The Birth of Brazilianism the Stereotypical Representation of Brazil in the Context of Cultural Imperialism and Media Concentration
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The Birth of Brazilianism The Stereotypical Representation of Brazil in the Context of Cultural Imperialism and Media Concentration A thesis approved by the Faculty of Mechanical, Electrical and Industrial Engineering (International Graduate School Heritage Studies) at the Brandenburg University of Technology in Cottbus in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the academic degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Heritage Studies submitted by Andreza André da Rocha, M.A. born in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Chairman: Prof. Dr. rer. pol. Athanassios Pitsoulis First Supervisor: Prof. Dr. phil. Christer Petersen Second Supervisor: Prof. Dr. phil. Marie-Theres Albert Day of the oral examination: 07. November 2012 Abstract The representation of Brazil in American mainstream cinema disseminates stereo- types that have their roots in narratives produced by European explorers during the colonial era. Films and other media from Brazil portray the country’s cultural and ethnic diversity more accurately, but due to media concentration and the global supremacy of the US-based film and television industry, only a few manage to reach international audiences and challenge widespread stereotypes. A critical examination of writings of Portuguese explorers produced in the centuries follow- ing the arrival of Pedro Álvares Cabral in Brazil provides the basis for the analysis of contemporary representations of Brazil in American cinema and reveals how early descriptions of Brazil have influenced these representations. In order to identify the main Brazilian stereotypes disseminated by feature films produced in the United States, a number of films released between 1984 and 2011 are analyzed. The results of the analysis allow for the identification of an ethnocentric regime of representation that is often employed by the world’s leading film and television industry to portray Otherness, reinforcing stereotypical ideas about racial difference and the culture and people of developing countries. The analysis is followed by a discussion of cultural imperialism, media concen- tration and its impact on cultural diversity and media pluralism. The investigation of the concentrated ownership of media, which raises concerns regarding cultural homogenization, the advancement of corporate interests over the public interest and loss of cultural diversity, indicates how media concentration contributes to the perpetuation of cultural, ethnic and national stereotypes that reinforce colonialist and reductionist ideas about developing countries. The results of the film analysis, combined with issues related to the increasing concentration of media ownership, confirm the proposition to revive the debate about a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO), which emerged within UNESCO in the 1970s as a reaction of Third World nations to colonialism and the economic and cultural influence of Western nations. Finally, it is argued that, despite the failure of NWICO in the past, the concept has not lost relevance and it would be reasonable to bring it back to the international agenda. Kurzzusammenfassung Die Darstellung Brasiliens im amerikanischen Mainstream-Kino verbreitet Stereo- typen, die ihre Wurzeln in den von europäischen Kolonialherren verbreiteten Narrativen haben. In Brasilien produzierte Filme und andere Medien, welche die Diversität des Landes mit mehr Genauigkeit und Authentizität darstellen, werden selten auf der internationalen Ebene verbreitet. Medienkonzentration und die Überlegenheit der amerikanischen Filmindustrie sind mögliche Erklärungen dafür. Um diese Behauptung zu begründen, werden gegenwärtige Darstellungen von Brasilien im amerikanischen Kino kritisch untersucht und mit Aufzeichnungen portugiesischer Entdecker verglichen, was die Identifikation von Ähnlichkeiten zwischen beiden Diskursen ermöglicht. Die wichtigsten brasilianischen Stereo- type im Hollywood-Kino werden durch die Untersuchung von zwischen 1984 und 2011 herausgebrachten Filmen erkannt und ausgewertet. Die Untersuchungsergeb- nisse bringen ein ethnozentrisches Darstellungssystem zum Vorschein, welches regelmäßig von der amerikanischen Film- und Fernsehindustrie verwendet wird, um Anderssein darzustellen. Dieses Darstellungssystem untermauert stereotypis- che Vorstellungen über die Kultur und die Bevölkerung von Entwicklungsländern. Die Filmanalyse wird mit einer Diskussion über Kulturimperialismus, Medi- enkonzentration und deren Auswirkung auf kulturelle Vielfalt und Medienplu- ralismus ergänzt. Eine Untersuchung der globalen Medienkonzentration, welche Bedenken über kulturelle Homogenisierung, die Bevorzugung von geschäftlichen Interessen