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Filmgeschichte 1.Indd Zurich Open Repository and Archive University of Zurich Main Library Strickhofstrasse 39 CH-8057 Zurich www.zora.uzh.ch Year: 2020 Technicolor Flückiger, Barbara Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-190951 Book Section Published Version Originally published at: Flückiger, Barbara (2020). Technicolor. In: Christen, Thomas. Von den Anfängen des Films bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges : der internationale Film von 1895 bis 1945. Marburg: Schüren Verlag, 351-368. Einführung Technicolor Mehr als jedes andere Farbfilmverfahren Barbara Flückiger ist Technicolor zu einem Mythos gewor- den, der sich durch exzessive Farbexplosio- nen ins kulturelle Gedächtnis eingeschrie- ben hat. Darüber hinaus hat Technicolor bisher von allen Farbverfahren die inten- Allerdings haben unsere Forschungen an sivste Auseinandersetzung auch in der historischen Technicolor-Filmkopien und historiografischen, technischen und ästhe- differenzierten Analysen eines großen Kor- tischen Aufarbeitung erfahren. Zu nennen pus von mehr als 120 Technicolor-Filmen1 sind verschiedene Publikationen von Scott gezeigt, dass die normative Kontrolle und Higgins (1999, 2000 und 2007), Christine Standardisierung von Technicolor weitaus N. Brinckmann (2001, 2006 und 2015), weniger homogen ausfällt, als bisher in Sarah Street (2009 und 2010), Richard der Literatur beschrieben. So moderieren Neupert (1990) und Jean-Loup Bourget weitere Faktoren die Ästhetik von Techni- (1995). Eine Dissertation von Céline Rui- color, am deutlichsten das Genre, aber vo (2016) ist derzeit noch nicht öffentlich auch individuelle Personalstile von Regis- zugänglich. seuren oder Kamerapersonen. Während die klassische Phase des Drei- farbenverfahrens Technicolor Nr. IV von Mitte der 1930er-Jahre bis zu Beginn der Firmengeschichte und 1950er-Jahre in dieser Aufarbeitung domi- technische Entwicklungen nieren, sind die Anfänge von 1915 bis in die 1930er-Jahre erst seit kurzem stärker Herbert T. Kalmus, Daniel Frost Comstock in den Fokus gerückt, so in Layton/Pierce und W. Burton Westcott gründeten die (2015 und 2016), Flückiger (2015) und Firma Technicolor um 1915 in Boston. Der parziell in Street/Yumibe (2019). Firmenname war eine Hommage an das Verschiedene Faktoren sind für die Do- Massachusetts Institute of Technology minanz von Technicolor in der klassischen (MIT), an dem Kalmus und Comstock stu- Ära verantwortlich: diert hatten. Aus heutiger Sicht erstaunt es, dass es − Ein durchgängig kontrollierter und Technicolor gelang, rund 20 Jahre lang standardisierter Workflow, von der Pro- massive Rückschläge einzustecken und duktionsvorbereitung über die Produk- dennoch langfristig im Feld der Farb- tion bis zur Postproduktion; filmentwicklung zu reüssieren (Kalmus − der Color Advisory Service (Color Con- 1938). Zahlreiche Investoren verloren un- trol Department) unter Leitung von Na- geheure Summen (Fortune 1934), bevor talie M. Kalmus, der jeder Produktion Mitte der 1930er-Jahre mit Technicolor Nr. eine Farbberaterin, einen Farbberater IV der Durchbruch gelang. zur Seite stellte, um das Kostüm- und Im Kontext der 1910er- und 1920er-Jah- Setdesign für das Verfahren zu optimie- re wurde eine Vielzahl von Farbfilmver- ren; fahren entwickelt, von denen nur wenige − ein Set von expliziten und weniger ex- überhaupt über ein Teststadium hinaus- pliziten Regeln, das die Farbgestaltung kamen. Obwohl die meisten dieser tech- in Übereinstimmung mit dem Continui- ty-System des klassischen Hollywood 1 Die Analysen eines Korpus von insgesamt mehr als 400 Filmen mit einem normierte; Computer-gestützten Ansatz waren ein wesentlicher Pfeiler des Forschungsprojekts − ein solides ökonomisches Fundament ERC Advanced Grant FilmColors. Bridging the Gap Between Technology and Aes- in Verbindung mit einer cleveren Kom- thetics, geleitet von Barbara Flückiger. Sie wurden von einem Team bestehend aus munikationsstrategie, die das Ergebnis drei Doktorandinnen, einer Postdoktorandin, drei studentischen Hilfskräften und der Projektleiterin ausgeführt. Technicolor Nr. IV steht im Zentrum der Dissertation von 20 Jahren Versuch und Irrtum wa- von Michelle Beutler, Technicolor Nr. II und III gehört zur Untersuchungsperiode von ren. Olivia Kristina Stutz. Der Übergang zum Tonfilm und die Einführung des Farbfilms. Film und Propaganda 351 Technicolor mittels optischer, mechanischer und/ oder chemischer Verfahren her. − Bei mimetischen Verfahren lassen sich additive von subtraktiven Verfahren unterscheiden: additive Verfahren be- ruhen auf der Mischung von Lichtern, sodass die Summe aller Lichter Weiss ergibt; subtraktive Verfahren filtern mit mehreren in den Film eingelagerten Farbschichten Licht aus, sodass sich in der Summe Schwarz ergibt. Alle