2 Study Area

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Energy East Project Part A: Stochastic Modelling for Volume 24: Ecological and Human Health Risk Potential Oiling of Marine Habitat Assessment for Oil Spills in the Marine Environment Section 2: Study Area

2 STUDY AREA

2.1 Overview of Canaport Energy East Marine Terminal Operations and Expanded Shipping Operations

The proposed Canaport Energy East marine terminal will be located on the western shore of the Bay of Fundy, to the southeast of Saint John and southwest of Mispec Point, New Brunswick, within the jurisdiction of the Port of Saint John. It is proposed to be adjacent to the existing Canaport marine facilities in Saint John, which include a single buoy mooring (SBM or mono-buoy) serving the Irving Canaport facility and the Canaport LNG terminal (Figure 2-1).

The marine terminal will include pile-supported trestles and breasting/mooring dolphins for two berths that can accommodate Aframax and Suezmax tankers (Berth 2), as well as very large crude carrier (VLCC) tanker types (Berth 1), with capacities of 113,300 to 348,000 m3 (710,000 to 2.2 million barrels). The two berths will be constructed simultaneously. Oil will be pumped from shore via a trestle approximately 645 m long. Berths 1 and 2 will be interconnected by a trestle approximately 380 m long.

The marine terminal is expected to receive approximately 281 calls per year to ship crude oil products originating from western Canada. For the purposes of the EHHRA, the assumed tanker distribution is 70 Aframax, 175 Suezmax and 36 VLCC tankers per year.

Canada requires any tanker built after July 6, 1993, to be double hulled to operate in Canadian waters. A National Research Council (NRC) study found that double-hulled tankers reduce tanker spill volumes compared with the volumes released by single-hulled tankers (NRC 1998). Only double-hulled tankers will be allowed to call at the marine terminal.

Transport Canada chairs the Technical Review Process of Marine Terminal Systems and Transshipment Sites (TERMPOL), a federal government initiative that assesses the safety and risks associated with vessel movements to, from and around Canada’s marine terminals. This review process dates from the late 1970s when an interdepartmental committee reviewing marine pollution issues identified the need for a precise and reliable way to measure the navigational risks associated with placing and operating marine terminals.

TERMPOL is a voluntary, extensive review process that might be requested by proponents involved in building and operating a marine terminal system for bulk handling of oil, chemicals and liquefied gases. The TERMPOL review is led by Transport Canada and can involve other federal departments and stakeholder representatives, as required. The review might consider any safety measures above and beyond existing regulations in order to address site-specific circumstances.

Energy East has initiated a TERMPOL review process for the Canaport Energy East marine terminal.

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Part A: Stochastic Modelling for Energy East Project Potential Oiling of Marine Habitat Volume 24: Ecological and Human Health Risk Section 2: Study Area Assessment for Oil Spills in the Marine Environment

2.1.1 Vessel Navigation within the Harbour Limits

The Port of Saint John Harbour limits (i.e., regulatory limits) extend into the Bay of Fundy, from Partridge Island west to Musquash Harbour, and south to Cape Spencer. The harbour includes the Irving Canaport Single Buoy Mooring (SBM) and Canaport LNG terminal. The designated anchorages and pilot boarding areas of the Port of Saint John are also contained within the limits of the outer harbor, as indicated in Figure 2-1 (Saint John Port Authority 2015).

Pursuant to the Pilotage Act, the Port of Saint John is a compulsory pilotage area managed by the Atlantic Pilotage Authority. Pilotage is the process of directing and controlling the movement of a vessel through near-shore and inshore waters unfamiliar to the ship’s master.

Although there are three anchorage areas near the marine terminal (Anchorage Areas A, B and D), tankers calling at the marine terminal will use only Anchorage Areas B and D.

For tankers within the design size range for the marine terminal, it is typical practice to use two to four tugs to assist with the turning and berthing of a ballasted tanker, and for departure operations of a loaded tanker. Tug requirements for the marine terminal will be examined through the TERMPOL review process.

Port of Saint John practices and procedures require all vessels entering the jurisdiction of the Port for the first time to employ the services of a tug or tugs. Preliminary analysis indicates that the first tug will join an inbound tanker before it crosses the Saint John–Digby ferry route (Figure 2-1), unless there are vessels at anchorage. In this circumstance, the first tug will join the tanker at the pilot boarding station. Additional tugs will join the tanker as it makes the final approach to the marine terminal and to assist in the turning basin. During departures, the tug arrangements are typically the same but in reverse. The tugs will be released by the pilot based on the navigational conditions experienced.

2.1.2 Vessel Navigation within the Bay of Fundy

Vessel traffic in the Bay of Fundy is monitored by the Canadian Coast Guard’s Marine Communications and Traffic Services. Within the Bay of Fundy, there are two established shipping lanes—one for entry to the bay and one for departure from the bay (Figure 2-1).

Inbound vessels are required to use the southeast channel, and outbound use the northwest channel according to the traffic-separation scheme. Water depth through the traffic-separation scheme area is consistently deep until the coastal area east of Saint John. The 30 m contour at chart datum is approximately 1 km offshore near the marine terminal. Due to the relatively deep draft and wide navigation corridor of the Bay of Fundy, combined with the traffic-separation scheme and pilot services for large vessels, bathymetric hazards to navigation are minimal (DNV GL 2015). The Bay of Fundy does not freeze, so sea ice is not a consideration.

Vessels visiting the marine terminal will be required to follow the established network of aids to navigation in the Bay of Fundy, as marked on navigation or nautical charts, Lists of Lights, Buoys and Fog Signals – Atlantic Coast (Canadian Coast Guard 2015a) and Radio Aids to Marine Navigation Handbook (Canadian Coast Guard 2015b).

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Interest Sources : Données sur le projet fournies par TransCanada Pipelines Limited. Frontière maritime tirée du Service hydrographique du Canada. Données de base fournies par les gouvernements !du Canada et du Nouveau-Brunswick ainsi que par le gouvernement de l'État du Maine. /

Dernièresmodifications Sources: Project data provided by TransCanada Pipelines Limited. Maritime boundary from Canadian Hydrographic Service. Base data provided by the Governments of Canada and New Brunswick! and the Government of the State of Maine. ! 2-1

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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! CA PDF Page 36 of 524 CA PDF Page 37 of 524

2.1.3 Canaport Energy East Marine Terminal Operations

On arrival at the marine terminal, tankers will be under the control of a pilot experienced with tanker handling under local conditions. All tankers will be under tug assist. Only qualified personnel with clearly defined roles and responsibilities will be involved with berthing.

Operational requirements will be put into place that will allow tankers to moor or transfer products only within certain environmental conditions. If those parameters are exceeded, then the berth operator will shut down operations, require the tanker to leave its berth and proceed to anchorage, or not allow a tanker to approach the berth but to proceed to anchorage.

The marine terminal will be monitored and operated by qualified personnel and will be equipped with integrated automation and leak detection systems. Data pertaining to marine loading operations and vapour recovery systems will be collected and evaluated locally at the marine terminal and remotely by the TransCanada Operations Control Centre (OCC) to provide safe and reliable operations.

A continuous three-point radio communication system will be in place to support the marine loading operations between the tanker, a qualified person-in-charge at the marine terminal and the OCC. At the marine terminal, in the case of detection of a leak, operators will initiate the emergency shutdown. The marine terminal will be staffed at all times.

Once a tanker is safely moored at the berth, a berth operator will conduct a Key Safety Meeting with the person in charge on the ship in accordance with the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT 2006). The role of each individual in the tanker-loading process will be reviewed and agreed on before loading to ensure a safe loading operation.

A qualified crew will connect the marine terminal’s loading arms to the ship’s manifold. The loading arms are hydraulically operated to ensure a quick connect and disconnect procedure. During loading, the OCC, local marine terminal personnel and tanker crew will monitor flow rates and pressures, and validate the quantities transferred (a check and balance system).

In the event of an abnormal operating condition (e.g., loss of communication, loss of containment or other safety issues noted during the cargo loading), marine terminal and tanker personnel will stop the flow of oil through the emergency shutdown and take immediate action to mitigate the issue.

In addition to the procedures and facilities noted, there will be additional engineering controls and systems designed to facilitate a safe cargo transfer, including the following:

• camera surveillance of the tanker and marine terminal area to assist the berth operator and other marine terminal personnel in monitoring loading conditions • remotely activated emergency shutdown to allow personnel at the berth or in the foreshore area, or at the OCC, to initiate a shutdown of loading to stop the flow of oil in the event of an incident • loading arm “over travel” alarms that will activate (and if necessary initiate automatic shutdown) in the event that the loading arms are extended beyond their normal limits due to excessive winds/currents or passing ship effects on the tanker docked at the berth. This will allow marine terminal personnel to stop loading and isolate the loading system before the loading arms are stretched beyond their “safe limit”.

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• mooring load line sensors with alarm capability to notify marine terminal personnel when the tanker’s mooring lines are being loaded beyond their safe limits. This will help to prevent or mitigate mooring system failures by allowing the marine terminal operators to take corrective action in the event of an alarm.

A spill response and containment plan will be developed before commissioning of the marine terminal as per Oil Handling Facility regulations under the Canada Shipping Act, 2001. Saint John Harbour has spill incident response plans and procedures. The spill response and containment procedures for the marine terminal will refer and relate to these existing plans.

The marine terminal operator will have an agreement in place with Atlantic Emergency Response Team (ALERT), Inc. the certified response organization for the Port of Saint John. A spill response vessel and equipment will be located on the auxiliary platform immediately behind the Berth 1 loading platform. The marine terminal will have a response capability for the first 50 tonnes as per Canada Shipping Act, 2001, and then will activate ALERT response.

For tankers transiting to or from the marine terminal, tanker owners/operators remain solely responsible and accountable for emergency response situations associated with their respective tankers, as per the Canada Shipping Act, 2001. Emergency response associated with these potential tanker-based incidents would also be expected to be undertaken by the appropriate certified response organization that has jurisdiction at the incident location.

2.2 Spatial Boundaries

The spatial boundaries for the EHHRA for stochastic assessment of marine oil spills (i.e., the study area for marine accidents and malfunctions [SAMAM]) include the following:

• the marine terminal, and the shoreline and waters of the Bay of Fundy from the higher high tide level, from the mouths of the inner sub-basins of the Bay of Fundy (i.e., Chignecto Bay and Minas Channel) down the New Brunswick (NB) and Nova Scotia (NS) coastlines to the limits of Canadian territorial waters. The SAMAM also includes Saint John Harbour to the Reversing Falls. In addition, although beyond the limits of Canadian territorial waters, parts of the United States coastline to Mount Desert Island, Maine are considered, as well as some of the waters of the Gulf of Maine (Figure 2-1).

2.3 Human Occupancy

2.3.1 Land Use

The SAMAM is bordered by New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and the state of Maine, which have a combined population of approximately 3 million. Far fewer people live in the vicinity of the Bay of Fundy. The SAMAM has one medium-sized city (Saint John, population 70,063 [StatCan 2011]) near its shores. In addition to Saint John, a number of smaller towns, villages and smaller coastal developments, including year-round rural residences and cottages, border the SAMAM, although few of these have a permanent resident population greater than 1,000 individuals.

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Figure 2-2 provides information on the size and locations of population centres around the Bay of Fundy. Saint John is an important hub for the Canadian petroleum trade and is home to the Irving Oil refinery. Irving Oil has an existing oil terminal (Irving Canaport SBM), which is located at Canaport and adjacent to the site of the proposed Canaport Energy East marine terminal. To the northeast of the proposed marine terminal is the Canaport LNG terminal. A variety of other commodities, including refined petroleum products (from the Irving Oil refinery loading facility in the inner harbour), potash, salt, recyclable metal and bulk cargo, are regularly handled through the Port of Saint John (Saint John Port Authority 2011).

The marine terminal will be located in an industrial area in east Saint John, adjacent to the existing Irving Canaport facility. The onshore land cover in undeveloped areas is primarily forested. There are no agricultural areas or residential properties in the immediate vicinity, although some residences are located on property north and east of the area along Red Head Road, and Anthony’s Cove Road. Reports from the area suggest it is likely that activities such as hiking, birdwatching and cross-country skiing occur periodically in the general vicinity. Mispec Beach and several smaller beaches, as well as some residential development, are present to the east between Mispec and Cape Spencer. The Mispec River flows into the Bay of Fundy north of Mispec Beach. Mispec Beach Park, used primarily in summer, includes:

• a beach • walking and hiking trails • observation decks • a playground • a sports field • picnic areas

North of Mispec Point lie Black Point and Red Head, including the community of Harbourview. The Irving Oil refinery, the south end of Saint John and the west end of Saint John are about 8 km north to northwest, respectively, from the proposed marine terminal location.

Some islands within the Bay of Fundy are inhabited and contribute to the coastal marine habitat; most notably are Grand Manan Island, Campobello Island and Deer Island in New Brunswick, Long Island and Brier Island off Digby Neck in Nova Scotia, as well as numerous lesser islands in Canada, and islands along the coast of Maine.

The Bay of Fundy is a popular tourist destination because of its exceptionally high tides, coastal communities and marine fish and wildlife. The cruise ship business operates alongside the shipping of commodities, resulting in the annual passage of more than 200,000 cruise ship passengers through the Port of Saint John (Saint John Port Authority 2011).

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2.3.2 Traditional Land and Resource Use

Energy East has undertaken traditional land and resource use (TLRU) studies across the entire Project. Results of these studies are provided in Volume 25, which contains information gathered through these studies and are compared to the findings in the Consolidated ESA.

