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Mining in Al-Baha Region, South-Western Saudi Arabia in Islamic-Era: the Archaeology of Asham

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Mining in Al-Baha Region, South-Western Saudi Arabia in Islamic-Era: the Archaeology of Asham MINING IN AL-BAHA REGION, SOUTH-WESTERN SAUDI ARABIA IN ISLAMIC-ERA: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF ASHAM Abdullah Ali Abadi Al-Zahrani PhD UNIVERSITY OF YORK ARCHAEOLOGY MARCH 2014 Abstract During the early Islamic empire, gold and silver were necessary for minting coins for the single currency of the Caliphate to facilitate trade from the western Mediterranean to eastern Persia. Iron, copper and tin were also necessary to equip the armies needed to defend and expand the empire, as well as for construction and domestic use. Although people have focused on the Arab-Islamic expansion in terms of military, religious and trade aspects, the internal production of the state has been largely neglected (i.e. mining and making things, the physical basis of the civilization). Thus, studying mining settlements as a model of internal production settlements is necessary to enrich our understanding of mining activity and its role in Islamic civilization and the medieval world. The importance of this study lies in studying the characteristics of the mining landscape in the region of Al-Baha, by analysing the mining activities taking place at the mining settlement of Asham, one of the most famous mining settlements mentioned by several classical Arab writers. These mining sites were surveyed generally and the mining tools examined. After completing the general survey, Asham settlement was surveyed intensively and excavated with six archaeological trenches to study the stratigraphy of the settlement in order to present an overview of the successive occupation levels and to expose more mining evidence. Materials recovered include over 1112 pieces of pounders and grinders, and 2153 fragments of pottery, soapstone and glass. The study of the mining landscape in Al-Baha region indicates that there were at least three metals mined there during the Islamic era: copper, gold and silver. These metals were processed in three patterns of settlements of different compositions and functions with evidence of state supervision and integration with regional and international trade routes. The research critically analysed the classical Arab-Islamic narratives with regard to the archaeological evidence of tools and facilities. The evidence confirms the extensive scale of mining activities in Al-Baha and its importance to the broader Arab-Islamic world. Rudimentary patterns of mining settlement were overhauled with extensive investment and state involvement during the classical Islamic civilization (c. 630-1100 CE), in the context of the great fillip Arabian trade received under the Umayyad and early Abbasid Caliphates which enabled full and stable exploitation of the natural factors amenable to mining in Al-Baha. The decline of the mining settlements was related to the political disintegration of the Abbasid Caliphate and the rise of a series of Turkic dynasties from the Seljuks onwards, reflected in the fact that the natural conditions still facilitate modern mining in the region, which poses a great threat to the important archaeological remains. II Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. II List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... VI List of Tables....................................................................................................................... IX Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... X Dedication .......................................................................................................................... XII Declaration ........................................................................................................................ XIII Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................ 14 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 14 1.2 The importance of mining .......................................................................................... 17 1.3 The aim and objectives............................................................................................... 27 1.4 The study area and Asham as a model mining settlement ......................................... 28 1.5 The general methodology of study ............................................................................. 29 1.6 Chapter structure and outline ..................................................................................... 30 1.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 30 Chapter 2: Review of Mining Studies in Saudi Arabia ........................................................ 32 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 32 2.2 Classical Arabic sources ............................................................................................ 33 2.3 Western travellers....................................................................................................... 39 2.4 Contemporary Arab writers ....................................................................................... 42 2.5 Surveys of the Deputy Ministry for Minerals and Resources (DMMR) .................... 44 2.6 Comprehensive Archaeological Survey in the KSA .................................................. 48 2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 57 Chapter 3: Background of al-Baha Region .......................................................................... 59 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 59 3.2 Geology and mineralogy ............................................................................................ 59 3.3 Geography .................................................................................................................. 65 3.3.1 Surface features ................................................................................................... 67 3.3.2 Population and activities ..................................................................................... 75 3.3.3 Ancient trading routes ......................................................................................... 78 3.3.4 Folk commercial marketplaces ........................................................................... 79 3.4 History ........................................................................................................................ 83 3.4.1 The Prophetic Era (571-632 CE/53 BH-11 AH) ................................................. 84 3.4.2 The Pious Caliphate (632-660 CE/11-40 AH) .................................................... 84 3.4.3 The Umayyad Period (660-750 CE/40-132 AH) ................................................ 85 3.4.4 The Abbasid Period (750-869 CE/132-256 AH) ................................................ 86 3.4.5 The Ottoman Period (1299-1923 CE/693-1341 AH) .......................................... 88 3.4.6 The Saudi Era (1744 CE/1157 AH to present).................................................... 90 3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 92 Chapter 4: Al-Baha Research History and Mining Sites Survey ......................................... 95 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 95 4.2 Research history ......................................................................................................... 95 4.2.1 SCTA explorations and interdisciplinary research of non-mining sites ............. 95 4.2.2 SCTA mining and mining settlements surveys ................................................... 96 4.3 Current fieldwork of mining sites in al-Baha region ................................................. 98 4.3.1 Desktop survey of the SCTA’s paper record ...................................................... 98 4.3.2 General survey of mining sites .......................................................................... 101 4.5 Mining evidence ....................................................................................................... 117 4.5.1 Mines and their forms ....................................................................................... 117 4.5.2 Mining settlements and their patterns ............................................................... 118 4.5.3 Tools .................................................................................................................. 122 4.5.4 Furnaces ............................................................................................................ 123 III 4.5.5 Slag .................................................................................................................... 124 4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 125 Chapter 5: The Settlement of Asham ................................................................................. 129
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