Indoor Air Quality: a Time for Recognition

EMFeatureFeature Indoor Air Quality: A Time for Recognition

by Richard L. Corsi

It can be argued that the field of indoor air quality has not progressed to the same extent as other environmental fields. It can also be argued that IAQ deserves far more attention than it has received. So, starting this month and running through December, EM will publish a series of articles that discuss some of the many issues now facing those working in the indoor environmental sciences.

century and a half ago, John Griscom, a New York While important progress has been made in our under- surgeon, described the effects of indoor air on hu- standing of indoor air pollution, it can be reasonably argued A man health in his book, The Uses and Abuses of Air: that the field of indoor air quality, especially in nonindustrial Showing its Influence in Sustaining Life, and Producing Disease; settings, has not progressed to the same extent as other envi- with Remarks on the Ventilation of Houses.1 Much of what ronmental fields in the past 150 years. In this paper, I have Griscom described in 1850 continues to concern those in the attempted to provide a broad overview of the importance of indoor air quality field today. Consider his description of in- indoor air quality and some of the sources that contribute to fant exposure to impure indoor air: “First, as a tender infant, its degradation. I have also attempted to make an argument he scarcely has made his entrance into the great ocean of air, for why the field of indoor air quality deserves far more atten- and uttered his plaintive petition for a portion of the new tion than it has received, including the need for an immedi- element to expand his little chest, ere, by the careful nurse, he ate and significant expansion of public education, research, is tucked away under the coverlid ….. lest the already impure and regulatory action. Beginning with this issue of EM, the air of the chamber should be too strong for his weak organs.” reader will find several papers on issues related to IAQ. How- Griscom further described problems of overcrowded and ever, the reader is cautioned that these papers reflect only a poorly ventilated classrooms and chambers: “His next posi- small subset of the many issues now facing those in the tion is as the schoolboy, and here we find him, with from indoor environmental sciences, and is encouraged to learn five to five hundred others, immured between closed walls more from the references and Web sites provided in this and ….. the carbonic acid thrown off from his lungs as excre- accompanying papers. mentitious poison, until, in the morning, he creeps from his bed in a dripping sweat and unrefreshed.” Finally, he de- THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN IAQ PROBLEMS scribed the general health effects of indoor air pollution, rec- Modern indoor air quality problems are generally traced to ognizing the potential for chronic impacts, but also alluding the end of World War II, when there was a great demand for to several symptoms that are now associated with the phe- inexpensive housing in the United States. Suburbs sprang up nomenon of “sick building syndrome” (SBS). Griscom wrote, across America. Homes were built on smaller lots and garages “Wherever we find a civilized being domiciled …… we find were attached directly to the living space, inadvertently him breathing an atmosphere more or less impure. Very of- allowing for the entry of automobile exhaust and constitu- ten the effects are demonstrated at the moment in flushing ents of evaporative emissions into that space. Homes were also of face, perspiration, drowsiness, headaches, vertigo, and constructed of less expensive building materials composed of fainting, and very frequently at more remote periods, by the adhesives and other components that off-gas a wide range of development of more profound and serious diseases of the pollutants to the indoor environment. For the next several lung, heart, head, and stomach.” decades there was an increasing demand for furnishings and