The types of TLRU activities and sites that have commonly been identified in other TLRU studies have been classified into four broad categories:

• harvesting (hunting, trapping, fishing, plant gathering, and associated locales and species) • travel (including trails, routes, waterways and landmarks) • habitation (including cabins, campsites, meeting areas, gathering places) • cultural/spiritual (including burial sites, sacred sites, and archaeological sites)

During Project engagement activities in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Aboriginal groups raised the following issues related to Project effects on TLRU, including potential effects:

• on Aboriginal and commercial fisheries within the Bay of Fundy • on traditional harvesting • of the marine terminal on commercial enterprise and cultural activities • on food, social and ceremonial fisheries • on fish and fish habitat • on species at risk, invasive species, marine mammals and birds • from oil or gas contamination

Traditional knowledge studies are ongoing. As such, TLRU issues of potential importance to First Nations communities are based on existing literature and past experience within the SAMAM (Table 2-1).

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1:1,400,000

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PRÉPARÉ PAR / PREPARED BY

QC PROJET OLÉODUC ÉNERGIE EST / ENERGY EAST PIPELINE PROJECT : : 25/11/2015 par : mmorinsauerteig /Last Modified: 25/11/2015By: mmorinsauerteig NB PRÉPARÉ POUR / PREPARED FOR USA PE NS FIGURE NO / FIGURE NO.

Sources : Données sur le projet fournies par TransCanada Pipelines Limited. Zone d'étude régionale et zones écologiques selon Stantec. Données de base fournies par les gouvernements du Canada et du Nouveau-Brunswick. / Sources: Project data provided by TransCanada Pipelines Limited. Regional Assessment Area and Ecological Areas from Stantec. Base data provided by the Governments of Canada and New Brunswick. Dernières modifications CA PDF Page 42 of 524 CA PDF Page 43 of 524

Table 2-1 Species of Importance to First Nations Communities in the SAMAM

Species

Fish and Marine Biota Mammals and Birds Vegetation Source

American eel, striped bass, Atlantic cod, None identified None identified Fisheries and Oceans Atlantic salmon, Atlantic sturgeon Canada (DFO 2011a)

Lobster, scallop, sea urchin, tuna, swordfish, None identified None identified Jacques Whitford Limited rock crab, Jonah crab, and assorted fin fish (2009)

Lobster, crab, scallop, groundfish, and other None identified None identified Fisheries and Ocean fisheries Canada (DFO 2007)

Atlantic herring, including juvenile herring None identified None identified Fisheries and Ocean sold as sardines Canada (DFO 2007) Atlantic salmon

Lobster, mackerel, flounder and herring Muskrat, otter, porpoise Strawberry, blueberry, apple, dulse Membertou Geomatics halibut, haddock, herring, perch, periwinkle, Deer, rabbit, partridge Chokecherries, golden thread, ash, sweetgrass, Consultants (2009) trout, cod, clam and mussel spruce, and raspberry Bass, American eel, gaspereau, pollock, Atlantic salmon, scallop, shad, and smelt

Lobster, mackerel, haddock, clam, cod, Porpoise, deer, pheasant, None identified Membertou Geomatics quahog, scallop, bass, dogfish, American partridge, seals, rabbit, “birds”, Consultants (2012) eel, pollock, smelt, halibut, periwinkle, crab moose, bear, beaver, caribou, and sturgeon coyote, duck, fox, mink, porcupine Bass (including striped), Atlantic salmon, flounder, crab, mussel, shad, and shrimp

Atlantic salmon, shad, gaspereau, trout Osprey, hawks, butterflies, Sugar maple, hemlock, yellow birch, sweetgrass, Conservation Council of moose, deer, bear, pheasants, black spruce, touch-me-nots, Jack-in-the-pulpit, New Brunswick (2009) pine marten, salamanders, ground Indian cucumber, pin-cushion moss, ash, elms, woodpecker, fishers, porcupines maple, pines, spruce and cedar, butternut, elderberries, bloodroot, wild ginger, gold thread, flag root, wood sorrel, blue flag, highbush cranberry, hobblebush, alder, chokecherry, black ash, white pine, wild blueberry, pussy-willow, Indian pear, fiddlehead

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2.4 Commercial Marine Resource Use

The commercial marine resource use in the SAMAM is predominantly through commercial fisheries, aquaculture and tourism.

2.4.1 Commercial Fisheries

Commercial fisheries in the SAMAM are well established, and many species of finfish and shellfish are harvested, including:

• Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) • American lobster (Homarus americanus) • sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) • green sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) • sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) • clams (various species) • crabs (various species) • gaspereau (includes alewife [Alosa pseudoharengus] and blueback herring [Alosa aestivalis]) • Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) • American eel (Anguilla rostrata) • flatfishes (various flounders and plaice)

Numerous marine plants (e.g., rockweeds, Ascophyllum nodosum, Fucus spp.; dulse, Palmaria palmata) are also harvested commercially. In terms of monetary value, American lobster, Atlantic herring and sea scallop dominate the fishery (DFO 2015). However, other fin fish and invertebrates, such as green sea urchin, soft-shell clam and sea cucumber, and marine plants contribute to the overall value of the commercial harvest in the SAMAM. Some First Nations are active participants in the commercial fisheries of the region. Further information on commercial fisheries in the SAMAM is provided in Volume 17, Part A, Section 10.

2.4.2 Aquaculture

There is a substantial aquaculture industry in the SAMAM; it is concentrated mainly in the Blacks Harbour/Passamaquoddy Bay/Grand Manan Island area and coastal waters of Maine. The principal species farmed include Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and American oyster (Crassostrea virginica), and there is some production of sea scallops and marine plants. This industry operates in coastal surface waters.

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2.4.3 Tourism

The SAMAM supports a popular tourism industry that is focused largely on the unique marine environment of the region. Common industry activities include guided tours to observe marine mammals and birds; guided recreational fishing; coastal sightseeing, camping and hiking; boating and kayaking.

2.5 Physical Setting

The marine physical environment considered for this EHHRA extends from Chignecto Bay and the Minas Basin in the inner Bay of Fundy to the waters of the Gulf of Maine on the outer side of the Bay of Fundy. Guidance from the NEB (letter dated June 27, 2014) noted that the Application must consider the potential effects of marine shipping in Canada’s internal waters, out to the 12 nautical mile territorial sea limit. These boundaries are shown in Figure 2-1.

2.5.1 Existing Water and Sediment Quality

Marine water and sediment quality can be influenced by oceanographic processes, freshwater inputs and anthropogenic activities. The oceanography of the SAMAM is interconnected with the greater Gulf of Maine, the Scotian Shelf and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean. It is characterized by a substantial semi- diurnal tidal regime with a minimum tidal range of approximately 6 m at the mouth and a maximum tidal range of approximately 16 m in the upper reaches of Chignecto Bay. The Bay of Fundy receives freshwater inputs from numerous rivers and streams, the largest of which is the Saint John River (Wells 2003). Contaminants ranging from suspended sediment and trace elements to nutrients, pesticides, hydrocarbons and persistent organic pollutants that have the potential to degrade water and sediment quality originate largely from land-based point and non-point source inputs from anthropogenic activity.

There are no available water and sediment quality data for the SAMAM that would allow a systematic spatial or temporal trend analysis. The available data are geographically sporadic, dated and derived from various methodologies and focal parameters. There is information available, however, on the contaminant concentrations of water, sediments and indicator biota for some coastal areas of the Bay of Fundy (Loring et al. 1996, 1998; Chou et al. 2003, 2004; DFO 2005; Jacques Whitford 2008; CBCL Limited 2009). These studies tend to focus on coastal areas where existing anthropogenic effects might be expected, such as the industrialized Saint John Harbour (Jacques Whitford 2008). Beyond such localized effects, these data suggest that contaminant concentrations in Bay of Fundy waters and sediments are below thresholds expected to cause environmental harm.

2.5.2 Ecological Areas of the SAMAM

This section describes the major ecological areas of the SAMAM (Figure 2-2). These marine ecological areas have unique physiographic, oceanographic and biological characteristics, as listed in Table 2-2.

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Table 2-2 Characteristics of Major Ecological Areas – Bay of Fundy

Marine Ecological Areas Physiographic Characteristics Oceanographic Characteristics Biological Characteristics

Chignecto Bay Shallow inlet bordered predominantly Extreme diurnal tidal influence. Surface Estuarine with numerous intertidal mudflats by forested, rocky coastline to the circulation enters along the southeast coast and saltmarshes that provide habitat for large northwest and forested lowlands to and circles around the bay exiting along the concentrations of benthic invertebrates and the southeast. Receives Petitcodiac northwest coast. migrating shorebirds. Chignecto Bay is River drainage that includes Greater designated as an Important Bird Area (IBA).1 Moncton.

Minas Basin Shallow inlet bordered by forested Extreme diurnal tidal influence. Surface Estuarine with numerous sand flats, mudflats, lowland coastline along the inner circulation enters along the southeast coast and salt marshes that provide habitat for large portion and forested rocky coastline and circles around the bay exiting along the concentrations of benthic invertebrates and along the outer portion. Narrow sea northwest coast. Complex array of eddy migrating shorebirds. Contains an isolated entry between the Minas Channel formations due to narrow entry. population of the mud-piddock clam (Barnea and Central Minas Basin. High levels truncata; COSEWIC – threatened). Mudflats of suspended sediment. Agricultural are an important staging area for more than a land drainage predominantly from the million shorebirds in late July and early Shubenacadie and Cornallis rivers. August.1 Particularly important for semipalmated sandpiper. Contains a designated IBA.1

Fundy Main Deep trough bordered by a Major diurnal tidal influence. Surface Vast pelagic habitat. Includes the protected predominantly forested, rocky circulation enters along the southeast coast Musquash Estuary’s salt marsh waterfowl coastline. Receives Saint John River and circles around the bay exiting along the habitat. Includes the horse mussel (Modiolus drainage and contains Saint John northwest coast. Smaller gyres also circulate sp.) reefs north of Digby, NS, which have high Harbour (SAMAM). the length of the bay in a similar manner. biodiversity and are important sites for benthic-pelagic energy flows.

Quoddy Region Shallow inlet bordered by forested Major diurnal tidal influence. Complex Contains various unique habitat features, high lowland coastline along the northwest circulation patterns due to many islands and species diversity, and aggregations of and forested rocky coastline along small embayments. Area of upwelling that seabirds and marine mammals. An area of the eastern bay and west helps to support high productivity. high marine productivity for the Bay of Fundy. islands/Wolves. Major aquaculture This region contains three IBAs1. Several activity. islands here are important staging, feeding and wintering areas for various bird species.1

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Table 2-2 Characteristics of Major Ecological Areas – Bay of Fundy

Marine Ecological Areas Physiographic Characteristics Oceanographic Characteristics Biological Characteristics

Grand Manan Island and Generally, rocky forested coastline Major diurnal tidal influence. Complex Contains aggregations of marine mammals, Archipelago along the islands. Significant circulation patterns due to the islands and seabirds (nesting, migrating and aquaculture activity. tidal currents. Areas of upwelling that help to overwintering) due to abundant marine support high productivity. resources. Includes several SOMC, including critical habitat for the North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis; SARA - endangered). The Grand Manan archipelago is very important bird habitat during all seasons, and is designated as an IBA.1

Brier Island/Digby Neck Predominantly forested, rocky Strong inward tidal currents bring cold water Contains a high concentration and species coastline. and nutrients to surface via upwelling. diversity of copepods, which support marine Shallow waters within St. Mary’s Bay. birds. Brier Island is an important feeding area for shearwaters during migration, as well as many other species year-round. This region is designated as an IBA.1

Southeastern Nova Predominantly forested, rocky Predominantly under the influence of the Important destination for migratory birds. This Scotia coastline; many small islands. Labrador Current wrapping around the coast is an important stopover area for migrating from the northeast. Tidal influence reduced phalaropes in fall. relative to other areas of the Bay of Fundy.

Maine Coast Predominantly forested, lowland Major diurnal tidal influence. Abundant Similar habitats to Fundy Main and Quoddy coastline. coastal islands and small embayments Region, although not as productive as contribute to complex circulation patterns. Quoddy Region. Coastal current influenced by the gyre surrounding the Jordan Basin.

Gulf of Maine Open ocean habitat with a few rocky, Influenced by the Labrador Current wrapping Pelagic marine habitat exposed small islands. around the coast from the northeast and the gyres associated with the Jordan Basin, Georges Basin and Georges Bank.

SOURCES: Buzeta et al. 2003, Buzeta 2014 1 IBA Canada 2015

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2.5.2.1 Shoreline and Near-Shore Habitats

The Maine–New Brunswick side of the SAMAM is characterized by a rocky coastline and many cliffs and scattered islands, particularly in the western portion of the Maine coastline, including Mount Desert Island, much of which is protected as Acadia National Park. The rocky and incised Maine shoreline enters the Quoddy Region near Lubec. The Quoddy Region includes Passamaquoddy Bay and many of the Fundy Isles, with similar coastal characteristics of rocky inlets and islands extending as far as Point Lepreau. Between Point Lepreau and Saint John, there are fewer islands, but many inlets, with predominantly rocky shorelines. One of these, Musquash Harbour, contains a large and important area of salt marsh. East of Saint John, Cape Spencer marks the beginning of the Inner Bay of Fundy, and a long and generally straight shoreline that extends all the way to Cape Enrage. This shoreline has many cliffs or steep sections, and includes a largely undeveloped area that extends from St. Martins to Alma, including Fundy National Park. Cape Enrage marks the entrance to the inner part of Chignecto Bay, which further separates into Shepody Bay and the Cumberland Basin. Here, the shorelines tend to be lower lying, and there are both extensive mudflats and increasing concentrations of suspended sediments in the water.

