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EASTERN BEADS, WESTERN APPLICATIONS WAMPUM AMONG PLAINS TRIBES Jordan Keagle George Fox University

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EASTERN BEADS, WESTERN APPLICATIONS WAMPUM AMONG PLAINS TRIBES Jordan Keagle George Fox University University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Great Plains Quarterly Great Plains Studies, Center for Fall 2013 EASTERN BEADS, WESTERN APPLICATIONS WAMPUM AMONG PLAINS TRIBES Jordan Keagle George Fox University Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly Part of the American Studies Commons, Cultural History Commons, and the United States History Commons Keagle, Jordan, "EASTERN BEADS, WESTERN APPLICATIONS WAMPUM AMONG PLAINS TRIBES" (2013). Great Plains Quarterly. 2553. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/2553 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. EASTERN BEADS, WESTERN APPLICATIONS WAMPUM AMONG PLAINS TRIBES JORDAN KEAGLE tiersmen attempted to follow patterns of Native In the seventeenth century, when Europeans American diplomacy already established. Such first arrived in what are now the New England patterns included using wampum strings as trade and mid-Atlantic states, they encountered a wide goods on journeys of exploration and fur trad­ array of indigenous tribes already calling the land ing. However, tribes outside the Northeast did home. The new setrlers soon realized the impor­ not produce their own shell beads, nor did many tance of shell beads called wampum. Manufac­ tribes know about the shell beads of the Munsee, tured primarily along Long Island Sound, these beads, shaped from marine shells, could be made Mohawk, and other tribes. Westward-expanding into belts or grouped as strings.! Though whites whites and displaced Native American tribes of failed to grasp the nuances of wampum culture, the Northeast carried wampum into the lands leading to the generalization of wampum as "In­ surrounding the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. dian money," they nevertheless recognized its sig­ In doing so, these travelers introduced the Osage, nificance in Native American trade and diploma­ the Kansa, the Pawnee, and many other tribes to cy. Eventually, wampum came to be used among the purple and white shell beads. The varied uses whites as well, serving as a common monetary of wampum in the Trans-Mississippi West depart­ unit for Dutch and English colonists. 2 ed drastically from the established cultural signifi­ As the colonies and later the fledgling na­ cance of the beads in the Northeast. Although tion of the United States moved westward, fron- wampum played a traditional role in diplomacy in the West, there it was largely white-driven rath­ Key Words: belts, diplomacy, Indian factory system, jewelry, portrai· er than devised by Natives. Most wampum in the ture, Western expansion West was used for personal ornamentation, com­ pletely removed from the beads' original spiritual Jordan Keagle is a student at George Fox University in Newberg, and symbolic aspects. Only in later decades did Oregon, where he studies history and biblical studies. His focus is American history, particularly the American West. He thanks Dr. wampum beads find inclusion in traditional cer­ Paul Otto of George Fox University for his guidance in preparing emonial objects and then only in limited quanti­ this manuscript. ties as components in larger artifacts. [GPQ 33 (Fa1l2013}:221-235 221 222 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, FALL 2013 Wampum is a tangible example of the East's these cultures, even when they came from a per­ influence over the West in the early nineteenth son of high social standing. Thus, "'true' words century. The presence of wampum across the were always accompanied by presents of symboli­ Plains attests to whites' wide-ranging and suc­ cally charged or economically valuable items," cessful economic and diplomatic forays into the primarily strings or belts of wampum.4 frontier. The beads' spread both north and west In these ritual contexts, the beads' color, "spe­ from a locus on the Lower Missouri demonstrates cifically white, red, and black, [was) fundamental a gradual process of cultural adaptation between to the symbolic meaning or cultural 'value' of Indians and whites as well as between Native wampum."5 Anthropologist George R. Hamell tribes. By examining the written, material, and goes on to describe these colors as they relate pictorial evidence, we can utilize wampum as a to the conditions or states-of-being of those giv­ means to track this intercultural exchange over ing the wampum. White beads represent "social the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centu­ states-of-being, exemplifying the desired state of ries. The essentially simultaneous appearance of the individual or community, physical, social, identical wampum earrings in multiple eastern and spiritual well-being."6 Black beads denote Plains tribes implies a close-knit intertribal mate­ "ritual asocial states-of-being, such as the 'dark­ rial culture that had common styles and shared ness' of