January 1956 1956 WMO Bulletin January 1956

I I I IS IS

lit\ lit\

u p on on r e q uest uest

and and non - recording . .

syphon syphon raingauges, raingauges, both both recording recording

All All types types of of float, float, balance balance and and

RAINGAUGES RAINGAUGES

wind wind speed speed at at a a distance. distance.

ments ments for for recording recording instantaneous instantaneous

" P opillon" opillon" e l ectro-magnet i c c ins t ru

A ll ll t ypes ypes of of a n emometers includi n , , g g

ANEMOGRAPHS ANEMOGRAPHS

of of solar solar radiation. radiation. Pyrheliogrophs. Pyrheliogrophs.

truments truments for for measuring measuring the the intensity intensity

Direct Direct reading reading and and recording recording ins

SOLA R I M ETE R S S

and and dew-point dew-point instruments. instruments.

and and recorders, recorders, including including upper-air upper-air

ruled ruled charts. charts. All All types types of of indicators indicators

Direct Direct reco r ding ding of of air air humidity humidity on on

H YGROG R APHS APHS

provide provide a a permanent permanent answer answer

sitive. sitive.

JULES JULES

RICHARD RICHARD inst r um e n s s t ore ore outs t a n ding l y y sen

barometers barometers a n d d h ygromete r s. s. T hese hese

Which Which ca n n 'be 'be combined combined with with our our

INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENTS OF OF

THERMOGRA P H S S

THE THE PRECISION PRECISION

Navy . .

Standard Standard equipment equipment in in the the French French

t he he French French Meteorological Meteorological Service. Service.

charts; charts; adopted adopted for for over over 40 40 years years by by

meteorological meteorological stations stations

Recording Recording aneroids aneroids with with continous continous

BAROGRA PH S S At At all all modern modern OFFICERS OF THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION President : Mr. A. VIAUT First Vice-President Dr. M. A. F . BARNETT Second Vice-President : Prof. Dr. H. AMOR IM FERREIRA

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Mr. A. VIAUT Mr. F. X . R. DE SouzA Dr. A. NYBE RG Dr. M. A. F . BARNETT Mr. A. THOMSON Dr. F. vV. REICHELDERFER Prof. Dr. H. AMORIM FERREIRA Dr. C. DEL ROSARIO Mr. A. A. SoLorouKHINE Mr. J. RAVET Prof. Dr. Ing. J. LUGEON Sir GRAHAM SurroN Mr. S. BAsu Mr. L. DE AzcARRAGA Mr. M. F. TAHA

TECHNICAL COMMISSION PRESIDENTS REGIONAL ASSOCIATION PRESIDENTS Aerology: Prof. Dr. J. VAN MIEGHEM Africa (I): Mr. J. RAVET Aeronautical Meteorology : Mr. A. H. N AGLE Asia (II) : Mr. S. BASU Agricultural Meteorology : Mr. J. J. BuRGOS South America (Ill) : Bibliography and Publications: Dr. M. MEZIN Mr. F. X . R. DE SouzA Climatology: Dr. C.\¥. THORNTHWAITE North and Central America (IV) : Instruments and Methods of Observation : Mr. A. THOMSON Mr. A. PERLAT South-\¥est Pacific (V) : Maritime Meteorology : Dr. C. DEL ROSARIO Cmdr. C. E. N. FRANKCOM Europe (VI): Prof. Dr. Ing. J. LUGEON Synoptic Meteorology : Prof. Dr. W. BLEEKER

SECRETARIAT Secretary-Gene·ral: Mr. D. A. DAVIES Chief, Technical Division : Dr. K. LA NGLO Deputy Secretary-General: Mr. J. R. RIVET Chief, Administrative Division : Dr. H. SEBASTIAN

THE PURPOSES OF THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (a) To facilitate world-wide co-operation (c) To promote standardization of meteo in the establishment of networks of rological observations and to ensure stations for the making of meteorolog the uniform publication of observ ical observations or other geophysical ations and statistics ; observations related to meteorology (d) To further the application of meteor and to promote the establishment and ology to aviation, shipping, agricul maintenance of meteorological centres ture, and other human activities ; and charged with the provision of meteor (e) To encourage research and training in ological services ; meteorology and to assist in co (b) To promote the establishment and ordinating the international aspects maintenance of systems for the rapid of such research and training." exchange of weather information ; From the Convention of the \¥orld Meteorological Organization, Article 2.

THE CONSTITUENT BODIES OF THE ORGANIZATION (a) The World Meteorological Congress one of the six meteorological Regions which meets at least once every four of the world. They meet as often as years; necessary to ensure compliance with (b) The Executive Committee, which the policies of the Organization. meets at least once annually ; (d) Technical Commissions composed of (c) Regional Associations made up of experts in the various meteorological Members of the Organization the fields which meet at least once every networks of which lie in or extend into four years.

THE SECRETARIAT The Secretariat of the Organization is located at Campagne Rigot, Avenue de la Paix, Geneva, Switzerland.

Organization. Organization. e e th of of views views the the represent represent rily rily · necessa not not do do contributions contributions Signed Signed

va. va. Gene Paix, Paix, a a l de de e e u Aven Rigot, Rigot, Campagne Campagne , , Organization Meteorological Meteorological World World

, , l y-Genera r eta r Sec the the to to d d addresse be be ld ld ou h s in in et ull e B e h t out out b a ce ce n esponde r cor r r e h ot ll ll a and and

cs) cs) n a r f Swiss Swiss 4 4 ( s n o ipti scr ub s l l a nnu A postage. postage. including including , , copy r r e p franc franc ss ss i Sw is is price price The The I I

French. French. and and sh sh li Eng : : tions i ed separate separate two two in in quarterly quarterly published published s s i etin etin ll Bu WMO WMO The The

y. y. activit human human to to

ogy ogy l eteoro m of of on on i cat li app the the with with concerned concerned others others and and zation zation i Organ the the of of s s r Membe to to

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the the of of iel iel work work or ' ~ \ the the of of summary summary a a ide ide v pro to to is is in in et ull B WMO WMO the the of of ose ose purp e e Th

40 40 ...... events events coming coming of of lendar lendar a C IS. IS. p. p. n n o found found be be ll ll wi ch ch hi w

f f o report report a a Atlases, Atlases, matic matic li C on on Group Group g g in

Vor • \

the the of of

meeting meeting a a at at y y l recent reviewed reviewed

38 38

...... • •

. . • • ...... • • ...... eviews eviews R

was was maps maps atic atic lim c for for projections projections of of tion tion

ques l l genera The The . . predictions onospheric onospheric i

for for ITU ITU e e th y y b standardized standardized n n ee b has has tion tion 34 34 ...... riat riat a t e r ec S WMO WMO the the from from ews ews N

ec j o r p s hi t that that is is answer answer e e th ; ; projection projection

particular particular this this of of use use the the on on i quest doubt doubt no no

32 32

...... • • . . . .

. . • • . .

......

. .

......

Notes Notes d d an ews ews N ill ill w many many cover, cover, the the on on ced ced reprodu is is which which

map map annual annual e e h t of of part part the the examining examining On On

e. e. u iss ext ext n our our in in n n give be be ll ll wi publication publication

28 28 ors ors e hydromet nd nd a ds ds lou c of of

ntrol ntrol

al al i

c Artifi

e e h t of of account account er er ll ; ; fu a a Bulletin Bulletin the the of of issue issue

this this as as time time same same the the about about at at n, n, ductio

23 23 ...... . . ro ...... int ...... ef ef ...... bri . . . . a a . . h h ...... wit ...... together together ...... ed, ed, lions lions publish be be ll ll wi

maps maps

These These r. r.

yea

e e l

who

the the for for and and ters ters - za ni orga rnational rnational e int other other with with on on i t abora Coll

quar the the or or f month, month, each each for for days days derstorm derstorm

thun of of er er numb average average the the iving iving g maps maps

21 21 . . nds nds a l ld ld arid arid wor the the 7 7 p p I lo of of eve d es es i to to ser a a efforts efforts in in nted nted e creased creased In pres been been now now

have have data data These These ved. ved. r obse n n ee b e e hav ch ch i wh

ys ys cla thunderstorm thunderstorm of of number number the the on on d d l wor

20 20 ...... ons ons ciati Asso Regional Regional of of ties ties i v Acti

the the r r ove ll ll a from from information information g g tin ec ll co n n ee b

years years three three past past the the over over has has at at i Secretar

WMO WMO

the the

, , )

ITU

(

on on i Un

Telecommunications Telecommunications

19 19 ...... WMO WMO of of embership embership M

rnational rnational e Int the the om om r f request request a a eet eet m To To

ts." ts." l o rb e thund of of flight flight a a of of falling falling the the In In

18 18 as as Atl Climatic Climatic World World

fic fic i terr that's that's othing othing n is is ere ere Th

entific, entific, i sc who's who's him him to to t t u "B

17 17 . . . . radiosondes radiosondes of of comparison comparison rld rld nomena: nomena: e wo ph ond ond ec S

ral ral natu to to attitude attitude different different a a has has scientist scientist

the the Mikado, Mikado, The The opera opera ht ht g li e e h t in in it it eel eel

12 12 ...... amme amme r og Pr ance ance Assist ical ical n

ech T

ress exp y y l ab so so st, st, i brett li English English lebrated lebrated ce

the the bert, bert, l Gi as as But But ning. ning. ght li of of nature nature

spiring spiring n awe-i the the to to

sions sions

llu a in in

ch ch i r s s i

tries tries

10 10 ...... ions ions Commiss l l a hnic ec T the the of of es es i vit i ct A

n cou many many f f o ore ore l lk- fo e e th ; ; ogy ogy l o r eo met

in in essays essays recorded recorded first first the the before before ong ong l back back

...... 2 2 . . 8 8 1957-5 Year Year l l ca i s phy eo G l ationa rn e Int elates elates thunderstorms thunderstorms n n i interest interest Man's Man's