The Nova Scotia shoreline begins in the Cumberland Basin and extends southwest to Cape Chignecto, an exposed point and headland at the head of the Fundy Main part of the bay. From Cape Chignecto, the predominantly steep and rocky coastline runs east into the Minas Basin, where mudflats again become widespread and suspended sediment concentrations in the water increase. Leaving the Minas Basin via Cape Split, the shoreline then extends southwest along the North Mountain of the Annapolis Valley, which has rocky and steeply rising shorelines. A small gap at Digby allows entry to the sheltered Annapolis Basin. Proceeding farther southwest from Digby, the Digby Neck terminates with Long Island and Brier Island, which provide shelter to St. Mary’s Bay. From the head of St. Mary’s Bay around to Yarmouth, shorelines are rocky but tend to be less steeply rising than along the Digby Neck and North Mountain. South and east of Yarmouth the shoreline remains generally low but becomes highly incised, with many small, low islands. The shoreline of the SAMAM terminates at Cape Sable Island, a low-lying and highly exposed cape at the southern tip of Nova Scotia.

To the southwest of the Quoddy Region lie Grand Manan Island, an archipelago of lesser islands and the Wolves, a group of islands between Grand Manan and Blacks Harbour. Although many of the islands surrounding Grand Manan are low lying, Grand Manan generally tilts from west to east, so that the western side of Grand Manan is characterized by steep cliffs, whereas the eastern side of the island is more protected and lower lying. Several rocks and ledges occur south and west of Grand Manan, the most notable of which is Machias Seal Island. Although low lying and the subject of an unresolved boundary dispute between Canada and the United States, Machias Seal Island is the site of a Canadian lighthouse, and is an important sanctuary and nesting site for marine birds.

The intertidal zone is defined as the area between the highest high-water mark and mean lower low-water lines for spring tides (Williams 1993). Intertidal habitat is strongly influenced by a range of physical and biological factors, including substrate type, slope, wave exposure, tidal range, salinity, light, temperature and species assemblages (Levings et al. 1983; Williams 1993; Howes et al. 1997; Burd et al. 2008).

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The total intertidal area of the Bay of Fundy is approximately 1,437 km2 (Wildish and Fader 1998). The intertidal zone includes a variety of habitats: estuaries, salt marshes, mudflats, sand bars, tide pools, brackish ponds, ledges, artificial habitats, and rocky, muddy or sandy beaches (Buzeta et al. 2003). Intertidal habitats are structurally complex. Three factors—substrate type, exposure and elevation—play important roles in determining the biological characteristics of the intertidal habitat. Areas of high exposure experience stress due to the physical motion of water and wave action. The upper intertidal zone experiences longer periods of exposure to air and desiccation than does the lower intertidal zone. The biological attributes of the intertidal zone can also be important contributors to the overall habitat. As an example, the presence of seaweeds such as Fucus spp. can help other species thrive by providing a source of food, shade, concealment from predators, and reduced exposure to desiccation.

Rocky intertidal habitats are prominent throughout much of the shoreline of the SAMAM, and are characterized by a strong vertical zonation from the highest tide level down to the subtidal zone (Thomas 1983). Upper portions of the intertidal rocky habitat, which are usually exposed, are typically dominated by lichens such as Verrucaria maura, Verrucaria ceuthocarpa, Xanthoria parietina, Caloplaca marina, Parmelia saxatilis and Parmelia sulcate (Thomas 1994). The high water line is often marked by a narrow band of Fucus spiralis (Thomas 1994). The mid to lower rocky intertidal zone is recognized for its mats of Ascophyllum nodosum, and to a lesser extent Fucus vesiculosus, both brown algae (Phaeophyceae) collectively referred to as rockweed (Thomas 1994). Only the most extreme, unsheltered rocky environments are devoid of fucoid algae. The intertidal zone is also home to many sessile and semi-motile invertebrates, such as limpets (e.g., Acmaea testudinalis), barnacles (Semibalanus balanoides, Balanus crenatus), periwinkles (e.g., Littorina saxatilis) and blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), as well as echinoderms, particularly the green sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) (Thomas 1994). Fucoids (rockweeds) in this zone are almost always host to hydrozoans and bryozoans (e.g., Sertularia pumila, Flustrellidra hispida) (Thomas 1983). The lowest portion of intertidal rocky habitat, which is submerged for all but a few hours or less per day, is typically dominated by one or more species of green (Chlorophyta) or red algae (Rhodophyta), including Acrosiphonia arcta, Mastocarpus stellatus, Chondrus crispus and Palmaria palmata.

Tide pools are depressions in rocky intertidal habitat that contain seawater (Thomas 1983). Tide pools are recognized as biologically diverse microhabitats with distinct physiochemical properties that vary depending on their position on the shore. Tide pools may be permanent or ephemeral, and can be saline, brackish or predominantly freshwater. Biological diversity of tide pools is usually higher in those within the lower intertidal zone. Typical tide pools on rocky shores of the Bay of Fundy support assemblages of green algae, rockweed, lichens (e.g., Verrucaria sp.), ostracods, copepods, turbellarians, polychaetes, various molluscs and crustaceans, echinoderms (e.g., sea stars) and small vertebrate fishes (e.g., rock gunnel [Pholis gunnellus]).

Beach habitats in the SAMAM are highly variable, depending on factors such as wave exposure, slope, and underlying geology (Steele 1983). Sheltered beaches are often composed of poorly sorted sediments, whereas particles on beaches exposed to constant wave action are typically rounded and very well sorted. Sedimentary beach habitat generally contains only small tufts of the macroalgae that dominate rocky shores (e.g., Fucus spp.) due to the impermanence of sand and gravel substrates (Steele 1983). Instead, diatoms and finer algae, like Pylaiella littoralis and Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus,

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dominate algal assemblages. Larger rocks or boulders on beaches may host epifauna like barnacles and mussels, and may support moist or shaded habitat underneath, where a variety of organisms, including hydroids, sponges, anemones, flatworms (Procerodes sp.), amphipods (Gammarus sp.) and isopods (Jaera sp.), as well as rock gunnel, rock crab (Cancer irroratus), green crab (Carcinus maenas), periwinkles and dogwhelk (Thais lapillus) may be found (Steele 1983). Fine-textured beaches are mostly devoid of vegetation, and are populated mainly by burrowing organisms like sand shrimp (Crangon septemspinosus) and clams (e.g., Mya arenaria), as well as sand dollars, snails (e.g., Buccinum undatum, Lunatia sp.) and urchins (Steele 1983).

Mudflats occur frequently along the New Brunswick side of the Bay of Fundy, around the periphery of Chignecto Bay and Minas Basin, and in the upper Annapolis Basin (Buzeta et al. 2003). In contrast, the shorelines of southwestern New Brunswick and Maine are predominantly rocky, and the overall tidal range is smaller, so that areas of mudflat tend to be smaller and located within coves and bays. The coastline of the Digby Neck and Annapolis areas is predominantly rocky with bedrock exposures, with small coves and beaches (ranging from cobble to sand) becoming more common as wave exposure decreases to the northeast. Mudflats provide habitat for soft-shell clams (Mya arenaria) and “baitworms” (e.g., Glycera dibranchiata), which are harvested recreationally and commercially throughout the bay (DFO 1997; Shepherd and Boates 1999).

Salt marsh occurs in patches throughout the Bay of Fundy. The most extensive salt marshes are in the upper reaches of Chignecto Bay (around Moncton, Sackville and Amherst), the Minas Basin (around Truro, Windsor and Wolfville), and to a lesser extent in the Annapolis Basin (Thomas 1983; Buzeta et al. 2003; Buzeta 2014). Smaller areas of salt marsh also occur from St. Martins to the St. Croix River. The Saint’s Rest Marsh near Saint John, and the Musquash Estuary, west of Saint John, are notable examples of salt marsh in the outer Bay of Fundy. Salt marshes represent a highly productive transition zone between mudflats and the terrestrial environment, and are characterized by dense vegetative community dominated by Spartina spp. grasses, as well as Pucinellia, Distichlis, Juncus and Scirpus, and minor amounts of common intertidal algae (Thomas 1983). Common salt marsh fauna include snails (Hydrobia and Melampus), ribbed mussel (Modiolus demissus), worms (particularly Nereis), and small fishes like sticklebacks (Gasterosteus) and killifish (Fundulus).

Estuaries may also support high levels of biological productivity, and generally contain a variety of different types of coastal habitat, such as rocky shore, beach, salt marsh and mudflat. Seagrass beds are a common feature of sheltered estuarine habitat. Eelgrass (Zostera marina) is the predominant seagrass species in the Bay of Fundy; lesser proportions of widgeon grass (Ruppia maritime) occur in upper, less saline portions of estuaries (Kenchington 2014). The Saint John River is the largest river that drains into the Bay of Fundy, contributing an estimated 70% of all freshwater input. However, it does not support the most notable estuary. The largest areas of estuarine habitat are in the upper portions of Chignecto Bay and the Minas Basin, where multiple rivers contribute to what could be considered large estuarine systems. Minor estuaries also exist at the mouths many smaller rivers throughout the Bay of Fundy (Metcalfe et al. 1976; Buzeta 2014). The Musquash estuary is a relatively undisturbed marine protected area (MPA), surrounded by a large salt marsh (Singh and Buzeta 2007). The St. Croix River and the Annapolis River also support notable estuaries.

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Eelgrass (Zostera marina) is a common, productive aquatic plant that can form extensive intertidal and subtidal beds in estuaries and coastal areas of Atlantic Canada (DFO 2009). It provides habitat structure in near-shore marine environments by providing cover from predation for various invertebrate and fish species, reducing local current regimes and supporting secondary production by adding to local habitat complexity and surface area. Eelgrass beds may also enhance the marine environment by stabilizing sediment, buffering shorelines and filtering water. The distribution of eelgrass in the SAMAM is not well understood (Hanson, pers. comm.). Eelgrass is generally not present in areas of high exposure, strong currents, high turbidity or rocky substrates. As a result, the distribution of eelgrass in the Bay of Fundy is believed to be restricted largely to the outer bay, particularly sheltered estuarine environments such as the Musquash Estuary (Hanson 2004).

2.5.2.2 Shallow Subtidal Habitat

Subtidal habitat is strongly influenced by physical characteristics of the seabed, including topography, roughness, sediment type and distribution, grain size and shape, patchiness, rock composition and sediment thickness (Levings et al. 1983; Fader et al. 1998; Todd and Kostylev 2010). Oceanographic factors such as oxygen saturation, salinity or water stratification, and light penetration also influence subtidal habitat in the Bay of Fundy. Shallow subtidal habitat is defined here as near-bottom habitat where light can penetrate such that photosynthetic activity can occur and marine plants can thrive. Note that this definition is limited by the occurrence of very high levels of suspended sediments in some parts of the Bay of Fundy, which can limit the growth of marine plants even in shallow water. Shallow subtidal sediments also tend to be close to shore with a high level of influence from tidal currents and wave action.

Shallow subtidal habitat tends to support greater biodiversity and productivity than deeper subtidal habitats in the SAMAM due mainly to light penetration. Rocky portions of the transition zone between intertidal and shallow subtidal habitat contain variable amounts of rockweed, red algae (e.g., Palmaria palmata, Mastocarpus stellatus) and kelp (e.g., Laminaria sp., Alaria esculenta) interspersed with patches of bare rock (urchin barrens) created by green sea urchin grazing. The fauna of this transition zone includes sea stars (Asterias vulgaris and A. forbesii), blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and various snails (e.g., Buccinum undatum, Thais lapillus, Littorina sp.) (Thomas 1983).

Shallow rocky subtidal habitats are typically encrusted with coralline algae of the genus Lithothamnion, with brachiopods such as Terebratulina septentrionalis in crevices and the undersides of rocks (Noble et al. 1976; Thomas 1983). This type of habitat is common to the SAMAM but is characteristic of much of the Quoddy Region, Grand Manan and shores of Brier Island (Buzeta et al. 2003). Other abundant fauna of the so-called Terebratulina community include (in order of abundance) chitons (Polyplacophora), hydroids and anemones (Coelenterata), bryozoans, gastropods (limpets), tunicates, annelids, decapods and bivalves (lobsters, shrimps, mussels, crabs, and scallops), echinoids (such as urchins and sand dollars), barnacles (Cirripedia), sponges (Porifera), other gastropods and other echinoderms (Thomas 1983). Macroalgae such as Laminaria and Palmaria are common in the shallowest areas but are generally absent at depths greater than 10 m. Blue mussels are also typically concentrated in shallow, often subtidal water (Thomas 1983).

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Sedimentary subtidal habitats may contain species assemblages that are similar to those of rocky/bedrock habitats, although organisms tend to cluster on and around large cobble and boulders (Steele 1983; Wildish 1983). Sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma) and green sea urchins are widespread on sandy shallow subtidal areas (Steele 1983). Seagrass beds may extend from the lower intertidal zone into shallow subtidal areas where the clarity of the water allows, and where soft substrates exist. Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) occur infrequently in the SAMAM, in shallow subtidal portions of sandy and rocky substrates (Kenchington 2014). Though horse mussel (Modiolus modiolus) reefs typically occur in deeper offshore environments, substantial reefs have been found at the mouth of the Annapolis Basin, near Digby (Buzeta 2014; Wildish and Fader 1998; Wildish et al. 2009).