10 EM September 2000 consumer products that made life easier. Manufacturers re- garten and 12th-grade, the equivalent of 1.6 complete years sponded by producing carpet and other flooring material, in classroom settings. easy-to-use cleaners, personal care products, air fresheners, pes- Humans around the world have “evolved” into indoor crea- ticides, and more. These products generally improved the qual- tures. But are indoor environments really safe shelters? ity of life; however, the chemicals they emitted, many of which To many, there is comfort in believing that the places where are now known to be irritants, allergens, toxicants, and car- they and their children spend most of their time are safe cinogens, degraded the quality of indoor air. havens. In fact, on “smoggy” days the public is often warned While a vast array of new sources of air pollution were to stay indoors. However, during the past 20 years there has added to the interior of buildings, most of these buildings re- been a growing base of scientific evidence that all points to mained relatively “leaky,” either by the intentional the fact that many, if not most, of these indoor actions of their occupants, for example, environments are of lower environmental opening windows, or via cracks in the quality than the outdoor environment. building envelope, for example, The U.S. Environmental Protec- openings around doors and tion Agency’s (EPA) Total Expo- windows. The intake of out- sure Assessment Methodology door air was a classic ex- (TEAM) study was a bench- ample of dilution being the mark effort intended to as- solution to indoor air pol- sess everyday exposure of lution. This began to the general population to change in the 1950s with a wide range of pollut- the addition of air condi- ants.4 It was composed of tioning systems in some a large number of separate homes and other buildings, studies involving personal, a trend that grew significantly indoor and outdoor moni- throughout the 1960s and toring of 3000 subjects living 1970s, resulting in a lessened de- in 14 states. Results of the sire to intentionally ventilate TEAM study clearly demon- homes, schools, and offices. In 1973– strated that most Americans have 1974 the world was shaken by an energy their greatest exposure to toxic pollutants “crisis” that led to incentives for homeowners, indoors, and that the primary sources of many of commercial building owners, and even school districts, to con- these pollutants are ordinary consumer products and build- serve energy by “weather proofing” buildings. Such actions ing materials. In fact, the TEAM study indicated that in- included significant reductions in the amount of unintentional door levels of many potentially toxic organic compounds and intentional building ventilation, and accumulation of are typically two to five times, and sometimes as much as indoor pollutants. hundreds of times, greater indoors than outdoors. Similar results have been observed in various building environments THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT AS A SHELTER around the world.5-8 Various studies carried out during the past eight years indicate While it has been established that indoor air is often far that average Americans spend between 87 and 90% of their more polluted than outdoor air, the same might also be said time indoors, only about 5 to 7% outdoors, and the remain- of indoor materials and surfaces. For example, carpet has re- der in transit.2-3 Looking at it another way, the average Ameri- ceived significant attention as a reservoir for pesticides and can spends 5–18 hours indoors for every hour spent outdoors, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), as well as for lead and on average, approximately two-thirds of their indoor time and bio-contaminants.9 Concerns regarding carpet and other is spent in the home. Those that spend the most time in the flooring materials are generally heightened by the fact that home include the most susceptible to indoor air pollution: infants spend a significant fraction of their time in close prox- young children, pregnant women, the chronically ill, and the imity to, or in direct contact with, the floor. In an eye-open- elderly. However, there are other indoor environments within ing study completed in the early 1990s, Buckley and Camann which Americans spend a significant amount of time. Many measured pesticide and PAH levels in the carpet of 362 working adults spend nearly a quarter of their time (or nearly midwestern homes.10 The pesticide DDT, banned in 1972, was 10 years over a typical career) in office buildings. Most observed in the carpet of nearly 25% of the homes. Levels of children spend 14,000 hours in classrooms between kinder- PAHs in the carpet of more than 50% of the homes were greater

