Index

4chan, 210–11 anticelebrity ethic, 209–10, 9/11 attacks, 38, 134 219–20, 226 9/11 Commission, 134 anti-counterfeiting trade agreement (ACTA), 156, 160, 175 Abbas, Wael, 232 anti-globalization protests, 196–7 accountability, 27, 66 Antisec, 218, 223–7 advertising Apache videos, see Collateral Murder classified, 39 video revenue, 89 Apple, 46, 52, 153, 166, 171 affinity groups, 194, 197–8, Applebaum, Jacob, 166–7, 170–3, 175 206n11 app stores, 153 Afghanistan War, 38 Arab Spring, 4, 9, 28, 92, 146–7, 156, Afghan War Logs, 2–3, 31n5, 79, 209, 229–32, 236–42, 266–9 106–7, 109, 135, 245, 248, 252 Argentina, 159–60 Agee, Philip, 102, 104 Assange, Julian, 3, 5, 9, 40, 79, 81, 97, agency, 91, 99 123, 155, 175, 178, 191, 247, 249 agenda setting, 89–90, 97–8 alleged sexual misconduct by, The Age of WikiLeaks (Mitchell), 3 95, 108 aggregation sites, 14 attempts to discredit, 108 Al Akhbar, 230, 240, 266, 267 celebrity cult of, 251–2 Al Jazeera, 13, 27, 229, 267 conversation with, 254–71 All the President’s Men (film), 35, demonization of, 258–9 101, 258 descriptions of, 22–4, 26 Amazon, 42, 52, 152, 156, 166, extradition case against, 269–71 170, 171 Amazon Web Services (AWS), 42, 43 Bachman, Michelle, 18 American Independent News Bagdikian, Ben, 127 Network, 14 Bahamas, 68 analogue leaking, 125–8 Bank of America, 46, 166, 171, 268 anarchy, 21 Barr, Aaron, 217 Anderson, Chris, 36 Bartnicki v. Vopper, 95–6 AnonOps, 214–15, 217, 219–22 Ben Ali, Zine al-Abidine, 237, 240 anonymity, 92, 131–2, 157, 195, 211, Benkler, Yochai, 40, 166 213, 219 Berglez, Peter, 58 Anonymous, 8, 49–50, 156, 175, Berlin Wall, 268 191–6, 201, 203–4, 206n12, Biden, Joe, 259 209–28, 230–2 Blair, Tony, 179, 181 anticelebrity ethic and, 209–10 bloggers, imprisonment of, 155 birth of, 210–13 blogs, 18–19, 86, 90, 158, 200 ethical principles, 218–21 botnets, 213–18 informants infiltrating, 225 Bouazizi, Mohammed, 237, 267 media coverage of, 226–7 Brand, Stewart, 233 use of botnets by, 213–18 Brin, Sergey, 161

273 274 Index

Britannica, 28 collective identity, 201–3 British National Party (BNP), 106 collective meaning making, 87, 94 BrusselsLeaks, 27 communicate, right to, 262–5 Bugged Planet, 154 communication infrastructure, 41–3 Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 50 community broadcasting, 152, Burton, Finn, 210 159–60 Bush, George W., 16, 181 confidentiality, 28 Bush Administration, 169 Contempt of Court Act, 183 business environment, 37 content control, 149–56 business models, 170–4 content production, 48–9 Buxton, Peter, 102 Coombs, David, 117, 137, 139, 142n8 Cooper, Anderson, 17, 18, 19 Cablegate, 3, 5–6, 28, 40, 42, 56–77, Copyright Alert System, 151 123, 129–33, 135–6, 237–9, 245, copyright laws, 167 248, 266–7 Courage to Resist, 45 cable reporting, blocking of, 67–9 Cowen, Tyler, 16 Campaign Against Arms Trade (CAAT) credibility, 98 v. Information Commissioner and Critical Art Ensemble, 193 Ministry of Defence, 186 crowdsourcing, 88–9 Castells, Manuel, 89, 124, 125 Cryptome, 233 censorship, 7, 59, 67–9, 147, 149–50, Cult of the Dead Cow, 193, 205n4 156, 167, 184, 232–3, 256, 258–60 cyberactivism, 4, 8, 191–206 Center for Independent Media, 14 Cyber Intelligence Sharing and charitable foundations, 