabe in relation to the Authority's demand for them, but also very expensive. It is, perhaps, germane to point out that the Pumping Station of the LAlP is diesel-driven and gigantic and consumes enormous quantity of various

grades of lubricants. From investigation, due to shortage+ of funds, the LAIP has in recent times found it greatly difficult to afford the purchase of such large amounts of lubricants required for the optimal operation of the pumping station. The direct result of the above circumstance has been the inability of the Project to discharge its official duty of supplying irrigation water to farmers at the right time and in the right quantity. It is this awful state of affairs that has necessitated the call from various circles to substitute the pump engines with electric motors of equivalent power rating to drive the pumps. This is in addition to the extension of power from the national grid to the LAlP Pumping Station to provide the much needed power to drive the electric motors so installed. It is hoped - that this measure will greatly reduce the dependence of the Pumping Station on the now almost elusive petroleum products. It is also hoped that it will save huge operating costs particularly in the light of current exorbitant prices of petroleum products in the country. Furthermore, the measure is capable of eliminating the need for scarce and expensive spareparts for the repairlmaintenance of the pump engines.

Pervasive Corruption Over and above all, is the problem of widespread corruption.

Us institutionalized and greatly exacerbated by the harsh economic conditions unleashed by the SAP. Njoku states that: corruption is a pervasive cankerworm which has burrowed into the very foundation of the Nigerian society,virulently sapping its strength and vitality.39 He further states that "corruption is evident in the urban and rural areas, in the private and public sectors of the economy. He, however, opines that "it is in public affairs especially at the highest levels that the evil is most evident and this, he adds, has continuously had a debilitating 4 demonstration effect on the entire society".40 Because corruption is w practised in high and low places, both by leaders and the led, money meant for developmental purposes is diverted to private use. The capitalist value of profit maximization and exploitation has predisposed most public servants to use their positions to amass wealth. Top public servants initiate and implement policies in such a way that they favour and serve their own interests and those of their allies. For instance, it is not uncommon to see that contracts are awarded to contractors with the understanding that the awarding officials get a certain percentage of the cost of the contracts. Also, sometimes, public " officers award contracts to themselves at inflated prices with pseudo names or the relations or friends as covers. In some cases, contracts are awarded to ghost contractors and paid for with public funds without execution. In Nigeria, in fact in many, if not all cases, audit reports which ought to be one of the ways of checking financial impropriety, a form of official corruption are not worth the very paper on which they are written. This is because once the so called auditors are "settled", that is given their own share of the booty, the reports are "cooked" to agree with the I80 books. Eradicating corruption in Nigeria appears to be impossibility, but f reducing the magnitude of the phenomenon is something achievable. As it relates to the AIRBRDA, there appears to be evidence of reckless financial spending,fraud, forgery, embezzlement, diversion of public funds and property and other forms corrupt practices existing in the management of the corporation. There is also the factor of gross mismanagement of costly equipment and materials. This is aggravated by lack of maintenance culture among the staff of the corporation. Therefore, it is not surprising that the corporation headquarters and zonal offices are littered with broken down equipment and vehicles for which neither care is taken nor efforts b made to repair them. w Furthermore, as already stated, the vast majority of board members of Authority have often seen their appointments as an opportunity to feather their nests. Thus, they have viewed the Authority as a conduit for siphoning public funds into their private pockets. So pervasive had corruption become in the Authority that the Federal Government in the early 80s instituted an audit panel to investigate gross financial mismanagement in the Authority. This Panel discovered that contracts for various projects were inflated by several millions of naira.41 Mazi G.K. Okoro, a retired Assistant General Manager (AGM),

* Finance and Administration with the AIRBRDA, in an interview with the researcher, attested to the fact that there were cases of inflation of contract values and over-invoicing during his period of service. It is, perhaps, noteworthy that the immediate past Managing Director (MD) of the Authority, Dr. 1.1. Onwubuya, was in October 2002, relieved of his post on grounds of financial mi~management.~~Nevertheless, corruption is not limited to the AIRBRDA alone. Evidence shows that the operations of the other Basin Authorities nationwide are equally bedeviled by rife

corruption. For instance, in its editorial of June 28, 1983, the National- Concord cited large-scale corruption involving the Management, staff 1 S7 and Caretaker Committee of the Benin-Owena River Basin Development li Authority (BORBDA). An audit panel was set up by the Federal Government to investigate cases of financial mismanagement in the Authority. The Panel discovered that contracts for various projects which ought to have cost the Authority N77,360,982, were inflated by