Page Page

CONTENTS CONTENTS OF OF TABLE TABLE COVER COVER THE THE ON ON PICTURE PICTURE THE THE

NO. NO. V V VOL. VOL. 1956 1956 JANUARY JANUARY

~~~~~[~~ ~~~~~[~~ ~~~ ~~~

ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION METEOROLOGICAL METEOROLOGICAL R L D D L R 0 0 W W

2 2

mitt

ee ee

e j

ct e

d d an

y y

a ft ft pro g ramm e synoptic synoptic , , s ituation s. s. C e rt a in in asp e c t s s of of

It It goes goes

without without

say

g g that that

th e e com fl o w w patt e rn s s assoc iat e d d with with va riou s s

h ave ave b eco m e e mor e e

f a

miliar miliar

with with

e e

qu es tions tions

of of

l imit

e d d

int e

r es

t. t.

th e e l as t t e n n

yea

. .

Meteorologists Meteorologists

d e clin

e d d

to to

consid

e r r

local local

or or r eg ional ional

prog

r ess ess mad e e in in m

e teorolog

y y

dur

n g g

effo rt

s s and and

m ea n s. s. This This

is is wh

y y

it it ha s s

f ac

tor tor contributing contributing

to to th

e e substantial substantial

l ems ems

by by

a a

desire desire

to to a a vo

i d d

dispersal dispersal

of of

upp e r-air r-air n e twork twork

s s

ee n n

the the

main main

has has

b ee n n

guid

d d

in in

its its

c h o

ice ice

of of prob

The The

p r o g r e s s ive ive dev

l opment opment

of of th

e e

t e rnational rnational

Geoph

ical ical

r r (CSAG (CSAG

I) I)

areas areas up up to to a a l eve

l l

of of

about about roo roo

mb . .

e e Special Special

Committee Committee

for for th

e e In

of of th e e ea rth 's 's atmosphere atmosphere over over larg e e

int out out e rnational rnational a a daily daily thre collaboration. collaboration. e -dim e nsiona l l ana l ysis ysis

l e mak ms ms e e whose whose it it possibl solution solution e e at at ca pr lls lls ese for for nt nt e to to ffe c ca tiv rr e e y y

wide wide th e e extension extension in in character, character, of of the the th a upp t t is is e to to r-air r-air say say network network prob

l e the the ms ms numb which which r r e are are of of radiosond fund a m e ntall e e stations stations y y world and and

upp Top Top e r - priorit air air soundings y y ha s s be , , e n n th giv e e n n e in c to to r ease ease prob in in

Improv

e m e nts nts

in in the the t ec hniqu es es of of

GUIDING GUIDING PRINCIPLES PRINCIPLES

PROGRAMME PROGRAMME OF OF INVESTIGATIONS INVESTIGATIONS

of of vertical vertical soundings. soundings.

improv e e

co nsid

r a bl y y th e e perform a nc e e

of of th e e atmosphere. atmosphere.

of of approximate

l y y 35° 35° N N

and and

S S and and

to to

data data relating relating to to the the

genera

l l

circulation circulation

upper-

a ir ir

network network

b e tw

ee n n th e e parallels parallels

e nd nd of of th e e IGY IGY

a a

coherent coherent

set set

of of

basic basic

n ee d d

to to fill fill

e e

important important

g aps aps

in in th

e e

that that

met eo rologists rologists

will will po ssess ssess

at at

e e

balloons. balloons.

e r

e e

is is th r e

e for

e e

an an ur

nt nt

It It has has b ee n n drawn drawn

up up in in such such

a a mann

e r r

maximum maximum

bursting bursting

l eve

l l of of

unding unding

g ramme ramme of of inv

es tigation

s s

(see (see

b e l ow). ow).

spher

e e and and

e e stratosph

e re re

up up

to to

e e

on on th e e prob l e ms ms

includ

e d d in in

th e e

pro

on on a a g lobal lobal

scale, scale,

of of the the upp e r r

tropo

ological ological observations observations

ha s s

b ee

n n based based

fir s t l y y

to to

the the

systematic systematic

ex ploration, ploration,

Fin a lly, lly, th e e

programm

e e of of

m eteo

M e t eo ro l ogists ogists should should dir ec t t th e ir ir efforts efforts

and and in in th e e upp e l r aye rs rs at at a ll ll latitudes. latitudes. vations. vations.

can can

e e ob

e d d in in

e e tropica l l z on e e (r8 (r8 months) months) in in the the vo l ume ume of of obser

knowledge knowledge

of of

e e

ph e nom e na na which which mean s s of of a a t e mpor a r y y in c r ease ease

(IGY) (IGY)

is is

int

e nd e d d to to

incr ease ease our our cepted cepted probl e ms ms lik e l y y to to be be solv<:d solv<:d by by

Int

e rnationa

l l

eo ph

ys i ca l l Year Year specified. specified. On On th e e other other hand , , it it ac

or g

ani

z H ation ation

E E

in in

1 9 57-5 8 8 of of

an an th e e object object of of which which w as as not not cl e arl y y

PURPOSES PURPOSES OF OF THE THE IGY IGY

to to

reproduce reproduce

the the main main sections sections of of th e e report report in in the the Bull e tin. tin.

import

a nc e e

of of

thi

s s

pr og r a mm

a e

nd nd

of of the the w id e e interest interest which which it it h as as

aroused, aroused,

it it was was

decided decided

e e

full full

report report

i s s being being

distributed distributed

to to

m eteoro l og i ca l l services, services,

but but in in

v i ew ew

of of th g e

r eat eat

b y y

Prof. Prof.

Van Van

Mieghem Mieghem

g ivin

g g

full

e d r

tail

s s of of the the met eo rolo g ical ical

wo rk rk to to

b e e und

erta

k e n

. .

Working Working

Group Group

n n the the

International International

Geo

ph ys i ca l l Yea r. r. A A report report

has has

now now

been been

epa

ed ed

No. No.

, , p. p.

6 6 and and Vol. Vol.

IV, IV,

No. No.

p. p.

5 2) 2) 2, 2, b y y P J. J. rof. rof. Va n n Mieghem, Mieghem,

irm

a n n

of of

the the

vVMO vVMO

inf

o rm

a ti o n n

a b

t t

the the programme programme

r e e

give n n in in ea rli e r r articles articles in in th e e vVMO vVMO

Bulletin Bulletin

(Vo

l. l.

IV, IV,

e e histori

l l ba

g r o und und

of of

th e e Int e rnati o nal nal Geo ph ys i ca l l Yea r r (1957 - 58) 58) and and some some

Fore word word

METEOROLOGICAL METEOROLOGICAL PROGRAMME PROGRAMME

IN T ERNATIONAL ERNATIONAL

GEOPHYSI C A L L Y E AR AR 1957- 5 8 8

WMO WMO B u ll eti n n

J an u ary ary 195 S S

3 3

at at observations observations c c i synopt the the are are mentioned mentioned latitude; latitude; and and altitude altitude of of terms terms in in

be be to to first first the the s, s, n statio observing observing at at y y l dai wind wind the the of of gradient gradient vertical vertical the the of of mination mination

out out carried carried s s ion observat the the g g n Amo ) ) i ( deter , , r particula in in ; ; quantities quantities l l ca i og l oro

mete the the of of derivatives derivatives space-time space-time

the the of of

observations observations Surface Surface magnitude magnitude of of order order the the of of Determination Determination

; ; year year the the of of period period the the to to

Meteorology Meteorology Dynamic Dynamic and and Synoptic Synoptic relation relation in in air air the the of of content content vapour vapour water water

and and on on i distribut e e temperatur systems, systems, wind wind

the the of of scale scale global global a a on on Determination Determination

. . e us in in radiosondes radiosondes the the of of

; ; n n otatio r s s rth' ea

son son ri compa e e rld-wid wo a a IGY, IGY, the the of of the the on on factors factors meteorological meteorological of of Influence Influence

beginning beginning

e e th

before before ll ll we time, time, good good

: : e e l examp r r Fo solved. solved. be be to to problems problems

in in

organize organize

should should

WMO WMO that that l l a nti esse

rtant rtant o imp ess ess l not not d d an d d e lat e r e e bl a n e

s s i it it

Moreover, Moreover,

desirable. desirable. y y l extreme

also also ill ill vv them them solve solve to to d d ecte ll co

so so l

a s i

observation observation of of methods methods and and

e e b ll ll wi which which ata ata d e e th that that r, r, eve how

s s d

ecor r

of of

dardization dardization Stan ards. ards. nd sta

obvious, obvious, s s i . . lation circu It It l l genera the the

l l ationa n against against delay delay without without checked checked

of of problems problems fundamental fundamental e e th includes includes

be be uld uld o h s

IGY IGY

the the during during observations observations

only only above above ed ed utlin o A A programme programme e e Th

out out g g in carry e e b will will which which s s n statio at at

sed sed u instruments instruments the the that that s s d en mm eco r . . situations synoptic synoptic

scale scale - arge l to to relation relation in in oceans, oceans, the the over over CSAGI CSAGI e, e, ibl ss po as as e e l arab mp co as as e e r a

y y ll

especia precipitation, precipitation, of of Distribution Distribution (v) (v)

data data l l observationa that that ensure ensure To To

ation. ation. l circu cal cal i extra-trop and and l l ca i trop

. . s hip s ected ected l the the between between and and hemispheres hemispheres two two the the of of

ation ation l circu the the between between interactions interactions the the ing ing se and and s s hip s weather weather board board on on tions tions

includ latitudes, latitudes, ower ower l in in patterns patterns Flow Flow (iv) (iv)

a t s as as well well as as islands, islands, on on and and coasts coasts

other. other.

the the on on oceans oceans and and continents continents the the

the the ong ong l a mountains, mountains, e e th in in y, y,

untr

nd nd a hand hand e e n o the the on on atmosphere atmosphere the the tween tween

low low in in cated cated lo stations stations and and l e e includ

be exchanges exchanges momentum momentum and and Heat Heat iii) iii) (

ns ns statio ese ese Th nditions. nditions. co weather weather of of

ergy. ergy. n e of of and and y y it vortic absolute absolute of of tum, tum,

observations observations synoptic synoptic out out carrying carrying tion tion momen of of balance balance the the on on topography topography face face

sta any any ns ns ea m e e r e h n statio sur and and observing observing friction friction of of influence influence e e l Large-sca (ii) (ii)

term term e e th that that out out pointed pointed be be hould hould s entropy. entropy.

and and energy energy of of forms forms ous ous i var the the and and ticity ticity it it g, g, ndin a t s r e und s mi y y n a prevent prevent To To

vor absolute absolute momentum, momentum, of of scale scale anetary anetary l p

a a on on atmosphere atmosphere the the in in Re-distribution Re-distribution (i) (i) OBSERVATIONS OBSERVATIONS OF OF PROGRAMME PROGRAMME

Meteorology Meteorology Dynamic Dynamic and and Synoptic Synoptic A. A.

scale. scale. planetary planetary

a a on on atmosphere, atmosphere, e e h t in in ld ld fie c c ri ect l E v) v) i (

ow. ow. l be mentioned mentioned ms ms e probl e e th to to

ation. ation. l circu l l genera the the

ar, ar, l particu in in nd, nd, a ation ation ul c ir c l l genera

to to n n atio l re in in ce, ce, n a

l ba radiation radiation the the y y iall c

e e th of of processes processes namic namic y rmod e th nd nd a

espe atmosphere, atmosphere, the the f f o balance balance Heat Heat (iii) (iii)

dynamic dynamic physical, physical, e e l e-sca larg the the to to

s. s. l eve l high high at at y y ll especia vapour, vapour, r r wate

ed ed t

evo d be be ld ld

shou

s s

ion

gat ti

ves in

IGY IGY

of of distribution distribution l l ca i vert and and zontal zontal i Hor ) ) i (i

the the that that recommends recommends e e for e r e th CSAGI CSAGI

jet-stream. jet-stream. tropical tropical

exists. exists. ion ion solut y y r sfacto unsati very very sub the the of of e e id s each each on on y y l! l! especia ozone, ozone,

of of on on i ut ib distr l l vertica and and Horizontal Horizontal (i) (i) a a only only others others many many for for and and unsolved unsolved

ll ll sti are are questions questions many many ess, ess, l Neverthe

Meteorology Meteorology Physical Physical . . B

es. es. d atitu l different different of of zones zones between between

exchanges exchanges energy energy and and momentum momentum the the

. . m et-strea

j the the of of Dynamics Dynamics

of of ght ght i he with with ons ons riati va the the and and tions tions

; ; forecasting forecasting

ia var l l seasona the the as as such such d, d, e l revea

cal cal ri e

num to to

view view a a with with

atmospheres atmospheres model model

n n

ee b also also ve ve ha atmosphere atmosphere the the of of of of on on i examinat l l ca iti cr and and ve ve i Comparat

ulation ulation c ir c l l a r e n ge the the ntain ntain i ma ch ch i wh

; ; atitude atitude l to to relation relation in in y y ll a i espec assumption assumption

processes processes mechanical mechanical and and l l therma the the geostrophic geostrophic the the of of validity validity of of Degree Degree

1956 1956 January January Bulletin Bulletin WMO WMO

4 4

:ur

ntl

y y r eq

e d d

to to t ake ake

ac tion tion to to radi at i on on for for se l ec t e d d parts parts o f f t h e e sp ec trum : :

radi a se tion, tion, r v ic both both es es of of th parti e e tota c l l ipating ipating radiation radiation countries countries an d d the the are are

Reg

ar ar

eas

ur e m e

nt nt

of of th e e dir ec t t

so lar lar tropical tropical latitude s. s. Th e e m e teorolo g i ca l l

of of a a a bla tt c a b k in in ody; ody; th e e ro ro mb mb l eve l , , es p ecia ll y y in in

face face o r, r,

alte rn a

ti ve

l y, y, t h e e ffe ct i ve ve r a

diation diation excee d d thi s s l imit imit

e gularl

y y

and and

to to

o f f t h e e r ad i a ti o b n a l ance ance at at

th e e

th's th's

s ur

a t t

eve

r y y effor

t t should should b e e mad

e e to to

Measureme

n t t

of of the the

riou

s s compo

n e nt

s s

th e e 50 50 mb mb level level t t a l eas

t, t,

eve

ry ry

day, day,

a nd nd

r a di a tion tion at at th e e ea r t h 's 's s ur

face face

; ;

- d

a il

y , , that that th e e so undin gs gs sho

uld uld r eac h h

Measurement Measurement

of of the the

effect

i ve ve l ong-wave ong-wave

in gs gs and and four four r a

diowind diowind

obs

r v ations ations

th e e

s un un a nd nd s k y y on on a a h o ri

zo ntal ntal surface surface

; ;

, , in in

prin

:: ipl e , , two two PT U U

radio

s ound

totali ze m r et h od) od)

of of

the the

tota

l l r

ad i

i o

n n

om om

m e t eo

rolo

g i ca

l l

se r v ic es es s hould hould carry carry Co n t inu o u s s recording recording ( p oss ibl y y using using a a

ti o

n s, s, it it i s s r e commend e d d that that n at ional ional

out out

: :

Vhth Vhth

r ega

rd rd

to to

upp r- e a

ir ir

o bs

e r

in g g m eas ur e m e nt s s should should b e e ca rri e d d

It It i s s

r e comm e nd e d d that that th e e fo ll ow upper -air -air observation s s

radi a t i on on is is abso rb e d d b y y th e e ozone. ozone.

a n

d d

e e evapo

r at i o

n n at at

the the

ea rth 's 's surface

. .

th e e

s p

e c

trum trum

in in

i c

h h

ultra-viol

e t t

a n

d d fin

a ll

y y to to o b se r ve ve th e e state state of of the the ground ground

pro

g ramm

e B B e above, above,

in in tho se se

parts parts

of of

t e mperature mperature a nd nd wa t e r r

co nt

nt nt

of of

h e e

soi

l , ,

espec

i a

ll y, y, h av in g g in in mind mind w i nd nd point point g radi e nts nts ( i) i) of of close close t o o the the s u rface, rface, the the

to to m easure easure

the the t emperat th ur s e e, e, un un humidit r eac hin y y and and g g th e e arth's arth's s urfa ce, ce,

bala

n ce ce

at at

th e e earth's earth's

sur

f ace, ace,

it it i s s

n ecessa

r y y

m ade ade

of of

the the

ultra-

v iol

e t t

r adia

tion tion

o m m

ete

rmin

e e

co mp

o n e nts nts o f f the the h ea t t

m en d ed ed that that

m eas

ur e

e nt

s s

o uld uld

e e

it it must must n ot ot b e e f o r gotte n n th

at at

in in o

der der

to to

eq uipm

e nt nt i s s avai l a bl ( e, e, i v) v) it it In In i v s s ie o w r eco p f m o int int ( i i i o ) f f pr ogra mm e e B, B,

In In

all all

aces aces

e e th

e e

n ecessa r y y

the the u sual sual com m e r c ial ial r o ut es). es).

(espec i a ll y y on on board board those those w hi c h h d epa rt rt from from

s t a tion weather weather s ) . . s hip s) s) a nd nd on on board board m e r c h a nt nt ships ships

(at (at

l eas

t t

at at

upp er-a ir ir stations, stations,

inclu d in g g th e e upp r- e a ir ir s tati ons ons (es

p ec

i a

y y

i s l

a nd nd

N N at at th e e lar ges t t possibl

e e numb

e r r

of of

statio

n s s

tati

ve ve

of of

a a

f a

irl y y

ex ten s i ve ve a r ea ea a

round round

l ow), ow),

to to

estimate estimate

accu

rat e

l t y

h c e

l oud

in ess ess

gy gy

(ea rth

, ,

m osp

h ere), ere),

r e pr ese n planetar y y a n a l ys is is of of ra di atio n n data data (see (see

( iii radiation radiation ) ) is is It It essentia e n e rg l , , y y with with (s un a a ) ) v i ew ew and and to to l ong-wave ong-wave a a genera l l

min

e e

e e flu c tu

a tion s s of of short-wave short-wave

tive tive va

at i

o ns ns

f f thes

e e quantiti

es . .

It It i

o s

m f

a jor jor

imp

rtan

ce ce

to to d e t e r at at i n terva l s s wh i ch ch c l ea rl y y brin g g out out the the effec

Th ese ese m eas ur e m e n ts ts sho uld uld b e e ca rried rried o ut ut

o f f the the s now now s urfa ce ce and and of of th e e water water s urf ace. ace. i s s measured. measured.

perature perature at at va riou s s d ept

hs, hs, t

h e e

t e

mperatur

e e

co11po

o nt nt

of of

th e e radiation radiation bal

ce ce

n y y

s tati

o n

s s

as as

po ss

ibl

e e

il il te

t atio

s s

e e tho

se se

t t vv hi c h h

at at

l east east gra mm e e A), A), it it i s s desirab l e e to to measure measure at at as as

o l whi og i ca c h h l l ph will will e n ome b e e na na consid (see (see p e oi r e nt nt d d as as ( iii ) ) r a of of diation diation pro

influ

e n

ce ce o f f t h e e eart h 's 's

s urf ace ace on on m eteo r - work work of of s t a tion s. s. Th e e on l s y

tations tations

( ii ) ) In In o rd e t r o o

determin

e e

t h e e

e rmal rmal

re co rd e o d ve r r a a s uffi c i e ntl y y d n e se se n e t

ti l on on ow) ow)

a b nd nd a l a t nc h e e e e d ew ew mu p s oint oint t t b t e e e mp m e eas r at ur ur e e e d d T T d d a nd nd T c~. c~.

(see (see

p o

int int

( iii

) ) of of

pr og r a mm e A A e

and and para. para. ( ii ) ) c ir c ulati o n, n, a ll ll compon e nt

s o s f f th e e radi

temperatu r e e of of the the a ir ir and and

that that of of

t h

e e sea sea

standin

g g of of

th e e

ocesses ocesses of of th e e ge

e r

l l

m eas urin g g

t h

e e 5 5 di

ffere

n ce ce

b etwee

n n th e e

In In

ord

o r r

t a o

rriv

e e at at a a b

tter tter und e r b oa rd rd s hip s s ha ve ve to to b e e s u pp l emented emented b y y

and and

para. para. ( i v) v) b e l ow). ow). Observations Observations

m a d e e o n n

Rad

iation iation

g r o und und E E (see (see p o int int ( iii ) ) of of the the pr og ramm e e B B

programme programme A) A) as as well well as as th e e state state of of the the

interva

l l of of twe l ve ve h o ur s s (see (see p oi nt nt (v) (v) of of Phy s ic a l l M et eorolog y y

prec i pitatio n n RR RR obse r ve d d twice twice daily daily at at a n n

obse r vatio n s s mu st st be be a dded dded the the amount amount of of

seve n n

g roups roups

of of

code code

FM FM

2 2

r.A

) . .

To To

t h ese ese

capa

e e

of of

thes

e e p

e rf

o rm

a n ces. ces. first first six six gro ups ups o f f co d e e FlVI FlVI I I I I .A .A a nd nd th e e first first

ensure ensure oooo, oooo, that that o6oo th , , e I200 I200 ir ir so undin and and I 8 g g o b o o a h lloons lloons o ur s s (see (see a re re t h e e

WMO WMO Bu ll e ti n n

J an u a ry ry 1 9 56 56

5 5

contin u o u s s obse rv at i o n n of of i sfer cs cs and and interesting interesting to to know know w ith ith the the same same

