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Sedimentary Record of Glacial Lake Mackenzie, Northwest Territories, Canada: Implications for Arctic Freshwater Forcing

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Sedimentary Record of Glacial Lake Mackenzie, Northwest Territories, Canada: Implications for Arctic Freshwater Forcing Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 268 (2008) 26–38 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo Sedimentary record of glacial Lake Mackenzie, Northwest Territories, Canada: Implications for Arctic freshwater forcing Andrew G. Couch, Nick Eyles ⁎ Department of Geology, University of Toronto at Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough Ontario Canada M1C 1A4 ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: The global oceanographic impact of large volumes of freshwater entering the Arctic Ocean from North Received 11 July 2007 America during Laurentide Ice Sheet deglaciation is the subject of much discussion. The model of lateglacial Received in revised form 20 April 2008 runoff-forced changes in ocean thermohaline circulation (THC) is constrained in part due to a lack of detailed Accepted 16 June 2008 study of the relevant terrestrial glacial sedimentary and geomorphic record. This paper reports and interprets sedimentary facies that accumulated in the former glacial Lake Mackenzie, which formed a long (~600 km) Keywords: Glacial Lake Mackenzie and deep (max: 200 m) lateglacial basin ponded along the lower Mackenzie Valley in Canada's Northwest 14 Northwest Territories Territories. This is a key study area because the lake was dammed between approximately 10,500 Cyrbp 14 Freshwater runoff and 9100 C yr bp when most of the runoff from glacial Lake Agassiz was routed northward through the Arctic Ocean Mackenzie Valley to the Arctic Ocean. Detailed outcrop descriptions and geomorphic mapping in the glacial Lake Mackenzie basin fails to identify a clear record of abrupt shortlived flood outbursts but a regionally extensive deposit of massive and laminated mud at least 55 m thick, records trapping of large volumes of suspended fine sediment. Recent work shows the importance of suspended sediment content in freshwater runoff in influencing THC; too much sediment and freshwater enters the ocean hyperpycnally with little effect on surface waters. The role of Lake Mackenzie may have been to trap suspended sediment that otherwise would have been released to the Arctic Ocean, thereby acting to increase the effect of freshwater runoff on thermohaline circulation. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction been implicated in major weakening of the THC (Peltier, 2007). It is in this broader context that we conducted a detailed analysis of glacial The effects of freshwater runoff events in forcing changes in sediments across a large (11,250 km2) area of the former glacial Lake ocean thermohaline circulation (THC) are much debated (Broecker Mackenzie basin (Figs. 2 and 3) seeking the sedimentary record of et al., 1989; Clark et al., 2001; Fisher et al., 2002; Lowell et al., 2005; distinct freshwater runoff events. Teller et al., 2005; Peltier, 2007). This is, in part, because the pathways, sedimentary record and timing of suggested flood events 2. Regional geologic setting of study area are not well known (Smith, 1992, 1994; Dyke and Brooks, 2000; Duk- Rodkin and Couch, 2004; Lewis and Teller, 2007). The Mackenzie The Mackenzie River is Canada's largest and flows along the eastern- Valley in Canada's Northwest Territories is a key area for study most flank of the Cordillera north toward the Mackenzie Delta (Mackay because it was a major outlet for runoff (precipitation and glacial and Mathews, 1973; Dinter et al., 1990; Hill, 1996; Hill et al., 2001; McNeil meltwater) during the closing stages of the Late Wisconsin glaciation et al., 2001). During late Wisconsin deglaciation, northward drainage was (Fig. 1). During ice sheet recession, glacial Lake Mackenzie (named by blocked and glacial Lake Mackenzie formed a deep (max: 200 m), long Smith, 1992) formed along the lower valley during ice sheet retreat (~600 km long) and relatively narrow (~25 km) water body (Fig. 1). It (Figs. 2 and 3) and was fed by runoff from other large glacial lakes such as spilled over a limestone ridge in the vicinity of the present day Rampart glacial Lake McConnell and glacial Lake Agassiz (Fig. 1)(Teller and rapids near Ft. Good Hope (Fig. 2). The lake filled what may have been a Thorleifson, 1983; Teller, 1990a,b; Smith, 1994; Smith and Fisher, 1993; glacio-isostatically depressed moat peripheral to the ice sheet margin Fisher et al., 2002; Teller et al., 2002, 2005; Teller and Leverington, 2004; extending southwards to present day Fort Simpson (Savigny, 1989; Smith, Lowell et al., 2005). In turn, water overflowed from glacial Lake 1992). The route taken by the Mackenzie River prior to the last glacial MackenzietotheArcticOcean(Fig. 1) where meltwater pulses have maximum is only poorly known and older abandoned channels lie east of the study area (Duk-Rodkin and Hughes, 1995). Beaches along the lower slopes of the Mackenzie Mountains to the west and the Franklin ⁎ Corresponding author. Mountains