N34, 845,350, thereby costing a total of NIl2,206,332. 43 Apparently worried by the unabated level and spate of corruption In Nigeria and its detrimental effect on the country, the Olusegun Obasanjo administration in recent times took some bold and decisive steps and measures aimed at curbing the malady. Among the measures taken are the introduction of the Anti-Corruption Bill, introduction of the "Due Process" Principle in the award of goverinment contracts, the

vlC establishment of the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) and the Independent Corrupt Practices and other Related Offences Commission (ICPC). Although these measures have started to yield some results, more efforts are needed in order to bring about the desired impact. What emerges from the above analysis is that the activities of the AIRBRDA have been severely hampered by insufficient statisticallplanning data, adoption of inappropriate technology, shortage of funds, land tenure system and inconsistency in government policies as well as excessive ministerial control. Others are dearth of qualified, skilled and experienced manpower, high cost of petroleum produrcts for C the operation of Pumping Station, difficulty in procuring spareparts for broken down equipment, plants, and vehicles and then of course pervasive corruption. As previously pointed out, these constraints have tended to impede rather than improve the operational efficiency and effectiveness of the Authority as a vehicle for agricultural and rural transformation in it catchment areas. Hence, there is need to proffer solutions to the constraints. Some of these solutions will be suggested in the next chapter. Notes

AIRBRDA, Annual Report, 1999, p.25.

AIRBRDA, Annual Report, 1999, p.31.

AIRBRDA, Annual Report, 1998, p.21.

Todaro, Economics for a Developing World, p.411.

P.F., Dunn, Appropriate Technology: Technology with a Human

Face (Lagos: Macmillan Publishers, 1978), p. 1-5.

Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria ..., P.232.

Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria... , P.232

Todaro, Economics for a ~evelopiigWorld, p.247.

Todaro, Economics for a Developing World, p.247.

P.N. Mathur, Why Developing Countries Fail to Develop?

(London:Macmillan Academic and Professional Books, 1991) P. 197

Mathur, Why Developing Countries.. . ,? p. 197.

E.F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if

People Mattered, (London: Blond & Briggs Limited, 1973) p.166

UNCTAD, "Technological Dependence: Its Nature, Consequences and

Policy Implications," African Development, Vol.ll, Number2, 1997, p.28.

Mathur, Why Developing Countries.. . ,? p. 196.

Schumacher, Small is Beautiful, p.168.

Quoted in Mathur, Why Developing Countries.. . ,? p. 197.

Siyanbola Tomori, "Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing" in F.A

Olaloku et al (eds.), Structure of the Nigerian Economy(Lagos:

Macmillan Publishers, 1979) p.20 I SO R.O. Adegboye, "The Need for Land Reform in Nigeria" Nigerian Journal

of Economic and Social Studies, Vo1.9, Number3. 1967, pp.340-41

J.C. Anyanwu, etal, The Structure of the of Nigerian Econmy ..., p.564

World Bank. Restoring Urban Nigeria: A Strategy for Restoring

Urban Infrastructure and Services in Nigeria (Washington D.C:

USA 1994)

Kolawole, Commercialization and the Future of RBDAs ... . p.60

Kolawole, Commercialization and the Future of RBDAs... . p.64

Kolawole, Coliimercialization and the Future of RBDAs... , p.71 # Maduka. Interview cited.

Maduka, Interview cited.

26. Njoku. Econotiiic Historv of Nigeria... . P.249.

27. Njoku. Econotiiic History of Niqeria... . P.249.

28. A.E.C. Ogunna. Public Administration in Nigeria: Theory and Practice.

(Owerri. Great Versatile Publishers Limited, 1999). P.164.

29. Ogunna, Public Administration in Nigeria ..., p. 164.

30. Mazi Okoro. Interview cited. n 31. Among those interviewed were: Engineer I.K.Musa, C. 54 Years.

Director of lrrigation and Drainages, Mr. N. C. NWOSLI.C. 53 Years,

Deputy Director Policy and Programme. Mr. N.E. Nnennaya, C. 49

Years. Principal Administrative officer (Planning) and Engineer

A.A. Adenopo. C. 46 Years. Assistant Chief Irrigation Officer. The

interview was held at FMWR Premises, Abuja on 7 June. 2006.

32. Ogunna, Public Administration in Nigeria... , p. 164. I 00 T.W Schultz, "Investment in Human Capital" American Economic

Review Vol. 51, 1961

Obikpe, Interview cited

J~de Fatokun and F.A. Ogulana, "Prospects for lrrigation

Development in South-Western Nigeria" in Sanda, A.O. (ed )

Managing lrrigation Projects, ... p. 29. ------Engineer Ugweze, Interview cited.

AIRBRDA, Annual Report 1998, p. 26

AIRBRDA, Annual Report, 1998, pp.25-26

Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria... , b.250.

Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria... , p.250

Ononobor, Interview cited

This Information was Carried on the Nigerian Television

Authority (NTA) Network News on 21/10/2002.