Several algae species of the intertidal and subtidal zones are harvested recreationally and commercially in the SAMAM. Dulse (Palmaria palmata) is harvested as a food crop, especially within the Grand Manan archipelago and Digby Neck (Chopin and Ugarte 2006). Chondrus crispus (Irish moss) and Mastocarpus stellatus are harvested commercially for the extraction of carrageenan (a sulphated polysaccharide), which is used in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries (Chopin and Ugarte 2006). Ascophyllum nodosum, the dominant rockweed species in much of the rocky intertidal areas, is harvested commercially throughout the SAMAM for use in natural fertilizers and other products (Chopin and Ugarte 2006). Mixed species of kelp (e.g., Laminaria saccharina) are also harvested commercially within the bay (Chopin and Ugarte 2006; Vandermeulen 2013).

2.5.2.3 Deep Subtidal Habitat

Deep subtidal habitat is characterized here as near-bottom habitat where less light can penetrate the water, which limits photosynthetic activity. The depth at which deep subtidal habitat will occur depends largely on water turbidity and the time of year. Deep subtidal habitat is generally farther offshore and less influenced by tidal currents and wave action than shallower subtidal areas. Typically, deep subtidal habitat has a greater proportion of finer sediments such as sand and silt, although hard substrates are also common.

The lower light levels of deep subtidal habitat limit the abundance of marine plants and algae. Hard surfaces are often colonized by brachiopods such as Terebratulina septentrionalis (Noble et al. 1976; Thomas 1983), bryozoans and, where water conditions are not turbid, sponges. Soft substrates in deep subtidal habitat generally contain species assemblages similar to those in shallower areas (i.e., polychaetes, nematodes, crustaceans, molluscs and benthic fish).

2.5.2.4 Open Water Habitat

Open water habitat refers to pelagic ocean habitat that is not close to the shore or bottom substrate. It is influenced by many factors, including depth, currents, light penetration and nutrient availability, which subsequently affect a host of other environmental factors. From a physical oceanographic perspective, the open water habitat of the SAMAM can be divided into three broad zones: the Gulf of Maine, the Outer Bay of Fundy and the Inner Bay of Fundy. The Outer Bay and the Inner Bay transition within the Fundy Main Ecological Area. Specifically, an oceanographic transition occurs between the waters of the Inner and Outer Bay of Fundy at a boundary that extends roughly between Point Lepreau in New Brunswick

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and Digby in Nova Scotia. The Outer Bay, like the Gulf of Maine, is more oceanic with colder summer and warmer winter temperatures, higher salinity and lower current velocities than the Inner Bay. The Inner Bay experiences more extreme seasonal fluctuations in water temperature, lower salinity, higher current velocities and higher levels of suspended sediments than the Outer Bay. These characteristics are particularly pronounced in Chignecto Bay and the Minas Basin.

The gradient of oceanographic conditions within the Bay of Fundy gives rise to differences in the open water communities found in different areas. Many fish species that inhabit open water, such as tunas, sharks, herring, mackerel and various groundfish species are more abundant in the Outer Bay than in the Inner Bay.

The substantial upwelling around Grand Manan Island and Archipelago, and similarly around Brier Island at the end of the Digby Neck, causes high levels of primary productivity across the mouth of the Bay of Fundy. This supports high concentrations of zooplankton (e.g., krill and copepods) that attract an abundance of fish, marine birds and marine mammals to the open waters of the Outer Bay of Fundy (Buzeta et al. 2003). In the Quoddy region off the southwestern coast of New Brunswick, the dominant oceanographic feature is the large semi-diurnal tide, which generates strong currents (Smith et al. 1984). Topographic resistance to these tidal flows results in small-scale local upwelling, vigorous vertical mixing, and horizontal convergences that create local concentrations of zooplankton. These concentrations then attract predators at several trophic levels ranging from squid and fish to marine birds, seals, porpoises and whales (Smith et al. 1984).

2.6 Designated Areas and Ecological Reserves

Designated areas and ecological reserves are defined here as any government controlled coastal lands, islands and ocean habitat within the SAMAM that seek to preserve wildlife and wildlife habitat for the purposes of conservation. This includes national parks, provincial and state parks, MPAs and provincially, state or federally designated critical habitats, wildlife reserves and refuges and bird sanctuaries (Figure 2-3).

This section does not describe other ecologically significant areas recognized by nongovernmental organizations, such as properties under conservation easements held by nature trusts, and areas identified by Important Bird Areas Canada. Nonetheless, several of these areas exist throughout the SAMAM (e.g., Brier Island, NS; Quaco Bay, NB), and may or may not be protected by legislation.

2.6.1 Provincially Designated Areas (Canada)

For the purposes of this document, provincially designated areas include existing provincial parks, New Brunswick Protected Natural Areas (PNA), and Nova Scotia wilderness areas and nature reserves.

2.6.1.1 Provincial Parks (New Brunswick)

There are three provincial parks within the New Brunswick portion of the SAMAM: The Anchorage, Herring Cove, and New River Beach (Tourism New Brunswick 2015). The Anchorage and Herring Cove provincial parks contain coastal habitats characteristic of islands in the Quoddy Region and Grand

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Manan. The Anchorage Provincial Park is along the southeast shore of Grand Manan Island and contains several kilometres of coastal habitat, including the Grand Manan Migratory Bird Sanctuary (Environment Canada 2014). Herring Cove Provincial Park is on the east side of Campobello Island and contains a variety of coastal habitats, including Lake Glensevern, a barrier beach pond. New River Beach Provincial Park is used largely for recreational purposes, and has a large sandy beach that is popular for swimming. It is situated along the south shore of New Brunswick, within the Fundy Main ecological area.

2.6.1.2 Provincial Parks (Nova Scotia)

The largest provincial parks within the Nova Scotia portion of the SAMAM are Cape Chignecto (4,233 ha) and Blomidon (2,123 ha) (Province of Nova Scotia 2013). There are also approximately six smaller (0.5 to 100 ha) provincial parks within the SAMAM, which consist mainly of lookout areas, picnic areas and waterfront access points.

Cape Chignecto Provincial Park encompasses much of the tip of Cape Chignecto, between Chignecto Bay and the Minas Channel. The park is a popular backcountry camping and hiking destination and is known for its tall sea cliffs bordered by sandy/rocky beaches. Most of the park is heavily forested and includes more than 15 km of marine shoreline. Blomidon Provincial Park is situated at the east end of the Minas Channel, along Cape Blomidon. Like Cape Chignecto, Blomidon is known for its towering sea cliffs and extensive wilderness areas.

The smaller provincial parks along the Nova Scotia shoreline of the SAMAM include Annapolis Basin Lookoff Provincial Park, Central Grove Provincial Park, Smuggler’s Cove Provincial Park, Cottage Cove Provincial Park, Mavilette Beach Provincial Park and Port Maitland Beach Provincial Park. There are also several areas along the Nova Scotia portion of the SAMAM, not described here, that are under consideration for provincial park designation.

2.6.1.3 Protected Natural Areas (New Brunswick)

Approximately 14 nature reserves along the New Brunswick side of the Bay of Fundy are protected under the Protected Natural Areas Act (New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources [NBDNR] 2015a). The PNAs include several small (approximately 1 ha) islands associated with the Quoddy Region and Grand Manan Archipelago (e.g., High Duck Island), coastal lands associated with important estuaries (e.g., Musquash) and other scattered islands and coastal properties.

2.6.1.4 Protected Wilderness Areas (Nova Scotia)

Within the Nova Scotia portion of the SAMAM, there currently are two areas protected under the Wilderness Areas Protection Act: Raven Head Wilderness Area, and the Tiddville Nature Reserve. Raven Head Wilderness Area encompasses approximately 44 km of shoreline along Chignecto Bay, and includes expansive flats, salt marshes, coastal cliffs and forests (Province of Nova Scotia 2015). Tiddville Nature Reserve is a small (30 ha) coastal property on Digby Neck, which contains a wetland with several rare plant species. There are also several proposed wilderness areas and nature reserves under consideration for protection.

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2.6.2 Federally Designated Areas (Canada)

2.6.2.1 Musquash Estuary

Marine Protected Areas in Canada are established by Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) under the Oceans Act. One such area, Musquash Estuary, has been designated in the Bay of Fundy. Musquash Estuary is more than 742 ha and about 20 km southwest of Saint John. The estuary supports high biological productivity with a variety of coastal habitats and a relatively undisturbed estuary and salt marsh complex (DFO 2008).

2.6.2.2 Grand Manan Basin North Atlantic Right Whale Critical Habitat

The Grand Manan Basin North Atlantic Right Whale Critical Habitat is located in the outer Bay of Fundy, between Grand Manan Island and Digby Neck. The Grand Manan Basin was designated as North Atlantic right whale critical habitat, and protected under Canada’s Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to its importance to North Atlantic right whale aggregations. The upwelling and strong currents generated by the extreme tides enhance the productivity within this part of the Bay of Fundy, and concentrate large masses of copepods, preferred prey of the whales (Brown et al. 2009). The Grand Manan Basin is also one of two nursery grounds for the North Atlantic right whale; nursing mother-calf pairs are present during the summer (Elvin and Taggart 2008).

2.6.2.3 Migratory Bird Sanctuaries

Within the SAMAM there are two migratory bird sanctuaries, Grand Manan and Machias Seal Island, which are protected under the Migratory Birds Convention Act (Environment Canada 2014). The Grand Manan Bird Sanctuary includes a variety of sand/gravel flats and rocky beaches, and two large freshwater barrier beach ponds that serve as an overwintering and migratory area for a variety of waterfowl. In contrast to Grand Manan, Machias Seal Island is a remote, treeless island with limited public access. The island is host to thousands of breeding seabirds, including Atlantic puffin (Fratercula arctica), razorbill (Alca torda), terns (Sternidae) and several other bird species. Machias Seal Island has been an important long-term focal point for seabird research.

2.6.2.4 Fundy National Park

Fundy National Park is a major protected area that occupies the New Brunswick side of the inner Bay of Fundy and outer Chignecto Bay. The shoreline in this area consists mainly of high cliffs skirted by rocky and sandy beaches, with several small rivers, some of which form estuaries (e.g., Wolf River).

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2.6.3 State Designated Areas (United States)

2.6.3.1 Maine State Parks/Public Reserved Lands

There are six state parks/public reserved lands with coastline off the North Coast Maine ecological area of the SAMAM: Roque Bluffs State Park, Machias State Park, Cutler Coast Public Reserved Land, Quoddy Head State Park, Shackford Head State Park and Cobscook Bay State Park. The coastlines of these areas include marine wildlife and fish species that are typical of the SAMAM.

2.6.4 Federally Designated Areas (United States)

2.6.4.1 Northeast North Atlantic Right Whale Critical Habitat

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration recently proposed an expansion of the designated critical habitat for the North Atlantic right whale to include the coastal waters off the North Coast Maine ecological area of the SAMAM. The North Atlantic right whale is designated as Endangered under the United States Endangered Species Act.

2.6.4.2 Maine Coastal Islands National Wildlife Reserve Complex

The Maine Coastal Islands National Wildlife Reserve Complex includes five refuges that span the coast of Maine and support diverse habitats, including coastal islands, forested headlands, estuaries and freshwater wetlands. Three of these—Cross Island, Petit Manan and Seal Island—are within the North Coast Maine ecological area of the SAMAM. The reserve complex is intended to restore and manage colonies of nesting seabirds. Refuge islands provide habitat for common tern, Arctic tern and roseate tern (an endangered species), Atlantic puffin, razorbill, black guillemot, Leach's storm-petrel, herring gull, greater black-backed gull and laughing gull, double-crested cormorant and great cormorant, and common eider.

2.6.4.3 Acadia National Park

Acadia National Park is an American national park in the North Coast Maine ecological area of the SAMAM. The park includes much of the coastline of Mount Desert Island archipelago and a portion of the Schoodic Peninsula.

2.7 Marine Fish Community

The SAMAM is characterized by a wide variety of fish habitat types (Buzeta et al. 2003). More than 120 fish species occur in the region (Pohle et al. 2004), including both resident species, which complete their entire life cycle in the Bay of Fundy, and species that enter the Bay of Fundy during spawning or feeding migrations. Migrating fish species are mainly from the Scotian Shelf and the Gulf of Maine, but include migrants from as far away as Chesapeake Bay (e.g., striped bass [Morone saxatilis]), the Sargasso Sea (American eel [Anguilla rostrata]) and the coast of Labrador (Atlantic salmon [Salmo salar]). Additionally, the Bay of Fundy includes numerous diadromous and estuarine species, such as

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American shad (Alosa sapidissima), alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), blueblack herring (Alosa aestivalis), Atlantic tomcod (Microgadus tomcod), shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) and Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus).

The SAMAM also supports more than 1,430 invertebrate species, including sponges, cnidarians, comb jellies, flat worms, nematodes, molluscs, marine worms, arthropods, bryozoans and echinoderms (Pohle et al. 2004). Lobster and scallop are important commercial species; clams, sea urchins, mussels and other species are also harvested.