gegenüber dem öffentlichen Interesse und den Verlust von kultureller Vielfalt aufkommen lässt, zeigt wie Medienkonzentration zum Fortbestehen von kulturellen, ethnischen und nationalen Stereotypen beiträgt. Die Ergebnisse der Filmanalyse, ergänzt mit den Schlüssen gezogen aus der Diskussion über die Auswirkung von Medienkonzentration auf Entwicklungsländer, unterstützen den Vorschlag über die Wiederbelebung der New World Information and Communica- tion Order (NWICO)-Debatte, welche in den 1970ern bei der UNESCO entstanden ist, als eine Antwort von Drittweltländern auf den Kolonialismus und die kulturelle und wirtschaftliche Herrschaft westlicher Nationen. Obwohl die NWICO-Bewegung bei ihrem ersten Anlauf gescheitert ist, wird schlussendlich argumentiert, dass das Konzept einer neuen und fairen Weltordnung im Kommunikationsbereich immer noch relevant ist und es sinnvoll wäre, die NWICO-Debatte wieder in die internationale Tagesordnung einzuführen. Contents 1 Introduction 1 2 The Stereotypification of Otherness 5 2.1 Representing Difference . 21 2.2 The Birth of Brazilianism . 44 2.3 The Eternal Colony . 56 3 Film Analysis 67 3.1 Latin Lovers . 76 3.2 Heroes and Bandits . 97 3.3 Thrill Seekers . 112 3.4 Sluts, Beasts and Bastards . 127 4 Cultural Imperialism and Media Concentration 137 4.1 Market Model versus Public Sphere Model . 142 4.2 Media Concentration and Corporate Power . 168 4.3 Free Flow of Information and the American Empire . 176 4.4 NWICO and the anti-UNESCO Campaign . 184 5 Conclusion 193 List of Figures 201 List of Films 206 Bibliography 207 I 1 Introduction In his letter to the King of Portugal, Dom Manuel I, Pero Vaz de Caminha, scrivener of the expedition commanded by Pedro Álvarez Cabral that arrived in Brazil in 1500, describes the exuberant landscapes, mentions evidence of the abundance of natural resources and tries to explain the nature of the natives that inhabited the land, painting a picture of Brazil that would grow deep roots in Western collective memory. Caminha’s letter, containing vivid impressions of the fateful encounter between Portuguese explorers and the New World, full of promises, dangers and possibilities, was the first narrative about Brazil to reach Europe, and the first attempt to elucidate and classify the difference found in the new territory. The letter was the first of a series of texts that tried to translate the striking Otherness of Brazil to a language and narrative form understandable to Europeans in the centuries following the “discovery”. These texts have originated a body of knowledge that has strongly influenced representations of Brazil in Western popular culture in the 20th century and that continues to dictate the basic rules of representation today. This idea of continuity is discussed and defended in the next three chapters by combining different approaches and theoretical perspectives. The main object of study is a selection of fiction films about Brazil produced by American studios. The film analysis illustrates ideas about representation, ethnocentrism and colonialism introduced in Chapter 2, complements the analysis of texts written during the Portuguese colonial rule in Brazil and lays the basis for critical considerations on media concentration and cultural diversity presented in Chapter 4. The main hypothesis that guides this work suggests that the current regime of representation upon which the portrayal of Brazil in Western popular culture is based has not created its own rules, but rather borrows several elements from representation practices employed by European narrators who studied, analyzed and classified Brazil during the Portuguese colonial rule. It does not make sense, therefore, to talk about the establishment of an own regime of representation, but rather about the continuation and adaptation of a regime initiated in the context of colonialism. This affirmation is better visualized in the juxtaposition of 1 1 Introduction texts produced in the early colonial period with representations found in Western popular culture in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The medium chosen to illustrate this correspondence is mainstream cinema from the United States. The choice is justified by the fact that American cinema has assumed a prominent position in global media, becoming the main representative of a global popular culture produced in the United States and distributed through various media worldwide. Another focus of the discussions carried out in the following pages is the idea that the ethnocentric regime of representation that generates stereotypical images of Brazil and other developing countries supports the perpetuation of global economic, social and political inequalities and justifies the subordinate position of several countries in relation to developed industrial nations. By borrowing elements from the colonial discourse to portray developing