tion-find to to ers ers are are invit e d d organiz e e the the var i a tions . . wo uld uld then then be be It It espec i a ll y y

Countr i es es wh i ch ch of of the the po ssess ssess atmosphere atmosphere r a dio dio dir and and ec it s s day-to-day day-to-day

eva lu a tion tion of of

th e e total total

kinetic kinetic ene r gy gy

R adio adio meteorology meteorology

the the possibility possibility of of a a fairly fairly accura t e e

stations stations to to make make it it poss ibl e e consi d e r r

data data from from soundings soundings of of the the e l ect ric ric field. field.

of of the the equipment equipment of of ex istin g g upper-air upper-air

one one with with anothe r r and and compare compare them them with with

radiowind radiowind stations stations and and impro vement vement l oca l l effects , , compa r e e such such measur ements ements

air air at at places places n ot ot disturbed disturbed b y y accidenta l l or or The The extension extension of of the the network network of of

potent i al al grad i ent ent and and cond u ctivity ctivity of of the the

act u

ll y y

m eas

ur e

d. d.

(i ) ) i Carry Carry o ut ut surface surface measurements measurements of of the the

to to ingl y y close close th e e t e n-d ay ay amounts amounts

soundings soundings one one with with another. another.

by by means means of of this this form ul a a are are surp ri s sound in gs) gs) and and to to compare compare the the r esu l ts ts of of such such

tries tries are are already already able able to to carry carry out out such such the the ten-day ten-day Q Q amo unt s s for for calcu l ate d d

stat i ons ons ( i n n fact, fact,

severa l l participating participating coun

increases. increases. Exp e ri e nc e e has has shown shown th at at

p . . 57). 57). at at the the l argest argest possib l e e number number of of

Q Q the the period period for for which which is is eva lu ated ated

World World Days Days (see (see Bulletin, Bulletin, Vol. Vol. I V, V, No. No.

2 , ,

of of the the empir i ca l l formula, formula, improves improves as as the the conductivity conductivity of of ai r , , at at l east east during during the the

aircraft, aircraft, of of the the electric electric potent i al al gradient gradient and and Q, Q, of of the the va lu e e calcu l ated ated b y y means means

(i) (i) Carry Carry out out sound in gs, gs, b y y radi oso nd e e or or shou ld ld It It be be noted noted that that the the accuracy accuracy

masses masses over over the the surface surface of of th e e globe . . i n g g countri es es : :

energy energy reaching reaching the the various various land land is is r eco mm e nded nded It It that that participat

es timat e e of of the the total total quantity quantity of of solar solar

Atmospheric Atmospheric electricity electricity

at at whic h h S S is is measured measured a nd nd obtai n n an an

Q Q calcu lat e e at at a a selection selection of of stat i ons ons

ecl ip ses. ses.

the the g l obe . . We We to to shou ld ld then then be be a ble ble

m et h od od based based

on on

obse

r va

ti ons ons

of of lun ar ar

mu l ae ae to to be be u sed sed in in various various regions regions of of

ba ll oon-borne oon-borne spectrog

raph raph and and the the

to to ab l e, e, es t ablish ablish th e e emp iri ca l l for

m ethod ethod (fi l t e r s), s), the the m e thod thod u

sing sing

a a

Q, Q, for for which which S S and and N N data data are are avai l

on on

e e Gi:itz Gi:itz

effect, effect,

the the radiosond

e e to to however, however, thanks thanks th e e few few stations stations

to to use, use, that that is is say, say, the the method method ba se

d d

p l anetary anetary sca l e . . It It would would be be po ss ibl e, e,

obta in e b d y y the the

var i ous ous methods methods in in

representative representative Q Q distribution distribution of of on on a a

ment s s of of

vertica

l l ozone ozone

distribution distribution

to to justif y y any any hop es es of of obtaining obtaining a a

rison rison shou ld ld be be made made of of the the measure

measured measured during during th e e IGY IGY is is too too sma ll ll

CSAGI CSAGI

r eco mm

e nds nds

that that

a a compa

numb e Q Q r r of of stations stations at at which which will will be be

in ess ess N N (see (see para. para. (i i i) i) on on p. p. 4). 4). The The of of the the sub-tropica j l et-stream. et-stream.

reliable reliable data data are are avai l able able for for cloud t ud es es 15° 15° and and 40° 40° a N nd nd on on both both s id es es

tion) tion) in in terms terms of of S, S, provid e d d that that tropical tropical anticyclones, anticyclones, b etwee n n lati

solar solar radi ation ation plus plus diffus e e sky sky radia to to ozone ozone th e e east east and and t h e e west west of of su b

calcu l ate ate Q Q th e e globa l l radiation radiation (d ir ect ect ve rti ca l l a nd nd hori zonta l l di s tribution tribution of of

b y y means means of of to to an an e mpirical mpirical formula, formula, to to be be carr i e d d out out in in ord e r r d eterm in e e th e e

arises arises from from the the fact fact that that it it is is possib l e, e, is is r eq u ested ested It It that that measur e ments ments

stations stations we ll ll distribut e d d over over the the earth earth

Atmospheric Atmospheric

ozone ozone

tion tion of of s un shine shine S S at at a a se lection lection of of

Th e e importanc e e of of mea s uring uring dura

on on th e e ea rth-li g ht ht on on th e e moon . .

m e ntioned ntioned measur e m e nts. nts.

using using Prof. Prof. A. A. Danjon's Danjon's method, method, bas e d d

be be to to carried carried out out in in addition addition the the above

fo r r det e rmination rmination of of the the earth's earth's albedo albedo

paras. paras. (iii) (iii) and and

(iv) (iv) on on p . . 4 4 shou

ld ld

to to I AU AU mak e e prov i sio n n during during the the IGY IGY

The The

measurem

e nts nts

m e ntioned ntioned

in in

For For this this reason, reason, CSAG I I r eq u ested ested the the

syst e m m and and its its d ay- to-d ay ay va ri at i ons. ons.

Recording Recording of of sunshine sunshine duration. duration.

sorbed sorbed b y y the the ea rth rth - atmosph e re re

the the sun sun and and sky sky ; ;

accuracy accuracy the the total total so l ar ar energy energy ab Measurement Measurement of of ultra-violet ultra-violet radiation radiation from from

WMO WMO Bullet in in Janu a ry ry 1956 1956

6 6

tage tage that that it it permits permits th e e long-d and and i und stance stance eve lop e d d areas. areas.

has has th e e furth e r r quite quite important important extending extending advan the the network network over over the the oceans oceans

Moreover, Moreover, the the observation observation must must of of sferics sferics ther e fore fore be be direct e d d towards towards

oro l ogical ogical r eco nnaissanc e e aircraft, aircraft, etc. etc. gical gical phenomena . . The The main main effort effort

by by radio radio dir ec tion-find e rs, rs, radar, radar, of of the the mete pl ane tar y y natur e e of of meteorolo

be be used, used, including including those those made made possib l e e the the network network is is still still inad eq uate uate because because

be e n n mad e e during during the the past past ten ten years, years,

(U.S. (U.S. Navy Navy photograph) photograph) considerable considerable improvements improvements which which have have

upper-air upper-air

in ves tigations tigations during during the the IG IG Y Y

observ i ng ng

network . . In In spite spite of of the the

qo qo km). km). is is planned planned

It It to to use use rockets rockets for for

of of th e e successive successive developments developments i n n the the

Launch Launch of of Aerobee Aerobee rock et et (maximum (maximum hei ght ght

gress gress is is ins epa rable rable from from · the the history history

The The history history of of m e teorologica l l pro

NETWORI< NETWORI< OF OF OBSERVING OBSERVING STATIONS STATIONS

effects effects accompanying accompanying them. them.

of - p ea r l l clouds , , as as well well as as the the optica l l

morpholog y y of of noctilucent noctilucent and and mother

of of appearance, appearance, height, height, movement movement and and

by by visual visual observations observations th e e frequency frequency

attempts attempts shou l d d be be mad e e to to d e termine termine

made made whenever whenever possibl e; e; in in particular, particular,

tions tions of of exce ptional ptional phenomena phenomena b e e

CSAGI CSAGI recommends recommends th a t t observa

E xcep t1:onal t1:onal phenomena phenomena

of of the the air. air.

should should d e t e rmine rmine the the oxygen oxygen content content

expe ditions ditions organized organized during during the the IGY IGY

samplings. samplings. It It is is also also d es irab l e e that that

mined, mined, at at least least by by m ea ns ns of of month l y y

Na, Na, K, K, rvig, rvig, Ca Ca ...... ) ) should should be be deter

tation tation (S, (S, Cl, Cl, N0 N, N, NH N, N, - -

the the chemical chemical composition composition of of precipi

2 2 the the C0 content content of of the the air air and and that that

observing observing the the weather weather will will therefor

e e

measurements measurements shou l b d e e

made made of of

significance. significance. A ll ll available available means means of of

the the nece ssa r y y equipment equipment

is is avai

l able able

their their great great practical practical and and scientific scientific

is is r ecom It It m e nd e d d that that wherever wherever

made made of of thund e rstorms, rstorms, in in view view of of

phenom

e na, na,

mention mention mu s t t first first be be Composition Composition of of the the air air and and precipitation precipitation

company company the the weather. weather. Amongst Amongst th ese ese

picture picture of of the the phenomena phenomena which which

of of observing observing sferics. sferics.

ments, ments, we we also also require require a a complete complete

the the practical practical and and scientific scientific

advantages advantages

ture ture of of the the atmosphere atmosphere and and air air mov e

therefore therefore have have

an an inter est est

in in

studying studying

representation representation as as possible possible of of the the struc

yet yet poss ess ess r a dio dio

direction-finders, direction-finders,

will will

In In order order to to obtain obtain as as comp l ete ete a a

the the activity activity of of the the IGY, IGY, which which do do not not

picture picture of of the the atmospherics atmospherics problem. problem. stations. stations. Countries Countries participating participating in in

resu l ts ts in in order order to to build build up up an an overall overall tions tions in in r egio ns ns without without observing observing

to to co-ordinate co-ordinate the the exc hang e e of of th e ir ir detection detection of of disturbed disturbed weather weather condi

WMO WMO Bull e t i n n J a n u ary ary 1956 1956

7 7

d i a n n 7oo 7oo W. W.

should should It It b e e added added th a t t th e e b e tween tween parall e l s s 35° 35° a nd nd 40° 40° S , , in in th e e

located located in in the the n

i g

hb ourhoo

d d

of of

the the

m eri

b e tween tween

r all

s s 45° 45° a nd nd

50° 50°

N N and and

the the stations stations

of of

the the

A r gentine gentine

e tw

o rk rk

upper upper

a ir, ir,

in in

the the

t empe

r ate ate zo n es es tio n n w ith ith t h e e co untri es es co ncern ed, ed, as as well well as as

vations vations Sou as as th th A po meri ss ibl ca ca e, e, by by both both th e e U.S s urfac .A . . in in e e and and co llab ora

w hich hich wi ll ll be be set set up up a

l o n g g th e e \ ¥es t t coast coast of of to to carr y y out out as as many many synoptic synoptic ob

t h e e No rth rth Po l e e to to parall e l l zooS, zooS, the the

stations stations

Gen

e rally rally

speaking speaking

it it i s s r ecommended ecommended

sta tions tions bord er in g g th e e mer id ian ian Soo Soo v V V from from

s pher e . . The The 7 7 5° 5° \ ¥ ¥ sect i on on is is form ed ed o f f

network network

to to geomagnetism geomagnetism

and and ph

y sics sics

of of

th e e i o n o

Requirements Requirements

of of the the I I GY GY

synoptic synoptic

the the requirements requirements of of th e e programmes programmes r e latin g g

o nl y y the the wishes wishes of of m eteo rolo g ists ists but but a l so so

g itud e . . Th e e first first thr ee ee sections sections m eet eet not not

ges ges o n n the the genera l l circu l at i o n. n. w ith ith a a toleranc o e f f approxi m ate l y y 5° 5° of of lon

h y drod y

namic namic

effec t t

of of l a r ge ge mounta i n n ran a l ong ong m e ridian s s 10° 10° E, E, 140° 140° E E a nd nd 7 5 o o V I/ , ,

sections sections w ill ill m a k e e it it po ss ible ible to to study study th e e Me1·idional Me1·idional ( i ) ) sections sections from from pole pole t o o pole, pole,

So u t h h America America across across t he he Andes. Andes. Thes e e two two

ing ing sectio n s s : : possibl e, e, a a similar similar parti a l l z onal onal sec tion tion in in

Mountains, Mountains,

a long long the the parallel parallel 40 ° ° N N and , , if if permit permit the the pr e paration paration of of the the follow

through through the the Sierra Sierra Nevada Nevada and and the the Rocky Rocky

(v i ) ) A A par t ial ial zona l l section section in in North North America America

of of roo roo km km (U .S. .S. Navy Navy photo

raph) raph)

g r

ess ess

is is to to

be be

mad

e e in in

tr op i c a

l l m

eoro

lo gy. gy. at at a a h eig ht ht of of 30 30 km, km, attains attains a a h e i g

ht ht

tioned tioned

der der ( i v) v)

above, above,

are are

essentia

l l if if pr o the the r oc k et , , fir ed ed b y y remote remote r ad

io io co ntr

o l l

sections sections

lik

e e

the the

e ridional ridional

sect

i o ns ns

m e n P l astic astic balloon balloon car r y in g g a a Ro ckoon ckoon

r ocke

t t : :

Ocean Ocean a nd nd the the western western Pacific. · · These These zona l l

in in the the No r t h h At l a ntic , , th e e southern southern Indi a n n

immedia t e e neighbourhood neighbourhood o f f the the sth sth parallel parallel

poss ib l e e - th e e partial partial zo nal nal sections sections in in the the

parallels parallels 5° 5° and and J0° J0° N N a nd nd I I - so so far far as as

(v) (v) The The z onal onal sections sections al ong ong the the and and Equ~tor Equ~tor

r eq uirem e nts nts of of p o int int (i (i v) v) o f f pro g ramm A e . .

same same l atitudes atitudes ; ; seve n n sections sections a l so so me et et the the

1 8 0° 0° and and Soo-7oo Soo-7oo \ ' V, V, whic h h pa ss ss through through the the

p l e ment ary ary to to those those of of roo roo E, E, 75° 75° E, E, qo E, E,

0 0

of of 5° 5° of of l o n g itud e. e. The se se sections sections a r e e co m

mer idi ans ans 3oo 3oo E E and and ro

E E with with a a to l e r a n I I ce ce

0 0

cal cal latitudes latitudes of of the the two two hemispher es , , a l ong ong the the

( i i v) v) NI NI eridiona l l sec t ions ions restricted restricted to to the the tropi

So sect \1, ' ' i o n n serves serves Nort h h A m er ica . . 0 0

con tin ent ent of of Asia Asia in in th e e same same way way as as the the

case case Europe. Europe. Th e e r r r o

E E section section serves serves the the 0 0

st r ea m m when when it it reaches reaches a a co ntin e nt nt - in in t h is is

syste m atic atic st ud y y o f f th e e splitting splitting o f f t he he j e t

g itude . . The The section section zoo zoo vV vV pro v id es es f o r r a a

with with a a tolerance tolerance of of a ppr oximate l y y 5° 5° of of l on

sphere sphere alo n g g the the m er idians idians zoo \ ¥ ¥ a nd nd u oo oo E, E,

( i ii) ii) NI NI eridional eridional sec t io ns ns in in the the northern northern hemi

soons soons pr eva il. il.

over, over, it it passes passes through through a a region region where where mon

d iti o ns ns in in t h e e southern southern hemisphere; hemisphere; m ore

t h e e north e rn rn h e misph e r e e and and m a ritime ritime co n

r ep res e n tat i ve ve o f f co ntin e ntal ntal co nditions nditions in in

from from p o l e e to to p o l e. e. Th e e section section 7 5° 5° E E is is

i sts, sts, as as it it i s s th o e nl y y one one

whi

c h h is is oceanic oceanic

n et work work

hould hould

b e e

comp l eted eted so so as as to to

sottis

f y y

e e

animous animous

desire desire

of of

meteor

o lo

ramme ramme

A A to to b

e e

solved

, ,

e e

ae rolo

g i ca l l The The section section along along th e e r Soo Soo m er i d ian ian wi ll ll

To To to l e e ran nable nable ce ce of of th appr e e basi ox imat c c probl e l y y e 5° 5° ms ms o f f of of l ongitude pro . .

l ong ong th e e meridians meridians 7 5° 5° E E and and

r 8o with with a a

0 0

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set set u p p a a station station in in Centra l l America. America.

Synoptic Synoptic

Network Network

Fede r a l l R e public public of of G e rman y y propos e s s to to

WMO WMO Bullet i n n January January 1956 1956 WMO Bulletin January 1956

arid zones between parallels zoo and parallels Z5° and 35° latitude ; these 30° N and S, as well as in the equa must be suitably distributed along torial zone between parallels zo0 N parallel 30° and capable of carrying and zoo S. With regard to the density out soundings up to a level well above of the aerological network, CSAGI re that of the sub-tropical jet-stream. commends that, in principle, aerolo gical stations in middle and high The problem of the mean meridional latitudes should not be more than circulation is one of those which it is 300-400 km apart and that the aero hoped to solve by a temporary in logical stations in tropical and sub crease in the number of observational tropical latitudes should be as close data. This belt of aerological stations as possible to 0°, 5°, 10°, 15°, Z0°, zso, at the limits of the tropical and extra 30°, and 35° of latitude. tropical circulation (see point (iv) of programme A) will also make it pos It should be stressed once again that sible to study the interaction between one of the aims of the I G Y is the these two circulations and the ex systematic exploration of the tropical change of energy between the tropical zone lying more or less (to within a ;md temperate latitudes at the place few degrees) between the parallels where the transfer of momentum along 30° N and S. Data from stations lying the meridians is at its maximum (see along the zonal sections mentioned point (i) of programme A) . are therefore of major importance, as can be demonstrated by a single Finally, no satisfactory explanation example. Although, in many respects, has so far been found for the existence the results of recent research on the of a westerly circulation in both the · general atmospheric circulation are in lower layers of the equatorial tropo agreement, there is nevertheless one sphere and the stratosphere (von Berson point on which such results are entirely winds) immediately above the equatorial contradictory. According to some, the tropopause. This circulation do;;!s not fit mean meridional circulation appears into the classical scheme and therefore to be merely a secondary manifestation raises a fundamental question which of the atmospheric circulation ; some cannot be solved without a chain of go so far as to say that it does not aerological stations along the Equator. exist. Others, on the other hand, con sider it to be the essential mechanism of the atmospheric circulation. How Gap; and Deficiencies in the Present Synoptic are such contradictory opinions to be Network; Action to be Taken assessod ? The crux of the problem is to know whether or not there is a Gaps horizontal mass exchange through the The network in lower latitudes is vertical section along the parallel 30° definitely inadequate, especially over of latitude. As the mean atmospheric equatorial waters. It is paradoxical circulation is approximately zonal, the that during the IGY there should be mean meridional circulation is, in fact, many more gaps in the tropical net only a small residue (difference between work than in the networks of the two expressions of the same order of Arctic and Antarctic. However, the magnitude). The existence of the mean sub-Antarctic zone has insufficient sta meridional circulation cannot therefore tions. be demonstrated beyond doubt unless we have a sufficiently large number of The largest gap in the network is in radiowind stations in the zone between China, but as the Chinese Peoples'