2.7.1 Commercial, Recreational and Aboriginal Fisheries

Commercial, recreational and Aboriginal fisheries are protected under federal legislation for their ecological and socio-economic value. They are defined under the Fisheries Act as follows:

• Commercial: fish species harvested under a licence for the purpose of sale, trade or barter. • Recreational: fish species targeted by anglers for personal use or sport, as well coarse and forage fish species that support this fishery. Recreational marine fishing is a prominent inshore activity within the SAMAM. A wide variety of species are targeted, including striped bass, winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus), mackerel (Scomber scombrus), Atlantic herring, sea scallop and soft-shell clam. • Aboriginal: fish species caught by an Aboriginal organization or any of its members for food, social or ceremonial purposes, or any purpose set out in a land claims agreement. In the absence of supporting information, all fish species in this assessment are treated as also relevant to Aboriginal fisheries.

2.7.2 Species of Management Concern

There are 23 marine fish species of management concern (SOMC) within the SAMAM (Table 2-3). Three of these species—Atlantic salmon (Inner Bay of Fundy population), great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) and Atlantic whitefish (Coregonus huntsmani)—are listed as Endangered on Schedule 1 of the SARA. The Atlantic wolffish (Anarhichas lupus) and shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) are listed under the SARA Schedule 1 as Special Concern. The Atlantic whitefish is also listed as Endangered under the Nova Scotia Endangered Species Act (NS ESA). None of the species are protected under the NB SARA Schedule A. Numerous species have been designated by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) in a manner to suggest they are of management concern; however, they do not have any legal protection under federal or provincial law.

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Table 2-3 Fish Species of Management Concern – Canadian Portion of the SAMAM

Provincial Designation Common Name Scientific Name SARA Status COSEWIC Designation (NB SARA; NS ESA)

Acadian redfish - Atlantic population Sebastes fasciatus No status (under consideration) Threatened (2010) Threatened (NB)

American eel Anguilla rostrata No status Threatened (2012) Threatened (NB)

American plaice - Maritime population Hippoglossoides No status Threatened (2009) Threatened (NB) platessoides

Atlantic bluefin tuna Thunnus thynnus No status Endangered (2011) Endangered (NB)

Atlantic salmon - Inner Bay of Fundy Salmo salar Endangered, Schedule 1, Endangered (2010) Endangered (NB) Critical Habitat Identified

Atlantic salmon - Outer Bay of Fundy Salmo salar No status (under consideration) Endangered (2010) Endangered (NB)

Atlantic salmon – Southern Upland Salmo salar No status (under consideration) Endangered (2010) No status

Atlantic sturgeon - Maritime population Acipenser oxyrinchus No status Threatened (2011) Threatened (NB)

Atlantic whitefish Coregonus huntsmani Endangered, Schedule 1 Endangered (2010) Endangered (NS)

Atlantic wolffish Anarhichas lupus Special Concern, Schedule 1 Special Concern (2012) Special Concern (NB)

Basking shark Cetorhinus maximus No status Special Concern (2009) No status

Blue shark - Atlantic population Prionace glauca No status Special Concern (2006) Special Concern (NB)

Cusk Brosme brosme No status Endangered (2012) Endangered (NB)

Porbeagle Lamna nasus No status Endangered (2004) Endangered (NB)

Striped bass (Bay of Fundy Population) Morone saxatilis No status (under consideration) Endangered (2012) Endangered (NB)

Shortfin mako - Atlantic population Isurus oxyrinchus No status Threatened (2006) Threatened (NB)

Shortnose sturgeon Acipenser brevirostrum Special Concern, Schedule 1 Special Concern (2005) Special Concern (NB) (reassessment ongoing – expected release April 2015)

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Table 2-3 Fish Species of Management Concern – Canadian Portion of the SAMAM

Provincial Designation Common Name Scientific Name SARA Status COSEWIC Designation (NB SARA; NS ESA)

Spiny dogfish - Atlantic population Squalus acanthias No status Special Concern (2010) Special Concern (NB)

Spotted Wolffish Anarhichas minor Threatened, Schedule 1 Threatened (2012) No status

Thorny skate Amblyraja radiata No status Special Concern (2012) Special Concern (NB)

White hake Urophycis tenuis No status Threatened (2013) No status

Great white shark (Atlantic population) Carcharodon carcharias Endangered, Schedule 1 Endangered (2006) Endangered (NB)

Atlantic Mud-piddock Barnea truncata No status Threatened (2009) No status

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2.7.3 Marine Fish and Fish Habitat

Marine fish and fish habitat represent a combination of ecological values, as well as commercial, recreational and traditional harvest values. Major life history traits of these fish species are presented in Table 2-4.

2.8 Marine Birds and Bird Habitat

Marine birds have social, cultural and aesthetic value, and contribute to local and global biodiversity. Often referred to as seabirds, marine birds are generally defined as birds that rely on the marine and marine coastal environment to complete their life cycle (e.g., marine coastal birds, pelagic birds and shorebirds). This section provides general information on marine birds relevant to the EHHRA. Additional information on marine birds is provided in Volume 22, Technical Data Report for Marine Wildlife and Wildlife Habitat.

The Bay of Fundy is an essential migration route situated within the Atlantic Flyway. Large numbers of coastal shorebirds and sea ducks migrate through, often in transit between summering and breeding grounds in the north, and wintering grounds in the southern United States, Caribbean, and Central and South America. An estimated 360 species of birds migrate through the Bay of Fundy, some numbering in the tens of thousands of breeding, migrant or wintering birds. The area supports populations of birds that may summer and breed in the Bay of Fundy, as well as year-round residents. Most of the marine birds within the SAMAM fall into one of the following guilds:

• shearwaters and storm-petrels • geese, dabbling and diving ducks • loons, grebes and cormorants • alcids • gulls and terns • shorebirds

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Table 2-4 Major Life History Traits of Representative Marine Fish Species

Life Stages Timing and Characteristics of Life Stages Present in Bay Species of Fundy Ecological Role Eggs Larvae Juveniles Adults

American eel Larvae Predator in estuaries Nov-Jan; pelagic; Present throughout “Elvers”; year-round Spend several years (Anguilla rostrata) Adults and freshwater; prey float to surface after the Bay of Fundy by in freshwater, in freshwater or for larger organisms fertilization; (only March; pelagic, estuaries, and coastal brackish areas; present in Sargasso seeking freshwater marine areas, though benthic, nocturnal Sea) streams and rivers to most migrate omnivore, burrows in ascend upstream; mainly soft substrates during benthic the day; sexually mature adults migrate in fall to Sargasso Sea

American lobster All Benthic omnivore; Carried upon the Hatch in spring; Benthic; at various Benthic habitats (Homarus prey for larger fish female; 9-12 month planktonic for depths, from lower throughout the Bay of americanus) and mammals; larvae incubation period 2-4 weeks during intertidal areas to Fundy; permanent are important summer; settle to deep offshore resident; same component of bottom in mid-late shelves; prefer rocky substrate preferences zooplankton summer substrate but also as juveniles community inhabit sand, gravel, and mud bottoms

Atlantic herring All Pelagic, schooling Spawn in spring or fall Hatch in 5–30 days; Pelagic; schooling; Mature at about (Clupea harengus) planktivore; important (April-Nov); adhesive, planktonic, drifting on feed heavily on 3 years of age, and prey for larger fish, benthic eggs incubate ocean currents for zooplankton, can live for up to marine mammals, and on rock, sand, gravel, 3-11 months, migrating vertically to 15-18 years; pelagic, birds seaweed beds, and throughout the Bay of surface at night, schooling, feeding other substrates Fundy following diurnal primarily on plankton movements of their prey, while avoiding surface predators in daytime

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Table 2-4 Major Life History Traits of Representative Marine Fish Species

Life Stages Timing and Characteristics of Life Stages Present in Bay Species of Fundy Ecological Role Eggs Larvae Juveniles Adults

Atlantic salmon Pre-adults Diadromous predator; Oct.–April; in April-June; spend Several years; feed Smolt and older (Salmo salar) (smolt) food for larger headwater, 2-4 weeks in primarily on adults spend Adults predators and marine gravel-bottomed interstitial stream macro-invertebrates 1-4 years at sea, in mammals; transfer streams habitat and emerge in low-order streams both the Bay of Fundy marine-derived as juveniles (parr) in and rivers; newly and farther offshore nutrients into river May and June mature “smolt” areas; pelagic; spend systems migrate to sea in both considerable time in spring and fall coastal and estuarine areas acclimatizing before returning to natal streams to spawn

Atlantic silverside All Highly abundant March–late June; Hatch in 3–30 days; Lower estuaries and Generally same (Menidia menidia) forage (prey) species demersal; adhere to densities greatest in shoreline areas; over habitat preferences of estuaries and vegetation in salt upper estuaries sand and gravel as juveniles; intertidal zones marshes, tidal creeks, (salinity between substrates, pelagic in opportunistic, and other estuarine 1–15 ppt) over shallow waters schooling omnivores; habitats vegetated substrates overwinter in deeper areas and die in 1-2 years

Atlantic wolffish All Voracious benthic Sept.–March; Hatch in Jan.-March By late summer, Adults are cryptic, (Anarhichas lupus) predator of hard- demersal; masses and remain benthic juveniles spend most bottom-dwelling, shelled invertebrates laid in crevices on for approx. 4 weeks; of their time on sand opportunistic and small fishes sand and gravel then become pelagic and gravel substrates, predators; same shoals at depths of swimmers for at depths between 29 habitat preferences 29–150 m; guarded 1–2 months but and 250 m as juveniles; migrate by males remain relatively somewhat from close to bottom shallow breeding grounds to deep wintering areas

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Table 2-4 Major Life History Traits of Representative Marine Fish Species

Life Stages Timing and Characteristics of Life Stages Present in Bay Species of Fundy Ecological Role Eggs Larvae Juveniles Adults

Sand lance All Highly abundant, Dec.–May; Demersal; Mid-May to August; Semi-demersal by Feed in large schools (Ammodytes pelagic forage fish adhere to rock, gravel pelagic late summer; rest in on zooplankton americanus) (prey); mostly of and sandy substrates sand/mud during the throughout the day, at sandy shoreline and night; school with any depth; retreat to estuarine areas adults at various sandy or gravel depths during the day bottoms at night; short-lived and generally less than 30 cm total length

Sea scallop All Benthic filter feeder; Late July–Nov.; Planktonic; 1–2 years; benthic; 18–110 m deep; (Placopecten prey for various benthic, non- 1-2 months; drift on firm sedimentary benthic; often magellanicus) organisms; beds and adhesive; roughly 30- currents but also free- substrates aggregated in beds; discarded shells day incubation period swimming firm (compacted) create habitat smooth substrates of sand, gravel, shells, and cobble

Shortnose Adults Benthic, generalist Spring-summer; Lotic, freshwater, Lotic, freshwater Throughout the sturgeon feeder; largely incubate in gravel/boulder brackish lower (Acipenser estuarine species of gravel/boulder substrates of large reaches of large brevirostrum) large tidal rivers; substrates within lotic, river systems rivers; benthic occur locally in the freshwater habitat “bottom-feeders”; lower Saint John (Saint John River) large and long-lived, River generally not found in lower marine areas

White hake All Seasonal inshore Late summer; pelagic; Late summer; pelagic; Settle to bottom > 50 m deep; move (Urophycis tenuis) predator; prey for drift in upper 50 m for drift in upper 50 m for following further inshore to larger predators and 2–4 weeks 2–4 weeks metamorphosis; spawn in late marine mammals shallow areas; mud or summer; overwinter in fine sediment; deeper offshore areas 1+ years

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Table 2-4 Major Life History Traits of Representative Marine Fish Species

Life Stages Timing and Characteristics of Life Stages Present in Bay Species of Fundy Ecological Role Eggs Larvae Juveniles Adults

Winter flounder All Benthic; feed on April–June; attached 2–4 months Late summer through Soft substrates, (Pseudopleuronec invertebrates and to sand or mud (June-Oct); planktonic winter; inshore soft- 2-40 m deep (though tes americanus) small fishes; prey for substrates; 15– bottom habitats found deeper); larger fishes, seals, 30 days incubation subtidal parts of and birds mudflats

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2.8.1 Species of Management Concern

Marine bird species of management concern that occur within the SAMAM include harlequin duck, Barrow’s goldeneye, roseate tern, piping plover, red-necked phalarope and red knot (Table 2-5).

Harlequin duck is listed as Endangered provincially in both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and as special concern under SARA. The initial cause of decline for this species was primarily hunting, which has been banned since 1990 in most areas of eastern Canada (COSEWIC 2013a). Harlequin ducks occur on coastal, near-shore waters of the Bay of Fundy in winter, although they summer and breed in parts of Quebec, Labrador, northern New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Nunavut. The diet of this small sea duck includes amphipods, snails, small crabs, barnacles and fish roe (Robertson and Goudie 1999). Harlequin ducks tend to return to preferred wintering areas (Breault and Savard 1999), and pair bonds are formed or renewed in these areas (Smith et al. 2000). Though relatively uncommon within the SAMAM, wintering harlequin ducks are found around the Wolves archipelago, Point Lepreau, Kent Island and Whitehead Island in New Brunswick, and Digby Neck, Cape Sable Island and Bald Tusket Island in Nova Scotia. Individuals have been recorded in the vicinity of Black Point and Mispec near the marine terminal. This species also occurs uncommonly as a migrant.