"Combating Fraud", National Concord, June 28, 1983, p.2. CHAPTER SEVEN ZI SUMMARY, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION. This chapter attempts a summary of the entire study. It also makes suggestions aimed at improving the operational efficiency and effectiveness of the AIRBRDA in its area of operation. Finally, the chapter draws conclusion in the light of the findings made in the course of the study.

Summary This work has focused principally on appraising the role of the AIRBRDA towards enhanced agricultural and rural* development in the South-eastern geopolitical zone of Nigeria, its area of operation. Against ,- this backdrop, the statutory functions and activities of the Authority have been critically, empirically and comprehensively evaluated . This is in order to ascertain its actual impact or effect on the region. The Federal Government in 1976, established the AIRBRDA to promote agricultural and rural development in the South-eastern geopolitical zone. The Authority was expected to reasonably tackle the problem of rural underdevelopment or stagnation in the zone. This is by spreading to the vast rural population, the benefits of socio-economic growth and development often concentrated in the urban centres. Suffice * it to state that the establishment of the AIRBRDA in the zone was widely expected to launch it (the zone) on the path of sustainable economic and social growth and development. Expectedly, since inception, the Authority has made efforts, albeit with problems and constraints, to realize the goals. Whilst some of these objectives appear to have been accomplished, others have been partially achieved and yet some have remained unachieved. This is owing to a variety of factors, the most notable being shortage of funds,inconsistency in government policies, political pressures in the running of the A~thority~adoptionof exotic and * 1 03 inappropriate technology, high cost of petroleum products, dearth of " qualified manpower in key areas and large-scale corruption

Suggestions Based on the findings made in the course of this study and given the non-optimal performance of the AIRBRDA, the following suggestions are made to improve its operational efficiency and effectiveness.

Con'sistency in Policy. There should be consistency in policy planning and implementation which should be devoid of frequent changes. The present policy of according irrigated agriculture priority so as to reduce the nation's dependence on rainfed agriculture shduld be sustained. The

*, objective would undoubtedly promote and sustain national food security by minimizing unexpected and undesirable shortfalls in domestic production caused by the vagaries of weather

Separation of Politics from Management Efforts should be made by the government to as much as practicable insulate the running of the AIRBRDA from politics. This is in view of its harmful effect on the management of the Authority. Thus far, government has exhibited insufficient political will and courage in the running of the Authority. As we have noted earlier, Board members and a some top officials of the Authority are appointed along party and geopolitical lines or manifest loyalty to the regime in power. So, apart from being inefficient, the Authority like other parastatals in the country, are burdened and encumbered with corrupt officials who lack the basic requisite expertise.- Tket-efot-e, it-is- the *oftsidered-opinbn-oL the researcher that detaching politics from management of the Authority will ensure that only people possessing requisite professional ability to perform desired functions are appointed Board members of the Authority. This, will in turn, bring about prudent and efficient 1 03 management of the Authority. The measure should also ensure that

-, projects are sited where most desirable, irrespective of political inclination and places of birth of the members of Board. Adoption of Simple and Appropriate Technology. As amply demonstrated in the previous chapter, the adoption of a sophisticated but inappropriate technology rather than a simple and appropriate one, has failed to meet the expectation of the Authority and that of the expected beneficiaries. The Authority's fleet of sophisticated equipment has proven largely ill-suited to the South-eastern terrain due to ecological, human and technical reasons. Besides, attention has often been drawn to the huge cost implications associated with modernizing - African agricultural system along Euro-American lines. The frequent break down of AIRBRDA's equipment and its inability to maintain them have resulted in its (AIRBRDA) failure to discharge its statutory functions, especially the supply of irrigation water to farmers. This has had an overall untoward effect on crop yield and total acreage cultivated. There is, therefore, need for the replacement of exotic technology with indigenous or traditional technology. This can be achieved through local fabrication of machinery. For instance, during his fieldwork, the researcher found that at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, appropriate agricultural equipment have been designed and developed. These include cassava planters, cassava harvesters, cassava peelers, cassava graters, garri pulverizerslsifters, garri frying machines, irrigation water drippers, solar dryers, etc. Sustainable irrigation development, it must be stated here, requires technological change linked with social variables such that beneficiaries are the actual social carriers of technology. Technological change has the best chance of success when it matches with the prevailing farming system especially irrigation technology. For example, some farming communities in Nigeria have been introduced to the use of small pumps, I 04 but they have soon become a problem as few farmers recognize the - importance of maintenance; spareparts are difficult to obtain and fuel is often scarce. It therefore, becomes obvious that if irrigation potential is to be realized, full water control system should be built on flood irrigation technology. This is in view of its adaptability to the prevailing socio- economic conditions.