8 WMO Bulletin January 1956

Republic has just officially announced interaction between the tropical and its participation in the IGY, we may the extra-tropical circulations of the hope that this gap will, to a large two hemispheres. extent, be filled in good time. Deficiencies Mention must also be made of vast expanses of the Pacific and Atlantic, These are mainly due to the lack of off the coast of South America, where radiowind stations. The importance of there is not a single aerological station. these stations is obvious in the lower There is also a gap between the Union latitudes where the geostrophic assump of Sout h Africa and the Belgian Congo tion is no longer valid. In these lati and another in the north-east of the tudes it is therefore impossible to South American continent. obtain the flow pattern without wind soundings. Even in middle and lo w We demonstrated above the import latitudes, where the geostrophic as ance of zonal sections in the lower sumption is acceptable, radiowind sta latitudes, and particularly the value tions are essential. It is clear that in of the sections along parallel 30°, fo r many cases the geostrophic assump studies on t he transfer of momentum tion is dangerous and that research and the mean meridional circulation. workers often introduce it merely for In this connection, attention must be want of something better, i.e. due to called to the absence of aerological the lack of wind data. The geostrophic stations in the zones of the southern assumption should therefore be re Pacific bet ween parallels zoo and zso S. jected in all studies of energy, be As there is a large number of islands cause the geostrophic current is, by in this area of the Pacific, it would not definition, of constant kinetic energy. be impossible to set up some aerolo This assumption also falsifies studies gical stations, especially on Numea, on t he exchange of meteorological Tonga, Rarotongo, Tubuai, Pitcairn quantities bet ween the zones of dif and Easter Island. This section could ferent latitudes, because t he zonal be extended across South America mean of the meridional component of (Antofagasta, Assumption, Rio de J a the geostrophic wind is identically neiro), the southern Atlant ic (Trinidad equal to zero. and Saint Helena) and Africa (Walvis In view of the major importance of Bay, Maun, a station in the south of wind observations, the number of Madagascar and one on the Masca radiowind stations must be increased ; reignes Islands). It is important to in areas where such an increase is im est ablish a chain of stations in the possible, a dense net work of nepho southern Pacific between the parallels scopic observations should be organ zo 0 and 25°, because this is the most ized fo r the IGY. extensive region lyin g \iV-E which is not disturbed by the presence of land In the lower latitudes, where wind and is symmetrical with respect to t he data are of particular importance, Equator, t o t he zone between parallels priority must be given t o wind sound zo 0 and 25° N, where there is already ings . . a chain of upper air stations. The upper-air data of t hese t wo zones Action to be taken would constitute a valuable cont ribu tion not only to studies on the transfer The need for upper-air data is so of meteorological quantities along the great , that any plans for the establish meridians, but also to the study of the ment of new aerological stations in

10 10

C ivil ivil Aviation Aviation Or ga ni za ti o n H . . y Th drom e e t e e rm t eo s s r s s wi ll ll b e e found found on on p . . z 8 . .

the the MET MET Di v i s ion ion of of th e e Int e rnation a l l th e e Workin g g Group Group on on C l ouds ouds and and

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s urv eys eys originated originated from from th mak e e Comm e e good good i s pro g r ess . . An An acco unt unt of of

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l e dg e e acq uir e b d y y both both th e oretic a l l Agr i c ultur a l l Meteo rolo gy . .

an an up-t o- d a t e e account account of of th e e know was was initi a t e b d y y th e e Co mmi ss ion ion for for

g r a ph ph on on mountain mountain waves waves co nt ai nin g g industri es es an d d av i ation. ation. Thi s s work work

g roup roup wi ll ll b e e asked asked to to pr epa r e e a a mono t o o agr i c u l ture, ture, public public h ea lth, lth, various various

l e dge dge of of th e e j et et s tr ea m . . The The sec on d d industri a l r l eg ion s; s; a n d d ap plication (d) (d) s s

a a mono grap h h on on th e e prese (c) (c) nt nt a a s know tud y y of of a tmosph e ri c c po llution llution in in

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Meteoro l ogica l l se r v i ces ces of of co untri es es

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rat ur e, e, pr ess ur e e and and th e e wind wind close close to to m e nt nt of of th e e aerolog i ca l l n e twork. twork.

transmit transmit sea sea t e mp e r ature, ature, a ir ir temp e l a rge rge or or sma ll ll i s l a nd s s for for the the impro ve

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weather weather buo ys ys b e e us e d d in in th e e so uth e rn rn ocea ns, ns, where where mo s t t di st urb a nc es es orig

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so unding s. s. In In view view of of the the we ll-kn own own in ade

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WMO WMO Bull eti n n January January 1956 1956

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B u

e tin tin J a nu a ry ry 1956 1956 WMO Bull etin Jan uary 1956

WMO RE GION 11 (ASIA ) CARIBBEAN HURRICANE SEMINA R Afghanistan organization and instruments - two experts The Caribbean Hurricane Seminar Burma : supply of instruments and will be held from r6 to 25 February equipment - one fellow rgs6 in the Santo Domingo Univer Iran : organization - one expert sity, Ciudad Trujillo, at the kind invi Iraq : instruments - one expert tation of the Government of the Dom IChile agricult ural m eteorology and organization - one· expert The purpose of the seminar will be Ecuador : organization - one expert to review on as comprehensive a scale Venezuela two fellows. as possible all meteorological know ledge and experience on the develop WM O RE GION IV ment and behaviour of hurricanes. (NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA) Such a review will be conducted by R egional means of lectures and discussions. It project : Caribbean H urricane Seminar is hoped that as a result of the seminar (Dominican Republic) more effective hurricane warning sys Dominican Republic: organization - one expert tems may be developed with conse Nicaragua : organization - one expert. quent improved protection to life and property. WMO REGI ON V (SOUT H-WEST PACIFIC ) Nil The lectures will be given by a chosen group of world experts on the WMO REGION VI (E UROPE ) subject of hurricanes, most of whom come from countries in the Caribbean Icelcmd : climatology and agro-meteo region including the United St ates of rology - one expert America. Eighteen such experts from I srael : t ransfer processes in the at mosphere - one fellow ten countries have been invited and Jo·rdan: organization and general me have signified their willingness to teorology - one expert, one attend. In addition twenty-two gov fellow ernments have been invited to designat e Lebanon two fellows qualified meteorologists to assist in the Syria instruction - one expert ; seminar. The countries invited in forecasting - two fellows clude not only those in the Caribbean Tu·rkey: hydrometeorology - one ex region and regions likely to be affected p ert, one fellow by Caribbean hurricanes but also coun Yugoslavia : flood forecasting-one fellow ; bioclimatology - one fellow. tries in other regions of the world where similar tropical st orms are The second priority items include experienced. It is expected that about projects involving four experts and thirty-five meteorologists will attend fi ve fellows . The implementation of in addition to the lecturers. these projects will be dependent upon savings in other technical assistance Appropriate international organiza projects for the individual countries tions have been invited to send ob concerned. servers.

14 14

where where he he has has b ee n n engaged engaged on on met eo r- Posts Posts and and Te l eco mmuni ca tion s s an d d

ass i gnment gnment in in British British East East Africa Africa panied panied b y y th e e Dir ecto r r Genera l l of of

Dr. Dr. E. E. B. B. Kraus Kraus h as as c ompleted ompleted hi s s unti l l th e e n ex t t vis it. it. Dr. Dr. L ea, ea, accom

to to e nsur e e th ei r r contin u e d d opera tio n n

British British

East East

Africa Africa

l eav in g g beh ind ind e quipm e nt nt an d d supp li es es

in s p ec t e d d a a number number of of d ese rt rt sta tion s, s,

WMO WMO REGION REGION I I (AFRICA) (AFRICA)

o n n a a refresher refresher co urs e H . e e h as as a l so so

with with fi ve ve n ew ew r ec ruits ruits a nd nd fiv e e men men

hi s s third third training training sc hool hool for for obse r ve r s s b e l ow. ow.

Se r v ic e. e.

Mr. Mr.

E l l

Sa l

awy awy h as as s tart e d d

l as t t i ss u e e of of th e e a r e e detail B ed ed ~t ll etin etin

e nt nt

of of th e e Lib ya n n Meteoro l ogical ogical j ects ects which which have have tak e n n p l ace ace s inc e e th e e

l awy awy h ave ave co ntinu ed ed the the deve l op D eve l opme nt s s in in th e e va riou s s pro

In In Lib ya, ya, Dr. Dr. C . . A. A. Lea Lea and and Mr. Mr. E l l

CURRENT CURRENT ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES

Libya Libya

mi ss i on on in in Egypt. Egypt. meeting meeting will will e n s u e . .

ern m e nt nt to to cont inu e e with with i pres his it it see m e nt nt s s lik e l y y that that a a very very s uc cessf ul ul

b een een g r a nt e d d permission permission by by have have his his gov r eac h e d d an an advanced advanced s t age age and and

n n Germa Federa R l e publi c c and and The The has has a rr a n ge m e nts nts fo r r th e e sem in a r r

of of the the Meteoro l ogica l l Se r v i ce ce of of th e e

serv in g g in in the the e nd nd Dominic of of r 9 5 a 6. 6. R n Dr. Dr. e publi Haud c. c. e e i s a a s member member

a a WMOfUNT WMOfUNT AA AA m eteoro l og i ca l l ex p e rt rt agreed agreed to to extend extend h i s s co ntr act act until until the the

i ca R n ep ubli c a c nd nd Mr. Mr. Paul Paul request request H. H. Swope, Swope, of of the the Egyp ti an an Gove rnm e nt , ,

Meteorolog i ca l l Se r v i ce ce of of the the Domin c ultural ultural m e t eoro l ogy ogy h as, as, at at th e e

Mr. Mr. Ju an an Molin e, e, Dir ec tor tor Egypt Egypt of of as as th e e a n n ex pert pert a d v i se r r in in agr i

C iud ad ad Truj ill o o i s s in in th e e hands hands of of ass i g nment nment to to th e e Governme nt nt of of

a nd nd WMO. WMO. The The d e t a il e d d planning planning in in Dr. Dr. Waldemar Waldemar H a ud e, e, who who is is o n n

rangements rangements we r e e m a d e e b y y UNTAA UNTAA

Thomson, Thomson, Canada), Canada), th e e n ecessa recommendations r y y ar . .

R eg i onal onal Associat i on on (Mr. (Mr. for for A th ndr e e impl ew ew e m e ntation ntation o f f Mr. Mr. C l a rk' s s

low e d d up up b y y the the Pr es id e nt nt o f f th e e eq uipm e nt. nt. Pl a n s s are are we ll ll a d va n ced ced

idad ) . . Th e e recommendation recommendation sta ndardi was was fo za l ti o n n of of m eteoro l og i cal cal

(c hairm a n n : : Mr. Mr. W. W. A. A. Grinsted, Grinsted, l abora tor Trin y y for for th e e ca libr at ion ion and and

tion tion for for No rth rth and and Central Central in s trum America America e nt nt worksho p , , together together with with a a

mitt ee ee of of th e e WMO WMO R eg ion the the a l l Associa es t a bli s hm e nt nt of of a n n up-to-dat e e

Eastern Eastern Caribbean Caribbean Hurri ca in s n trum e e Com e nts, nts, Mr. Mr. Clark Clark i s s ass i s ting ting in in

or i g in ated ated in in a a r ec omm e ndation ndation t e nanc of of e e th and and e e r e pair pair of of m eteoro l ogical ogical

The The proposa l l to to hold hold Se a a r seminar seminar v ic e e in in methods methods of of operation, operation, main

vising vising the the Egyp ti a n n Meteorolog i cal cal

ced ur es es will will I 955 t Se ake ake · · pt e pla mb ce. ce. e r r In In a dditi o n n to to a d

hurrican e e w a rning rning systems systems ass and and i g nm pro e nt nt in in Egypt Egypt a t t th e e nd nd of of

a a round-t a bl e e discussion discussion on on Mr. Mr. national national D av id id D. D. Cla rk rk t ook ook up up hi s s

s truction truction in in relation relation

to to hurricanes hurricanes and and

Egypt Egypt

tion tion a a publi c c forum forum on on building building con

pressing pressing r esea rch rch probl e ms. ms. In In addi

s torm torm tid es, es, a ircraft ircraft r eco important important nnaissanc e , , work. work.

d e tection tection of of hurrican es, es, floods floods and and has has b ee n n ap pointed pointed to to continue continue this this

a nd nd mo vemen t t of of hurri canes, canes, is is und er er radar radar conside r atio n. n. Mr. Mr. Asp lid I. I. en en

t ec hnical hnical as p ec t s s of of th e e d contro e v e l o pm l l op e nt nt e ration s. s. Dr. Dr. Krau s ' ' report. report.

The The l ect ur es es will will include include highly highly l o ogica l l work work co nnect e d d with with locust locust

WMO WMO Bulletin Bulletin January January 1956 1956 WMO Bulletin January 1956 other government officials, visited out on meteorological instrumentation. He stations in the Fezzan to ensure that took up his duties at Kabul during future meteorological communication November 1955 and his assignment requirements are incorporated in any will include the installation of a syn developmental plans. Negotiations optic reporting network. In this con have been proceeding for the training nexion, it is proposed to supply a jeep

Locust scouts who served as guides to IVMO expert in East Africa

of forecasters at Cairo University. station-wagon fitted as a mobile me Action has also been initiated for the teorological workshop ; this will greatly provision of meteorological equipment facilitate the work of Mr. Treussart in from non-convertible funds under the establishing and maintaining the re technical assistance scheme. porting stations. A quantity of meteorological equipment has been ordered from U.S.S.R. for delivery to WMO REGION 11 (ASIA) Afghanistan. Arrangements are pro ceeding for Dr. A. Khalek to take up Afghanistan a fellowship in India. At the request of the Government of Burma Afghanistan, Mr. Hakon I. Anda has been appointed to advise on the U Lun Maung was granted a scholar organization of meteorological services ship for study in general meteorology in Afghanistan. He took up his assign at the Imperial College of Science and ment at Kabul in October and has Technology in London. formulated comprehensive plans for the development of the service, in China cluding collaboration with ICAO com munication experts, to ensure that Mr. Paul H. Swope completed his meteorological communication require assignment as expert adviser in Taiwan ments are adequately provided for. during November and his final report Parallel with Mr. Anda's mission is the is now under consideration. Mr. Ken work of Mr. H. P. Treussart who has Chuan Chou has taken up a six months been assigned to Afghanistan to advise fellowship at the Central Weather

16 16

tion tion of of th e e t ec hni ca l l ass og i i stance stance ca l l Se r mis v i ce s ion ion . .

Senor Senor F. F. Hu for for e rt s a a tud comp y y with with l e t e d d th his his e e French French por M e t eo rol

fellow s hip hip

at at

th e e e nd nd

of of

Nov e mb e r r 1 955 955

Domi

nican nican R e publ ic ic

Mr. Mr. S. S. Pap ag i anakis anakis took took up up hi s s

( NORTH NORTH ANO ANO CENTRAL CENTRAL AMERICA ) )

1955· 1955·

WMO WMO REGION REGION IV IV

r e turn e d d to to Gr eec e e durin g g D ece mb e r r

th e e I s r ae l l Meteoro l ogical ogical Service Service a nd nd

st udi es es und e r r a a WMO WMO fe ll owship owship

with with

the the M e t eoro lo i g ca l l

Se r v ic

e e

of of

Ecuador. Ecuador.

Mr. Mr. G . . A . . Langi s s co mplet

e d d hi s s

recommendations recommendations for for impr ovements ovements in in

h as as a lr ea d y y formulat e d d compre h e n sive sive Gr eece eece

a t t Quito Quito durin g g Nove mb e r r 1 9 55 . . H e e

Ecuador Ecuador a nd nd took took up up hi s s ass i g nm ent ent WMO WMO REGION REGION VI VI (EUROPE) (EUROPE)

ex pert pert adv i se r r to to th e e Gov ern ment ment of of

Federal Federal R e publi c, c, was was appointed appointed as as a n n

1955· 1955· Meteoro l og i ca l l Service Service of of the the German German

Dr. Dr. Zimm \ lll. lll. e r sc hi e d, d, from from th e e Lond o n , , which which s t arte d d on on 4 4 O c tob e r r

Co ll ege ege of of Sc i e nc e e and and Tec hnolo gy gy i n n

Ecuador Ecuador

co ur se se in in hydrology hydrology at at th e e Imp eria l l

scho l ars hip hip e n ab lin g g him him to to t ake ake the the

l a r s s wi ll ll b

eg in in their their s tudi es es during during 195 6 . . Mr. Mr. ]. ]. F . . Lirios Lirios was was awarded awarded a a

Lope a z nd nd R. R. N . . P a ll e ro. ro. Th ese ese sc ho

Ph ilippines ilippines F. F. T . . Mendoza, Mendoza, E.A. E.A. Dro g u ett, ett, F. F. L. L.

S t a t es es h ave ave b een een g r a nt ed ed to to Messrs . .

(SOUTH (SOUTH

WEST WEST PACIFIC ) )

Scho l a r hips hips s f o r r s tud y y in in the the United United

WMO WMO REGION REGION V V

incid e n ce ce a nd nd co ntrol ntrol of of pot a to to bli g ht. ht.

m e teorolo g i ca l l co nditions nditions upon upon th e e

t e mb e r r 1955 1955 to to s tud y y . . th e e effect effect of of olo g ic a l l work work in in th e e area. area.

hi s s ass i g nm e nt nt at at Sa nti ago ago in in Sep effort effort in in th e e d eve lop ment ment of of m e t eo r

Mr. Mr. P. P. M. M. Austin Austin Bourk e e took took up up h e lp lp toward s s grea t e r r co -ordin a tion tion of of

is is h oped oped th a t t v i s its its s u ch ch as as th ese ese will will

Chile Chile

m e t eo rologic a l l faci li ti es es ava ilabl e . . It It

Novembe r r a nd nd r e port e d d bri e fl y y on on the the

WMO WMO REGION REGION Ill Ill (SOUTH (SOUTH AMERICA) AMERICA)

all all Cent r a l l American American co untri es es during during

the the Go ve rnm e nt nt of of Nicaragua, Nicaragua, v i s it ed ed

Prof. Prof. Alf r e do do Crespi, Crespi, w ho ho is is a dvi s in g g co untr y . .

var iou s s m e teorolo g ical ical services services in in th e e

Nicarag2ta Nicarag2ta

e rnm e nt nt on on th e e co-or din a tion tion of of th e e

ass ignm e nt nt in in Ir an an to to advise advise th e e gov

gramme gramme

of of th e e mission. mission.

Dr. Dr. S. S. K. K. Pramanik Pramanik took took up up hi s s

Spanish, Spanish, for for u se se in in th e e tr a inin g g pro

Iran Iran Trop ica M l eteorology eteorology b y y H. H. Ri e hl hl into into