Technicolor-Verfahren waren mime- tisch. Technicolor Nr. I gehörte zur Klasse der additiven mimetischen Zweifarben- Verfahren, indem zwei durch Filter auf- genommene Bilder gleichzeitig aufge- nommen und auf die Leinwand projiziert wurden (Layton/Pierce 2015, 37; Abb. 1). Wie alle diese Verfahren – das Berühm- teste war Kinemacolor – erzeugten diese 1 Strahlenteiler in nischen Ansätze auf Vorläufer aus der Ansätze keine überzeugenden Resultate, Technicolor Nr. 1. Fotografie zurückgriffen, erwies es sich waren aber vor allem auch deshalb zum (Quelle: Source: als große Herausforderung die zugrunde- Scheitern verurteilt, weil sie spezielle Ki- Layton, James; Pierce, liegenden Prinzipien auf Bewegtbilder zu noprojektoren erforderten. In der gesam- David (2015): The übertragen, einerseits wegen der schieren ten Geschichte früher Farbverfahren wird Dawn of Technicolor. Menge an Bildern bei einer Laufgeschwin- evident, dass Kinobesitzer die konserva- Rochester: George Eastman House) digkeit von 16 bis 24 Bildern pro Sekunde, tivste Gruppe in der Kette von Produk tion andererseits wegen der extremen Vergrö- bis Auswertung waren. Das Verfahren ßerung der Bildstruktur auf der Leinwand. war schlicht nicht praxistauglich: «During Zusätzlich waren die Anforderungen an one terrible night in Buffalo I decided die Gleichmäßigkeit des Farbauftrags that such special attachments on the weitaus höher als in der Fotografie, denn projector required an operator who was in Bewegung werden Abweichungen von a cross between a college professor and Bild zu Bild oder Verklumpungen deutlich an acrobat, a phrase which I have since sichtbar. heard repeated many times» (Kalmus Zur Diskussion der technischen Verfah- 1938, 566). ren sind grundlegende Systematisierun- Ab Technicolor Nr. II setzte die Firma gen von Farbfilmtechniken notwendig. daher auf subtraktive Mehrschichtver- Eine erste Unterscheidung betrifft die Be- fahren. In Technicolor Nr. II war dies ein ziehung zum Abbildungsgegenstand: Zweischichtenverfahren, bei dem zwei dünne, je rot und grün getonte Filme zu- − Applizierte Filmfarben wie Virage, To- sammengeklebt wurden, mit dem Effekt, nung, Hand- und Schablonenkolorie- dass sich die Filmkopien in der Projektion rung lassen sich als autonom bezeich- verwölbten und wegen der Dicke mehr nen, da sie in keinem systematischen verkratzen. In überlieferten Kopien ist die Verhältnis zum Abbildungsgegenstand Grünschicht in der Regel ausgebleicht. stehen, sondern individuell und arbiträr Sie lassen sich anhand von zwei Kerben in auf schwarz-weisse Filmkopien aufge- der unteren Bildhälfte identifizieren und tragen wurden. weisen eine leichte Reliefstruktur an der − Mimetische Filmfarben stellen eine Oberfläche auf (Abb. 2). Übersetzung der physikalischen Licht- Mit Technicolor Nr. III wandte sich emanation des Abbildungsgegenstands Technicolor daher dem Dye-Transfer-Pro- 352 Einführung in die Filmgeschichte Band 1 Firmengeschichte und technische Entwicklungen zess zu, der auch in Technicolor Nr. IV und V Verwendung fand. Dye-trans- fer – in der Fachliteratur oftmals auch imbibition process bezeichnet – ist ein Farbübertragungsprozess, den man sich ähnlich wie ein Druckverfahren vorstel- len muss, mit dem Unterschied, dass die Farbstoffe langsam in die Filmemulsion diffundieren. Dazu werden bei Technico- lor Nr. III zwei schwarz-weiße Farbaus- züge für je Rot orange und Grün über einen Strahlenteiler mit Filtern belichtet, und zwar auf einem einzigen Kamera- negativ alternierend und spiegelverkehrt 2 Technicolor Nr. II: Clip von King of Jazz (US 1930, John Mur ray Anderson; Pál Fejös). (Abb. 3).2 (Credit: Images courtesy of the Margaret Herrick Library. Fotografie Aus diesen Farbauszügen hat man Ma- Barbara Flückiger) trizen belichtet, in denen das Silberbild durch Gerbung gehärtet und der Rest der Emulsion mit warmen Wasser weggewa- schen wurden, sodass Auswaschreliefs entstanden. Diese Matrizen wurden so- dann mit Farbstoff eingefärbt und auf einem metallenen sogenannten pin belt während mehrerer Minuten auf das Film- positiv übertragen (Layton/Pierce 2015, 142–145). Mit Technicolor Nr. III hatte die Firma ihren ersten signifikanten Erfolg Ende der 1920er-Jahre, vor allem mit einer Reihe von Musicals wie The King of Jazz, Whoo pee! mit Choreografien von Busby Berkeley oder Under a Texas Moon und Dr. X von Michael Curtiz. Verschiedene Faktoren führten dazu, dass dieser Erfolg von kurzer Dauer war, nicht zuletzt war die Firma schlecht auf den mit einer in- tensiven Werbekampagne ausgelösten Ansturm vorbereitet, aber auch zeitigten die Zweifarbenverfahren nur ein einge- schränktes Farbspektrum (Abb. 4). Daher war ein nachhaltiger Durch- bruch von Technicolor erst mit dem Drei- farbenverfahren Nr. IV möglich, das die 3 Kameranegativ für Technicolor
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