Timely and Adequate Provision of Funds. Finance is the live-wire of every organization. It is the lubricating element which greases and makes the administrative machine of an organization move. As we have noted previously, river basin schemes are very capital-demanding and import reliant. The AIRBRDA does not * have adequate funds for its operations. It therefore, follows that for the Authority to discharge its statutory functions satisfactorily, it should be sufficiently funded. Doing this will enable it complete its array of on-going projects as well as rehabilitate existing plants, machinery and facilities, most of which are at various stages of deterioration or dilapidation. The recent announcement by the Honourable Minister for Water Resources, Alhaji Muktar Shagari of the release of the sum of N2 billion to the Authority for infrastructural maintenance and development is heart- warming and commendable. However, effort should be made to ensure prudent management of the Authrority's financial resources. 5 Conduct of Feasibility Studies Undeniably, there is need for proper feasibility studies to be carried out before embarking on a project. This is necessary to determine the viability or otherwise of a given project. From this study, it was discovered that one of the principal problems that led to unsustainability or failure of some projects, especially water projects executed by the AIRBRDA, is inability to undertake proper and adequate feasibility studies 1 05 Consequently, the researcher suggests that the AIRBRDA should

1 as much as feasible adopt the policy of ensuring that proper feasibility studies precede projects executed by it or its contractors. In the same vein, contracts should be awarded only to contractors possessing necessary material and human resources to execute them

Ensuring Adequate Community Paticipation In Projects and Programmes. It is a well known fact that development projects and programmes have bright chances of success if and when the benefiting communities are fully involved. Such involvement ought to begin from the planning or initiation stage. Proper community participatio~in development projects and programmes acts as a motivator and inculcates in the communities concerned a sense of ownership and responsibility to protect, maintain and use the facilities carefully. However, evidence would indicate that one of the factors responsible for the non-realization of some of the Authority's objectives is inability on the part of its planners to fully involve the local population at the initial stage. In view of the above, it is our considered view that the Authority should increase local population participation in some of its projects and programmes. This can be achieved through proper mass education, which is capable of enabling the communities to appreciate some of the +% benefits derivable from such projects and programmes. For instance, people should be enlightened on the economic value of water, which calls for rational use. The practice of allowing taps to run away wastefully in some villages and towns should be brought to an end.

Granting Adequate Autonomy to the AIRBRDA As already observed, one of the problems confronting the AIRBRDA is insufficient autonomy necessary for optimal performance. It was discovered that its policy or decision-making or taking machinery is 9 to a great extent, determined by the Federal Ministry of Water I 00 Resources (FMWR) Abuja - FCT, its supervisory agency. This practice

P+ very much hampers the operational efficiency and effectiveness of the Authority because it is handicapped to take prompt decisions on certain important or sensitive matters when the situation arises. So, it follows that for the Authority to discharge its statutory functions properly, it should be granted adequate autonomy. This entails "hiving it off from the FMWR. The Authority should thereforelbe controlled and managed by a competent and autonomous Board of Directors. Such a board should be vested with sufficient power and authority to determine policies and programmes for it. Also, the board should be empowered to periodically review* performance of staff and

v management of the authority. This is with a view to removing and replacing those found wanting. Efforts should also be made to ensure secure tenure for members of the board, inaddition to paying them commensurate remuneration, so long as the Authority remains economically viable. All this is capable of dissuading them from corrupt practices.

Restoration of Agricultural Extension Services. From inception, the AIRBRDA, like others across Nigeria, rendered effective agricultural extension services to farmers until the promulgation of Decree Number 35 of 1987. This Decree divested the Authorities of * these services. Available evidence would show that since this period, farmers have been finding it considerably difficult to receive proper extension and allied services. The present institutional arrangements for extension services in irrigation projects appear unsatisfactory and counter productive It is, thus, believed that restoration of agricultural extension services in the RBRDAs will go a long way in alleviating the difficulties being encountered by farmers. As agencies responsible for planning,

* w design and implementation of irrigation projects, the RBRDAs should be 1 07 allowed to assume full responsibility for extension and related services in

.I their projects.

Replacement of Pump Engines with Electric Motors of Equivalent Power Rating. The Pumping Station of the LAIP, Omor is diesel-driven and consumes large quantities of various grades of lubricants, which cost the Authority a fortune. Replacement of the pump engines with electric motors of equivalent power rating will save much costs for the Authority. It will also bring to an end the difficulty associated with high cost of petroleum products.

# Training of Skilled Manpower. * Training is a way of enabling employees to become effective and efficient in their jobs. In this regard, Ogunna states that: training equips employees with new skills, technical knowledgelproblem-solving capability and attitudes and values required for effective performance of their official duties.' In the words of Roy Wilkinson etal, training programmes should take account of both the needs of the organization and those of the individual and this should from part of the overall human resources plan.2 As aready observed, the AIRBRDA suffers from paucity of skilled manpower especially dam and irrigation engineers, agricultural engineers and agronomists. Thus, it is hoped that this problem can be tackled by embarking on comprehensive staff training and development programmes. Efforts should also be made to retain those trained through proper motivation. I 08 Curbing corruption and other forms of indicipline.