publish e rs, rs, tr a n s l ated ated th e e t ex b t ook ook

s tudi es es until until Jun e e 1956 . . Hu e rta, rta, with with th e e p e rmi ss ion ion of of th e e

one one yea r r and and h e e will will co ntinu e e his his public. public. Durin g g his his ass i g nment, nment, Senor Senor

at at I owa owa State State College College was was ex t e nd e b d y y of of m e t eo rolo g i ca l l services services in in th e e Re

m e teorolo gy gy held held b y y Mr. Mr. Yi-Ming Yi-Ming Yao Yao practi ca l l training training in in th e e d eve lopm e nt nt

ments . . Th e e fellowship fellowship in in ag ricultural ricultural h ad ad b e en en r es ponsibl e e primarily primarily for for

the · · study study of of m e t e orolo g i ca l l i nstru turn e d d to to M a drid drid in in D ece mb e r. r. H e e

Bureau Bureau in in M e lb ourne ourne (Au s tralia ) ) for for to to th e e Dominic a R n e public public a nd nd r e

W . MO MO Bullet i n n January January 1956 1956

17 17

K.L. K.L. of of comparison comparison world world second second e e th for for

concerned. concerned. parations parations e pr make make to to was was ring ring e th ga

y y l t ec dir sons sons r e p ll ll a to to Office Office l l ca i g lo o e e th of of purpose purpose main main The The Langlo. Langlo.

teor e M ss ss i Sw the the of of tor tor ec Dir e e th Dr. Dr. K. K. y y b ed ed nt ese pr e r was was at at ri creta

y y b d e distribut n n ee b as as h ion ion sess e e th on on Se WMO WMO e e th ; ; e e ic Serv ogical ogical l ro eo t e M

report report complete complete A A . . es i emor J. J. m nt nt easa l p s s is Sw e e th of of Director Director Lugeon, Lugeon, Dr. Dr.

tain tain e r will will part part took took who who those those all all Prof. Prof. n, n, a chairm e e th of of invitation invitation kind kind

; ; tation tation s l l to to gica lo the the at at aero e e th 1955 1955 r r it it s i v a Novembe d d 8 8 e 1 to to 14 14 rom rom f

includ which which tings, tings, ee m ese ese th for for ments ments ld ld e h was was group group e e th of of ion ion sess e e Th

arrange l l a i mater e e th ll ll a making making for for

n n geo Lu or or s Profes to to e e du are are Thanks Thanks

J J WMO. WMO. of of s s r e Memb n n seve

. . s table r r e dinn from from ld ld e fi this this in in rts rts e p ex known known well well

and and lunch lunch the the at at d d e continu cussions cussions by by emented emented uppl s vation, vation, r e Obs of of thods thods

s i d ce ce in s s, s, l ea m for for even even rrupted rrupted e int Me and and s s nt e Instrum for for ion ion ss i Comm

y y ll ea r not not were were ey ey th - meetings WMO WMO the the of of s s t n n nuo~ Compariso Radiosonde Radiosonde

conti of of ys ys da four four e e th during during tail tail e d on on Group Group g g in Work the the was was people people

t t ea r g in in with with lt lt ea d e e r e w tions tions es qu of of roup roup g nthusiastic nthusiastic e This This limitations. limitations.

financial financial and and hnical hnical ec t of of r r e numb A A and and y y reliabilit their their e e termin e d to to order order

in in , , d e compar e e b t es b uld uld co - es es ond s

ground). ground). e e th above above es es kilometr (20-30 (20-30 radio e e th - struments struments in e e th how how

hts hts g i e h great great ry ry ve t t a s e p y t s s u vario e e th nd nd a atmosphere atmosphere e e th in in ghts ghts i e h t ea r g

y y b cated cated indi ure ure ess r p and and e e ratur e p em t very very t t a s nt e m e ur eas m instrumental instrumental

of of values values the the n n ee tw e b ences ences r e diff e e th of of accuracy accuracy the the as as ms ms e probl ogical ogical l o

rmine rmine e t e d to to made made e e b will will ffort ffort e cial cial or e t e m ant ant rt o imp such such were were , , morning

e sp a a Year, Year, ophysical ophysical e G rnational rnational e Int that that market market town town the the to to ght ght hrou ows ows c

the the g g durin ts ts en m e measur l l eve l high high and and pigs pigs of of prices prices e e th g g in e b of of d d ea inst

of of ance ance import great great e e th of of view view in in and, and, ion, ion, s discus er er und topics topics e e th that that r r cove

e e rn ye Pa in in compared compared e e b will will es es nd so dis to to astonished astonished n n e e b ve ve ha probably probably

radio of of types types different different 13 13 ut ut Abo would would , , 55 9 1 November November of of e e middl the the

in in rne, rne, ye Pa of of town town ss ss i Sw small small the the in in

1950. 1950. in in out out d d carrie was was son son i compar taurant taurant es r picturesque picturesque a a in in d d e ther ga

world world st st r fi the the where where Payerne, Payerne, in in .1\. .1\. ople ople e p of of handful handful a a of of tion tion

1956 1956 ay ay M on on 23 23 tart tart s to to e e du radiosondes radiosondes J\ J\ rsa e nv co e e th to to ning ning e t s li NYONE NYONE

RADIOSONDES RADIOSONDES OF OF COMPARISON COMPARISON WORLD WORLD SECOND SECOND

e. e. us its its in in to to trained trained be be staff staff the the for for am-Main. am-Main.

to to Frankfurt at at arrange arrange drology drology y es es h in in hop Persson Persson fellowship fellowship Mr. Mr. d d an 956 956 1 in in

r r a l simi a a er er y y und rl ea es es udi st arrive arrive to to his his ed ed t cted cted e p star ex is is nek nek Government Government

Osta A. A. Mr. Mr. the the and and , , y y e b nc e bought bought turbul nt nt e and and gy gy lo quipm o e e ond s Radio

climat of of y y ud st e e th for for y y rman e G and and . . 1955 r r e mb e Sept of of end end the the at at Syria Syria

France France Kingdom, Kingdom, d d e it Un the the in in ip ip sh of of nt nt e rnm e Gov e e th to to assignment assignment

llow e f s s hi up up took took Makjanic Makjanic B. B. Mr. Mr. his his up up took took rsson rsson e P er er lt Wa Mr. Mr.

a a vi la gos Yu Syria Syria

1956 1956 January January WMO WMO Bulletin Bulletin

1 8 8

Thornthwait e, e, President President of of the the Corn- a bl y y uniform uniform material material for for s ub-r egio nal nal

from from 5 5 to to r 8 8 D ece mb e r r 1955. 1955. Dr. Dr. C . . W . . th ese ese specifications specifications will will provid e e r easo n

of of Climato l o gy , , Centerton, Centerton, New New J ersey, ersey, a nd nd to to e nsure nsure that that map s s ba se d d on on

h e l d d it s s fir s t t sess ion ion at at th e e Laborator y y pr e p a rin g g or or r e vis i ng ng climatic climatic m a ps, ps,

Committee Committee to to s tud y y th ese ese questions questions to to m e t e oro l ogica l l services services who who are are

s ubs eq u e ntl y y set set up up b y y th e e Executive Executive purposes, purposes, n a mel y y to to provid g e uid a n ce ce

was was d es ir a bl e. e. The The working working group group m eeti n g g were were designed designed to to se r ve ve t wo wo

mit y y in in n a ti o n a l l a nd nd r eg ional ional atlases atlases s p ec ifi ca tion s s drawn drawn up up during during th e e

was was f e lt lt th a t t a a ce rt ai n n degree degree of of unifor su b-r egio nal nal a nd nd region a m l a p s . . Th e e

Climatic Climatic Atlas Atlas was was recognized recognized and and it it of of b e in g g join e d d to to th e m m to to produce produce

th e e ne e d d for for a n n up-to-date up-to-date those those of of other other c ountri World World es es a nd nd capa b l e e

At At th e e second second sess ion ion of of Congress, Congress, therefore therefore be be r ea di l y y comparable comparable with with

int e rnational rnational agencies, agencies, and and s hould hould

communications communications Union Union (see (see page page r). r). u se se to to n e i g hbouring hbouring countries countries a nd nd to to

preparing preparing for for th e e Int e rn a tiona l l T e l e c ifi ca tion tion ; ; such such maps maps are are how eve r r of of

which which the the WMO WMO Secretariat Secretariat has has b ee n n unif o rm rm int e rnationa ll y-a dopt e d d spe

exa mpl e e th e e world world thund e r s torm torm m a ps ps nation a l l climati c c maps maps pr e p a r e d d to to a a

tions , , world world map s s are are r eq uir e d , , as as for for th ere ere is is no no imperativ e e n eed eed to to hav e e

r eg ional ional m a p s. s. For For ce rtain rtain inv es ti ga e d d th at at f or or purely purely n a tional tional purposes purposes

th ere ere i a s l so so g a r ow in g g d e m a nd nd for for regional regional cl im at ic ic atlases. atlases. was was r ea li z It It

a r e e sa ti sfied sfied with with n a tion a l l map s, s, a nd nd to to be be m et et by by national, national, s ub-r egiona l l a nd ' '

Prof. Prof. Kenneth Kenneth Hare Hare

wa i te, te, Mr. Mr. 0. 0. M . . Ashford, Ashford,

J ackso n , , Dr. Dr. C . . 'vV. 'vV. Thornth

Mr. Mr. N. N. Rosenan, Rosenan, Dr. Dr. S. S. P. P.

From From left left to to ri g ht ht : :

At la ses ses

\ ¥ o rkin g g Gro u p p on on C lim atic atic

d e tail ed ed m a p s s prepare prepare for for sma speci ll ll a r fications fications eas , , others others of of r eq uir e m e nt s s

poses; poses; so m e e u The The se r a s fir r s e e t t ta interest s k k of of e the the d d in in group group was was to to

information information required required for for . specific specific pur

it it is is impo ss t ibl a ri e e a t. t. to to present present a ll ll th e e

transport. transport. In In Mr. Mr. a a 0. 0. reasonably reasonably M . . Ashford Ashford sized sized of of atlas atlas th e e WMO WMO Secre

biologi s t a s nd nd I s those those r ae l l e Meteoro n gage d d l in in ogical ogical publi c c Se r v ic e e a nd nd

c ulturi s t s, s, h Montreal, Montreal, y dr o lo g i sts, sts, Mr. Mr. c i v il il N. N. e n g in Ros ee r e s, s, nan nan of of the the

user s, s, includin g g m eteoro lo gis t s, s, agri K e nn e th th Har e e of of McGill McGill University, University,

form form suitable suitable Climatic Climatic for for a a wide wide Atlas Atlas variety variety (see (see p . . of of Prof esso r r 20), 20),

ledge ledge of of th e e Dr. Dr. climate climate S. S. P . . of of J acks a a r on, on, eg

ion ion e ditor ditor in in a a of of th e e African African

pr ese ntin a s a g ummar y y of of kno w c hairm a n n ; ; th e e other other parti ci pant s s were were

m1sswn m1sswn m aps aps a for for r e e a a Climatology, Climatology, means means o f f wa e s l ecte d d LIM A TI C C

WO RLD RLD CLIMATIC CLIMATIC ATLAS ATLAS

WMO WMO Bull e t i n n J a nu a ry ry 1956 1956 WMO Bulletin January 1956 and regional atlases. Points covered main land areas is kept to a minimum, in the specifications are the map pro the sheets can be joined together as jection and scales, indication of topo required for wall mounting. graphy and relief, isolines, layer tints, and the selection of stations. Details The group expressed the view that are given for maps of precipitation, climatic atlases should not be regarded screen temperature, humidity, atmo as something static ; however good spheric pressure, cloudiness and dura they may be, they must be subject to tion of bright sunshine, vvater balance revision both in the light of new data and radiation. and of new ideas of physical and dynamic climatology. The first maps The initial concept of the World to be produced should be those which Climatic Atlas was that WMO should appear in orthodox climatic atlases - sponsor the preparation of an up-to precipitation, temperature, etc. - but date version of the r899 Bartholomew the target should be to produce maps Atlas of Meteorology . The group con of derived elements, for example of the sidered, however, that this should not radiation and water balance. These be the immediate goal; the project maps are in one sense the basic maps. should instead lead to a coverage of the for it is the radiation and water balance world in a series of loose-leaf sheets which determines the temperature and based upon national, sub-regional and most other observed elements, rather regional maps prepared on a uniform than vice versa. Many users of climatic basis. It was recommended that maps have already found that maps of Members of WMO should be urged to evapotranspiration, water surplus, etc. prepare national maps and that Re are more suited to their needs than gional Associations should be asked maps of some of the more usual climatic to consider ways and means for elements. compiling the corresponding regional sheets. For this purpose, diagrams The recommendations of the ·working showing how the work can be divided group will be submitted to the Execut up into separate sheets on scales of r ive Committee for consideration at its to 5, ro and zo million are being next session, due to open in Geneva prepared. The projection recommend on 17 April 1956. ed is such that, while distortion of the 0. M. A.

MEMBERSHIP OF WMO

HE Kingdom of Cambodia, which The United Kingdom of Libya, T applied for membership of WMO which applied for membership of before Second Congress, deposited an WMO during Second Congress, depo instrument of accession to the ·world sited an instrument of accession to the Meteorological Convention with the World Meteorological Convention with Department of State in Washington the Department of State in Washington on 8 November 1955. The Convention on 29 December 1955. The Conven came into force for the Kingdom of tion came into force for the United Cambodia on 8 December 1955, on Kingdom of Libya on z8 January 1956, which date it became the 92nd Member on which date it became the 93rd of WMO . Member of WMO.

20 20

b ec om e e Members Members of of I RA RA . . circuits circuits in in the the R eg ion. ion.

Protectorate Protectorate of of Moro cc o o ha ve ve rec e ntl y y casts casts a nd nd the the u se se of of point -t o - point point

a nd nd th e e Territori es es of of th e e Spanish Spanish co - ordination ordination of of m e t eo rolo g ical ical broad

The The Spa nish nish Territo ri es es of of Guin ea ea o l ogica l l m essages, essages, th e e contents contents and and

it e m s, s, s uch uch as as tra n s it it tim es es of of m e teor

agenda agenda li sts sts a a numb e r r of of import a nt nt

of of J a nuar y y r g 56. 56. Th e e provi s ional ional clim a ti c c at l as. as.

RA RA V V in in M e lb ourne ourne tow a rds rds th e e nd nd towards towards the the achievement achievement of of a a world world

: Met eoro l ogical ogical Telecommun i ca tion s s of of therefore therefore co n s titut a e n n imp o rt a nt nt step step

sess ion ion of of th e e Working Working Group Group on on (see (see p. p. r 8) 8) a nd nd th ese ese Af ri can can m a ps ps will will

a r e e in in hand hand for for convening convening th e e fir s t t Workin g g Gro up up on on C lim atic atic Atlases Atlases

At At th e e tim e e of of w ritin g, g, a rran gemen t s s tions tions r eco mm e nd ed ed b y y th e e WMO WMO

so n n int e nds nds t o o fo ll ow ow th e e spec ifi ca

tion tion wi

ll ll

be be

comp

l ete

d d

fir

t . . Dr. Dr. J ac

ha s s b ec om e e Pr es id ent ent ad ad · in t eri m. m.

a nticipat

ed ed

that that

the the

map

s s

of of precipit

th e e Vic e -Pr es id e nt , , Dr. Dr. C. C. d e l l

sar

i o, o,

b y y s uppl

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th e e

b as i c c data. data. It It

i s s

tion tion of of First First Vice-President Vice-President of of WMO, WMO,

R eg ion ion

a r

e e collaborat

g g very very cl

ose

l y y

V, V, Dr. Dr. M. M. A. A. F. F. Barnett, Barnett, to to th

e e posi

a ll ll th e e m e t eo rolo g i ca

l l services services

in in

e e

President President of of Region a l l Association Association

the the publi ca tion tion a r e e

we ll ll

d va

e d d

d d

the the e l ect i on on OLLOVVING OLLOVVING of of th ' e e

form

e r r

geog r ap h y. y. P l a n s s for for th e e co nt ents ents o f f

und

e r r Dr. Dr.

S . . P . .

ackso

n , ,

l ect ur er er in in SOUTH - WEST WEST PAC IF IC IC

at at th U e niver s it y y of of Witwater s rand rand

se t t up up a n n African African C lim ato lo gy gy Un it it

h Sa a

r a a i

s s financing financing

th e e pr o j ect ect

a nd nd h as as

zation zation for for the the r g56 g56 hurricane hurricane season. season.

Co-o p era

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in in

ri ca ca

South South

of of th e e

w ithin ithin th e e hurri ca n e e w a rning rning organi

p. p.

36). 36).

Th e e

Commi

ion ion

for for

hni

ca l l

No. No. 3, 3, p. p. 88) 88) and and

th a e rran ge m e nt s s

Afr

ic a a

(see (see B

ulletin , , Vol. Vol. II, II, No. No.

2, 2,

third third sess i on on (see (see Vol. Vol. B ~tlletin, ~tlletin,

Ill

, ,

the the pr

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for for

r ev i ew ew of of follow-up follow-up ac ti on on from from th e e

Good Good

progress progress

h as as b ee

r n e port

d d on on

Th e e prov i s ion a l l agenda agenda includ es es a a

R e public 25 25 , , from from to to 27 27 Apr il il r g56 . .

b e e h e ld ld in in C iud ad ad Trujillo, Trujillo, Domini ca n n

interim interim

has has

b ee n n

initiat

e d. d.

Caribbean Caribbean Hurri ca n e e Co mmitt ee ee w

ill ill

Action Action to to e

l ect ect

a a Vice-President Vice-President

ad ad

Th e e fourth fourth sess ion ion of of the the Eastern Eastern

ca r ) ) ha s s become become Pr es ident ident ad ad in t erim . .

Vice-President, Vice-President, Mr.]. Mr.]. Rav e t t (Ma d agas

of of Secretary-General Secretary-General of of WMO, WMO, th e e Hurri

ca n e e Seminar, Seminar, r e port e d d on on p. p. r 3. 3.

ciation ciation I , , Mr. Mr. D. D. A. A. Davi es, es, to to the the po s t t in in th e e prepar a tions tions for for th e e Caribb ea n n

form e r r Pr es id e nt nt of of R eg ional ional Asso IV IV have have pla ye d d a n n active active part part

th e e appointment appointment OLL O \YI of of NG NG th e e of of Re g ion a l l Association Association EMBERS EMBERS

AFRICA AFRICA NORTH NORTH AND AND CENTRAL CENTRAL AMERICA AMERICA

WMO WMO Bulletin Bulletin Janu a ry ry 1956 1956

1 1 2

substantially substantially d d e but i contr WMO WMO ch ch i wh Corn- the the of of n n sessio s s thi of of agenda agenda the the in in

to to - scussion scussion i d considerable considerable after after O O WM of of t t es r e int great great the the of of view view In In

; ; out out ied ied rr ca ready ready l a work work y y parator e pr

e e th ained ained l exp on, on, s Dick Dr. Dr. committee, committee, . . rs e mb e M its its and and UNESCO UNESCO

g g in z i organ an an li Austra e e th of of man man y y b ramme ramme og pr s s thi to to attached attached e e tanc

ir a h c The The . . 1956 in in Australia, Australia, impor e e th esses esses tr s er er r r e Oct~b furth WlVIO WlVIO of of

Canberra, Canberra, in in ld ld e h e e b will will which which ogy, ogy, t t ge bud l l a nnu a l l a tot e e th as as order order e e m sa

tol a e e microclim th to to e e of of nc is is e r 8 8 5 efe r 957- ial ial 1 ec p s riod riod e with with p r ea two-y e e th

gy, gy, climatolo e e n zo arid arid on on ium ium s mpo sy in in research research e e n zo arid arid for for t t ge bud

the the of of e e programm e e th was was agenda agenda e e th UNESCO UNESCO proposed proposed the the that that fact fact

of of s s m e it important important st st mo e e th of of One One The The . . whole a a as as UNESCO UNESCO of of work work e e th

of of ess ess fuln se u e e th of of s s illustration best best

. . Langlo K. K. Dr. Dr. ion, ion, s Divi l l ca hni ec T the the of of one one was was committee committee the the of of work work

e e th of of Chief Chief e e th and and e, e, Thornthwait the the that that id id sa UNESCO UNESCO of of l l Genera