Table 2-5 Marine Bird Species of Management Concern in the SAMAM

Conservation Status

New Species SARA1 COSEWIC2 Brunswick3 Nova Scotia4

Harlequin duck (eastern population) Schedule 1, Special Concern * Endangered Endangered (Histrionicus histrionicus) Special Concern

Barrow’s goldeneye (eastern population) Schedule 1, Special Concern Special No status (Bucephala islandica) Special Concern Concern

Piping plover Schedule 1, Endangered * Endangered Endangered (Charadrius melodus melodus) Endangered

Red-necked phalarope No status Special Concern No status No status (Phalaropus lobatus)

Red knot Schedule 1, Endangered Endangered Endangered (Calidris canutus rufa) Endangered

Roseate tern Schedule 1, Endangered Endangered Endangered (Sterna dougallii) Endangered

NOTE: * Species is protected under the NB SARA Prohibitions Regulation

SOURCE: 1 Environment Canada 2015 2 COSEWIC 2015b 3 NBDNR 2015c 4 Nova Scotia Natural Resources 2015

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Barrow’s goldeneye is listed as Special Concern under SARA and in New Brunswick. The species is very uncommon within the SAMAM. In eastern Canada, Barrow’s goldeneye breeds in small, high-elevation lakes in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence estuary in Quebec. A small number of Barrow’s goldeneye (approximately 400) winter in the Bay of Fundy or Gulf of Maine (Environment Canada 2013). Within the SAMAM, Barrow’s goldeneye has been observed in the Saint John area, in the Quoddy region, off Grand Manan and at Brier Island.

Roseate tern is listed as Endangered under SARA, as well provincially in both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. This species is limited by the number of predator-free islands available for nesting, and has been impacted by human disturbance and industrial development (COSEWIC 2009). Roseate terns feed almost exclusively on small marine fish, and rarely on crustaceans, insects or squid (Nisbet et al. 2014), and forage primarily by plunge-diving but also contact-dipping or surface dipping. They occur in the Bay of Fundy during spring and summer, and nest in colonies in association with common or Arctic terns. Nesting occurs on small, near-shore islands under the cover of thick vegetation, strewn rocks, driftwood or artificial structures (COSEWIC 2009). Clutch size is usually 1 or 2 eggs, incubated for approximately 23 days. Within the SAMAM, Roseate terns nest on Brothers Islands in Nova Scotia, and Petit Manan Island in Maine. The South American wintering habitats of this species are not well understood (Nisbet et al. 2014).

Piping plovers are listed as Endangered under SARA in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. This species is threatened by predation, human disturbance and habitat loss (COSEWIC 2013b). The eastern subspecies of piping plover occupies strictly coastal habitat. They breed between Newfoundland and North Carolina, and winter from the Carolinas to Florida, as well as on the coasts of Mexico, the Bahamas and West Indies (Elliott-Smith and Haig 2004). In Atlantic Canada, piping plovers nest on wide, sandy beaches with a mix of substrates (i.e., pebbles, gravel) and little vegetation. During nesting, they are vulnerable to human activity. Piping plovers arrive on breeding grounds between mid-April and mid-May, and make nests on the ground. Typically, four eggs are laid. Chicks hatch after about 28 days of incubation, and are able to fly 18 to 35 days later (COSEWIC 2015a). Southward migration occurs between late July and September (U.S. FWS 1996). In Nova Scotia, piping plovers have been observed at one location in Colchester County (i.e., near Truro and extending along the northern shore of the Minas Basin), as well as in several locations along the south shore of Nova Scotia, including Cape Sable Island (Elliott-Smith et al. 2015). In New Brunswick, the piping plover nests on beaches along the Northumberland Strait and Acadian Peninsula. Historically, it was also known to nest along the Bay of Fundy and Grand Manan Island (NBDNR 2015b).

Although phalaropes are members of the shorebird family, their behaviour while in the Bay of Fundy is functionally more duck-like. Red-necked phalarope was listed as Special Concern by COSEWIC in 2014. Red-necked phalaropes forage mostly while swimming, and feed on insects, crustaceans and mollusks. They are known for their unusual behaviour of spinning in circles on shallow water, likely to stir it up and bring food to the surface (Elphick et al. 2001). This species breeds in the low Arctic or subarctic of Canada and Alaska, where they build nests near freshwater lakes, ponds or marshes. In the fall, red-neck phalaropes depart their breeding grounds and migrate southward to their tropical wintering grounds off the coast of South America (Rubega et al. 2000). Within the SAMAM, red-necked phalaropes occur as a fall migrant (Diamond 2012). Brier Island waters are one of the most important areas for phalaropes in

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North America (IBA Canada 2015). Mixed flocks of thousands of red and red-necked phalaropes arrive in this area in August. This site serves as an important migratory stopover where birds can feed before continuing their flight south.

Red knot is listed as Endangered under SARA, as well as provincially in both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. This medium-sized sandpiper occurs in eastern North America. Although this shorebird migrates through the Bay of Fundy, it breeds on the Arctic tundra. In fall, the red knot undertakes a long migration from the Canadian Arctic to South America, where it winters in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina and Chile (COSEWIC 2007). While migrating through the SAMAM, they frequent coastal areas with intertidal flats where they feed on marine invertebrates, especially mussels (Baker et al. 2013). Within the SAMAM, Grand Manan Island in New Brunswick and Cape Sable Island in Nova Scotia provide important habitat for red knot during their southward migration in late summer (COSEWIC 2007).

2.8.2 Marine Birds and Bird Habitat

Marine birds and bird habitat represent a range of feeding guilds and sensitivity to crude oil exposure, as well as fundamental ecological values. Major life history traits of these species are presented in Table 2-6.

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Table 2-6 Species of Management Concern and Selected Marine Birds – Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Maine

Group Species Seasonality in BoF/GoM Breeds in BoF/GoM Habitat Use in BoF/GoM

Auks Atlantic puffin Year-round Yes Cliffs or offshore islands during breeding; offshore in fall and winter

Razorbill Year-round Yes Coastal cliffs during breeding; offshore in fall and winter

Black guillemot Year-round Yes Coastal; breeds on rocky coasts of offshore islands

Shearwaters and Great shearwater May–October No Offshore storm-petrels Leach’s storm-petrels Spring and summer Yes Coastal islands free of predatory animals during breeding; offshore during the rest of the year

Shorebirds Red-necked phalarope Fall migrant No Offshore of tidal areas

Piping plover Mid-April–September Yes Sandy, open beaches

Red knot Fall migrant No Coastal, intertidal areas

Semipalmated sandpiper Fall migrant No Coastal, intertidal areas

Spotted sandpiper May–October Yes Coastal intertidal areas, and inland rivers and lakes

Herons Great blue heron March–November Yes Nests in colonies usually near salt water; wades on tidal flats or in estuaries and marshes to seize fish and crustaceans.

Terns Roseate tern Spring and summer Yes Small, near-shore islands

Cormorants Double-crested cormorant Spring, summer and fall Yes Coastal areas with perching sites, such as rocks, sandbars, pilings or trees. Breeding occurs on open coastlines, estuaries, ponds, lakes or artificial impounds.

Gulls Herring gull Year-round Yes Coastal; breeds predominantly on islands in rocky or sandy areas

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Table 2-6 Species of Management Concern and Selected Marine Birds – Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Maine

Group Species Seasonality in BoF/GoM Breeds in BoF/GoM Habitat Use in BoF/GoM

Raptors Bald eagle Year-round Yes Coastal and inland; breeds in tall trees, often near water; often feeds on fish or carrion

Ducks Harlequin duck Winter No Coastal, near-shore waters; rocky shorelines

Barrow’s goldeneye Winter No Bays, harbours, or inlets, usually with rocky shores and mussel beds

Common eider Year-round Yes Nests on small coastal islands; uses sheltered coves to rear young; winters on open water, particularly on marine shoals

American black duck Year-round Yes Tidal salt marshes during winter; breeds in freshwater wetlands, beaver ponds, bogs, shallow lakes or salt marshes

NOTES: BoF Bay of Fundy GoM Gulf of Maine

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2.8.3 Important Bird Habitat

Many sites within the SAMAM have been identified as IBAs. Important Bird Areas are sites that support specific groups of birds, such as threatened birds, large groups of birds, or birds restricted by range or habitat. These sites are of international importance for the conservation of birds (IBA Canada 2015). A description of the IBAs, including important species and corresponding seasonality (as available), is presented in Table 2-7. Locations the IBAs are shown in Figure 2-3.

Hincklin and Smith (1984) provide an overview of the birds of the Bay of Fundy. The two extreme reaches of the Bay of Fundy are described as being of the greatest importance to marine birds. The mouth of the Bay of Fundy, roughly the area between Brier Island and Passamaquoddy Bay, is of greatest importance to pelagic species, which rely upon rocky islands to breed, and clear water and fast currents to concentrate food for foraging. The head of the Bay of Fundy provides expansive mudflats and salt marshes occupied by shorebirds and waterfowl. The intervening region characterized by steep sandstone cliffs, rocky intertidal habitats and turbid water is less attractive to the congregations of birds observed elsewhere in the Bay of Fundy (Hicklin and Smith 1984).

The intertidal muds and associated fauna in the upper Bay of Fundy provide important feeding grounds for migrating sandpipers and plovers in the late summer and autumn. Chignecto Bay, Minas Basin and Cobequid Bay provide most of the mudflat habitat in the Bay of Fundy, and the mud-dwelling amphipod Corophium volutator as well as large polychaetes provide an important food resource for both migratory birds and resident shorebirds (Hincklin and Smith 1984). The upper Bay of Fundy also provides most of the salt marsh in the bay, which supports shorebirds such as greater and lesser yellowlegs, and least sandpiper during migration. Salt marsh areas are also important to migrating Canada geese and dabbling ducks, including black duck, mallard, pintail, green-winged and blue-winged teal, and American wigeon (Hincklin and Smith 1984).

Passamaquoddy Bay and the Grand Manan Archipelago have less extensive areas of mudflat and salt marsh, and shorebirds are less numerous. However, near-shore areas support large numbers of migrating brant and black ducks. The area also supports large numbers of breeding eider ducks. The lower Bay of Fundy also hosts large numbers of pelagic shorebirds (e.g., migrating red and red-necked phalaropes), which congregate off Brier Island, NS and Deer Island, NB while migrating south in the autumn (Hincklin and Smith 1984).

Six species of Alcidae occur regularly in the Gulf of Maine during the colder months: thick-billed murre, dovekie, razorbill, black guillemot, Atlantic puffin and common murre. The thick-billed murre and dovekie are essentially winter species; the other four species are present year-round. The black guillemot is observed primarily in coastal areas, whereas the other species are more pelagic (Finch et al. 1978).

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

New Brunswick NB016 Manawagonish Island IBA The Manawagonish Island IBA is located along the Double-crested cormorant Breeding north shore of the Bay of Fundy, approximately five km to the southeast of Saint John, New Brunswick. Herring gull Breeding The 40 ha island is roughly 1 km long and 0.5 km Great black-backed gull Breeding wide, and the mainland shore is only 1.5 km to the northwest. Gadwall Breeding NB022 Saint's Rest Marsh & The Saint’s Rest Marsh and Beach Important Bird Piping plover Fall migration Beach Area is on the southern shore of New Brunswick in the Bay of Fundy, about 5 km southwest of Saint Semipalmated plover Fall migration John. The area includes a gravel spit that connects Semipalmated sandpiper Fall migration the Taylor Peninsula and Irving Nature Park with the mainland, and a partly tidal marsh associated Lesser yellowlegs Fall migration with Manawagonish Creek. This site is close to sea level, but contains some low (less than 5 m), abrupt Least sandpiper Fall migration ridges. Pectoral sandpiper Fall migration Various waterfowl Fall migration NB033 Quaco Bay Quaco Bay is located along the northern coast of Semipalmated plover Fall migration the Bay of Fundy, southwest of Saint John, and near the mouth of the Saint John River. The marine Least sandpiper Fall migration areas contain intertidal reef ledges bordered by Semipalmated sandpiper Fall migration mudflats, and a few shallow inlets. The shoreline is low and rises gradually, with low cliffs and reefs Sanderling Fall migration exposed at low tide. Black-bellied plover Fall migration White-rumped sandpiper Fall migration Short-billed dowitcher Fall migration Black-headed gull Spring migration

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

NB020 Point Lepreau/Maces Bay Point Lepreau and Maces Bay are located along Brant Staging the northern coast of the Bay of Fundy, about 30 km southwest of Saint John. The point forms the Semipalmated plover Fall migration eastern border of Maces Bay, Welch Cove, and Least sandpiper Fall migration Little Lepreau Basin, which make up the marine areas of the site. These marine areas contain Semipalmated sandpiper Fall migration intertidal reef ledges bordered by mudflats, and a few shallow inlets. Several islands are also Short-billed dowitcher Fall migration present, including New River Island and The Brothers (Salkeld Islands). Intertidal reefs and Black-bellied plover Fall migration waters extend about 10 km south from the point Sanderling Fall migration into the Bay of Fundy. The shoreline is low and rises gradually, with low cliffs and reefs exposed at White-rumped sandpiper Fall migration low tide. Greater yellowlegs Fall migration Purple sandpiper Wintering Red-throated loon Spring migration Common eider Spring migration Long-tailed duck Spring migration Black scoter Spring migration Surf scoter Spring migration White-winged scoter Spring migration Harlequin duck (eastern pop.) Wintering