It Owing to the high incidence of financial corruption and other forms of indiscipline amongst management and staff of the AIRBRDA, and the incapacitating effect on it, the researcher proffers the following measures. (i) Imposition of Stiff Penalties on Officers Involved in Fraudulent Practices. Stringent measures including dismissal, should be taken against any officer or board member who misappropriates or embezzles fund meant for the operation of the Authority. This measure is capable of serving as a big deterrent to would-be offenders. The # removal of the immediate past M.D of the Authority, Dr. .I. I Onwubuya on grounds of financial mismanagement is well commendable. Similarly, the recent introduction of the "Due Process Principle" in the award and execution of contracts and the establishment of such institutions as the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) and the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) by the Obasanjo administration, is laudable. (ii) Invigoration of Such Institutions as the Code of Conduct Bureau (CCB) and the Code of Conduct Tribunal (CCT). This is important to enforce administrative responsibility. (hi) Prompt Payment of Pensions and Gratuities. Pensions and gratuities are rewards for commendable and meritorious services and contributions of retired public servants to

_the- growth- -and---- development------of their country. Findings of the ------researcher show that the AIRBRDA has a good pension scheme for its staff. Hence efforts should be made to sustain it. This is because prompt payment of retirement benefits and pensions to retirees can spur serving officers to work hard because they I believe that their services are being recognized and that they woul P' so fi treated on their own retirement.

Proper Motivation of Staff Irrefutably, there exists a strong correlation between motivation and employee performance. Accordingly , motivation is a potent instrument for securing good employee performance. This is because it is a veritable tool for raising the morale of workers to attain great heights in organizational goals However, it was observed in the course of this study that staff of the AIRBRDA are not properly motivated to enhance their productivity. It is, therefore, our considered opinion that there should be adequate and

(c proper motivation of staff of the Authority through the following ways. r (i) Provision of Good Welfare Schemes and Conducive Working Environment. These include housing and transport facilities, medical and health '% facilities, canteen and meal subsidy, good office accommodation, careerlstaff development opportunities and recreational facitlities. Others are basic working tools and materials such as good seats, writing tables, stationery, duplicating machines, file cabinets, etc. The provision of welfare and working facilities mentioned above does a great deal in respect of employee motivation, while the absence ?Q of some of them can cause frustration and a negative attitude to work3. (ii) Prompt Payment of Staff Salaries and Settlement of Genuine Claims. This helps to minimize financial burden of workers. (iii) Regular Promotion of Workers. ------As Ogunna points out, "promotion satisfies egoistic needs in the form of enhanced status of employees and material needs in the form of monetary benefits it ~arries".~However, from the researcher's findings, promotion of staff of the AIRBRDA appears to be irregular and this has 700 affected their performance. Therefore, there is need to ensure regular

C promoti~%fall deserving staff of the Authority. Periodic Discussion between Management and Staff.

11 Management should make it a policy to hold discussions with staff jointly and individually periodically. During such discussions, management is afforded the opportunity to gain an insight into the problems of the staff and the individual in particular. It is from such insight that the appropriate solution can be provided. Employees, it must be stressed, have different problems that confront them at the workplace. These problems range from a strained relationship between supervisors and suboidinates, personal family problems, career problems to health problems. Providing solutions to L these problems makes the staff not only feel confident in the corporation, but also strengthen their attachment to it. In this way, a good and harmonious working relationship between management and staff is fostered. (v) Delegation of Authority and Responsibility. Delegation of responsibility is the process of allocating official tasks to subordinates, giving them adequate authority to carry out those assignments, and making them obligated to complete the tasks ~actisfactor~.~Delegation of responsibility is an important factor for 'li enhancing work ethics and tapping fully the special knowledge, skills and talents of officers for the realization of organizati nal goals. ?M Nevertheless, research has indicated there exsits gross A inadequate delegation of functions in the AIRBRDA. This is evident in the fact that a number of management staff hadly delegate responsibility to their subordinates even when it is apparent that some of the latter can perform as expected. The main reason adduced for this, is lack of confidence in their subordinates. This situation has led to frustration among some talented and experienced staff. I, It is, therefore, suggested that from time to time, staff of sufficient

PP P seniority should be allowed to perform some management funct~ons,but ! ayhich are not strictly of a professional nature6. Doing this throws ' zhallenges to the staff and gives the impression that their worth is being

Conclusion - From the analysis in this study, it is evident that efforts of the AIRBRDA to bring about transformatory impact on the South-eastern zone, its area of operation, have not been as anticipated. Evidence would reveal that the Authority has so far conferred less benefits on the operational areas or communities than envisaged. Hence, it can be

.- rightly be argued that the Authority has not yet made the intended or m desired impact on the zone. The chief reason adduced for this scenario is that the operation of the AIRBRDA has been beset with different and legion problems, some of which have been highlighted above. It is, therefore, the considered view of the researcher that the AIRBRDA could be better off and improve its performance in future, if some of the suggestions proffered in this study, are considered to the I spirit and letter by government (policy formulators) and management and

staff of the corporation. - V Notes Ogunna, Public Administration in Nigeria... ,p. 236. Roy Wilkinson et all Business Studies: An Introduction to Management and Business Studies /Oxford, Heinemann Publishers Ltd., 1994,) p. 279. Fab 0. Onah, Public Enterprises and the Nigerian Worker (Nsukka, Fulladu Publishing Company, 1996,) p. 25.