September 2000 EM 11 EM Feature

EFFECTS ON NATIONAL PRODUCTIVITY

“The existing literature offers relatively strong evidence that reduced respiratory disease; $2 to $4 billion from reduced characteristics of buildings and indoor environments allergies and asthma; $15 to $40 billion from reduced significantly influence prevalences of respiratory disease, allergy symptoms of sick building syndrome; and $20 to $200 billion and asthma symptoms, symptoms of sick building syndrome, from direct improvements in worker performance that are and worker performance. Theoretical considerations, and unrelated to health. In two example calculations, the potential limited empirical data, suggest that existing technologies and financial benefits of improving indoor environments exceed procedures can improve indoor environments in a manner that costs by factors of 9 and 14. Further research is recommended significantly increases health and productivity. At present, we to develop more precise and compelling benefit-cost data that can develop only crude estimates of the magnitude of are needed to motivate changes in building codes, designs, productivity gains that may be obtained by providing better and operation and maintenance policies.” indoor environments; however, the projected gains are very Extracted from Fisk, W.J. Chapter 1. Estimates of Potential Nationwide Productivity and Health Benefits from Better Indoor Environments: An large. For the U.S., we estimate potential annual savings and Update; Indoor Air Quality Handbook; Spengler, J.D.; Samet, J.M.; and productivity gains in 1996 dollars of $6 to $14 billion from McCarthy, J.F. Eds: McGraw Hill (in press). than levels that would lead to formal risk assessments if found banned. While knowledge regarding some of these sources at similar levels in residential soil near a Superfund site. Ott has improved during the past 20 years, there is still much to and Roberts concluded that, “If truckloads of dust with the be learned about source “fingerprints” (the full range of pol- same concentration of toxic chemicals as is found in most lutants emitted from a source), source strengths (the amount carpets were deposited outside, these locations would be con- of each pollutant emitted as a function of time), and the mecha- sidered hazardous-waste dumps.” nistic behavior of source emissions (how emissions vary as a function of source operating and environmental conditions). TO WHAT CAN WE ATTRIBUTE For example, one source that has increased rapidly in number OUR SHELTER’S DEMISE? within the United States is candles, especially those of the aro- While outdoor air pollution does penetrate into the indoor matic variety. It is clear that candles can be a source of indoor environment, the fact that many pollutants are observed at fine particulate matter in homes, offices, and schools (the au- much higher levels indoors suggests that there must be sig- thor has observed numerous teachers burning candles in their nificant indoor sources of these pollutants. Dramatic improve- K-12 classrooms), and are likely responsible for much of the ments in indoor air quality will in part require a better black soot deposition in homes, often characterized by a par- understanding of the behavior of the wide variety of sources affinic fingerprint. However, there is not a large base of inde- found in indoor environments. pendent studies on this rapidly increasing source, and much Some sources, for example, environmental tobacco smoke is still to be known about the types of volatile organic com- (ETS), have received significant attention and much is known pounds (VOCs), PAHs, and other pollutants candles emit. about the types and amounts of pollutants they emit. For ex- Indoor combustion systems also include sources ranging ample, it is now known that ETS emits more than 4000 chemi- from gas stoves and ovens, associated cooking activities, im- cals and approximately 50 known or suspected human properly vented and unvented space heaters, and automobiles carcinogens. Knowledge, or at least suspicion, of the negative in adjacent garages. These sources emit varying quantities of effects of tobacco smoke is not new. As early as 1880, smoking carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), VOCs, semi- was widely thought of as a disgusting and unhealthy habit, VOCs (SVOCs), and particulate matter (PM). Wallace12 identi- and was actually forbidden in 15 states, actions that far ex- fied cooking as the second most significant source of indoor ceed our willingness to control this source today. To place the PM, next to ETS, and Rogge et al.13 demonstrated significant issue of human exposure to ETS in perspective, Smith11 com- emissions of fine particulate matter for several cooking activi- pared the exposure of Americans to particulate matter origi- ties. These results are important given the high potential of nating from ETS and coal-fired power plants, a heavily inhalation exposure for those doing the cooking and children regulated outdoor source of air pollution. He estimated that who may be present, and exemplifies a routine daily activity although power plants emit 25 times more particulate matter in the lives of most, which can be an important contributor to than ETS on a mass basis, from a human exposure standpoint, fine particle exposure. a mere 2% reduction in ETS would be equivalent to closing all Building materials, for example, reconstituted wood coal-fired power plants in the United States. products used in cabinetry and furniture, emit a wide range of But, there are many sources that can significantly degrade VOCs, including formaldehyde. Formaldehyde has a pungent indoor air quality, even in buildings where smoking has been odor and at concentrations greater than 100 ppb may cause