C. C. Dr. Dr. "Al. "Al. \ Prof. Prof. ctor ctor e y, y, Dir e e th imatolog l , , C rch of of esea R sion sion Zone Zone Arid Arid

Commis the the of of President President the the es, es, i v Da on on mmittee mmittee Co Advisory Advisory UNESCO UNESCO e e th

A. A. . . D Mr. Mr. , , of of neral e ion ion -G y sess tar e r roth roth Sec e e e e th th y y at at b d e participants participants

represent was was to to ion ion zat ni ga Or the the mittee, mittee, e e th welcome welcome of of address address his his N N

LANDS LANDS D D I AR E E H T P O DEVEL TO TO FORTS FORTS F E NCREASED NCREASED I

able. able. l avai of of ome ome ion ion ec b sess ey ey th first first as as d d e e e u th ss i e e b ll ll i w this this

e e b will will s s r e ; ; pap 1956 1956 working working the the March March nd nd 2 2 a 1 d d e on on but ) ) ia v la gos u (Y

tri s di een een b y y nik nik d v ea r l a s s Dubro ha at at open open agenda agenda will will the the VI VI tion tion a i Assoc

n n o morandum morandum e m y y r ato n a l exp An An ional ional eg R of of ion ion sess d d secon The The

RA RA of of J J r session session Second Second

. . road-users for for information information l l ogica l o

meteor providing providing to to ew ew i v a with with vices vices

ser meteorological meteorological between between ation ation in Co-ord

ion. ion. eg R flights flights l l eve l high high for for Forecasts Forecasts

the the in in telecommunications telecommunications teorological teorological e e ramm prog Year Year physical physical

Geo International International the the of of aspects aspects Regional Regional e m on on techniques techniques n n o ti c i ed pr weather weather

meeting meeting on on i Navigat Air Air rical rical e num of of act act imp e e th nd nd a s, s, nt e m

tic tic n a l At h h t r No ICAO ICAO rd rd thi the the of of s s n o i at

quire e r g g in g n cha meet meet to to broadcasts broadcasts

nd ecomme r the the from from g g in s i ar ems ems l Prob

in in modifications modifications e e bl ssi po s, s, hnique ec t

network network Climatological Climatological

and and nt nt e uipm eq e e imil acs f of of tion tion za

network network basic basic

rdi a nd a t s the the

including including

discussed, discussed,

recommended recommended a a of of shment shment li Estab tions. tions.

be be will will problems problems nt nt a import Many Many . . e ic v observa air air r r e upp and and ace ace urf s for for ons ons i t

sta and and l of of etwork etwork n g g n sti i ex the the of of Study Study r Se Meteorological Meteorological French French e e th of of esy esy t

cour y y b Paris, Paris, in in 956 956 1 February February r r to to

: : following following e e th e e r a

which which of of

y y Januar 25 25 from from ace ace pl e e tak will will VI VI RA RA

T nt nt a import most most e e th t t gs mon a ems ems it 40 40

of of mmunications mmunications eco l e T on on Group Group

e e m so contains contains agenda agenda provisional provisional e e Th

Working Working e e th of of ion ion sess second second

HE HE

. . 1959) 1956- ( ( riod riod e p l l financia ond ond sec

the the in in WMO WMO of of y y bod nt nt e titu s n co a a Telecommunications Telecommunications

EUROPE EUROPE

1956 1956 nuary nuary a J n n i t e ll WMO WMO u B

22 22

pants pants in in the the symposi um um will will b e e r es - bli catio n n of of a a numb e r r of of climatic climatic maps maps

di sc u ss i o n s, s, th e e numb e r r of of p a rti c i committee committee shou ld ld r eco mm e nd nd th e e pu

In In ord e r r to to f ac ilitate ilitate round round t a bl e e propo sa l b l y y Dr. Dr. Gi l b e rt rt White White th a t t th e e

Gr ea t t int e r es t t wa s s ex pr essed essed in in a a

Conclusion. Conclusion.

session session rotl t t : :

op e r a tion tion w ith ith FAO) . .

in in

arid arid r eg i o n s s

Emb

to to

rger rger

e e

Middl

e e

East East

(in (in co

C lim

ato l og i ca l l o b se r va ti o n a l l r e quirem e nt s s

I s r ae l l and and a a mi ss ion ion of of Prof e ssor ssor g th th session session : :

in in

Egy

, ,

a r r

ene

r gy gy

res

ea rch rch in in

Sa ltin

g g a nd nd che mi s tr o y f f rain rain wa t e r r

includ e d d r esea r c h h on on d ew ew instrum e nts nts 8th 8th session session : :

e e

co mmitt ee ee r ec omm e nd e d d s upport upport

(b) (b) ar ti ficia l l

posals posals

were were

r e j ec t e d ; ; those those for for which which (a) (a) n at ural ural

fin a n c i a l l assistance. assistance. Most Most Modificat of of the the i o n n pro of of mi c roclim ate ate

7 th th session session : : th e e various various projects projects propo se d d for for

Th e e co mmitt ee ee co n s id (b) (b) e r e housin d d in in g g d e t a il il

(a) (a) cloth in g g

Micr oc limat e e of of man man a nd nd domestic domestic

animals animals

Ea s t t a nd nd So uth uth Asia . . 6th 6th session session : :

should should be be carried carried out out in in the the Midd l e e

fauna fauna

m a j or or proj ec t t

in in a rid rid

e e r

esea

r c

h h

Inter-relat i o n ship ship of of cl im at i e c l eme nt s s an d d

p e ri od od it it sth sth w session session as as r ec : : omm e nd e d d that that a a

of of Isr ae l. l.

the the Meteoro l og i ca l l Serv i ce ce

to to Mr. Mr. M . . Gi l ea d, d, D i rector rector of of

so l a r r e n e r gy gy to to b o il il wa t e r r

in g g hi s s m ach in e e for for usin g g

Dr. Dr. D. D. As hb e l l d e m o n stra t

flor a a a a p e riod riod of of s i x x yea r s. s. For For th e e co min g g

ter -r

l at

onship onship

o f f cli

m at i

c e c

l e ments ments

a n d d

asp ec t s s and and will will norm a ll y y ex t e nd nd over over

4th 4th session session

: :

with with import a nt nt probl e m s s with with pr ac tical tical

Radiation Radiation

and and

the the

e rmal rmal

b a

l a n ce ce

pri or it y y ar ea . . Th ese ese projects projects d ea l l

3 3

rd rd

session session : :

prot" ec t s s ca rri e d d out out within within a a se l ec t e d d

a por at ion ion a nd nd

the the

t e

r r balan

ce ce

concentrate concentrate it s s e fforts fforts on on ce rtain rtain mat"or mat"or

2n d d session session : :

m e e for for 1957 - 5 8 . . UNESC O O int e nd s s to to

Introdu

ctory ctory

r ev i ew ew of of th e e draft draft a rid rid z one one program

1st 1st

session session

: :

Ano th e r r it e m m fo r r di sc u ss ion ion was was · a a

t h e e sy mpo s ium ium : :

a nce nce of of the the following following pro g r a mm e e for for will will invite invite a a m ax imum imum of of rz. rz.

- the the com mitt ee ee r ec omm e nded nded accept trict e d d to to about about 65, 65, of of which which UNESCO UNESCO

WMO WMO Bulle t in in J a nu a ry ry 1956 1956 WMO Bulletin January 1956 for the Middle East, illustrating the general programme of establishing water balance of the region. These climatological maps for all parts of the maps had been prepared under the world based upon specifications laid direction of Prof. C. W. Thornthwaite down by the Organization (see p. 18). and the committee recommended that they should be published by UNESCO It was decided that the committee after some details concerning their will in future meet once each year reproduction have been settled between instead of twice. The rrth session will Prof. Thornthwaite and the UNESCO be held in connexion with the sympo Secretariat. This recommendation is sium in Australia. most encouraging in view of the great importance attached by WMO to the K.L.

ECAFE H ydrologic terminology ECAFE , spoke of the importance of the correct observation and recording N an earlier issue of the B ulletin of hydrologic elements in the effi cient I (Vol. Ill, No. 4, p. 134) , it was development and utilization of water reported that the UN Economic Com resources. The joint hydrologic studies mission for Asia and the Far East was necessary for the development of rivers preparing a hydrologic terminology for crossing two or more international use in the region and that WMO was boundaries would be greatly facilitated being consulted with a view to avoid by the use of mutually underst andable ing differences between this publica terminology, which would also help in tion and existing meteorological ter the exchange of knowledge and expe minologies. On the basis of comments rience in water problems. submitted by several meteorological services, detailed suggestions were Before t ackling the detailed defini sent to ECAFE and these were consid tions, the group decided in principle ered, along with proposals by other to include only those terms which international and national bodies, at were closely related to hydrology, a session of a working group at ECAFE leaving the terms that belonged exclu Headquarters in Bangkok from 12 to sively to other subjects such as z6 September 1955 ; WMO was repre hydraulics, meteorology and ocean sented by Mr. 0 . M. Ashford of the ography to be dealt with by the Secret ariat . Captain Khun Visishdha appropriate t echnical organizations. raraks, RTN, of the Meteorological Even with this limitation, the list Department, Thailand, was elected finally adopted by the group comprised chairman of the group. more than 1 2 0 0 terms.

At the opening meeting, Dr. P. S. In the examination of each defini Lokanathan, Executive Secretary of tion, care was t aken to ensure its

23 WMO Bulleti n January 1956 correctness and completeness ; so far information and statistics concerning as possible, wording was chosen that existing conditions of hydrologic ser would be understandable to an average vices as well as their future plans of technician dealing with water matters. extension. Discussions centred on Where different meanings of a term an analysis of the replies which had were in common usage, two or more been received and information which

ECAFE Headquarters, Bangkok sep arate definitions ·were given ; but had been obtained by other means. those meanings considered to be obso In this connection, Mr. 0 . M. Ashford lete, misleading or not in common visited Pakistan, India and Burma on usage were generally excluded. his vvay t o Bangkok and had profi t able discussions with t he various The terminology prepared during offi cials interested in this project . the session, which is in the E nglish language only, is now being edited by In its report, the group stressed the the ECAFE Secretariat and will be need for ensuring effi cient operation published after circulation to the of existing st ations with a view t o members of the working group for obtaining accurate and reliable records, fin al comment. It is hoped that this and for examining the location and work will prove to be a useful first distribution of these stations to ensure step towards the preparation of an that all key points in river basins are international hydrologic terminology adequately covered. It was felt that for world-wide use. the existing number of precipitation st ations was generally fairly adequate in t he plains but highly deficient in Deficiencies in hyd1'ologic data the hilly regions ; an increase in the The working group also considered percentage of stations equipped with the progress made in the joint E CAFEj recording raingauges was considered W MO project on the major defi ciencies desirable, a fi gure of 2 0 per cent being in hydrologic data in the ECAFE suggested as the minimum. region. A questionnaire was addressed to the Governments concerned in The importance of evaporation mea April 1955, designed t o gather basic surements was recognized but in the

25 25

tin tin a L a a of of ating ating e h l l a tablishment tablishment es e e ddition th a d d d d e ee nd n e m y, y, ntl e u seq on c

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ac into into g g kin a t s s t a ri eta r Sec two two e e th og l Meteoro an an l Venezue e e th of of r r e brunn

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n n ee b now now has has tion tion a rm o inf er er furth d d e uir eq r the the provide provide to to d d e h s tabli es

d, d, e rn conce countries countries e e h t in in ces ces i serv e e b hould hould s e l ib ss po as as ons ons i stat y y man as as

l l gica teorolo e m the the of of ce ce n a t s i ass e e th s, s, ion g re mi-arid mi-arid se nd nd a id id ar in in y y iall espec

With With areas. areas. above-mentioned above-mentioned e e th in in levation, levation, e nd nd a ld ld e i y r r e round-wat g f f o

s s tion a t s l l ca rologi eteo m selected selected 56 56 for for observations observations f f o ce ce n a import the the of of view view

e e ratur e mp e t y y monthl n n ea m e e th g g howin s in in t t a th ed ed nd e mm eco r y y l g tron s was was it it

e e tabl a a of of form form e e th in in n n ve i g was was ; ; d d ere id s n co so so l a e r e w water water round round g

y y pl e r y y r a limin e pr a a t, t, a ri a t e r Sec WMO WMO and and tion tion a nt e im sed , , ge har sc di m m ea tr s

e e th in in e e bl a il ava not not were were which which ature, ature, measuring measuring for for s s tion a t S d. d. e ncourag e e e b

r e mp e t y y il a d of of rds rds eco r from from d d e r a p e pr hould hould s Poona, Poona, t t a nt nt e rtm a p e D l l ogica l o

e e b y y l on can can tatistics tatistics s ays ays -d ee r eg d As As Meteor Indian Indian e e th y y n b n e k a rt e und ing ing e b

that that as as uch uch s work, work, arch arch e Res e. e. mad

co. co. i ex M of of north north the the and and u u ea t a pl high high e e r we stations stations of of r r e numb the the ing ing eas r c

l l centra e e th plateau, plateau, gh gh hi n n ea nd A e e th in ut ut abo s s tion a nd e recomm pecific pecific s

S, S, 40° 40° Sand Sand 30° 30° tween tween e b ea ea r e a e th ar ar l cu no no poration poration eva g g n estimati for for method method

rti a p in in year- the the of of es es tim certain certain at at agreed agreed tionally tionally a rn e int any any of of absence absence

1956 1956 January January Bulletin Bulletin WMO WMO

26 26

g raph raph Consultative Consultative Committee Committee (CCIT) (CCIT) e d d by by th e e committee . . Th e e first first six six

ology, ology, as ked ked the the Int e rnational rnational Tele Seven Seven recommendations recommendations

w e re re adopt

of of

th e e Commission Commission for for Synoptic Synoptic Meteor

i za tion, tion, on on th e e r eco mm e ndation ndation and and th e e South South Pacific. Pacific.

World World Meteorological Meteorological H E E Org a n ocean ocean a r eas , , such such as as t h e e Indian Indian Oc ea n n

w es t t co as t t of of South South Amer

i ca, ca, and and de e p p

I TU TU ( CCI T) T)

th e e coasts coasts of of the the Indian Indian Ocean Ocean and and th e e

th ese ese include include coasta l l waters, waters, such such as as

structure structure pr ese and and nt nt a a activities activities serious serious lack lack of of WMO. WMO. of of information information ; ;

th e e f are are e d e ration ration certain certain with with areas areas regard regard in in which which to to th th e re re e e is is at at

was was shown shown by by r eso d e urc legat es es es es a nd nd and and in in officers officers waste waste di of of s po sa l. l. Th e r e e

h e l p p agriculture, agriculture, casting, casting, and and in in much much th e e ex int p l oitation oitation e rest rest of of marine marine

in in which which m e nt nt met of of eo fisheri rolo gy gy es, es, can can in in long and and - range range must must for e

t e ntion ntion was was drawn drawn potential potential to to the the application application man y y ways ways in in th e e deve l op

g reat es sc t t i e economic economic nces, nces, the the importanc r es u lts lts of of e , , its its which which at have have

a a larg int e e e numb rnational rnational e r r of of co probl llaboration llaboration ems ems of of in in th e e marine marine

Although Although the the committee committee meeting meeting emphasized emphasized had had befor e e it it the the n ee d d for for

Meteorological Meteorological Service Service of of Japan. Japan. Th e e

WMO WMO in in 1954. 1954. Dr . . Ki yoo yoo Wadati, Wadati, Dir ec tor tor of of th e e

1955 1955 was was ; ; g rant WMO WMO e d d consultative consultative was was r e present status status e d d with with by by

Japan, Japan, iti es. es. The The Tok yo f ede , , on on ration ration 24 24 25 25 a applied applied nd nd Octob for for and and e r r

and and marketing marketing vvas vvas held held in in of of agricultural agricultural the the Intern a tional tional commod

Hous e e of of

A A

effic i e nc y y in in th e e production, production, Comm i tt ee ee processing processing on on Marin e e Sciences Sciences

nature, nature, includ meeting meeting e e th e e of of ncoura the the Int geme e rim rim nt nt A of of dvisory dvisory

it s s purpo ses, ses, mainly mainly of of an an econo mic mic

U NE

SCO SCO

ga nizations nizations in in some some 30 30 countries; countries;

farm farm a nd nd agricultur e e co-operative co-operative or

The The f e deration deration gro up s s tog et h er er general general

in in Dec em b e r r 1956. 1956. Rom e, e, from from 9 9 to to 17 17 September September 1955. 1955.

CCIT CCIT which which i s s ex p ected ected to to t ake ake Producers, Producers, plac e e h e l d d at at FAO FAO H eadq uart e r s, s,

during during th e e next next pl e nar y y national national me e tin g g of of Fed th e e e ration ration of of Agricultural Agricultural

The The question question will will b e e r eco the the n s ider 8th 8th e d d

General General M ee ting ting of of th e e Int er

Rubiato, Rubiato, of of th e e Secretariat, Secretariat, at at

telegrams. telegrams. MO MO was was r e pre sen J . . t e d b d y y Mr. Mr. M. M.

th e e figur e e groups groups of of met eo rologica l l

P P

s ional ional b as is, is, th e e use use of of the the +) +) ( ( sign sign in in

agencies agencies should should tolerat e, e, on on a a provi

l e dge . . tions tions and and recognized recognized pri va t e e operating operating

meteorological meteorological inform a tion tion and and know m ete orolo g ic a l l t e l eg ram s , , administra

these these will will involve involve th e e application application e d d of of that that in in v iew iew of of the the special special nature nature of of

z one one control; control; the the follow-up follow-up action action assigned assigned on on for for consideration, consideration, r ecom mend

cerned cerned forest forest fir e e pr eve ntion ntion a nd nd CCIT arid arid , , to to whom whom th e e question question was was

ge ment. ment. Other Other recomm e ndations ndations 1 con 9 55), 55), Study Study Group Group No. No. IX IX of of th e e

forest forest species species and and on on watershed watershed mana At At its its meetin g g in in Geneva Geneva (October (October

influenc e e of of m e teorolo g ical ical factors factors on on

and and its its environment, environment, including including for the the ecas ts. ts.

interr e lationships lationships b e tw ee n n the the for transmitting transmitting es t t weather weather observations observations and and

will will b e e d evo t e d d to to the the study study of of mis th s e e in g g figur es es in in g roups roups used used for for

zue l a) a) ; ; one one section section of of the the institute institute meteorologica l l telegrams, telegrams, to to ind i cate cate

t eac hing hing in in forestry forestry in in Merida Merida (Vene ing ing the the plus plus + ) ) ( ( sign sign in in the the text text of of

American American institut e e for for r esea rch rch to to and and study study the the possibility possibility of of standardiz

WMO WMO Bullet i n n J anua ry ry 1 956 956

27 27

ON ON SALE SALE FROM FROM WMO, WMO, 1 1 AVENUE AVENUE DE DE LA LA PAIX, PAIX, GENEVA GENEVA

No . . 16 16 L Super . . ad i aba tic tic L apse apse Rat e e in in the the Upp er er Air . . W. W. Godson Godson