Ogunna, Public Administration in Nigeria... ,p. 296. Jerry Kinard, Management (Massachusetts, USA, D. C. + Health & Company, 1988,) p. 191. Onah, Public Enterprises ..., p. 26. SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES Oral Infor~iiants Ahaleke Eghu C. 53 Yeat-s. Public Servant. Agbala. Ji~ly5.2001 Actiaet~e.Omerika.C.35 Years. Rice Fat-tiler. Ornot-. April 2'1 2002. Aclenopo. A A,. C.47 Years. Assistant Chief Irr-igatiori Officel-. Fede~al Ministt-y of Water Resour-ces (FMWR) Abuja. June 7. 2006. Acfikirru V.C..C .4l Years. Project Manager. lgwu Minor 11-1-;gal-1011

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'* Nwite. Ch~oriia.C. G5 Years. Pottery Trader, Afikpo. February 22. 200'1

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------.Rural Migration and Development in Nigeria. Ile-lfe: Univel-s~tyof

Ife Press. 1982.

Afigbo. Adiele A,. Ropes of Sancl: Studies in Iqbo History and Culture.-- Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press. 1981. Aclric~llt~lralDevelopment in East Central State. Enug~l:Government Printer. 1974 Anyanwi~.J.C.. et al. The Str~tct~lreof the Nigerian Ecolloniy (I960-9Z) Onitsha: Joanee Ed~rcationalPublications. 1997. Awa. Enie.0..The TI-ansfo~mationof Rural Society. Eti~~gi~:Fourth

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Charlesworth.J. C. Conternpot-ary Political Analysis. New York: Free Press. 19G7. Dunn. P.F. Appropriate Technolog\/: Teclinoloc~ywith a Human Face. Lagos: Macmillan Publisher-~.1978. Egbo. Eci~iii~ndOnyemeke. Com~iiunityDevelopment Efforts in Iqbolancl Onitsha : Eti~kokwuPublishers Limited. 1987. Eicher. Carl K. and Liedholm. C. (eds.)Growth and Development of thg Nigerian Econoniy. Michigan: Michigan State University Press.

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Ekundare. R.O. An Econo~iiicHistory of Nigeria (1860 - 19GO). London ,d. Methuen ancl Company. 1973. Elaigwu. J.lsawa. Gowon: The Biographv of a Soldier Statesman. Ibadan: West Books P~~hlisliersLimited, 1986. Falola. Toyin ancl Ihonvbe~-e.Julius. The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's

Second Republic (1979 - 84) London: Zed Books Limited. 1985 Federal Republic of Nigeria. Third National Development Plan: 1975-80 Lagos: Government Press. Federal Ministry of Economic Development. 1981

------Ag~'ic~~ltu~-alPolicy for Nigeria . Lagos : Governnient Press. 1988.

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Journey So Far. Garki - Abuja: Government Press. Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. 2003.

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Descriptions. London: Macmillan Publishers Limited. 1977 Kinard, Jerry, Management. Massachusetts, USA. D.C. Heth & Company. 1988. w WS Littrel. D.W..Tlie Theory and Practice of Co~iiniunityDevelopment

C' Columbia: Univet-slty of Missouri Press. 1970.

Mabogurije. Akin. L..--The Development Process: A Spatial Pel-spect~ve London: Hutchinson and Company Publishers Limted. 1980

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Press. 1968

Mathur-. P N. . Why Developing Countries Fail to Develop? London Macmillan Academic and Professional Books. 1991 Myint H Tlie Economics of the Developing Countries 5"'Edition. Australia: Hutchison ancl Company Limited. 1980. Myl-del. Gunner. Economic Theory ancl Underdeveloped Regions. Lonclon: Harper and Row. 1977.