50–1 Protection Act (CISPA), 153–4, child pornography, 149, 192–3 168 China, 21, 38, 67, 167, 175, 233, 246, cyberlibertarianism, 195, 205n6 259, 264–5 cybersecurity, 153–4, 168 Chomsky, Noam, 265 Church of Scientology, 106, 192, 209, Dahlgren, P., 87, 94 211–13 Daily Kos, 15 citizen journalism, 105, 146, 147, 158, Daily Mail, 18 232, 247–8 Damiens, Robert-François, 138 citizen media, 90 data analysis, 47–9, 50 citizenship, 91–2 data dumps, 134–41 civic culture, 87, 94 data journalism, 57 civil liberties, 38, 238–9 Data Retention Directive, 160 civil society, 58–60, 94, 159–60, 192 Davies, Nick, 79 classified advertising, 39 Davis, Daniel, 38 classified information, release of, 6–7, decentralization, 21, 30, 90, 240 79, 123 de Certeau, Michel, 214 cloud protesting, 8, 191–206 Deep Throat, 35, 102 cloud services, 42, 152, 256 Defence, Press and Broadcasting CNN, 59 Advisory Committee (DPBAC), collaboration, 36 80, 184 Collateral Murder video, 2, 22, 40, 44, Defence Advisory Notice (DA-Notice), 95, 106, 123, 166, 191, 229, 245, 184 255 De George, Richard T., 104 collective action, 191–2, 195–203, Dele, Ojolede, 69 205n7, 205n10, 209, 215, 232 DeLong, Brad, 16 Index 275 democracy, 94 Facebook, 37, 90, 146, 154, 172, 173, democratization, 146, 148–9 240, 241 denial of service (DoS) attacks, 43 Factcheck.org, 14, 18, 19 Dershowitz, Alan, 261–2 Federal Trade Commission, 17 Der Spiegel, 2, 23, 25, 26, 44, 110, 112, file-sharing sites, 149 114–19 filtering content, 149–50, 167 Deseriis, Marco, 213 Financial Times, 39 detainee assessment briefs, 82 First Amendment, 80, 96 digital broadcasting, 152 First Gulf War, 13 digital information, 124–38 Flanagan, Tom, 259 digital leaking, 124–41 Foreign Intelligence Services Act diplomatic cables, leaking of, 40, 42, (FISA), 174 56–77, 92–4, 123, 129–33, 135–6, Forward Operating Base (FOB), 130–1 230, 237–9, 266–7 Foucault, Michael, 138 disclosure fourth estate, 11–12 future of, 49–52 see also networked fourth estate political economy of, 35–55 Fox News, 18, 19, 222, 258 distributed denial of service (DDoS), freedom of expression, 7, 8, 96, 8, 156, 170, 193, 212, 215, 224 146 –65 Doctorow, Cory, 233–4 obstacles to, 148–56 Domscheit-Berg, Daniel, 3, 48, policy initiatives to ensure, 156–60 50, 251 Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), donations, 43–7, 50–1 184–7 Dorling, Phillip, 62 Freedom Ops, 217 Drudge Report, 18 Free Press, 159 Dyer-Whiteford, Nick, 47 free space, 215 frequency allocation, 152 eavesdropping hardware, 153–4 Friedman, Thomas, 17, 20–1 eBay, 52, 166, 171 Egypt, 28, 67, 151, 155, 230, 231, Garbaya, Samir, 240 232–3, 238, 240, 266 gatekeeping role, 87, 89–90, 97–8 Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), Geithner, Timothy, 268 171, 173 general intellect, 47 electronic surveillance, 38 geopolitics, 36–9 Ellsberg, Daniel, 7, 42–3, 102, 104, Gharbia, Sami Ben, 229 123, 125–8, 133, 134, 139–40 Ghonim, Wael, 147 embassy cables, see diplomatic cables Gingrich, Newt, 258–9 Encarta, 12 Gitlin, Todd, 135 Espionage Act, 104, 133, 136 Gleaner Newspaper group, 92–4 ethics, 4, 66, 96–7, 205n4, 218–21 GlobaLeaks, 233 European Court of Human Rights global financial crisis, 37 (ECHR), 181 globalization, 58–60, 87, 124 European Data Retention Directive, global journalism, 58, 62–7, 71 153 global online news organizations, European Digital Rights (EDRI), 160 13–14 everyDNS, 43, 170, 171 global public sphere, 58–60, 71, 92–4 experience movements, 197, 204 Gongrijp, Rop, 167, 170–1, 172 experts, 16 Gono, Gideon, 68 extra-legal spaces, 260–2 Goodman, Amy, 254–71 276 Index