12 EM September 2000 watery eyes, burning sensations in eyes, nose and throat, nau- SOME RELEVANT WEB SITES sea, tight-chestedness, coughing, and skin rashes. It is also a • California Air Resources Board, Indoor Air Quality suspected human carcinogen. The World Health Organization Personal Exposure Assessment Program: recommends that exposure to formaldehyde should not ex- http://www.arb.ca.gov/research/indoor/indoor.htm ceed 50 ppb. However, levels in manufactured homes, por- • California Indoor Air Quality Program: table classrooms, and many other new or renovated buildings http://www.cal-iaq.org can exceed this level by factors of five or more. • Consumer Product Safety Commission, Indoor Air Even those pleasant smelling terpene compounds, for ex- Quality Publications: http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/ ample, pinenes and limonene, emitted from wood products pubs/iaq.html and many consumer products may generate indoor air qual- • Home Indoor Air Quality Knowledge Base: ity problems. Weschler and Shields14 demonstrated that ozone http://www.dehs.umn.edu/homeiaq reacts with terpenes leading to measurable submicron particles • Indoor Environment Department: in indoor settings. The particle yields were significant, an im- http://eande.lbl.gov/IEP portant result considering recent efforts by EPA to regulate • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Indoor Air fine particulate matter in outdoor air. Quality: http://www.epa.gov/iaq Air “fresheners,” household cleaners, personal care prod- • Health House: http://www.healthhouse.org ucts, and other consumables (e.g., pesticides) are major sources • American Lung Association: http://www.lungusa.org of indoor air pollution, especially VOCs. Many of the associ- • National Safety Council, Indoor Air Program: ated pollutants can be severe irritants, are suspected carcino- http://www.nsc.org/ehc/indoor/iaq.htm gens, and are heavily regulated as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) when emitted by industry to outdoor air. Many air fresheners and moth repellants, for example, are nearly pure of chloroform are generated in, and emitted from, washing para-dichlorobenzene (p-DCB), a chemical known to cause machines following the usage of chlorine-containing bleach. cancer in laboratory animals. Air fresheners containing p-DCB Biological air pollutants (bio-contaminants) include bac- are used to mask odors in homes, schools, hotels, office build- teria, viruses, fungi, pollen, animal dander, dust mite, and ings, public restrooms, and even nurseries and daycare cen- cockroach fecal matter. The most widespread effects of these ters. Average concentrations of p-DCB in homes have been sources include allergic responses such as rhinitis, nasal observed to be a factor of 20 times higher than outdoor con- congestion, and asthma. However, bio-contaminants are centrations.15 also responsible for other diseases such as Legionnaires’ Since most homes operate under slightly negative pres- disease and tuberculosis, both caused by airborne transmis- sure relative to the surrounding soil, gases can migrate from sion of specific bacteria. Fungi also release mycotoxins that soil into the building interior. Much of the attention related are known to cause symptoms ranging from short-term to soil vapor intrusion has focused on vapors comprised of irritation to cancer. Stachybotrys is one type of fungus that toxic organic chemicals associated with hazardous waste sites, has received national media attention due to several leaking underground storage tanks, and landfill gas. While extreme cases of contamination in homes and schools. these sources can sometimes lead to very high risks to build- These are but a few examples of the hundreds or thou- ing occupants, a far greater threat when integrated across en- sands of sources of indoor air pollution that are found in tire populations are the naturally occurring pollutants of radon homes, schools, office buildings, and other highly frequented and its decay products. indoor environments. Additional information related to these Even drinking water can lead to the degradation of indoor sources and the pollutants they emit can be found online (see air quality.16 Several researchers have concluded that inhala- “Some Relevant Web Sites” sidebar). tion exposure to many contaminants emitted from water during indoor usage may be as great, or even greater, than exposure WHAT ARE THE RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH associated with ingesting the water.17-18 This is particularly true POOR INDOOR AIR QUALITY? for many halogenated compounds that are generated as by- The concept of risk-based decision-making and corrective products of the otherwise beneficial process of drinking water action has evolved into an important regulatory tool during chlorination. These findings may be perceived as somewhat the past two decades, and is often cited for its value in the ironic when compared with human fears regarding the inges- prioritization of environmental policies and for decisions re- tion of similar chemicals in water, fears that have led to a world- lated to environmental intervention. The latter is often trig- wide bottled water industry with annual sales of approximately gered for scenarios of environmental contamination that $70 billion. Shephard et al.19 also found that significant levels would lead to greater than 1 or 10 in 1 million excess cancer