^ Njoku. Onwuka . N Econolnic History of Nigeria 19'" and 20'" Centuries--- Enugc~.Magnet Business Enterprises. 2001 ------.Ohafia: A Hel-oic Igho Society. Ebem-Ohafia: Kalu Oyeoku

Publishers. 2000. Nnoli. Okwudibia (ed.)Path to Nigerian Development. Dakar: Condest-ia 1981 Nziniiro. Ikenna. The Green Revolution in Nigeria or- Model.nization of Hungel'. Oguta: Zim Pan African Publishers. 1985. Ohi-Ani. Paul. Post Civil War Social and Economic Reconstruction of Ic~bolancl:1970 -1 983. Enclgc~:Mikori Press. 1998 Ot~il~ilaku.L. 0..Agricultcrral Extension as a Strateqy fg Agricult~~ral Transformation. Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press. 1983. Ogbazi. N.J..Rural Development in Nigeria: Dynamics and Strategies. Awka: Mekslink Pc~blisliers.1992. Ogbudinkpa. Reuben N.. The Economics of the Nigerian Civil War and its Prospects for National Development. E~iugu:Foul-tti D~niension Pirblisliers. 1985. 210 Ogunna, A.E.C.. Public Administration in Nigeria: Theory and Practice. * Owerri: Great Versatile Publishers, 1999. Ojigbo. Okion, Shehu Shagari: The Biography of N~geria'sFirst Executive President. Mladinska Knjiga Ljubljana. Yugoslavia. 1982. Olaitan. S.O., Agricultural Education in the Tropics, London: Macmillan Publishers 1984. Olat~mbosun,D. Nigeria's Neglected Rural Maiority. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975. Olayide, S.O.,(ed.)Economic Surve~of Nigeria, 1960 - 1975. I badan: Aromataran Publishing Company. 1976. 4 Onah, Fab 0. Public Enterprise and the Nigerian Worker. Nsukka: w Fulladu Publishing Company, 1996. Onucheyo. E., Political Decisions in the Nigeria Agric~~lturalIndustry. Zaria: Tamaza Publishing Company, 1998. 0nyemel~kwe.C.C.~Problems of Industrial Planning and Management in Nigeria, London: Longman Green and Company. 1966.

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Longman Group, 1974. Osuala, E.C. Introduction to Research Methodology, Benin: Iluepu Press. 1987. "r Ozigbo. Ikenga. R.A. A History of lgboland in the 20"' Century. Enugu: Snaap Press. 1999. Padmanbhan, K.P.Rural Credit: Lessons for Rural Bankers and Policy Makers, London: Intermediate Technology Publications Limited. 1988. Partridge. Charles. Cross River Natives, being some notes on the Promotive Pagans, London: 1905. Rodney, Walter, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Enugu: lkenga Publishers. 1990. Z2B Ross. Sylvia Leitli. African Women: A Stc~clyof the Iho of Niqel-la.

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Wilkinson. Roy et at. Business Studies: An Introduction to Manac~enient--

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Williams. S.K.T.RLII-at Development in Nigeria.- Ile-lfe: Utiivet-sity of Ife PI-ess. 1976. IP I

Wor Id Bank Restor-11lqUrhan Infrastructure and Services In -N~er'la - w Wasli~ngtonD C USA '1994.

Newspapers and Magazines Publications The follow~ngNewspapers and Magazines were corisc~lteclIn the cou~se of this research Spec~f~c~iumbel-s used are In the end notes

News papers En~rgc~.The Renaissance Lagos. Ttie Gc~ard~an Lagos, National Concor-d Ower-r. Nigerian Statesman Lagos. Daily Times

Magazines EnquWeekly Trumpet Lagos. Newswatch New York. Time Magaz~ne

Unpublished Projects, Dissertations and Theses Alhaji. LC. "An Appraisal of the Anambra- Imo River- Basin Developnientas a Strategy for AgricclItclraI Development in Nigeria." Unpublished B.Sc. Original Essay. UNN. 1982.

Al~mha.J.O. "Linkages beb~eeliFarm and Non-Fami Enterprises 111 Selected Rural Areas of Anambra State of Nigeria". Unpc~blished M.Sc. Thesis. UNN. Depal-tnient of Agricultc~ralEcono~iiics. 1990. Amaefula. I kechi. "Assessnient of River Basin Develop~iieiitA11tlio1-ities ------1nR6l-a~e"elopriyet?t- A Case St~tdyof the Atianib~.a-l~iioRivei- Basin Development Ac~thol-ity".B.Sc. Project. Department of UI-l~an and Regional Planning. University of Nigeria. Enugci Caliipcis