Google, 37, 38, 41, 42, 90, 154, 161, democratization of, 85 172, 175 digital, 124–38 Google News, 13 dissemination of, 89–90, 95–6 government corruption, 237–8 filtering, 149–50, 167 Graham, Andrew, 48 secrecy, in UK, 178–82 Gravel, Mike, 43 information society, 47, 89, 245 Green, Damien, 182 Inside WikiLeaks (Domscheit-Berg), 3 Greenwald, Glenn, 217 intellectual property protection, 156, Guantánamo Bay Files, 3, 82, 106 159–60 Guardian, 2, 3, 6, 22–3, 30, 44, 78–82, International Association for Media 95, 109, 110, 112–15, 117–19, 175 and Communication Research Guy Fawkes masks, 195, 212 (IAMCR), 9–10 International Federation of the Habermas, J., 58 Phonographic Industry, 192 hacker culture, 249–50 Internet hacker ethic, 205n4, 218–21 access to, 151, 241 hacktivism, 4, 193–6, 209, 221–7, blocking of, 167 231–2 business models, 170–4 see also Anonymous censorship, 7, 59, 67–9, 147, 149–50, Hactivismo, 193 156, 167, 184, 232–3, 256, 258–60 Hajji, Lotfi, 13 concentration of ownership, Hamlily, Adil Hadi al Jazairi Bin, 82 173–4 Hardey, M., 91, 99 control of, 41–3, 59, 166–77 HBGary Federal, 217–18, 221 forces for closure, 36–9 Heald, Emma, 98 impact on traditional media, Heller, Jean, 102 12–13 Hill, Amelia, 182 infrastructure, 41–3, 150–2, 155, Hoglund, Greg, 221 159–60 Holder, Eric, 108 privacy rights, 170–4 Honduras, 68 regulation, 38 horizontal networks, 124 services, 7 Hrafnsson, Kristinn, 47 traditional media and, 89–90 Huckabee, Mike, 109, 260 transparency, 229–35 Huffington Post, 90 Internet Corporation for the human microphone, 198–9 Assignment of Names and Numbers (ICANN), 175 Icelandic Modern Media Initiative Internet Feds, 221–2 (IMMI), 148, 157–60, 161 Internet Freedom Agenda, 149 Imus, Don, 19 Internet-relay chat, 199 Indignados, 198 Internet service providers (ISPs), 149, individuality, 191 153–4, 167, 168, 173 individuals, 15–16, 21, 194–5, 196–9 investigative journalism, 35, 39, 50–1, Indonesia, 68 85–6, 96, 247–8 Indymedia, 4, 146, 173, 251 Iran, 154, 238 informal networks, 197–8 Iran-Contra Affair, 229 information Iranian reform movement, 28 access to, 87, 135, 149–50, 241 Iraq War, 38 control, 149–56 Iraq War Logs, 2–3, 107, 135, 254–7 decentralized, 12 Israel, 238, 260, 265 Index 277

Jamaica Gleaner, 92–4 of diplomatic cables, 40, 42, 56–77, Jenkins, Henry, 91 92–4, 123, 129–33, 135–6, 230, Jenkins, Simon, 81 237–9, 266–7 Jónsdóttir, Birgitta, 166, 170–2, in network society, 123–45 175 Pentagon Papers, 7, 16, 42–3, 50, Jordan, 232 87, 102, 123, 125–8, 135, 136, journalism 141n2 citizen, 105, 146, 147, 158, 232, politics of, 209–28 247–8 war logs, 2–3, 31n5, 79, 106–9, 135, data, 57 245, 248, 252, 254–7 ethics, 96–7 Lebanon, 67 future of, 17 Leigh, David, 96 global, 58, 62–7, 71 Leveson Inquiry, 78, 83n1 investigative, 17, 35, 39, 50–1, 85–6, libel laws, 68, 150 96, 247–8 liberation technology, 146–7 networked, 59 Lieberman, Joe, 