September 2000 EM 13 EM Feature risks, for example, at or near hazardous waste sites, at the fence with indoor air pollution is the burden that it places on busi- line of industrial facilities, or in drinking water. So, how do nesses, school districts, and, in fact, entire economies. Research- the risks of indoor air pollution compare? ers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory recently It is generally agreed that poor indoor air quality can have completed an eye-opening assessment of the impacts of in- a detrimental, if not devastating, effect on the health of chil- door air pollution on America's national economy.22-23 Those dren and other highly susceptible populations. For example, economic impacts are significant (see “Effects on National Pro- EPA estimates that ETS leads to 150,000–300,000 lower respi- ductivity” sidebar). ratory tract infections each year among children under 18 months of age and living in the United States, and that these A CALL TO INDOOR ARMS children require 7500–15,000 hospitalizations each year due Relative to other environmental issues, indoor air quality re- to the effects of exposure to ETS. EPA has also estimated that mains a problem-driven field. Building owners pay attention 200,000–1,000,000 American children have worsened asthma once occupants complain, and federal agencies are provided problems each year due to exposure to ETS. In addition to the with relatively sparse funding to address indoor air quality effects of ETS, EPA estimates that biological air contaminants in problems once the problem becomes obvious. indoor air are responsible for at least 200,000 emergency room The Radon Gas and Indoor Air Quality Research Act of visits each year by asthma patients, many of them children. 1986 required, for the first time, that EPA establish a formal Indoor air pollution is also believed to be a significant con- research program associated with radon and indoor air qual- tributor to chronic diseases such as cancer. EPA estimates that ity. Five years later, the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) ETS causes 3000 lung cancer deaths each year among Ameri- published a report on federal efforts to address indoor air pol- can nonsmokers. This translates to a risk of dying of lung can- lution.24 The GAO concluded that the amount of funds spent cer due to ETS exposure of approximately 800 in 1 million by EPA on indoor air quality research was not commensurate during a 70-year span. Similarly, it has been estimated that with the high health risks associated with this issue. In subse- indoor pesticides and VOCs contribute as many as 3000 can- quent years, research funding among EPA and nine other fed- cers per year in the United States.20 Radon and its decay prod- eral agencies dealing with indoor air-related issues did not ucts are now believed to be the second leading cause of lung change appreciably. In 1999, the GAO issued another report cancer in the United States, behind mainstream cigarette on the status of federal research activities related to indoor air smoke. The National Research Council estimates that expo- pollution, and concluded that many gaps in knowledge and sure to the radioactive decay products of radon is responsible understanding of the problem remain.25 A consensus opinion for 15,000–21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United was that to fill these gaps and resolve related uncertainties, States. This translates to a risk of death from radon exposure “[will require] a comprehensive and coordinated research of 3800–5400 in 1 million (0.38 to 0.54%) during a 70-year effort involving multidisciplinary research teams composed span. Ironically, the cancer risks described here are orders of of experts in such areas as epidemiology, exposure assessment, magnitude greater than those that would cause regulatory in- medicine, chemistry, microbiology, and building systems.” The tervention for other environmental media. good news is that intellectual resources in these areas exist. The importance of human health risks associated with The bad news is that financial resources necessary to address indoor air pollution has been recognized for many years. In the GAO findings continue to be elusive. 1987, radon and non-radon indoor air pollution were each Over the past 30 years, the Clean Air Act (CAA) and associ- ranked in the top five of 31 environmental problems in terms ated amendments have led to tremendous improvements in of the risks they pose to human health, results that were en- our understanding of outdoor (ambient) air quality, sources dorsed by EPA’s Science Advisory Board.21 Indoor air pollution that impact ambient air quality, and measures to control ranked ahead of many issues that have received far more regu- sources that emit pollution to outdoor air. The CAA has led to latory attention, including hazardous waste sites, ground- a large and complex regulatory framework aimed at improv- water contamination, drinking water, hazardous/toxic outdoor ing poor, and maintaining good, ambient air quality. It has air pollutants, and outdoor criteria air pollutants. This is not motivated tens to hundreds of billions of dollars in research, a to say that these other environmental issues are not impor- large pollution control and monitoring equipment industry, tant. Indeed, regulatory attention paid to some of these issues a significant consulting industry focused on regulatory per- has led to important environmental dividends. However, the mit assistance, and significant public awareness campaigns relative importance of indoor air quality does bring to ques- focused on sources of outdoor air pollution. There is nothing tion why it has received so little attention relative to these remotely similar to the CAA for nonindustrial indoor other environmental issues. environments. In the opinion of the author, the time is long Finally, an additional and often forgotten risk associated overdue to explicitly address indoor air quality in future CAA