in the east mark the former extent of the lake (Duk-Rodkin E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Eyles). and Couch, 2004; Figs. 2 and 3). The study area lies in the central portion of 0031-0182/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.06.011 A.G. Couch, N. Eyles / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 268 (2008) 26–38 27 Fig. 1. Maximum extent of glacial lakes along the margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (after Smith, 1994; Teller et al., 2005). Numbered lines indicate ice margins during deglaciation in thousands of 14C ka from Dyke (2004). Glacial Lake Mackenzie drained after 9.1 14C ka (this paper). Note that this is a composite map that shows the maximum extent of glacial lake Agassiz (ca. 7.7 14C ka; Smith, 1994; Teller et al., 2005), which occurred after the final drainage of glacial lakes McConnell and Mackenzie. theglacialLakeMackenziebasinwhereitshowsa‘Y' shaped divergence just north of the community of Tulita (Figs. 2 and 3). 3. Methods The history of Glacial Lake Mackenzie is recorded in deposits exposed in substantial river bluffs up to 8 km long and 120 m high cut by deep postglacial incision of the Mackenzie River and its tributaries. The large outcrops extending from Gaudet Island in the northwest to Petroglyph in the south (Fig. 3) were accessed by helicopter and logged in detail (Figs. 4 and 5) using conventional and well-tried facies description and analysis techniques (e.g., Eyles et al., 1983)(Table 1). Facies information at individual outcrops was integrated with the spatial distribution of surface sediment types identified from regional mapping by the Geological Survey of Canada (e.g., Duk-Rodkin and Couch, 2004), to construct stratigraphic cross-sections (Fig. 6). A broad range of facies types is present in the basin fill (Figs. 7–10)and is readily grouped into five packages of genetically related facies (facies associations; FA). To constrain the ages of the deposits, wood was selected from sediments containing organics (twigs with bark attached and with no observable rounding or reworking) and sent for AMS radiocarbon analysis. The location of samples and the corresponding radiocarbon ages are shown in their stratigraphic positions on Figs. 4 and 5. Facies associations are described and interpreted below followed by a discussion of their significance in terms of resolving lateglacial paleodischarges of freshwater to the Arctic Ocean. 4. Description and interpretation of facies associations 4.1. Facies association 1: fan delta deposits This association has a channeled geometry and consists of sands and gravels. It occurs below and above a regionally extensive till deposited by Fig. 2. Study area location and extent of glacial Lake Mackenzie (see also Fig. 1). 28 A.G. Couch, N. Eyles / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 268 (2008) 26–38 Fig. 3. Detailed location map for outcrops described in this paper. the Laurentide Ice Sheet (Fig. 6) and consists of multi-storeyed channel (1990), Bennett et al. (2002) and Lønne et al. (2001). Graded gravel and complexes where master channels are as much as 300 m wide and 15 m sand facies provide key evidence of a subaqueous setting and the deep. These are filled with smaller channels (b50 m wide and 5 m deep) downslope transport of coarse sediment by turbidity currents and nested one upon another. Channel fills are dominated by massive gravel hyperconcentrated flows (Eyles et al., 1987; Mulder and Alexander, and sand (Gm, Sm respectively), normal and inversely graded gravel and 2001; Amy et al., 2005). The same deposits are found locally at the sand (Gg, Sg), and planar cross-bedded gravel and sand (Gp, Sp). Clast surface within relict lateglacial fan deltas along lake shorelines where lithologies are dominantly quartzite, chert and limestone typical of rivers entered the main basin (Duk-Rodkin and Couch, 2004). Cordilleran mountain sources to the west but eastward-derived Common deformation structures such as slumps suggest high Canadian Shield Archean igneous and metamorphic clasts also occur. sediment depositional rates. Diamict and chaotically bedded sand Beds of small-scale, trough cross-bedded sand (St), rippled (Sr), massive and gravel facies are interpreted as debris flow deposits where the (Sm) and horizontally bedded sand (Sh) are common. In the case of incision of channels into underlying till resulted in sidewall collapse channels incised into till, thin (b2 m) units of massive diamict (facies and in-channel slumping of till. Dmm) occur at the base of many channels and consist of chaotic admixtures of gravel and cobbles with rafts and irregular masses of till 4.2. Facies association 2: till and deformed sediments (Fig. 7C. Some channels are filled with massive glaciolacustrine mud containing outsized (ice-rafted) clasts (Fig. 7D). Throughout FA 1, This facies association consists of a regionally extensive diamict paleocurrents are dominantly northward parallel to the long axis of (facies Dmm) resting unconformably on deformed fan delta sediments the lake basin (Fig. 6). Syndepositional faulting, slumps and soft sediment of FA 1 or bedrock (Fig.
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