mourning," and red-painted beads reflect indicators of wealth and status. Wampum jewelry "antisocial states-of-being, " war in particular'? became a sign of power and affluence among Thus, the colors of beads used in a belt or string these tribes, with whom it had a prominent place corresponded with the particular purpose for in formal and ceremonial attire. These Native which the wampum was intended. A primarily cultural markers were in tum carried to the East white·belt with dark patterns or pictographs com­ by Indian dignitaries and recorded by portraitists municated a positive social message while a pri­ like Charles Bird King, illustrating the cultural marily dark or red belt represented less amiable adaptations made possible by trade with the East. 8 This article seeks to trace the spread and var­ circumstances. ied use of wampum among the Native American According to Hamell, early settlers "recognized tribes of the Great Plains. It first discusses the the analogy in the symbolic functions and mean­ symbolism integral to northeastern wampum ings of [white wampum) beads and that of silver, traditions and next examines wampum's first ap­ gold, and diamonds in European traditions."9 pearances west of the Mississippi, beginning with Not only were these items wealth in terms of French and British frontiersmen and followed by monetary value, but they also visibly represented the Lewis and Clark expedition. After wampum's social well-being. Given this cross-cultural correla­ introduction to the Plains, its usage falls into tion, Hamell speculates that these "white, bright, three major categories: eastern-style diplomatic and light things are 'good to think'" and repre­ rituals driven primarily by British influence, ap­ sent positive ideas of life and "correlated states of plication in personal ornamentation and jewelry, physical, social, and spiritual well-being."10 If Eu­ and inclusion as a decorative element in sacred ropean settlers were aware of these deeper levels and ritual objects of the Plains cultures. of meaning, the more practical understanding of wampum's use in commencing and ending hos­ tilities took precedence. WAMPUM'S SYMBOLIC VOCABULARY Among the Native peoples of the American FRENCH WAMPUM Northeast, wampum beads held great symbolic ALONG THE MISSISSIPPI and spiritual meaning. For example, historian James P. Merrell calls wampum the "Indians' cus­ Wampum, though well established among the In­ tomary means of giving words weight."3 Words dians of the Northeast, was originally a purely re­ alone held little meaning or trustworthiness in gional commodity. European explorers of the late EASTERN BEADS, WESTERN APPLICATIONS 223 seventeenth century carried the first wampum to of wampum was not available.14 Gorrell quickly reach the Mississippi River. The French in par­ learned "that there was a vast number of Indians ticular, familiar with the use of wampum among dependent upon [wampum], more than was ever tribes in the Northeast and Quebec, brought thought of," and so he requested wampum be wampum strings and trinkets with them as they sent from the garrison at Detroit.15 When wam­ explored the newly christened Louisiana. One pum could not be procured from Detroit, Gor­ early episode of wampum trade with Plains tribes rell had to "borrow of the Indian squaws," paying concerns Father Louis Hennepin, a French priest them immediately and promising to replenish and companion of Rene-Robert Cavelier, Sieur their stores when the next trader carrying wam­ de La Salle, explorer of the Great Lakes and later pum arrived.16 The following year, Gorrell met the Mississippi River valley. Hennepin, trav"eling with members of the Winnebago and Iowa tribes. near the junction of the Illinois and Mississippi While the Winnebago delegation offered a wam­ Rivers in 1680, encountered a war party of Sioux pum belt and declared their peaceful intentions, and was swiftly surrounded. That evening, Hen­ the Iowa brought nothing. However, they accept­ nepin and his companions were alarmed to dis­ ed belts from Gorrell "for the return of prison­ cover that "the majority of warriors were in favor ers."17 When the chief of the Iowa visited in June of tomahawking them."l1 To appease his captors, 1763, he too came empty-handed, though the Hennepin offered "several fathoms of French to­ British presented him with gifts.IS These interac­ bacco, axes, knives, beads, and some black and tions between the Iowa and the British illustrate white wampum bracelets," which the warriors di­ a persistent factor in wampum's westward spread: vided among themselvesY Though less an exam­ piecemeal tribal participation. ple of trade than a desperate bribe, this incident Clearly, members of the Iowa tribe under­ is potentially the first introduction of wampum stood the rituals of wampum belt diplomacy. to the Sioux and foreshadows the value placed on Their neighbors the Winnebago fully partici­ wampum by Plains tribes as ornaments, indepen­ dent of the rituals of wampum diplomacy. pated, and Iowa representatives witnessed Win­ nebago exchanges with whites.
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