42, 169–70 professional, 14 Limbaugh, Rush, 18, 19 standards, 86–7 LinkedIn, 90 journalists, threats against, 68 local newspapers, 12 justice, 4 London riots, 156, 173 London underground bombing, 28 Kant, Immanuel, 263–4 Lowell, Abbe D., 96 Katz, Ian, 82 Low Orbit Ion Cannon (LOIC), Kauffman, Sylvie, 98 215 Kaupthing Bank, 150 lulz, 192, 210–13, 217–18, 226 Keller, Bill, 21–6, 31n5, 92 LulzSec, 175, 218, 222–3, 225–7 Kifaya movement, 232 King, Peter, 108, 109 MacGillvray, Alex, 171, 175 Kissinger, Henry, 129 MacGregor Marshall, Andrew, 68 Kittler, Friedrich, 249 Malkin, Michelle, 18 knowledge economy, 47 Manning, Bradley, 6–7, 21, 25, 45, 81, Kuwait, 155 101–23, 129–41, 141–2n5, 142n8, 155, 260–2 Lamo, Adrian, 107–8, 110, 132–3, Marine Corps Base Quantico (MCB 141n5 Quantico), 136–8 laws, 25 market fundamentalism, 37 copyright, 167 marketization, 36–9 intellectual property, 156 Marx, Karl, 47 libel, 68, 150 mass media, see media on whistle-blowing, 104 mass-self communication, 124 leaks/leaking, 27–8, 103 MasterCard, 46, 166, 171, 268–9 see also whistle-blowing/whistle- McCain, John, 16 blowers McChesney, Robert, 51 by Al Jazeera, 229 McDonald, K., 196–7, 201, 203 analogue, 125–8 McNally, Owen, 181 crackdown on, 139–41 media as cyberactivism, 191–2 activism, 4 of digital information, agenda setting by, 89–90, 97–8 124–38 aggregation sites, 14 278 Index media – continued Net neutrality debate, 151, 159 changing characteristics of, 87–9 networked fourth estate, 5, 7, 11–34, citizen, 90 124, 166 concentration of ownership, 167 collaboration between traditional contra flows, 58–9 media and, 27–9 global, 13–14 crisis of, 11–13 globalization, 58–60 elements of, 13–16 interactions between WikiLeaks mass media anxiety and, 20–9 and established, 5–6, 28–9, 44, media tensions and crisis in, 17–20 56–8, 60–7, 70–2, 85–100, 257–8 vulnerabilities of, 25–7 in MENA, 239, 240 networked free press, 166–76 networked fourth estate and, 20–9 networked individuals, 198 new, 11–34, 85–92, 95, 97–8 networked journalism, 59 right-wing, 18–19 networked public sphere, 13–16 social, 37, 91, 146, 148–9, 154, 156, network society, 1, 89–92 167, 172 defined, 124–5 tensions and crisis, 17–20 leaking and, 123–45 traditional, 11, 13–14, 20–9, 44, new media, 85–92, 95, 97–8 70–2, 85–100, 250, 257–8 news media, see media transformation of, 11–13 newspapers, 11–12, 17, 39, 85–99 media collaboration, 5–6, 27–30, New York Times 56–8, 60–7, 85–100, 257–8 Pentagon Papers and, 43, 127–8 media ecology theories, 95 reputation of, 39 media industry, 87 WikiLeaks and, 2–3, 20–3, 26–7, Mediamatters.org, 18–19 44, 60, 79, 80, 92, 95, 109–10, Mendez, Juan, 109, 137 112–13, 115–19, 168–9 Middle East and North Africa New York Times Co. v. United States 403 (MENA), 8–9, 154, 236–7, 239 U.S. 713, 128 see also Arab Spring Nichols, John, 51 military-industrial complex, 249 Nixon, Richard, 128–9 Miller, Judith, 259 nonprofit sector, 14–15 misinformation, 17 Norton, Quinn, 226–7 Mitchell, Greg, 3 Mitchell, John N., 129 Obama Administration, 24–5, 136, Monteiro, Chris, 46 139–41, 169, 233 moral shocks, 195 Occupy movement, 198, 202, 204, Moreno, Javier, 26 206n11, 226 Morocco, 67, 230, 232 Official Secrets Act (OSA), 104, MoroLeaks, 230 179–82 Moyo, Jonathan, 68 online activism, 4, 8, 191–206 Mubarak, Hosni, 231, 238, 239, 266 online surveillance, 147, 153–4, Mugabe, Robert, 68 159–60 Mullen, Mike, 108 OpenDemocracy, 48 multiplex operators, 152 OpenLeaks, 27, 50, 97, 233 Open Media, 159 National Crime Agency, 186 openness, 36 national security, 174, 183 OpenNet Initiative, 41, 149 Nawaat.org, 229–30 open-source software, 12, 28, 29 neoliberalism, 37 Operation Antisec, 218, 223–7 Index 279