and and

Relation Relation to to P erformance erformance Cr i teri a. a. W . . L. L. Go dson dson ......

No. No. 15 15 The The R elative elative A ccu r acy acy of of Rawins Rawins and and Contour-Me a sured sured Winds Winds in in Sw. Sw. Fr. Fr. 4 . - and and

l l P aul aul Ackerm an n n ......

No . . 14 14 Ho mogeneite mogeneite du du r e s s eau eau e urop ee n n de de ra diosond age s. s. J ean ean Lug eon eon et et

F . H . . Hall Hall - Ludlam, Ludlam, C hairman- E.J. E.J. Smit h h ...... Sw . . Fr 3 . . . -

No. No. 13 13 Artificial Artificial Cont rol rol of of Clouds Clouds and and H ydrometeors. ydrometeors. L. L. Duf our- F erg uson uson

No. No. 12 12 Atmospherics Atmospherics T echniq u es es ...... Sw. Sw. Fr . . 3.-

Pri ce ce

WMO WMO Recent Recent additions additions to to the the series series of of Technical Technical Notes Notes include: include:

WMO WMO TECHNICAL TECHNICAL NOTES NOTES

the the m ee tin g R , ear-A dmiral dmiral Bunnag Bunnag d e l egates egates from from many many diff e r e nt nt co untri es . .

Secreta r y -G e neral neral for for th e e success success of of int e r es t t in in WMO WMO was was exp r essed essed by by th e e

In In co n vey in g g the the wish es es of of th e e WMO WMO an an hour hour of of discussion discussion in in wh i ch ch g r ea t t

Met eo rolo g i ca l l Service Service of of Thailand . . Th e e l ec tur e e was was fo ll ow e d d b y y ov e r r

Admi r a l l C. C. B unn ag , , Dir ec tor tor V. V. of of the the

tanc e e pro g r am m e. e. 5 5 to to rr rr Sep t ember ember 1955 , , b y y R ear

tri es es in in As i a a und e r r the the t ech ni ca l l ass i s Associat ion s, s, h e ld ld in in Bangkok Bangkok from from

and and th e e h e lp lp g i ven ven b y y WMO WMO to to coun World World Federation Federation of of U nit e d d Na tion s s

WMO WMO R eg i o n a l l Assoc i ation ation in in Asia, Asia, t e nth nth pl e n a r y y asse mbl y y of of th e e

of of meteorology, meteorology, t o o th e e work work of of th e e MO MO was was r e pr ese nt ed ed at at the the

e mph as i s s was was given given to to th e e ap pli ca ti o n s s

WFUNA WFUNA from from rr rr to to 25 25 September September 1 95 5. 5. S p ec i a l l

agencies", agencies", held held at at Ba n g g Sae n , , Thailand, Thailand,

Un i t e d d Nations Nations an d d th e e spec i alized alized

Arid Arid Zone Zone R esea r ch ch i g s i ve n n on on p. p. zr. zr. cu l ar ar r efe r e nc e e to to the the work work of of th e e

t h e e UNESCO UNESCO Advisory Advisory Co mmitt ee ee on on "Adu lt lt e du ca tion tion in in As i w a ith ith p a rti

An An

acco

unt unt

of of th e e roth roth sess i on on of of Secretariat Secretariat at at the the · wFUN wFUN A s A e min a r r on on

Mr. Mr. 0. 0. M . . Ashford Ashford of of the the WMO WMO

co ll a b ora tion . . act i vities vities of of WM O O was was g i ven ven b y y

project project of of int e rnational rnational oceanog r ap hi c c national national sem in ars . . A A l ect ur e e on on th e e

Pac ifi c c would would a l so so tak e e part part in in thi s s \iVFUNA \iVFUNA i s s th e e spo n so rin g g of of int e r

that that other other co untri es es bord e rin g g th e e Among Among the the import a nt nt activities activities of of

further further so uth uth a nd nd ex pressed pressed th e e hop e e

1956 1956 s hould hould ex t e nd nd th e i r r sec tion s s d eve l oped oped in in this this r es p ec t . .

nese nese s hip s s participatin g g in in August August tri es es which which a r e e n ot ot ye t t s uffi c i e ntl y y

J J the the committee committee d es ir e d d that that th e e a pa m eteo r o lo g i ca l l serv i ces ces in in th ose ose co un

tion tion concerned concerned th e e Equapac Equapac project; project; boration boration a nd nd in in h e lpin g g to to build build up up

o r ga ni za tion s. s. The The last last r eco mmenda va lu able able part part in in sec urin g g thi s s co ll a

a nd nd relations relations w ith ith ot h e r r int eres t e d d b e rship, rship, WMO WMO was was a bl e e to to pla y y a a

tions, tions, future future m ee tin gs gs a nd nd sy mposi a, a, Thanks Thanks t o o it s s a lmo s t t uni versa l l m e m

p r e p a ration ration of of a a director y y of of in st itu o l og i cal cal serv ice ice at at th e e n a tion a l l eve l. l.

s a ur vey vey of of ex i s tin g g fac iliti es es a nd nd the the order order to to achieve achieve an an e ffi c ient ient meteor

ce ntr es , , fellow s hip a s nd nd tr ave l l g r a nt s, s, b e tw ee n n th e e co untrie s s of of th e e world world in in

new new privat e e and and nationa l l r esea rch rch esse nti a l l to to have have clos e e collaboration collaboration

s p ec ific ific proj ects, ects, th e e es t a bli s hm e nt nt of of natur e e of of m e t e orology orology which which mad e e it it

dealt dealt with with r e qu es t s s for for assis t a n ce ce for for s pok e e of of th e e inh e r e nt nt int e rn at ion a l l

WMO WMO Bulletin Bulletin January January 1956 1956 WMO Bulletin January 1956

ARTIFICIAL CONTROL OF CLOUDS AND HYDROMETEORS

N view of the enormous economic condensation of vapour at slight ice I and social benefits which could supersaturations, it is believed that in result from successful attempts at the atmosphere ice crystals are formed controlling and modifying clouds and by the freezing of supercooled liquid hydrometeors, the developments in deposited upon condensation nuclei this field have been watched with great when saturation ·with respect to liquid interest by scientists and laymen water is reached or approached. The alike. A review of some experiments in water droplets and ice crystals of different parts of the world was which clouds are initially composed published in 1954 by ·wlVIO as Technical form larger particles in the course of Note No. I Artificial I nducement of time through the processes of conden Precipitation ; as is implied by the sation and coalescence. Precipitation title, this publication was limited reaches the ground when some of these to rain-making experiments. A more particles reach a size (roo ~l or more) comprehensive survey, including the which enables them to fall out of the scientific background, has now been cloud-forming updraught and survive completed by a working group of the evaporation in the air below the cloud ·wlVIO Commission for Aerology under base. The basic problem is t o explain the chairmanship of F . H. Ludlam. how such large particles can grow. This report will be submitted to the The authors st ate that even in the case next session of the commission, but of a droplet formed on a giant hygro in view of its topical interest it was scopic nucleus the time required for it decided to publish it as Technical Note to reach a radius of roo p by the No. 13 A rtificial Control of Clouds and condensation process would be of the H ydrometeors. order of a day. It seems that in clouds composed of droplets, the only process known to be effective in forming large B ackgrmmd knowledge of cloud physics particles fast enough to account fo r Part I of the survey consists of an observed natural phenomena is the outline of knowledge concerning clouds sweeping process of collision and and precipitation. After some general coalescence. In the case of clouds physical considerations, the distinction composed of both droplets and crystals, between stratiform and cumuliform ho·wever, condensation can lead to a clouds is pointed out ; the kind of air rapid growth of the crystals. motion and forms of precipitation associated with these clouds, their H aving gone into more det ail on the t ypical dimensions and other relevant above processes and on related topics facts are summarized in tabular form. such as raindrop and crystal multiplic ation by disruption and splintering, The processes of droplet and crystal the authors turn next to the formation formation in the atmosphere and of of precipitation in different t ypes of cloud particle growth are then consider clouds. Although the general pro ed. Although laboratory experiments cesses are now understood, the laws have shown that ice crystals may form governing the formation, growth and upon solid particles by the direct aggregation of cloud particles are not

28 WMO Bulletin Janu ary 1956 well established and it is not yet a nd precipitat ion b ecomes available, a nd possible to calculate quantitatively the until t his time it is premature t o speak of artificial control ; rather we must first course of cloud and precipitation examine t he p ossibilities of artificial modi development. The t wo principal pro fications. These modifications are attempt cesses of precipitation development are ed by dissemina ting into a cloud seeding the growth of cloud droplets by sweep substances which change th e size distribu t ion or nature of the cloud p articles, and ing and the growth of ice crystals by affect the growth processes which are condensation. In many clouds both responsible for precipitation. Interest is

Photograph by Yir. F. H . Ludlam of what he calls " natural seeding of altocumulus " processes may operate and their rela naturally concentrated in accelerating t he tive importance is not easy to deter processes and ob taining rainfall which otherwise might not occur, but equa lly mine. t here are other possibilities, e.g. of altedng the intensity or characteristics of precipita On the basis of these accepted theo t ion already falling or about t o form. ries of droplet and crystal formation and growth, the possibilities of artifi The different seeding techniques are cial modification of clouds and preci classified into t wo groups, those which pitation are next considered. In the aim at increasing the rate of growth of wo rds of the authors : droplets by the sweeping process, and those which aim at increasing the The air m ovements causing t he formation concentration of ice crystals in the and growth of clouds are of such vast scale and associated with such enormous supercooled parts of clouds. The first energies t hat it seems most unlikely that group, which can be applied to both any direct artificial modification or control supercooled and non-supercooled clouds, of the large-scale features of clouds will includes the spraying into the cloud of ever be possible. On t he other hand it is comparatively easy to influence artificially water drops, giant hygroscopic nuclei some of the microphysical processes at or even grains of sand. The second work in clouds, and hence even t o affect group, which can only be applied to indirectly t he large-scale behaviour. It supercooled clouds, includes the well will not be possible t o work out good techniques fo r such operations until a known silver iodide process, and the more satisfactory p hysical t heory of cloud use of solid carbon dioxide, dry ice.

30 30

World World W a r - or or b y y r e mo va l l of of w a t e r r b t y h e i r r growth. growth.

va pour, pour, a n t d h at at p r ec ipit at i o d n eve l op s s a t t g r ea t t ex p e n se se durin g g th e e Se cond cond

g ro w w initi a ll y y b y y di ff u s i o n n

from from

e e

achie

b d

y y he

ting ting

- a a -

thod thod

us e d d

o a l a f a r ge ge numb e r r of of i ce ce crys t a l s, s, w hi c h h

pr ec ipit a ti

o n

. .

Evapor

n n

b n

e e

por ti o n s s of of t h e e cl o ud , , ca u ses ses t h e e f o rm a t ion ion

r e mov a l l o f f dropl e t a s nd nd dr y y m i ce e thod f , a llin s s t g of of hr o u g h h t h s e up e r coo l ed ed

e n t ir e l y y co n s i s t e n t t wi th th t h e e theo r t y h a t t m e thod s s of of eva por a ti o n , , m e thod o s f f

fo g s s ar e e di v id e d d into into thr ee ee ca t eg ori es , ,

ob se rv a ti o n a s r e: e: Method s s propos e f d o r r di ss ipatin g g

obt a i n e d. d. Th ey ey conclud e e that that th e e

r e vi e w w in in so m e e d e t a il il th e e r e sult s s

within within

th e m . . th e e ob se r va tion a f l ac iliti es es a nd nd th e n n

nd nd

e e

f o rm

tion tion of of pr ec ip i t a tion tion d i sc u ss ss th e e ex p e rim e nt a l l pr oce dur es, es,

to to

pl a

in in th

e e

oluti o n n o f f th e e cl o ud s s nea r es n t a tur a r l a in . . Th a e uth o r s s

nd nd

th e ori es es w hi c h h ave ave b ee n n propo se d d hi w c w h e r a e l t ea st st km km 4 0 0 from from th e e

a tmo

s ph

e, e,

l a bor

a tor y y ex p e rim e nts nts clouds , , not not th e ms e l ves ves pr ec i p i t a tin g, g,

thi

s s m i g ht ht h e lp lp to to ve rif y, y, in in th e e th c e on s id e r a tion tion of of e xp e rim e nt o s n n

cl o

ud s s in in a a mor c e on s i s t e nt nt m a nn er er ; ; co nclu s i o n s , , th s e ur vey vey was was limit e d d to to

wo uld uld

e e

int

e r es

tin g g to to s tud y y l ay e r r In In ord e t r o o d raw raw r easo n a bl y y d e finit e e

ce nt

a ) nd nd th a e uth o r s s co n s id e r r th a t t it it b ee n n see d e i d s s ca u se b d y y th e e see din g. g.

obs

r ve

i d

s s ve

y y hi g h h (a b o ut ut 7 p 5 e r r at io n n whi c h h occ ur s s aft e r r a a cloud cloud h as as

o f f

th a e b ove ove ph e nom e n a a h ave ave b ee n n pr ec ipit a ti o n n or or o th e w r ea th e r r modifi c

age age o f f cases cases in in hi w c h h o n o e m r o r e e not not po ss e e ibl t o o b e e quit s e ur e e th a t t a n y y

l e a e rtifi c i a l l p r ec ipit a ti on . . Th e e per u se d. d. On On a n y y pa r t i c ul a r r occas i o n , , i t t i s s

he he

see d e d d cl o ud a , nd nd t h e e r e l e a se se of of l us us cloud s ; ; s in in m os t t cases cases dr y y i ce ce wa s s

f f hol

es, es,

e e

s i ng ng

o f f t h e e t op op o f p f a rt s s of of of of pr ec ipit a t ion ion from from indi v i d u a l l c umu

ea r a n ce ce o f f furrow s, s, t h e e form a tion tion purpose purpose of of s timulatin g g th e e f o rm a tio n n

h d

a v e e b ee n n c han ges ges o f f s tru c tur e , , th e e form e d, d, a ll ll ove r r th e e w o rld w , ith ith th e e

o n s w s ithin ithin t h e e cl o ud . . R es ult s o s b serv Ma n y y ex p e rim e nt s s h ave ave bee p n er

fr om om a ir c r a ft ft o r r from from m o unt a in in s t a

mo s t t o f f th e e see din gs gs h ave ave b ee n n don e e

I ndivi d ual ual cumulus cumulus c l ouds ouds

who se se t e mp e r a tur e e w as as b e l o w w o° o° C C a nd nd

l a ye r r s s cloud h ave ave b ee m n a d e e on on cloud s s

cloud s. s. A ll ll r e ported ported ex p e rim e nt s s on on

cl o ud s , , fo gs gs a nd nd indi

idu

l l c umulu s s s tud y . .

w ith ith or og r a phi c c cloud

s , ,

s imp

l e e

l aye

r r

th a t t thi s s m et h o m d er it s s ca

r e ful ful

cloud cloud m o d ifica tion , , d ea lin g g in in turn turn

wa t e r r dr o pl e t s ; ; s th a e u t h o r s s co

s id

r r

r ev i e w w of of s mall- s cal e e

e rim

e nt

s s

in in

it it c a b n e e pr ec ipit a t e b d y y introdu c

i n g g

Part Part II II of of thi s s s ur v ey ey i s s d e voted voted to to

a a

a ture ture of of th e e fog fog i w s holl a y bo ve ve o ° ° C , ,

ca bilit y y o f f thi s s m e thod . . th e e te mp If If e r

all-

sca

l e e

experimen

s s

b e e drawn drawn a b o ut ut th e c e omm e r c i a l l pr ac ti

s il ve r r iodid e e but but no no c on cl u s i o n n ca n n y et et

a ppli ca tion tion o f f dr y y i ce ce o r r c r ys

t a l s s of of

m o dif y in g g or or co n tro llin g g i t. t.

in in di ss ip a tin s g up e r c oo l e d d fo gs gs b y y th e e s ound ound assess m e n t t of of th e e p oss ibili ty ty of of

d esc rip t i o n n of of n a tur a b l e h av i ou r r and and a a dur e . . S om e s e u ccess ccess h as as b ee n n obta i n e d d

t oo oo

i n

co m

l ete ete

to to

p rov

de de

a a

sat i

s f ac t ory ory

w ould ould a l so so b e a a e

y y

p e

s i ve ve

pro

s tru c tur a e n d d pr ec ipit at i o f n or m

a t io i n s s

e ff ec t e b d e y l e ctri c c d e po s ition ition but but thi s s

In In ge n e r a l l the the p h ysica l l t h eo r o y f f cl o u d d

c i a ll y . . R e m ova l l of of drop l e t s s mi g ht ht b e e

c onclud e e th a t t : : in g g for for th e e m e thod thod to to b e e u se d d c omm e r

r e nt nt typ es es of of cloud s , , th e e author s s h as as g iv e r n es ult s s uffici e ntl y y e ncour ag-

ducin g g th ese ese v ariou s s age nt s s into into diff e h yg ros c opi c c age nt . . Ne ith e r r of of th ese ese

A ft e r r di sc u ss in g g th e e ff ec t s s of of intro va pour , , f o r r ex ampl e e b y y introduc i n g a a g

WMO WMO Bull e t i n n J a nu a ry ry 19 56 56 WMO Bulletin January 1956

Not enough evidence is however able doubt led to a modification of available to enable a quantitative clouds and a release of precipita theoretical survey of the results to be tion by processes for which there undertaken. is a satisfactory qualitative, but not yet a quantitative theory. Large-scale e(jects z. At present, in the absence of a Part Ill of this survey is entitled quantitative theory and certain Designing, performing and assessing climatological data, it is not pos experiments to Ca$tSe large-scale e(jects. sible to predict the result of The history of the commercial cloud protracted seeding operations in seeding operations is sketched and their any particular place, especially if methods described. Ideally, such prac they are carried out from the tical applications should have been ground. Nevertheless, there is preceded by an exploratory phase some justification for supposing leading to the formulation of an that where certain special kinds of hypothesis and a stage of scientific cloud frequently occur, skilfully testing of the hypothesis. In reality, conducted seeding operations might however, these two preliminary phases result in a local net increase in have been largely by-passed, with the precipitation of economic benefit. consequence that even after a decade At present this supposition can be of intense cloud-seeding activity one justified only in respect of simple cannot confidently say whether or not supercooled orographic clouds, and the results have been positive. cannot yet be extended to include places where other, more complex The authors discuss the ways in cloud systems are predominant which the results of cloud-seeding and provide most of the natural operations can be measured and eva precipitation. luated. They point out that by randomization it is possible to provide a simple and complete guaranty of a 3· In our opmwn, a net increase of valid interpretation of the results of a precipitation has not been de test; two ways of randomizing the monstrated beyond reasonable experiments are described. In general, doubt in any seeding operations it is not possible to interpret reports yet described in the scientific of cloud-seeding operations so far literature, and it seems that at carried out, because it cannot be least most of the claims made in determined whether adequate, if any, other publications and in news statistical safeguards were used. papers have not had adequate foundation.

Conclusion 4· At least several years of funda Part IV of the survey contains the mental investigations and of meti authors' conclusions based on the culously planned and analysed material presented in the previous seeding experiments will be needed sections. They summarize the present before a reliable assessment of the situation as follows : economic potential of seeding operations can be made." "r. On a number of occasions seeding from aircraft has beyond reason- 0. M. A.

31 WMO Bull et in January 1956

