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The Political Economy of Internal Conflict The Political Economy of Internal Conflict A Comparative Analysis of Angola, Colombia, Sierra Leone and Sri Lanka P.S. Douma November 2003 NETHERLANDS INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ‘CLINGENDAEL’ CIP-Data Koninklijke bibliotheek, The Hague Douma, P.S. The Political Economy of Internal Conflict; A Comparative Analysis of Angola, Colombia, Sierra Leone and Sri Lanka / P.S. Douma B The Hague, Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael. Clingendael-Study ISBN 90-5031-087-7 Desk top publishing by Birgit Leiteritz Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael Conflict Research Unit Clingendael 7 2597 VH The Hague Phonenumber # - 31 - 70 - 3245384 Telefax # - 31 - 70 - 3282002 P.O. Box 93080 2509 AB The Hague E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.clingendael.nl This study was commissioned by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs and executed for the Conflict Research Unit of the Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’. This research forms part of the Research Project ‘Coping with Internal Conflict’. The Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael is an independent institute for research, training and public information on international affairs. It publishes the results of its own research projects and the monthly ‘Internationale Spectator’ and offers a broad range of courses and conferences covering a wide variety of international issues. It also maintains a library and documentation centre. 8 Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyrightholders. Clingendael Institute, P.O. Box 93080, 2509 AB The Hague, The Netherlands. Contents Acknowledgements 5 List of Abbreviations 7 1 Introduction 9 2 What is New and Different? 15 3 Economic Interest Agendas of Protagonist Factions 21 Angola 21 Sierra Leone 24 Colombia 28 Sri Lanka 31 4 Economies of War: How Internal Conflicts are being Financed 35 Section I Different Resources, Different Modes of Funding 36 Section II Exploitation and Control 40 Section III Predation or Legitimacy: Patterns of Resource Allocation 46 Section IV Local Dimensions of War Economies 61 3 5 The Linkage between Local Economies of War and International Markets 67 Section I Networks and Middlemen 68 Section II Private Sector Involvement: Multinational Companies 84 Section III The Prevailing International Context: Trade Regimes, Protectionist Economic Blocs and Sanctions 87 Section IV The Role of External Aid 91 Section V Political Legitimatization 95 6 Major Findings and Conclusions 97 Annexes Annexe 1 Major Conclusions of the November 2000 Seminar 105 Annexe 2 Research Proposal for the Second Phase: Political Economy of Internal Conflict Project 109 Annexe 3 Field Studies and Country Papers 113 Annexe 4 Map of Angola 115 Annexe 5 Proportional Share of Income per Activity for Two Major Colombian Rebel Groups 117 Annexe 6 Map of Colombia: Prevalence of Paramilitaries and Guerrillas Areas by Department, 2002 119 Annexe 7 Sierra Leone: Number of International Non-Governmental Organizations active per Chiefdom and District October 2001 121 4 Acknowledgements This book is based on the results of a research project that was funded by the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The research project, ‘Political Economy of Internal Conflict’, was part of a comprehensive conflict study entitled ‘Coping with Internal Conflict’. Research covered a period of two years, starting in July 2000 and ending in October 2002. The research was coordinated by me, Pyt Douma, in collaboration with the Conflict Research Unit (CRU) of the Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’. The head of the CRU, Georg Frerks, read various drafts of this book and provided useful feedback. Four counterpart institutes participated in the project: the Centre for Ethnic Studies (ICES) in Kandy, Sri Lanka; the Arias Foundation in San José, Costa Rica; the Centro de Investigation y Educacion Popular (CINEP) based in Bogota, Colombia; and the South African Institute for International Affairs (SAIIA) in Johannesburg, South Africa. A start-up workshop held on 22 November 2000 in The Hague provided insights into contemporary trends and issues regarding the theme of ‘Political Economy of Internal Conflict’. Finally, on 1 October 2002 the outcomes of the studies were evaluated during a one-day seminar in The Hague entitled ‘From Diamonds to Diaspora’. A number of international experts were present during both meetings and contributed to the improvement of the study’s quality. I would particularly like to thank Jackie Cilliers from the Institute of Security 5 Studies, Pretoria, South Africa; William