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

NB004 The Wolves Archipelago The Wolves are a group of small rocky islands in Harlequin duck (eastern pop.) Wintering/staging the Bay of Fundy, approximately 12 km south of Blacks Harbour, New Brunswick. Eastern Wolf Purple sandpiper Wintering Island is the largest (about 240 ha); Green Rock, Common eider Breeding Spruce Island, Flat Wolf Island and Southern Wolf Island are all less than 75 ha. The shorelines are Herring gull Breeding mostly rocky with a large intertidal zone. A few small coves are also present. The vegetation is Great black-backed gull Breeding mostly characterized by boreal species such as spruce, balsam fir and poplars. In more exposed Black guillemot Breeding areas, raspberry bushes prevail, and grass and Black-legged kittiwake Breeding stunted shrubs/trees are also present. Razorbill Breeding NB037 Quoddy Region The Quoddy Region IBA is a body of seawater, Bonaparte’s gull Fall migration/ wintering primarily in Canadian waters, in southern coastal New Brunswick. The IBA encompasses all the Herring gull Fall migration/ wintering waters in an area roughly bounded by Eastport, Great black-backed gull Wintering Maine, the west side of Campobello Island to East Quoddy Head, White Horse Island, and the east Black-legged kittiwake Wintering side of Deer Island to Deer Island Point. This includes an area called Head Harbour Passage. Long-tailed duck Wintering Upwellings and areas of high productivity occur here because of strong currents created by the Common eider Wintering narrow passages that lead through to Scoter sp. Summer Passamaquoddy Bay. Red-necked phalarope Fall migration Northern gannet Breeding Black-headed gull Wintering Little gull Fall migration/ wintering Manx shearwater fall migration/ summer

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

NB011 Grand Manan Archipelago Grand Manan Island is a large, often foggy, island Razorbill Wintering situated on the western side of the mouth of the Bay of Fundy. This IBA encompasses a 10 km Red-necked phalaropes Not specified (feeding) band of open water around the island, Old Wilson’s storm-petrel Summer/fall migration Proprietor Shoals, all the smaller islands in the archipelago, and a 1 km strip of coastal land along Greater shearwater Not specified (feeding) Grand Manan Island. The 10 km strip may be more than is necessary to encompass important bird Semipalmated plover Not specified (migration) use, especially on the west side, but has been used here due to insufficient knowledge of pelagic Black-bellied plover Not specified (migration) bird use. Old Proprietor Shoals are located off the Greater yellowlegs Not specified (migration) southeastern side of the archipelago, as are other relatively shallow waters. The northern and western Least sandpiper Not specified (migration) sides of the island are bordered by high cliffs, while the eastern shores are composed of boulders, Brant Late winter/early spring cobbles and a few sand beaches. Many of the Purple sandpiper Wintering smaller islands in the archipelago are rocky, but Grand Manan Island itself is a diverse mix of Great black-backed gull Wintering wetland and forested habitats. Common eider Wintering/breeding Harlequin duck Wintering Dovekie Wintering Common murre Wintering Herring gull Breeding Leach’s storm-petrel Breeding Bonaparte’s gull Wintering Manx shearwater Fall/summer Piping plover Fall Sooty shearwater Fall

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

NB019 Machias Seal Island Machias Seal Island is in the Gulf of Maine, 25 km Arctic tern Breeding southwest of Grand Manan Island. It is an isolated islet of shattered and wave-washed rock, with a Atlantic puffin Breeding small area of grass and forbs overlaying gravelly Common tern Breeding soils. The tidal range is about 3 to 4 m. A lighthouse, two houses and several sheds are the Razorbill Breeding/wintering sole buildings on the island. The climate is cool and frequently windy and foggy. Roseate tern Breeding Leach’s storm-petrel Breeding Common eider Breeding Harlequin duck (eastern pop.) Wintering Purple sandpiper Wintering Bonaparte’s gull Wintering Great black-backed gull Wintering

Nova Scotia NS021 Brier Island and Offshore Brier Island is at the extreme western end of Nova Red-necked phalarope Fall migration Waters Scotia, and is about 50 km southwest of the town of Digby. The site includes Brier Island plus tiny Red phalarope Fall migration Peter Island and the surrounding marine waters for Greater shearwater Fall migration at least 15 km offshore. Brier Island is 7 km by 3 km and is separated from the neighbouring Long Sooty shearwater Not specified Island by the 1 km-wide Grand Passage. Most of the island is forested except for the village of Manx shearwater Not specified Westport and the surrounding fields. Two parallel ridges run across the island, with lowlands such as Black-legged kittiwake Wintering bogs and ponds, in-between. Razorbill Wintering Thick-billed murre Wintering Dovekie Wintering

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

NS021 (cont’d) Brier Island and Offshore Black-headed gull Summer Waters (cont’d) Brant Spring Great cormorant Wintering Northern gannet Fall migration Purple sandpiper Wintering Sanderling Fall migration Semipalmated plover Fall migration Wilson's storm-petrel Fall migration Maine 3396, 3397, 3398, Machias Bay Old Man Island: Black guillemot Breeding 3399 Located just beyond the mouth of Little Machias Double-crested cormorant Breeding Bay. Small, treeless island, 6.44 km (4 miles) southwest of Cutler. Leach’s storm-petrel Breeding Razorbill Breeding Libby Islands: Black guillemot Breeding Mostly treeless islands in Machias Bay Common eider Breeding Great black-backed gull Breeding Herring gull Breeding Leach’s storm-petrel Breeding

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

3396, 3397, 3398, Machias Bay (cont’d) Machias Bay: Dunlin Fall migration 3399 (cont’d) Extends from the mouth of the Machias River at Ruddy turnstone Fall migration Machiasport to the Libby Islands approximately 4.8 km (3 miles) offshore. The eastern side of the Sanderling Fall migration bay is split by Sprague Neck, with the northeaster portion known as Holmes Bay. At low tide, Semipalmated plover Fall migration significant tidal flats are exposed. Semipalmated sandpiper Fall migration Short-billed dowitcher Fall migration Whimbrel Fall migration Willet Fall migration Sprague Neck: Black-bellied plover Fall migration Peninsula of land dividing Machias Bay to the west Dunlin Fall migration and south and Holmes Bay to the north and east. A gravel spit on the north end of the neck. Mudflats Least sandpiper Fall migration occur nearby. Piping plover Fall migration Ruddy turnstone Fall migration Semipalmated plover Fall migration Semipalmated sandpiper Fall migration Short-billed dowitcher Fall migration Western sandpiper Fall migration Whimbrel Fall migration

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

3402, 3403, 3404, Millbridge to Addison Narraguagus River and Bay/Back Bay: Bald eagle Breeding 3405 Landscape is dominated by the Narraguagus River, Black-bellied plover Fall migration which drains an extensive area of western Washington and eastern Hancock counties. Black Greater yellowlegs Migration Bay is an expansive mudflat at low tide with eelgrass beds and emergent saltmarsh. At high Least sandpiper Migration tide there is an exposed ledge that is used by Lesser yellowlegs Migration roosting shorebirds. Nelson's sharp-tailed sparrow Breeding Ruddy turnstone Breeding Semipalmated plover Migration Semipalmated sandpiper Migration Short-billed dowitcher Migration Willet Migration Mill River/Flat Bay/Blasket Point: Black-bellied plover Migration Meandering tidal river with extensive salt water Greater yellowlegs Migration marsh. Flat bay and Blasket Point have substantial mudflats at low tide. Lesser yellowlegs Migration Ruddy turnstone Migration Semipalmated plover Migration Semipalmated sandpiper Migration Short-billed dowitcher Migration Whimbrel Migration White-rumped sandpiper Migration

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

3402, 3403, 3404, Millbridge to Addison Harrington River and Pleasant River: Bald eagle Breeding 3405 (cont’d) (cont’d) Numerous bays and coves with low tide flats. The Barrow's goldeneye Non-breeding Harrington and Pleasant Rivers divided by the peninsula leading to Ripley Neck are the major Black-bellied plover Migration landforms of this area. Common goldeneye Non-breeding Dunlin Migration Greater yellowlegs Migration Least sandpiper Migration Lesser yellowlegs Breeding Nelson's sharp-tailed sparrow Breeding Ruddy turnstone Breeding Semipalmated plover Migration Semipalmated sandpiper Migration Short-billed dowitcher Migration Whimbrel Migration West River/Indian River: Ruddy turnstone Migration At this location, the Indian river separates around Semipalmated plover Migration Crowley Island forming the West River on the west side of Crowley Island and continues as the Indian Semipalmated sandpiper Migration River on the east side of the island. Short-billed dowitcher Migration Whimbrel Migration

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

3402, 3403, 3404, Petit Manan Green Island: American oystercatcher Migration 3405 (cont’d) 24.7 ha (10 acre) island attached to Petit Manan Common eider Breeding Island by a bar at low tide. Grasses, Rugosa rose, Angelica and stinging nettle are the dominant Dunlin Migration vegetation here. Least sandpiper Migration Purple sandpiper Non-breeding Red knot Migration Ruddy turnstone Migration Semipalmated sandpiper Migration Short-billed dowitcher Migration Petit Manan Island: Arctic tern Breeding Located at the end of a series of ledges extending Atlantic puffin Breeding from Petit Manan Point. Contains a lighthouse and a lighthouse keeper’s house. Black guillemot Breeding Common eider Breeding Common tern Breeding Laughing gull Breeding Leach's storm-petrel Breeding Purple sandpiper Non-breeding Razorbill Breeding Roseate tern Breeding

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

3402, 3403, 3404, Petit Manan (cont’d) Jordan’s Delight: Black guillemot Breeding 3405 (cont’d) Twenty-seven acre island with mixed grasses, Common eider Breeding raspberry, Angelica and spruce trees. Large granite cliffs on western shore. Double-crested cormorant Breeding Great black-backed gull Breeding Herring gull Breeding Leach's storm-petrel Breeding Over Point: Black-bellied plover Migration Consists of a long narrow tidal cove and a tidal Dunlin Migration lagoon surrounded by a cobble bar. Least sandpiper Migration Piping plover Migration Red knot Migration Ruddy turnstone Migration Semipalmated plover Migration Semipalmated sandpiper Migration Short-billed dowitcher Migration Whimbrel Migration Trafton Island: Great blue heron Breeding Small island 1.6 km (1 mile) offshore in outermost Narraguagus Bay. Forested with several small coves.

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ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

3406 - 3410 Mount Desert The Thrumcap: Double-crested cormorant Breeding Granite dome island located in Frenchman Bay. Common eider Breeding Was once forested, but all the trees died long ago. Herring gull Breeding Great black-backed gull Breeding Black guillemot Breeding Purple sandpiper Wintering Ship/Trumpet Islands and Barge Ledges: American oystercatcher Breeding Located in Blue hill Bay. Small treeless islands Common eider Breeding where seabird restoration efforts have been ongoing for the past decade. Common tern Breeding Double-crested cormorant Breeding Great black-backed gull Breeding Herring gull Breeding Purple sandpiper Non-breeding Egg Rock: Common eider Winter Twelve acre, barren island near the mouth of Purple sandpiper Winter Frenchman Bay. Bass Harbor Marsh: Least bittern Breeding Large tidal saltmarsh near the coastal village of American woodcock Breeding Bass Harbor. Nelson’s sharp-tailed sparrow Breeding Northern harrier Breeding American black duck Breeding

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Table 2-7 Important Bird Areas in the SAMAM

ID Number Site Name Description Bird Species Seasonality

3406 – 3410 Mount Desert (cont’d) Mount Desert Narrows: American black duck Non-breeding (cont’d) Thin strip of saltwater separating Mount Desert Barrow's goldeneye Non-breeding Island from the mainland. Includes several small islands, coves, ledges and a small saltmarsh. Common eider Non-breeding Common goldeneye Passage Least sandpiper Breeding Nelson's sharp-tailed sparrow Passage Ruddy turnstone Passage Semipalmated plover Passage Semipalmated sandpiper Passage Western sandpiper Non-breeding 3376 Duck Islands Great Duck Island: Black guillemot Breeding 12.9 km (8 miles) southeast of Brass Harbour Herring gull Breeding Head. Habitat in the interior includes perennial grass/raspberry meadow, spruce forest, and Leach’s storm-petrel Breeding wetland. The perimeter is dominated by rock outcroppings, and rock jumbles, and a couple small cobble beaches. Little Duck Island: Black guillemot Breeding Habitat on this 222.4 ha (90 acre) island includes Common eider Breeding overgrown fields, maritime spruce-fir forest, rock outcrops, and rock jumbles. Double-crested cormorant Breeding Great cormorant Breeding Leach's storm-petrel Breeding SOURCES: IBA Canada Site Summaries 2014; National Audubon Society 2015

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! FIGURE NO / FIGURE NO. Area of NS ! Interest Sources : Données sur le projet fournies par TransCanada Pipelines Limited. Frontière maritime tirée du Service hydrographique du Canada. Données de base fournies par les gouvernements du Canada, du Nouveau-Brunswick, de la Nouvelle-Écosse ainsi que par le gouvernement de l'État du Maine. /

! Sources: Project data provided by TransCanada Pipelines Limited. Maritime Boundary from Canadian Hydrographic Service. Base data provided by the Governments of Canada, Provincial Government! of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and the Government of the State of Maine. 2-3 Dernières modifications

! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! CA PDF Page 86 of 524 CA PDF Page 87 of 524

2.9 Marine Mammals and Marine Mammal Habitat

Many species of marine mammal are wide ranging. The following summary qualitatively describes the typical distribution of most species, although specific occurrences within the SAMAM at any given time vary, and infrequent sightings of species may occur almost anywhere within the SAMAM. This section provides general information on marine birds that is relevant to the EHHRA. Additional information on marine mammals is provided in Volume 22, Technical Data Report for Marine Wildlife and Wildlife Habitat.