WMO EM BLEM Geneva in April 1955, the President of W MO included the following remarks : design for an emblem was sub A mitted to all Members of WMO " There are a few persons with us in for approval in September 1955 . As this. grand Hall who have had leading the necessary majority of Members parts in developing the international were in favour, it is now the official exchanges of weather reports and al emblem of vnvro. though I cannot invite your attention to all of them, it seems to me most In accordance with a recommen appropriate here to speak of one who dation of the Administrative Com is t he dean of met eorologists still active mittee on Co-ordination of the United in the proceedings of the WMO. H e Nations, specialized agencies should has given almost 50 years to the service of meteorology, and to research in weather science with 40 years of this period as Director of the Meteorological Service of his country. He has la boured long and unselfishly to promote t he highest standards in international meteorology and to organize the means for world-wide exchange of weather in fo rmation. He has played a leading part in most of the major Conferences of Directors - in Copenhagen in 1929, Warsaw in 1935, London 1946, Wash ington 1947, Paris 195 1 and many \~' iVIO em b lem others. He was President of t he Inter national Meteorological Organization for several years, and during the vVar take the UN emblem as a basis when he devoted much time to planning a adopting an emblem or seal ; for this reorganization of the IMO and to the reason, the \ i\Tl\10 emblem includes drafting of rules of procedure. I do not a map representing an azimuthal know that he has ever declined when equidistant projection centred on the request ed to undertake a task that North Pole and s urr o un. d ~ d by t wo would advance co-operation in meteor olive branches. This is surmounted by ology. I take this opportunity to a symbolic representation of a wind express to him the deepest appreciation rose with the letters OMMJWMO. and gratitude for all that he has done."

The President was speaking of DR. H . THEODOR H ESSE LBERG Dr. Th. H esselberg, who retired from In his address at the opening meeting his post of Director of the Norwegian of the second session of Congress in Meteorological Service on 31 October

32 WMO Bulletin January 1956

I955· During his 40 years in this Professor of theoretical meteorology in position, the staff increased from IS the University of Copenhagen from to 3IO, an indication not only of I952 to I 955· Prior to that he worked Dr. Hesselberg's contribution to Nor for I 2 years in the Forecasting Division wegian meteorology but of the rapid of the Norwegian Meteorological Ser development of this science and its vice and also spent 2 Yz years in the many applications. United States of America, mainly at the Institute for Advanced Study, In addition to his outstanding ser Princeton. His researches have been on vices to IMO and "V/MO, which received theoretical meteorology, with special recognition in I955 by the award of the attention to numerical weather fore casting.

\ A/e welcome Dr. Fji:irtoft into the field of international meteorology and wish him every success in his new appointment.

ALPI NE METEOROLOGY

The 4th congress for alpine met eorology will be held in Chamonix, France, from I7 to I9 September I 956. Questions which will be studied include : mountain precipitation; wea ther types of the alpine region, and their classification ; radiation and bio Dr. Th. Hesselberg climatology. Full details can be obtained from : Secretariat du qua trieme congres de meteorologie alpine, first IMO Prize, Dr. Hesselberg was 72, rue Pasteur, Lyon, France. also President of the Norwegian Geo physical Commission from I930 to I952 ; he was elected member of the Norwegian Academy of Sciences in RAINFALL MAPS OF ITALIAN SOMALI I9I9. He published many scientific LAND papers on theoretical meteorology and The Secretariat has received copies climatology. of a series of rainfall maps for the part On behalf of his countless friends in of Somaliland under Italian trustee meteorological services all over the ship, compiled by Prof. A. Fantoli of world, we wish Dr. Hesselberg much the Utficio I drografico Centrale, Rome, happiness in the years to come. and published by the Ministero Afri ca Italiano. These maps, on a scale of I : 3,ooo,ooo, show isopleths of the DR. RAGNAR FJORTOFT average rainfall for the three-month periods April, May, June and Sep Dr. R. Fji:irtoft, who has succeeded tember, October, November, for the Dr. Hesselberg as Director of the average annual rainfall and for the Norwegian Meteorological Service, was average annual number of rain days.

34 34

Secretary-General Secretary-General also also a tt e nd W as e d a m a d hin g eet ton ton - where where di sc u ss ions ions took took

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SECRETARY - GENERAL'S GENERAL'S VISIT VISIT TO TO U . S . A. A.

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VISIT VISIT OF OF PRESIDENT PRESIDENT OF OF WMO WMO

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WMO WMO Bulletin Bulletin January January 1956 1956

35 35

of of to to Chief Chief of of vacancy vacancy e e Federal Federal th fill fill Swiss Swiss e e th n n inted inted e po twe e b nt nt e m ee r ag

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1956 1956 January January Bulletin Bulletin WMO WMO

36 36

Ae r o l ogy ogy a nd nd co-or din a t ed ed b y y t h e e th er er a a s up e r ad i a b a ti c c l a p se se r a t e, e, i ndi-

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WMO WMO Bull e t i n n J a nu a ry ry 1 9 56 56 WMO Bulletin January 1956 cated by an upper-air sounding, corres Met eorology, the Executive Committee ponds to a physical reality, or should directed that an I nternational List of be ascribed to instrumental errors. In Selected and Supplementary Ships T echnical Note No. I6 Dr. Godson pre should be published. This first edition sents some studies on this question and of the publication is based on data, reaches the conclusion that superadia valid on I J anuary I955, received from batic lapse rates can occur in the free the directors of meteorological services atmosphere, and, under certain condi concerned, and includes, for each ship. tions, can also be recorded. He there listed , its call sign, route, t ype of baro fore suggests criteria for instrument met er, hygrometer, barograph and error based only on the magnitude of other instruments, if carried, and the effect , but indicates the need for method of obtaining sea surface tem further studies of cases of superadia perature. batic lapse rates, in conjunction with simultaneous observations of hydro It is intended that revised editions meteors. of the publication will be issued an nually, based on information valid on I January of the year of issue. Technica? R eg~tlations . Volume I I - Meteorological Service for I nternatio nal Air Navigation, rst edition, I956. W eathe1' R eports : Vol~tme C - Trans vVMO - No. 49· BD. 3· Pp. 87 . missions (Chapter II - Transmissions rr models of documents. Price : schedules). WlVIO - No. 9· TP. 4· Sw. fr. 7.- . Loose-leaf. Price : Not yet fixed. This part of the WMO Technical This volume, replacing Fascicule Ill Regulations contains Chapter IZ - of IMO Publication No. 9, contains Meteorological Service for I nternational information on the transmissions at Air Navigation, drafted jointly by the present in operation for the purposes of WMO Commission fo r Aeronautical synoptic meteorology and internation Meteorology and the ICAO Meteorology al air navigation. The material will be Division, and approved by Second presented in six regional sections deal Congress for implementation on I J anu ing respectively with the six WMO ary I956 ; it supersedes the former Regions, of which the texts relating to V/MO publication - Specifications fo1' Region I and Region VI are now Meteorological Services for I ntentational available. Air Navigation. The publication will be kept up-to The Regulations will be published in date by means of supplements. the four official languages of the Organization: Volume II is now avail able in English and French. Weather R eports : Volume D - I nfor mation for shipping (Part A - Mete International List of Selected and Sup orological broadcast schedules). plementary Ships. WMOJOMM - WMO - No. 9· TP. 4- Loose-leaf. No. 47· TP. I8. Pp. I8r. Price : Price : Not yet fi xed. Sw. fr. 5.- . This volume, replacing Fascicule I V Following recommendations of the of I MO Publication No. 9, deals with Commissions for Maritime and Synoptic the schedules and contents of meteor-

38 38

i s s m e nti o n e d d ve r y y briefly briefly in in th e e int r oduction oduction reduc ed ed or or eve n n to to be be · stopp e d , , a mong mong t hem . .

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WMO WMO Bulletin Bulletin January January 1956 · ·

39 39

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1956 1956 nuary nuary a J Bulletin Bulletin WMO WMO

40 40

CCIT CCIT for for photote l eg raph y) y) - ITU , , London, London, Eng l and. and.

23-25 23-25 Apri l l CCIT CCIT St ud y y Gro up up No . . V V (Joi n t t Study Study gro up - CCIR

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1 7-21 7-21 Ap ril ril CCIT CCIT Study Study Group Group No. No. IV IV (Photote le graphy graphy and and fac

Counc il , , New New York, York, USA USA

1 7 7 April- 4 4 May May 2 1st 1st re g u l ar ar sess i on on of of the the Economic Economic and and Socia l l

ICAO, ICAO, Ciudad Ciudad Trujillo, Trujillo, Domini can can Republic Republic

3 3 April April 3rd 3rd Caribbean Caribbean Regional Regional Air Air Navigatio n n Meeting Meeting of of

Other Other International International O · rganizations rganizations

mittee, mittee, C iud ad ad Trujillo, Trujillo, Dominic a n n Republi c c

25- 27 27 Apri l l 4th 4th session session of of the the Eastern Eastern Caribbean Caribbean Hurricane Hurricane Com

Switzerland Switzerland

17 17 Apri l l 8 th th session session of of the the Exec uti ve ve Committee, Committee, Geneva, Geneva,

Year, Year, Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland Switzerland

:Ma r ch ch (te ntati ve) ve) \ ¥ork ing ing \~ ' Group Group MO MO on on th e e Int e rnational rnational Geophys i cal cal

Dubrovnik, Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia Yugoslavia

12 12 March March 2 nd nd sess i on on of of the the Reg i o n a l l Associat i on on VI VI (E urop e), e),

Domi ni can can Republic Republic

16- 25 25 February February Caribbean Caribbean Hurricane Hurricane Seminar, Seminar, Ciudad Ciudad Trujillo, Trujillo,

World World Nfetem•ological Nfetem•ological Organi z ation ation

CALENDAR CALENDAR OF OF COMING COMING EVENTS EVENTS

interestin g g and and at at times times even even exc iting. iting. D. D. A. A. D . .

understandable understandable to to the the l ayman, ayman, but but a m l so so eteo very very r o l ogists ogists a l ik e. e.

prod u ced ced a a book book which which is is not not on l y y comp tioned, tioned, l ete l y y it it will will be be of of in terest terest to to l aymen aymen and and

trea ts ts the the s ubj ect ect in in a a popu l ar ar style style and and has has rien ce ce o n n the the subject subject a nd , , as as a lr eady eady men

tem tem operated operated in in the the Caribbean Caribbean region. region. author's author's He He vast vast store store of of knowledge knowledge and and ex pe

reconnaissance reconnaissance in in the the hurrican e e warn in Th g g sys e e vo lum e e shows shows on on every every page page the the

Dr. Dr. Tann e hill hill deals deals with with the the rol e e of of aircraft aircraft

cia

ll y y influencing influencing hurrican es. es.

In In his his n ew ew book book now now being being reviewed, reviewed,

popular popular disc u ssio n n of of possibilities possibilities of of art ifi

hurric a n es, es, etc . . One One chapter chapter is is de vote d d to to a a

well well known known to to meteoro l ogists. ogists.

the the turbulence turbulence e ncountered ncountered in in flying flying through through

their their nalttre nalttre and and history history wi ll ll be be particularly particularly

canes, canes, the the conditions conditions in in the the eye eye of of th e e storm, storm,

v ious ious vo lum e e on on this this subject subject Hurricane s s ; ;

descriptions descriptions

of of cloud cloud formations formations in in hurri

rica n es es than than Dr. Dr. I. I. Tanne R. R. hill , , and and his his pre

r est est

in in

t h em em to to meteorologists, meteorologists, such such as as the the

the the wor ld ld better better qua li fied fied to to write write on on hur

scientific scientific accuracy accuracy and and there there is is much much of of inte

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l a r r language , , there there has has been been no no sacrifice sacrifice of of

Although Although th ese ese stories stories are are written written in in popu

Price: Price: S S 3.00. 3.00.

sti ll ll un solved." solved." pan y) y) 1955 · · Pp. Pp. 27 1 ; ; 1 28 28 illu strations. strations.

ago ago - but but with with a a part part of of the the g r eat eat mystery mystery hil l. l. New New York York (Dodd, (Dodd, iVIead iVIead and and Com

works works toda y y - far far better better than than a a few few yea rs rs The The H urricane urricane Hunt ers. ers. By By I I va n n Ray Ray Tanne

we we see see how how the the hurrican e e warn in g g system system

crews crews saw saw and and l earn earn w h at at they they l earned. earned. And And

sto ri es es we we go go a l o n g. g. vVe vVe see see w hat hat the the weather weather

J. J. M. M. R . . centers centers of of these these furious furious storms. storms. In In these these

400 400 bibliographic bibliographic references. references. of of big big four-engin e d d bombers bombers fl y ing ing into into the the

and and i s s u pplemented pplemented by by a a li st st of of more more the the than than a uthor uthor puts puts i t t " " . .. .. h e re re we we find find sto ri es es

paper paper conta in s s much much va luabl e e r e levant levant to to data, data, the the use use of of aircraft aircraft as as s t orm orm hunters. hunters. As As

sma ll ll segment segment of of the the n at ur a l l wor l d". d". Th e e which which h ave ave occurred occurred in in the the past past a nd nd l eads eads up up

to to reach reach "a "a quantitative quantitative understanding understanding some some of of of of a a the the most most devastating devastating of of hurricanes hurricanes

whose whose aim aim is, is, to to use use the the author's author's own own words, words, In In the the ear l y y c hapters , , the the author author reviews reviews

WMO WMO Bulletin Bulletin January January 1956 1956

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The The modern modern technique technique for for radar radar wind-finding wind-finding

MARK MARK Ill Ill

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Orders Orders for for collections collections or or individual individual volumes volumes can can be be addressed addressed to to the the European European

36/- 5 . 00 00 sterling sterling or or US US 43.-, 43.-, S S 70/- and and Sw. Sw. fr. fr. 10.00 sterling sterling . . or or US US S S

The The price price of of volumes, volumes, when when ordered ordered separately, separately, 21 . -, -, varies varies between between Sw. Sw. fr . .

Volume Volume XVI XVI - Record Record of of the the Conference Conference

research research and and indust r y y

Volume Volume XV XV - Applications Applications of of radioactive radioactive isotopes isotopes and and fission fission products products in in

Volume Volume XIV- General General aspects aspects of of the the use use of of radioactive radioactive isotopes isotopes ; ; dosimetry dosimetry

of of nuclear nuclear energy energy

Volume Volume XIII XIII - Legal, Legal, administrative, administrative, health health and and safety safety aspects aspects of of large large scale scale use use

logy logy and and biochemistry biochemistry

Volume Volume XII XII - Radioactive Radioactive isotopes isotopes and and ionizing ionizing radiations radiations in in agriculture, agriculture, physio

Volume Volume XI XI - Biological Biological effects effects of of radiation radiation

Volume Volume X X - Radioactive Radioactive isotopes isotopes and and nuclear nuclear radiations radiations in in medicine medicine

Volume Volume IX IX - Reactor Reactor technology technology and and chemical chemical processing _ _

Volume Volume VIII VIII - Production Production technology technology of of the the materials materials used used for for nuclear nuclear energy energy

Volume Volume VII VII - Nuclear Nuclear chemistry chemistry and and the the e ffects ffects of of irradiation irradiation

Volum e e VI VI - Geology Geology of of uranium uranium and and thorium thorium

Volume Volume V V - Physics Physics of of reactor reactor design design

Volume Volume IV IV - Cross - sections sections important important to to reactor reactor design design

Volum e e Ill Ill - Pow e r r e actors actors

Volum e e 11 11 - Physics Physics and and research research reactors reactors

Volume Volume I I - The The world's world's requirements requirements for for energy energy and and the the rol e e of of nuclear nuclear power power

fr Price Price . . 557 of of . - th , , e e £ 46 46 s e t : : Sw . . 13:J.OO sterling sterling . . or or US US S S

1956 . . th e e first first part part of of

Volume Volume Ill Ill has has just just b e en en published; published; the the remaining remaining volum e s s will will be be ready ready during during

on on each each pap e r. r.

to to the the Conference Conference orally , , or or in in writing, writing, as as well well as as the the minutes minutes of of the the discussions discussions

The The 16 16 volumes published published , , by by the the United United Nations, Nations, will will include include all all papers papers submitted submitted

on on the the Peaceful Peaceful Uses Uses of of Atomic Atomic Energy Energy

International International Conference Conference in in Geneva Geneva (August (August 1955) 1955)

Proceedings Proceedings cf cf the the

APPEARING APPEARING SOON SOON

Syracuse Syracuse 1 , , N.Y., N.Y., U.S.A. U.S.A. Cable Cable address address "CROHINDS" "CROHINDS"

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system. system.

permanent permanent record record of of the the operation operation of of the the entire entire

soon soon be be available available to to provide provide an an accurate accurate and and

A A chart chart recorde - r r is is under under development development and and will will

h eight. eight.

information information into into the the correct correct measure measure of of ceiling ceiling

signal signal from from the the receiver receiver and and translates translates this this

of of height height measurement. measurement. The The indicator indicator gets gets the the

make make use use of of the the well well known known triangulation triangulation system system

arranged arranged as as shown shown in in the the above above di agram agram and and

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from from the the receiver. receiver.

tower, tower, which which may may be be at at a a considerable considerable distance distance

is is transmitted transmitted to to an an indicator indicator at at the the contrcl contrcl

transforms transforms the the beam beam of of light light into into a a signal signal that that

daylight daylight illumination illumination on on the the clouds. clouds. The The receiver receiver

modulated modulated light, light, in in spite spite of of the the presence presence of of

receiver receiver that that is is able able to to detect detect the the reflected reflected

beam beam of of modulated modulated light light to to the the clouds clouds and and a a

lish e d d by by means means of of a a projector projector that that projects projects a a

able able f eature eature of of day-time day-time operation operation is is accomp

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