Operation HBGary, 217–18 Public Interest Immunity (PII), 183 OPSEC protocols, 130 public interest test, 185 OpTunisia, 216–17 public space, 262–5 outsourcing, 49, 224 public sphere, 58–60, 71, 92–4 public trials, in UK, 183 Pakistan, 67 Palestine, 238 radical transparency, 57 Palestine Papers, 229, 260 Rather, Dan, 16 Palin, Sarah, 106 Reese, Stephen, 66 Panama, 68 regulation, 37, 38 Par (Potentially Alarming Research), resource mobilization, 205n10 49–50 right-wing media, 18–19 participatory culture, 91 Rumsfeld, Donald, 265–6 party press culture, 15 Rusbridger, Alan, 82–3 Pasquill, Derek, 181 Russia, 246 PayPal, 44, 45, 152, 156, 166, Russo, Anthony, 125, 126, 128, 133 171, 268 peer production, 12–13, 15, 28, 88 Sabu, 225 peer-to-peer exchange, 36, 37 Sandler Foundation, 50 Pellecer, Martin, 63 Saudi Arabia, 67, 186, 238 Pentagon Papers, 7, 16, 42–3, 50, 87, Savage, Michael, 19 102, 123, 125–8, 135, 136, 141n2 Schmitt, Eric, 31n5, 80 PeRiQuito AB, 42 search engines, 149 physical repression, 155 secrecy, 38, 178–84 Piggipedia, 232 security states, 36–9 Pinkerton Government Services, 224 self-censorship, 67–8, 162n7 Pinterest, 90 Serious and Organised Crime Agency Pirate Bay, 149, 162n6 (SOCA), 186 Pirate Party, 170 servers, 42–3 Plumbers, 128 Sheehan, Neil, 127 policy hacking, 158–9, 161 Shorrock, Tim, 224 policy monopolies, 159 Sifry, Micah L., 232 political change, 146, 239–41 single person organizations (SPOs), political economy, 5, 35–55 248–9 political exposure, conjoint approach SIPRNet, 134 to, 85–100 Skype, 172 political responses, 42–3 Snopes.org, 19 politics of visibility, 202–3 social activism, 191–206 Pollak, Noah, 238 social intellect, 47 PostFinance, 45–6 social media, 37, 91, 146, 148–9, 154, Press Trust of India, 18 156, 167, 172, 239–41 Price, Logan, 114 social movement organizations, 197 privacy rights, 170–3, 174 social movements, 4, 8, 36, 92, 146–8 professional journalism, 14 social norms, 174 Project Chanology, 212–13 social order, 155–6 ProPublica, 14, 50–1, 139 societal changes, 1, 7, 147–8 prosumers, 88 Soghoian, Christopher, 172–3 public interest, 78–84, 87 Sonet.net, 173 Public Interest Disclosure Act, 186, 187 Sony Playstation Network hack, 222 280 Index

South Africa, 162n5 TuniLeaks, 229–30 Spycatcher case, 183 Tunisia, 13, 28, 56, 154, 229–30, 237, Spyfiles, 3, 154 239, 240, 267 Stafford Smith, Clive, 82 twelve theses on WikiLeaks, 245–53 Standard Theory, 104 Twitter, 7–8, 60, 90, 146, 154, 155, stateless news organizations, 3, 57 166–7, 170–4, 202, 241 Statfor, 49 Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), 153, unbounded citizenship, 91–2 156, 175 unique personality organizations Storre, Geoffrey, 95–6 (UPOs), 248–9 Sudan, 238 United Kingdom, 8, 38, 80, 156, Suleiman, Omar, 230 178–90 Sunlight Foundation, 