Approximately 14 species of cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) and four species of pinnipeds (seals) are known to inhabit the marine waters of the SAMAM at least seasonally. Of these, six species of cetacean and one pinniped species are considered common year-round or seasonal residents (Table 2-8); the remaining species are considered occasional or infrequent visitors (Table 2-9).

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Table 2-8 Common and Selected Marine Mammal Species – SAMAM

Conservation Status

Presence, Distribution, Seasonal Timing Nova 2 3 4 Species and Food Sources SARA1 New Brunswick Scotia COSEWIC

North Atlantic right whale The Bay of Fundy is used as feeding habitat from June Endangered Special Concern No status Endangered (Eubalaena glacialis) to October, and is also an important summer nursery (Schedule 1) habitat. Two thirds of the reproductive female right whales in the western North Atlantic use the Bay of Fundy as a nursery ground. Calves typically accompany their mothers during the spring migration and summer feeding. Within the Bay of Fundy, North Atlantic right whales are generally distributed over the Grand Manan Basin in the Outer Bay of Fundy. In Atlantic Canada, Roseway Basin off Nova Scotia, and the Grand Manan Basin in the Bay of Fundy have been designated under SARA as critical habitat for the North Atlantic right whale. The North Atlantic right whale is currently one of the most endangered species of cetaceans in the world. Lower and upper estimates for the number of photographed North Atlantic right whales are 295 and 682, respectively. Food sources in the Bay of Fundy include krill, specifically Calanus finmarchius, larval euphausiids and other copepods.

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Table 2-8 Common and Selected Marine Mammal Species – SAMAM

Conservation Status

Presence, Distribution, Seasonal Timing Nova 2 3 4 Species and Food Sources SARA1 New Brunswick Scotia COSEWIC

Harbour porpoise Harbour porpoises are year-round residents of the Bay Threatened Endangered No status Special Concern (Phocoena phocoena) of Fundy, where they have large ranges. They occur (Schedule 2) most often near islands, headlands and restricted channels, although they have been sighted throughout the southern portion of the Bay of Fundy. There are an estimated 79,883 harbour porpoises in the region of the Gulf of Maine and Bay of Fundy. Primary food sources include herring, cod, and mackerel. Little is known about the diet during the winter and spring. Other food sources include other fish species, squid, and polychaetes.

Fin whale The winter grounds, calving and breeding locations of Special Concern Threatened No status Special Concern (Balaenoptera physalus) fin whales in the western North Atlantic are not well (Schedule 1) documented; however, there is some indication that animals from the northern Newfoundland stock move into the Bay of Fundy in the winter, resulting in a year- round presence of fin whales in the bay. Those that migrate to the area occur in the Bay of Fundy between May and October. The results from an aerial survey conducted by Fisheries and Oceans Canada as part of the Trans North Atlantic Sightings Survey indicated that approximately 3,522 fin whales inhabited the western North Atlantic as of 2007. In the Bay of Fundy, whales are observed regularly in the western region of the bay. Fin whales spend most of their time feeding in the region east of Grand Manan Island, an area that contains high concentrations of prey, including herring and krill.

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Table 2-8 Common and Selected Marine Mammal Species – SAMAM

Conservation Status

Presence, Distribution, Seasonal Timing Nova 2 3 4 Species and Food Sources SARA1 New Brunswick Scotia COSEWIC

Humpback whale Present in the Bay of Fundy from spring through fall. Special Concern Threatened No status Not at Risk (Megaptera novaeangliae) Humpback whales migrate seasonally from high-latitude (Schedule 3) feeding areas in the summer to low-latitude breeding and calving areas in winter. These migrations result in large seasonal differences in population distribution, although some humpback whales remain in high- latitude areas well into the breeding season. The Gulf of Maine/Nova Scotia region, which includes the Bay of Fundy, is one of several summer feeding grounds used by humpback whales in Atlantic Canada. They are sighted primarily in the Outer Bay of Fundy, with some individuals observed in the Inner Bay of Fundy. In the winters, humpback whales in the western north Atlantic, inclusive of the Gulf of Maine stock, appear to use the West Indies as calving and breeding grounds. Limited information is available on the current population size of humpback whales in the North Atlantic Ocean. The minimum population estimate for the Gulf of Maine and Bay of Fundy was 823 individuals in 2008. Food sources include krill and small schooling fish.

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Table 2-8 Common and Selected Marine Mammal Species – SAMAM

Conservation Status

Presence, Distribution, Seasonal Timing Nova 2 3 4 Species and Food Sources SARA1 New Brunswick Scotia COSEWIC

Common minke whale The common minke whale is widespread in the northern No status Special Concern No status Not at Risk (Balaenoptera acutorostrata hemisphere, and occurs from July to September in the acutorostrata) Bay of Fundy. Based on aerial survey data collected in 2007 in the area between northern Labrador and the Scotian Shelf, there are an estimated 20,741 minke whales in the North Atlantic Ocean, with at least 16,199 minke whales using the waters off Atlantic Canada. Minke whales use the Bay of Fundy as summer feeding grounds. Feeding minke whales are often observed near the northern tips of Grand Manan Island and Campobello Island in the Bay of Fundy, where areas of tidal wake produce nutrient-rich upwelling zones in the summer. Food sources include krill and small schooling fish.

Atlantic white-sided dolphin Atlantic white-sided dolphins occur year-round in the No status Special Concern No status Not at Risk (Lagenorhynchus acutus) Bay of Fundy and are observed primarily in the outer portion of the Bay. Atlantic white-sided dolphin densities in the Gulf of Maine and Bay of Fundy are higher in the summer and lower in the winter when the species move south down the northeastern seaboard of the United States.

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Table 2-8 Common and Selected Marine Mammal Species – SAMAM

Conservation Status

Presence, Distribution, Seasonal Timing Nova 2 3 4 Species and Food Sources SARA1 New Brunswick Scotia COSEWIC

Atlantic white-sided dolphin The Atlantic white-sided dolphin is a common species (Lagenorhynchus acutus) of dolphin throughout the North Atlantic Ocean. The (cont’d) current population is estimated at 48,819 white-sided dolphins in the western North Atlantic using survey data collected in 2011. An estimated 24,422 Atlantic white- sided dolphins occur in the waters off Atlantic Canada, based on aerial survey data collected in the region spanning northern Labrador to the Scotian Shelf in 2007. Food sources include hake and squid, and herring is the most common prey during the summer.

Harbour seal The pupping season for harbour seals has been No status Special Concern No status Not at Risk (Phoca vitulina vitulina) examined in Passamaquoddy Bay, in the Outer Bay of Fundy. The pupping season occurs in May and June, and the post-pupping season occurs in the summer. In the fall and winter, there is a general movement of harbour seals out of the Bay of Fundy towards the waters of southern New England; however, harbour seals are observed year-round in the Bay of Fundy. As a result, near-shore waters throughout the Bay of Fundy have been identified as year-round habitat for the harbour seal.

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Table 2-8 Common and Selected Marine Mammal Species – SAMAM

Conservation Status

Presence, Distribution, Seasonal Timing Nova 2 3 4 Species and Food Sources SARA1 New Brunswick Scotia COSEWIC

Harbour seal (Phoca Results of aerial surveys of the Bay of Fundy indicated vitulina vitulina) that harbour seals were more common on the New (cont’d) Brunswick side of the Bay of Fundy compared with the Nova Scotian side, and that most sightings occurred in the waters offshore Grand Manan Island and southwest Nova Scotia. It was also noted that preferred haulout sights of harbour seals in the Bay of Fundy appeared to be areas away from the mainland coasts, including offshore islands an isolated shoals. The harbour seal is the most widely distributed seal in the North Atlantic, occurring in near-shore waters ranging from the eastern Canadian Arctic to southern New England and New Jersey. Counts of harbour seals along the coast of Maine conducted in 2012 suggest a total population size for the western North Atlantic harbour seal stock of 70,142 animals. Food sources are predominantly fish (groundfish, herring) but also include shrimp.

SOURCES: Marine Wildlife and Wildlife Habitat Technical Data Report 1 Environment Canada 2015 2 COSEWIC 2015b 3 NBDNR 2015c 4 Nova Scotia Natural Resources 2015

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Table 2-9 Conservation Status of Marine Mammal Species that Occur Occasionally in the SAMAM

Conservation Status

2 3 4 Species SARA1 COSEWIC New Brunswick* Nova Scotia

Sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis) Not at Risk Not at Risk No status No status

Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) Endangered Endangered Endangered No status (Schedule 1)

Long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas) Not at Risk Not at Risk No status No status

White-beaked dolphin (Lagenorhynchus albirostris) Not at Risk Not at Risk No status No status

Killer whale (Orcinus orca) No status Special Concern No status No status

Pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) Not at Risk Not at Risk No status No status

Sperm whale (Physeter microcephalus) Not at Risk Not at Risk No status No status

Northern bottle-nosed whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus) Endangered Endangered No status No status (Schedule 1)

Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) Not at Risk Not at Risk No status No status

Hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) Not at Risk Not at Risk No status No status

Harp seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus) No status No status No status No status

NOTE: * NB SARA listed species are not protected under the NB SARA Prohibitions Regulation.

SOURCE: Bay of Fundy Species Information System 2015 1 Environment Canada 2015 2 COSEWIC 2015b 3 NBDNR 2015c 4 Nova Scotia Natural Resources 2015

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2.10 Sea Turtles

The following information is largely from Volume 22, Technical Data Report for Marine Wildlife and Wildlife Habitat. The Technical Data Report concentrates on the Bay of Fundy; however, it is expected that the information is representative of the entire SAMAM.

Four species of sea turtles may occur in the Bay of Fundy: leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), Kemp’s Ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) and green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas). Reported sightings of all four species are rare in the Bay of Fundy, but Kemp’s Ridley sea turtle and green sea turtle tend to have more tropical and temperate zone distributions, and so are particularly rare in the cold waters of the Bay of Fundy. Neither of these two species is listed by COSEWIC by virtue of their low frequency of sightings in Canadian waters. Therefore, the discussion on sea turtles focuses on the leatherback and loggerhead sea turtles. The leatherback sea turtle is listed as Endangered under Schedule 1 of the SARA, whereas the loggerhead turtle is considered Endangered by COSEWIC (Table 2-10).

Table 2-10 Sea Turtle Species Likely to Occur in the SAMAM

Species SARA1 COSEWIC2 New Brunswick3

Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) Endangered Non-active Endangered (Schedule 1)

Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) No status Endangered No status

SOURCE: 1 Environment Canada 2015 2 COSEWIC 2015b 3 NBDNR 2015c 4 Nova Scotia Natural Resources 2015

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2.10.1 Leatherback Sea Turtle

Leatherback sea turtles are widely distributed throughout the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans (COSEWIC 2012). In May 2012, leatherbacks were divided into two populations: Atlantic and Pacific. The Atlantic population was subsequently listed as Endangered by COSEWIC, although it has no status under SARA (COSEWIC 2012). Though research is limited, existing data suggest that the seasonal population of leatherback sea turtles in Atlantic Canada (of which the Bay of Fundy is a small part) numbers in the thousands, and an estimated 34,000 to 94,000 adult leatherback sea turtles occur in the North Atlantic (COSEWIC 2012).

Leatherback sea turtles do not nest in Canada but visit Canadian waters to forage (COSEWIC 2012) between April and December; highest densities occur from July to September (James et al. 2006, 2007). Leatherback sea turtles are most commonly sighted along the Atlantic Coast of Nova Scotia, including the northeast region of Cape Breton Island, although the distribution of sightings is likely affected by biases in effort between sighting locations (James et al. 2006). There are relatively few reports of leatherback sea turtles within the Bay of Fundy compared to the Scotian Shelf, and these reports are limited to the lower Bay of Fundy, primarily around Lighthouse Cove and Long Island, Nova Scotia (Atlantic Leatherback Turtle Recovery Team 2006; James et al. 2006). Sightings in the Bay of Fundy are rare because the waters of Atlantic Canada represent the northern reaches of the species’ distribution, which extends to the southeast tip of mainland Newfoundland and Labrador (James et al. 2006; Halpin et al. 2009). The western portion of the Bay of Fundy is considered to be within the distribution range (COSEWIC 2012).

2.10.2 Loggerhead Sea Turtle

The loggerhead sea turtle is listed as Endangered by COSEWIC (COSEWIC 2010) and is being considered for listing under SARA (DFO 2011b). There are no current data on the abundance of loggerhead sea turtles in Atlantic Canada. Loggerhead sea turtles do not nest in Canada.

Loggerhead sea turtles occur in both subtropical and temperate waters. They forage near the shelf break and in offshore waters of Atlantic Canada (Harris et al. 2010). During spring, summer and fall, they forage on benthic organisms such as shellfish and crab (Brazner and McMillan 2008; DFO 2011b). Loggerhead sea turtles occur off Nova Scotia in the summer, including the areas of Georges Bank, the Scotian Shelf and Grand Banks, where they have been recorded as pelagic longline fishery bycatch (Brazner and McMillan 2008). No recent sightings have been reported in the SAMAM; one sighting was recorded in the Bay of Fundy in 1979 (Haplin et al. 2009).

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