(UNEC ). 1993. 222

Anozie. H N.N. . "Peasant Agriculture and Nigerian Development : A

a Case Study of Palm Wine Ind~rstry I Ot~inagir lldt 1Local Gover~inient AI-ea". Unpi~hlisheci B.Sc PI-ojecl. Depat~iient of Soclology 1 Anthropology. UNN. 1983. Awa. Chukwu "An Evaluation of the Impact of the Inio Rivet- Basin arid Rural Developnie~it Authority (IRBRDA) on Ag~-~c~~lti~raI Development in Imo state" M.Sc. Project Report. Departnient of Agriculti~ralExtension. UNN. 1986. Chukwumaife, U.C.."The Role of River Basin Schemes in Ri~ral Development in Nigeria: A Case Study of the Anamht-a-lmo River Basin Developnient Authority". B.Sc. Project. Department* of Ut-lmti and Regional Planning. UNEC. 1990. , Dike. P.I."An Appraisal of the Anamhra-lmo River Basin Development Airttiority as a Strategy for Agricultural and R~I-alDevelop~iierit'. B.Sc Original Essay. UNN. 1992. Herbert. B.C. "An Assessment of the Performance of the Lower Benire Basin Development Authority (LBRBDA) Undel- F1a~-tlal Commer-ciali- Zation PI-O~I-amrnein Nigeria". M Sc. Project Report. Department of Agr.icultural Economics. UNN. 1994. Mar-[I.Patrick. K, "The Role of River Basin Development Authoritres in Rural 9evelopnient in Nigeria: A Case Study of the Lower Be~iue RIVEI- Basin Develop~netit Authority (LBRBDA)".B.Sc. PI-oject. Ckpartment of Geogr-aptly. UNN. 1985.

Mock. I.V.O."New Mar-adun - A Creation of Sokoto-R~maRiver Basin and Rural Development Authority: An Examination of the Place and Impact of R~verBasin and Rural Development Author-~t~eson N~get-la'sDevelopment". Unpubl~shedPh D Thes~s.Department of ra Sociology /Anthropology. UNN. 1986. 2%3 Ngwa. C.A. "The Upper NUN Valley Development Authority 111 Social and

6e Econom~cDevelopment of the Ndop Area of Camelooli Slnce

1970 ' Unpuhl~sheclPh D Thes~s Department of ti~stoly CJNN 1999 Nwaka. Alfr-ecl Cliiliia. "Water- Management Procedure In Ana1ii111.a-lriio R~verBasin Developnient Authority." B.Sc Project. Departnielit of Geography. IJNN. 1984. Ogho. R.O. "The Impact of the River Basin Development A~~tlioritiesin NigetAia:A Case Study of the Anamhra-Imo River Basin Developlnerit Authority". Unpublished B.Sc. Original Essay. UNN. 1984. * Onah. Fat:, 0. "Administrative Constrains to Management of Ana~iil:,~-a- Imo River Basin Development Authority". M Sc. Thesis. UNN. 1988.

Osakwe. B.C, "Benin - Owena River Basin Developnient Ai1tl101-ity: A Critiyi~eof its Agl-iculti~ralProg~mmes in Bendel State." B.Sc. Pl~oject.Depal-ttnent of Geography. UNN. 1984.

Uleanya. Igriatiils Azuhuike. "Missionary Activities in Northel-11Ngwa ''

B . A. Tliesis. Department of History . UNN. 1978. Uzueghilnam. C.O. "An Appraisal of the Impact of the NAFPP on

Fat-met-s In Anambra State " Unpublished Masters Tliesis. UNN *' 1981

Lectures, Seminars, Papers, Reports, etc.

Afigbo. Acliele. E..'' Tlie Age of Innocence" Ahiajokir Lectitl-e. 1981 Owei-I-i.Inio State Government Press. 1981. Idacliaha. F.S. "The Green Revolution: A Food PI-odi~ctionPlan fol- Nigeria" (Final Report) VOL. 1: Main Report Lagos. Fecler-al Ministry of Agl-iculture. 1980. Ijere. M.O. "Leadlng Issues in Nigeria Rural Development" Unpi~hlished Material. Departn~elitof Agriculti~ralEconomics. UNN. 1981 -"4 ------,"The Agricultural Economy of Igboland: lgbo Economics", Ahiajoku Ieacture (Onuagaotu) Colloqcrim, 1989, Owerri Imo State Government Press, 1989. Nnamani, Chimaroke, "Ndi lgbo Can Your Generation Sustain Our Igboness"? Special Guest Lecture, First Edition of Special Lecture Series,South East Development Initiative (SEDI). Owerri December, 2001.

Iwachukwu, Michael Anagamonye , Beyond Teknuzu: Reflections

on lgbo Perception and Practice of Technology , Ahiajoku Lectures 2003. Owerri. Imo States Government Press, 2003. Jculi; OL'ThePolitical Economy of Planning the Bakplori Irrigation Project 1974 - 801',Proceedings of Seminar on Planning and Plan Implementation. Yankari, May, 1980. Okafor, E.C. and Onokerhoraye., A.C, Rural System and Planning: The Geography and Planning Series Study notes, University of Benin, 1986. UKwu. .I. Ukwu. "Co-ordination and Integration in Rural Development," Paper Presented at the Workshop on Rural Development in Nigeria, Department of Economics, UNN, 1987. Umeh. LC, "River Basin Development Strategy in Nigerian Experience A IVIassive Thinking in Rural Direction". Working Paper Department of Urban and Regional Planning, UNEC.