14 EM September 2000 amendments, and to formally address what may be the most 10. Ott, W.R. and Roberts, J.W. Everyday Exposure to Toxic Pollutants; Scien- tific American, Feb. 1998, pp 86-91. important and relatively overlooked environmental issue of 11. Smith, K.R. Taking the True Measure of Air Pollution; EPA Journal, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October-December 1993, pp 6-8. our time. 12. Wallace, L.A. Indoor Particles: A Review; J. Air & Waste Man. Assoc., 1996, 46, 98-126. 13. Rogge, W.F. et al. Gaseous and Particulate Emission Rates for Residential Food Cooking. In Proceedings of Engineering Solutions to Indoor Air Quality Problems, a specialty conference co-sponsored by A&WMA and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Research Triangle Park, NC, 1997, pp 36-44. REFERENCES 14. Weschler, C.J. and Shields, H.C. Indoor Ozone/Terpene Reactions as a 1. Griscom, J.H. The Uses and Abuses of Air: Showing its Influence in Sustain- Source of Indoor Particles; Atmospheric Environment, 1999, 33, 2301-2312. ing Life, and Producing Disease; with Remarks on the Ventilation of Houses, 15. Wallace, L. Major Sources of Exposure to Benzene and Other Volatile 2nd ed.; Clinton Hall, NY, 1850. Organic Chemicals; Risk Analysis, 10(1), 59-64. 2. Jenkins, P.L.; Phillips, T.J.; Mulberg, E.J.; and Hui, S.P. Activity Patterns of 16. Howard, C. and Corsi, R.L. Volatilization of Chemicals from Drinking Californians: Use of and Proximity to Indoor Pollutants Sources; Atmo- Water to Indoor Air: The Role of Residential Washing Machines; J. Air & spheric Environment, 1992, 26A(12), 2141-2148. Waste Manage. Assoc., 1998, 48, 907-914. 3. Tsang, A.M. and Klepeis, N.E. Descriptive Statistics Tables from a Detailed 17. McKone, T.E. Human Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds in House- Analysis of the National Human Activity Pattern Survey Data; EPA/600/ hold Tap Water: The Indoor Inhalation Pathway; Environ. Sci. Technol., R-96/148; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and 1987, 21(12), 1194-1201. Development: Washington, DC, 1996. 18. Giardino, N.J. and Wireman, J.R. Total Body Burden from Inhalation 4. Wallace, L.A. The Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) Study; during Showering with Benzene-Contaminated Drinking Water: Impli- EPA/600/6-87/002, 1987. cations for Cancer Risk; Journal of Hazardous Materials, 1998, 62, 35-40. 5. Levsen, K.; Ilgen, E.; Angerer, J.; Schneider, P.; and Heinrich, J. Human's 19. Shepherd, J.L.; Corsi, R.L.; and Kemp, J. Chloroform in Indoor Air and Exposure to Benzene and Other Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Indoor and Wastewater: The Role of Residential Washing Machines; J. Air & Waste Outdoor Sources. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on In- Manage. Assoc., 1996, 46, 631-642. door Air Quality and Climate; Edinburgh, Scotland, 1999, 5, 312-316. 20. Wallace, L.A. Comparison of Risks from Outdoor and Indoor Exposure 6. Namiesnik, J.; Gorecki, T.; Kozdron-Zabiegala, B.; and Lukasiak, J. In- to Toxic Chemicals; Environmental Health Perspectives, 1991, 95: 7-13. door Air Quality (IAQ), Pollutants, Their Sources and Concentration Lev- 21. Unfinished Business: A Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems; els; Building and Environment, 1992, 27(3), 339-356. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Feb. 1987. 7. Baek, S.; Kim, Y.; and Perry, R. Indoor Air Quality in Homes, Offices and 22. Chen, A. and Vine, E.L. A Scoping Study on the Costs of Indoor Air Quality Restaurants in Korean Urban Areas-Indoor/Outdoor Relationships; At- Illnesses: An Insurance Reduction Perspective; Environmental Energy Tech- mospheric Environment, 1997, 31(4), 529-544. nologies Division, Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Labora- 8. Brickus, L.S.R.; Cardoso, J.N.; and Neto, F.R.D. Distributions of Indoor tory; Report LBNL 41919, 1998. and Outdoor Air Pollutants in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Implications to In- 23. Fisk, W. and Rosenfeld, A. Estimates of Improved Productivity and Health door Air Quality in Bayside Offices; Environ. Sci. Technol., 32(22), 3485- from Better Indoor Environments; Indoor Air, 1997, 7, 158-172. 3490. 24. Indoor Air Pollution: Federal Efforts Are Not Effectively Addressing a Growing 9. Lewis, R.G. et al. Distribution of Pesticides and Polycyclic Aromatic Hy- Problem; U.S. General Accounting Office; GAO/RCED-92-8, 1991. drocarbons in House Dust as a Function of Particle Size; Environmental 25. Indoor Pollution—Status of Federal Research Activities; U.S. General Account- Health Perspectives, 1999, 107, 721-726. ing Office; GAO/RCED-99-254, 1999.