15 culture of secrecy in, 178–84 surveillance, 153–4, 159–60 Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), sustainability, 94–7 184–7 Switch, 170 Official Secrets Act, 179–82 Syria, 154, 231–2 United States Syria Files, 3 diplomatic cables, 40, 42, 56–77, 92–4, 123, 129–33, 135–6, 230, Tarawnah, Naseem, 232 237–9, 266–7 Targuist sniper, 232 Egypt and, 230 Task Force 373, 31n5 erosion of power of, 37, 38, 246–7 taxation, 51 foreign policy, 35, 40 Telecomix, 216, 232 Internet controls by, 167, 168 terrorism, 38, 259, 260 pursuit of WikiLeaks by, 170–3, Thailand, 68 174–5 Three Gorges Dam, 264–5 United States v. Bradley Manning, 133 “three strikes” rules, 151, 167 Universal Declaration of Human Thumblr, 202 Rights, 167, 171 TMZ, 90 university-based centers, 14 torture, 260–2 unlawful combatants, 261 Town Hall, 15 US diplomacy, 63–4 traditional media, 11, 13–14, 250 see also diplomatic cables audience base of, 91 US State Department, 40 collaboration with WikiLeaks, 27–9, 44, 70–2, 85–100, 257–8 vallue systems, 155 Internet and, 89 Vanunu, Mordechai, 102–3, 104 standards of, 86–7, 97 Viana, Natalia, 63 treatment of networked fourth videos, amateur, 13 estate by, 20–9 Vietnam War, 42–3, 126–7, 139 Trafigura, 150 Visa, 46, 166, 171, 268–9 transborder flows, 89–92 volunteer labor, 48–9 transnational citizens, 91–2 VoxAnon, 220 –1 transnational public sphere, see global public sphere war logs, 2–3, 31n5, 79, 106–9, 135, transparency, 4, 8–9, 57, 229–35 245, 248, 252, 254–7 trolling, 210–12 Washington Post, 127–8 truth, 265–6 watchdog function, 29, 39 Tufekci, Zeynep, 229 Watergate scandal, 35, 101, 102 Index 281

Watkins, Sherron, 103 denial of service for, 152–3, 169–70, Wau Holland Foundation, 44 230–1 Web 2.0, 86, 91 financial backing of, 43–7 Western Union, 268 focus of, 16 whistle-blowing/whistle-blowers, 2, founding of, 47–8, 262–3 6–7, 27 freedom of expression and, 146–65 Bradley Manning, 6–7, 21, 25, 45, history of, 2–3 81, 101–23, 129–41, 141–2n5, impact of, 8–9 142n8, 155, 260–2 lack of transparency in, 250–1 concept of, 102–5 legal status of, 96 continuation of, 138–41 legitimacy of, 95, 246 intermediaries for, 50 networked fourth estate and, jailing of, 21 11–34 laws on, 104 networked free press and, 168–9 news framing of, 103–22 political economy and, 35–55 punishment of, 136–8, 139–41 promise of, 39–40 role of, 35 revelations published by, 2 WikiLeaks and, 40, 101–22 servers, 42–3 Wigand, Jeffrey, 103 societal changes and, 1 WikiLeaks structure of, 206n12, 206n13 accolades for, 40, 106, 168–9 treatment of, by traditional news analysis of, 3–4 media, 20–9 Anonymous and, 193–6 twelve theses on, 245–53 Arab Spring and, 229–31, 236–42, whistle-blowing and, 101–22 266–9 Wikipedia, 12, 28, 30, 146, 240 blocked access to, 67–9 Woodward, Bob, 35 Cablegate and, 3, 28, 40, 42, 56–77, World Association of Community 124, 127–33, 135–6, 145, 148, Broadcasters (AMARC), 160 266–7 World Wide Web, 36 collaboration with traditional media by, 5–6, 28–9, 44, 56–8, Yahoo, 13 60–1, 62–7, 70–2, 85–100, YouTube, 13, 37, 90, 154, 240, 241 257–8 Yudhoyono, Susilo Bambang, 68 content vs. carrier debate, 247 control of Internet and, 166–77 Zimbabwe, 68 culture of, 249–50 Žižek, Slavoj, 5, 40, 254–71