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DIVERSITY and DISTRIBUTION of Tylosema Esculentum (MARAMA BEAN) ENDOPHYTIC BACTERIA COMMUNITIES in OMITARA, HARNAS and OTJINENE, EASTERN NAMIBIA

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DIVERSITY and DISTRIBUTION of Tylosema Esculentum (MARAMA BEAN) ENDOPHYTIC BACTERIA COMMUNITIES in OMITARA, HARNAS and OTJINENE, EASTERN NAMIBIA i DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF Tylosema esculentum (MARAMA BEAN) ENDOPHYTIC BACTERIA COMMUNITIES IN OMITARA, HARNAS AND OTJINENE, EASTERN NAMIBIA A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (MICROBIOLOGY) OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA BY Jean Damascène UZABAKIRIHO 200535633 March 2016 Supervisor: Prof. PM Chimwamurombe ii ABSTRACT Tylosema esculentum is a nutritious drought avoiding plant endemic to the Kalahari Desert. Our study assessed the density, diversity and distribution of endophytic microbial community structures associated with leaves, stems and tuberous roots of T. esculentum in Eastern Namibia. Culture-dependent and PCR-based 454 pyrosequencing methods were used. ANOVA with pairwise comparison revealed a significant difference in bacterial density between below and above ground. Endophytic bacterial isolates (605) were identified, grouped into 24 genera and three phyla. Proteobacteria was the most represented (67.4%) followed by Firmicutes (23.7%) and Actinobacteria (4.3%). Shannon diversity index, revealed a significant difference between the tuberous roots and leaves (p = 0.005) and stems (p = 0.006) microbial communities. The cluster analysis revealed a separation between the above and below ground microbial communities. The PCA and the Jaccard diversity indices confirmed these findings. Our results suggested that the microbial community composition was mainly governed by the plant parts rather than the location or sampling time. The phylogenetic analysis showed that all these microbial communities fell into two clades distinct from known cultivated bacteria from NCBI. All isolates associated with T. esculentum were positive for the nifH gene amplification. Only 42% nested with known strain in the NCBI GeneBank Database. This finding showed the presence of putative novel nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with T. esculentum. Ten samples (leaves, stems and tuberous roots) from Omitara were examined using 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing method. The presence of the three phyla Firmicutes (50.3%), Proteobacteria (38.32%) and Actinobacteria (4.46%) was confirmed. Two more phyla Fusobacteria (5.7%) and Bacteriodetes (1.368%) were revealed. Strikingly, 2 phyla (Firmicutes and Proteobacteria) of the five phyla represented 89 % of the total sequences. Similarly, four families (Enterobacteriaceae, Bacillaceae, Pasteurellaceae and Fusobacteriaceae) of the 18 recorded, represented nearly 91% of the total T. esculentum bacterial community assemblage. The genus Bacillus was predominantly found in the tuberous roots though shared across all samples. The class Clostridiale was exclusively found in leaves and stems. Within the Gammaproteobacteria class, the sequence grouping showed the Enterobacteriaceae family and the yet to be identified Enterobacteriaceae dominated. Unlike the Enterobactericeae that are mostly found in the tuberous roots, the Pasteurellaceae family was preferably found in the leaves and stems. Actinobacteria have shown a ubiquitous colonization compared with the Bacteriodetes that colonized the above ground part of the plant. T. esculentum organs exerted selective pressures on their associated bacterial communities. Only 68% of all reads could be classified at the phylum level. Firmicutes are the most dominant phylum in the current study with 46.9% sequences that have not yet been classified to any existing family, order or genus. Also, the rarefaction curves predicted that additional sampling will lead to significantly increased estimates of diversity. Sequences in this study, have shown similarities with sequences occurring in water-stressed environments with plant growth promoting traits. In conclusion, T. esculentum bean lives in community with a large diversity of potentially plant growth promoting bacteria iii DEDICATION To my father Thaddée UZABAKIRIHO and my father-in-law Marc BIZIMANA upon whose shoulders I stand; To all other family members and nameless tens of thousands of innocent people who perished in wars of conquest and tyranny in the African Great Lakes Region; whose respect and compassion has been downplayed to insult their memory; To my mothers Verdiane HITIMANA and Bernadette MUKESHIMANA for your indomitable spirit and your incredible strength, against all odds; To my brilliant and loving wife, Brigitte NSHIMYIMANA who has accompanied me with unlimited patience, understanding, help and encouragement; To my high- spirited, kind-hearted and industrious son, Jean Emmery NGABO-SHINGIRO and our sedulous and assiduous