Guidelines and Resources for Indoor Air Quality Professionals

by Mary Ann Latko, CIH, CSP, QEP

With no definitive set of standards gov- he world of indoor air quality (IAQ) regulations, standards, and guidelines is not as neatly defined as other erning indoor air quality in the United Tareas of environmental management. Indeed, the “cog- States, IAQ professionals are forced to turn nizant authority” that is often viewed as defining standards for worker safety in the United States, the Occupational Safety to alternative sources for guidance. Listed and Health Administration (OSHA), does not have a regula- here are some of the resources currently tion that specifically addresses IAQ. The draft OSHA IAQ regu- available to those working in the field lation, published in the Federal Register in 1994,1 is still under review with no anticipated publication date on the current of IAQ. regulatory agenda. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

September 2000 EM 15 EM Feature

(EPA) has been prevented from promulgating IAQ regulations relationships and airflows in these and other critical areas. The because it has not been given jurisdiction to regulate the in- AIA guidelines are currently under revision and a new version door environment. Problems with the environment inside the is expected in 2001.5 workplace are under the jurisdiction of OSHA. Given that there There are also product-related standards intended to help is no definitive set of standards, regulations, or guidelines that provide an acceptable indoor environment. Many manufac- cover all aspects of indoor air quality, IAQ professionals are turers’ associations, from manufacturers of carpets and rugs to forced to turn to other sources to piece together guidelines furniture to vacuum cleaners, have initiated voluntary stan- and standards. dards, rating schemes, and certifications for the products their The list of available sources for IAQ professionals is con- members produce. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Inc., mem- tinually expanding, as even the most basic tenets—“What fac- bers of UL's Environmental and Public Health (EPH) Council, tors need to be considered in and its technical committee of defining IAQ?” and “What is good regulatory, user, and industry ex- IAQ?”—have a wide interpretation Many in the industry perts are undertaking work to and application in the standards develop a U.S. national model and guidelines in use today. De- view the United States as standard for indoor air quality. pending on how you define IAQ, lagging behind other The new standard will reference you might focus on the highly protocols and standards already regulated parameters such as asbes- countries in terms of IAQ created by industry and credible tos, radon, and lead; you might regulations. standards development organiza- expand your definition to include tions. It will establish evaluation less-regulated but still fairly well- criteria to guide the manufacture defined parameters such as tem- and selection of products used to perature, relative humidity, and ventilation rates; or you might construct, furnish, and control the environments of residen- need to address parameters for which IAQ-specific standards tial and commercial buildings.6 and guidelines do not exist such as light, noise, biologicals, or For IAQ professionals looking for additional guidance in volatile organic compounds (VOCs). There might also be a this area, there are various professional organizations that need to reach beyond worker “safety” standards and look to offer guidelines and information, including the American In- standards for building construction and materials. dustrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), the American Congress Many in the industry view the United States as lagging of Governmental Hygienists (ACGIH), the International Soci- behind other countries in terms of IAQ regulations; indeed, ety on Indoor Air Quality and Climate (ISIAQC), and the non-U.S. standards may be good sources of information for Association of Energy Engineers (AEE). those working in the field of indoor air quality.2-3 Given the lack of government regulation, much of the focus in the United ONLINE RESOURCES States falls to the consensus standards set by the American In addition to the sources mentioned above, government Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-conditioning Engi- agencies, associations, manufacturers, and other commercial neers (ASHRAE). ASHRAE writes standards and guidelines in and organizational entities provide a variety of IAQ-related its fields of expertise to guide industry in the delivery of goods information on their Web sites. Listed below are some sources and services to the public. ASHRAE standards and guidelines that might be helpful. include uniform methods of testing for rating purposes, de- scribe recommended practices in designing and installing Government and International Agencies equipment, and provide other information to guide the in- • http://www.cdc.gov and http://www.cdc.gov/niosh: The Web dustry. ASHRAE has some 87 active standards and guidelines sites of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) project committees, addressing broad areas such as indoor air and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health quality, thermal comfort, energy conservation in buildings, (NIOSH) provide information related to the adverse reducing refrigerant emissions, and the designation and safety health effects of poor IAQ, including Legionnaires’ dis- classification of refrigerants.4 Specific to the healthcare indus- ease, tuberculosis, sick building syndrome (SBS), and try is the American Institute of Architects’ (AIA) 1996-97 Guide- building-related illnesses. lines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Healthcare • http://www.epa.gov: Although regulation of the indoor Facilities. The AIA guidelines are applicable to both new con- environment is currently outside its jurisdiction, the EPA struction and renovation activities at healthcare sites, and deal regularly conducts IAQ-related research and provides with air exchange rates for isolation rooms, as well as pressure publications on many aspects of IAQ, including indoor