Reno, Northwestern University, Evanston, US; Karin Ballentine, International Peace Academy, New York, US; Stephen Ellis, Africa Study Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands; Filip de Boeck, Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium; and Paul Richards, University of Wageningen, the Netherlands. I would also like to thank the various country and thematic papers’ authors for their valuable contributions. This book is the cumulative outcome both of fieldwork executed by the author and findings provided by contributing authors in the different empirical studies: On behalf of the South African Institute of International Affairs: – Neuma Grobbelaar (2002), Angola in Search of Peace: Spoilers, Saints and Strategic Regional Interests. – Mark Shaw (2002), The Middlemen: War Supply Networks in Sierra Leone and Angola. On behalf of the International Centre for Ethnic Studies: – Stanley Samarasinghe (2002), The Political Economy of Internal Conflict in Sri Lanka. On behalf of the Arias Foundation and Centro de Investigación y Educación Popular (CINEP): – Ingrid Bolivar (2002), The Political Economy of the Armed Conflict in Colombia: Order and Security in Drug-Trafficking. Independent consultants: – Nazih Richani (2002), The Interface between Domestic and International Factors in Colombia’s War Economy. – Paul Richards (2002), The Political Economy of Internal Conflict in Sierra Leone. Also, the South African Institute of International Affairs facilitated a fieldwork trip to southern Africa and I am indebted to Neuma Grobbelaar for organizing the programme. I also wish to thank Mark Shaw, who then worked with SAIIA, and who accompanied me during various fieldtrips in Sierra Leone, Angola, Zambia and South Africa. He proved to be a critical and inspiring companion. I furthermore thank Sam Musa of the INGO ActionAid based in Freetown, Sierra Leone and Dennis Bright, the Minister of Youth, Freetown, Sierra Leone for sharing their insights with me. I thank Rebecca Solheim for the excellent language editing. Finally, I thank my wife Yvonne for sharing our complicated lifestyle and bearing my long absences from home. Note The opinions expressed in this book are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the contributing authors or those of the institutes involved. 6 List of Abbreviations ANC African National Congress CRS Catholic Relief Services DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DSL Defence Systems Limited IDP Internally Displaced Persons INGO International Non-Governmental Organization NPLF National Patriotic Front of Liberia PMC Private Military Companies SADC South African Development Community SS Silver Shadow ULIMO United Liberation Movement for Democracy Angola: FAA Fuerzas Armadas de Angola (Angolan Armed Forces) FLEC Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda (Liberation Front of the State of Cabinda) FNLA Frente Nacional para a Libertação de Angola (National Front for the Liberation of Angola) MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola) 7 UNITA União Nacional para a Indepêndencia Total de Angola (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) Sierra Leone: AFRC Armed Forces Revolutionary Council CDF Civil Defence Forces (Sierra Leone) ECOMOG ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring Group ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EO Executive Outcomes NPRC National Provisional Ruling Council OSM Organization for the Survival of Mankind RSLMF Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force RUF Revolutionary United Front RUFP Revolutionary United Front Party SLA Sierra Leonean Army UNAMSIL United Nations Mission to Sierra Leone Colombia: AUC Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia (United Self-Defence Forces of Colombia) ELN Ejército de Liberación Nacional (National Liberation Army) FARC Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) Sri Lanka: DMK Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam MoU Memorandum of Understanding 8 1 Introduction The Issues at Stake Images of seemingly random violence, drug-abusing child soldiers and mutilated civilians have reinforced the prevailing prejudice that the state of affairs in poor countries has degraded further since the end of the Cold War. Strikingly, it is precisely this message of anarchy and senseless abuse of brutal and primitive power that seems to have replaced a more profound attempt to analyse what is going on in conflict-ridden states in the South. Some of the long-standing internal conflicts in notably sub-Saharan Africa have deteriorated to the extent that entire population groups have been annihilated or forcefully displaced.
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