niece Flora Tuyisenge NIYONZIMA, This thesis is dedicated iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Voltaire, French author and humanist (1694 - 1778) once said “Appreciation is a wonderful thing, it makes what is excellent in others belong to us as well”. And bestowing to an old dictum: “If you never learn the language of gratitude, you’ll never be on speaking terms with happiness”. And I agree. When we succeed, we do so because others have abetted. I am extremely indebted to my supervisor Prof. Percy M. Chimwamurombe to whom I would like to express my deepest sense of gratitude. This work would not have been possible without his valuable guidance, support, patience and encouragement. He provided directions to recover when my steps wavered. He found solutions where others would only see problems. I will carry with me the lessons gained as I pursue this rewarding career. I received generous support from the Head of Department of Biological Sciences Dr. Elsabe Julies and Staff members who gave me access to the laboratory and research facilities. Without your precious contribution, it would have been impossible to conduct this research. Discussions with Dr. Ezekiel Kwembeya, Ms. Fransiska Kangombe and Dr. Seth Eiseb have been illuminating with their thought-provoking contributions. Thanks for your constructive comments and warm encouragement. I have had the support and inspiration of Prof. Jean Baptiste Gatsinzi and Mr. Dismas Ntirampeba. As brothers, you were always more than willing to help and give your best suggestions in Programming and Statistics at the time where it was the most needed. I greatly appreciate your excellent v assistance and spiritual support. I am thankful to my lab mates, Dr. D. Kavishe, Dr E. Nepolo and Dr. M. Takundwa for the valuable late hours spent together. I am grateful for the assistance given by Mr. Mbangu, Ms. Kaitjizemine, Mrs. Morkel, Ms. Johnson, Mr. Daniel Haiyambo, Mr. Billy Chinsenga and Ms. Celine Mukakalisa. Your care helped me to overcome setbacks. Lastly, and most importantly my family, none of these would have happened without your love, patience and profound understanding. You were always there cheering me up and stood by me through the good and bad times. Soli Deo Gloria vi DECLARATION I, Jean Damascène UZABAKIRIHO, declare hereby that this study is a true reflection of my own research, and that this work, or part thereof has not been submitted for a degree in any other institution of higher education. No part of this thesis/dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by means (e.g. electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior permission of the author, or The University of Namibia in that behalf. I, Jean Damascène UZABAKIRIHO, grant The University of Namibia the right to reproduce this thesis in whole or in part, in any manner or format, which The University of Namibia may deem fit, for any person or institution requiring it for study and research; providing that The University of Namibia shall waive this right if the whole thesis has been or is being published in a manner satisfactory to the University. Jean Damascène UZABAKIRIHO Date vii ACRONYMS DNA/RNA Deoxyribonucleic acid/ Ribonucleic acid NGS Next Generation Sequencing HTS High-Throughput Sequencing BLAST Basic Local Alignment Search Tool RDP Ribosomal Database Project OTU Operational Taxonomic Unit PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction DGGE/TGGE Denaturing Gradient/Temperature Gradient Gel Electrophoresis T-RFLP Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis PGPB Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria PCA Principal Component Analysis IAA Indole-3-acetic acid TSA Tryptic Soy Agar SIM Synthetic Malate viii LIST OF TABLE Table 1: Enumeration of putative endophytic diazotroph bacteria isolated from aseptic fresh T. esculentum tissue leaves (L), stems (S) and tuberous roots (T) (means of three replicates, ± standard deviation) from different locations (Omitara, Harnas and Otjinene) over a period of 4 years (2011-2014).----------------------------------------- 54 Table 2: Two-way ANOVA showing that there is enough evidence to indicate that at least one of the three plant parts has a mean CFU different from other parts. ------------- 55 Table 3: Two-way ANOVA indicating that at 5% significance level at least one of the three plant parts has a mean CFU different from other parts (as p-value=0.000 is less than 0.05). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 56 Table 4: Results of multiple comparisons performed on the total amount of bacterial cells to determine ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57 Table 5: Phylum and class distribution frequencies (%) of endophytic bacteria ssociated with T. esculentum’s tissues (leaves, stems and tuberous roots). --------------------- 59 Table 6: Two -way ANOVA of the effect on the presence of bacterial phyla occurring in different Tylosema esculentum’s
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