16 EM September 2000 air pollutants and their sources; health effects of indoor ment; product testing and certification; research and de- air pollution; testing and measuring indoor air pollut- velopment; and education and training. The “Indoor Air ants; controlling indoor air pollutants; constructing and Health” Web page contains resource information and maintaining homes and buildings to minimize IAQ prob- subscription information on its NSF Indoor Air Health lems; existing standards and guidelines related to IAQ; newsletter. and general information on federal and state legislation. EPA's Building Air Quality and Tools for Schools7 publica- Commercial Sites tions specifically address IAQ. • http://www.buildingteam.com: This Web site is a central • http://www.osha.gov: There is a great deal of information source for building code information for all 50 U.S. states provided by OSHA in the preamble and text of its pro- and many counties and cities. posed IAQ regulation. • http://www.invironment.com: The Chelsea Group publishes • http://www.who.ch: The World Health Organization (WHO) its free INvironment Professional newsletter online. Air Quality Guidelines8 are designed to help protect public health, eliminate or reduce to a minimum concentra- REFERENCES tions of air pollutants both indoors and outdoors, make 1. Indoor Air Quality. Fed. Regist. 1994, 59, 15968-16039. 2. The use of mechanical ventilation and airconditioning in buildings—Mechanical risk management decisions, and guide governments in ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality; Standards Australia, AS 1668.2. 3. Ventilation for buildings: Design criteria for the indoor environment; European setting standards and developing national and regional Committee for Standardization's (CEN) Technical Committee 156, Tech- action plans. Fact sheets and other information are avail- nical Report 1752. 4. See http://www.ashrae.org/STANDARDS/stds.htm able on the WHO Web site. 5. See http://www.e-architect.com/resources/hcfg1.asp 6. See http://www.ul.com/eph/insights/ephiv1n1/inairstd.htm 7. See http://www.epa.gov/iaq/schools/whatsnew.html Professional Trade Associations and Societies 8. See http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact187.html • http://www.ascr.org: The Association of Specialists in Clean- ing and Restoration (ASCR) is a trade association of firms About the Authors that perform cleaning and restoration services—ranging Richard L. Corsi is an Associate Professor and Leland Barclay Fellow from cleaning carpets, upholstery, draperies, and rugs to within the Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Texas at the restoration of interior and exterior contents, includ- Austin. He serves as Director of the Texas Institute for the Indoor ing heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) Environment (TI2E) and is past chair of the A&WMA Indoor Air Qual- systems—after a disaster has occurred. The National In- ity Committee. Dr. Corsi teaches courses related to air quality (includ- stitute of Disaster Restoration’s (NIDR) Guidelines for Fire ing IAQ) and air pollution engineering. His research focuses on the and Smoke Damage Repair offers recommended restora- mechanistic behavior of sources of indoor and outdoor air pollution. tion practices. NIDR is a division of ASCR. The guide- He can be contacted via e-mail: [email protected] or Web site: lines can be ordered from the ASCR Web site. http://www.ce.utexas.edu/prof/corsi. • http://www.carpet-rug.com: The Carpet and Rug Institute (CRI) provides information related to IAQ and floor cov- Mary Ann Latko works for Integrated Project Management Com- erings, located in the “commercial” section of its Web pany Inc., Burr Ridge, IL. She is the new chair of A&WMA's In- door Air Quality Committee, chair of the American Society of Safety site under “indoor air quality.” Engineer's Air subcommittee, and serves on ASSE's Environmen- • http://www.nadca.com: Anyone involved in the cleaning tal Practice Specialty Advisory Board. She is a qualified environ- or restoration of HVAC equipment should be familiar mental professional, a certified safety professional, and a certified with National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA) industrial hygienist. ACR-2000, Standard for Assessment, Cleaning, and Rest- oration of HVAC Systems for Hygiene. This industry consensus standard covers the methodologies for the assess- COMING ment, cleaning, and restoration of HVAC systems, including indoor environmental management controls NEXT MONTH for these processes. The standard can be downloaded from NADCA's Web site. Salvatore Cali, MPH, CIH, John Franke, Ph.D., CIH, Lorraine • http://www.nsf.org: NSF International is an independent, Conroy, ScD, CIH, and Peter Scheff, not-for-profit organization specializing in public health Ph.D., CIH, University of Illinois at safety and environmental quality. Its public health Chicago take a look at indoor air activities center on four areas: air, water, food, and envi- quality in hospitals. ronment. Services include consensus standards develop-

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