I Walsh, R Shamanic experiences: A developmental analysis. Jowlof Humanistic I Psvcholo~y. 4l- 3 1-52,2001.

SHAMANIC EXPERIENCES: A 32 Shamanic Erpericnces Z 1 DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS ! , ...... experieneecl isoutlined,and the possible place ofshamanic practitio- ..;.. nem in this scheme is suggested. .,a. '. I - - . . ROGER WALSH. M.D.. Ph.D. is professor of psy- ...'.>,. . chiatry, philosophy, and anthropology at the Uni- In the history of the collective as in the history of the individual every- versity of California at Inine. His research inter- thin^ depends on the development of consciousness. :.:.... ' . ,,' t . ests include Aeian psychologies and philosophies. Jung(1969, p. 272) . ...I the psychology of meditation and contemplative .,. .. : ,.. . practices, and transpersonal psychology His pub- Shamanism is one of humankind's most, venerable traditions :: .',: lications include Paths Beyond Ego: The and includes medical, psychotherapeutic, and religious elements. !;.. .'. T'nspersonol Vision and Essential Spirituality: It has endured for tens of thousands of years, spread around the ' ..? ,. . The Seven Central Pmctices: world, and even today remains a vital practice in many cultures...... ,., Shamans were the first peoplehown to devise a technologytosys- '.:.:. ',

Summary tematically modify and explore consciousness and to use altered ';. . .: '. states of consciousness for healing. As such,shamans were the true ,.:' ' The nature of the experiences induced by shamans has long been a pioneers of field ofresearch now known consciousness stud- , ..:. . tnpic of considerable controversy. The experiences occurring during the as . ;:I ies. But all this begs a question: "What is a shaman?" ... one of the major shamanic techniques, the shamanic journey, have ,.., . . been described in terms of various psychopathologies or as identical ' ?.. . ., to the transcendent experiences of Buddhism and yoga. Despite Definition such claims, careful analysia reveals that shamanic journey experi- :. . ences are distinct on several phenomenological dimensions. This There are many definitions of shamanism rangingfrom broad to ,,' arlicle uses developmental analysw to maws whether ahamanic narrow (Peters & Price-Williams, 1980,1983).Inbroaddefinitions, .!!, experiences represent experiences at similar or different develop the "only defining attribute is that the specialist enter into a con- . : .:t. mental stages as yogic and Buddhist experiences, and concludes trolled ASC [altered state of consciousness1 on behalfofhis [or her] ., that although there is some overlap, there are also significant differ- communi~(1980, p. 408). In these broad definition8,the term aha- ,; ',' ences. The article Ulen turns to cu'mnt theories about the evolution of human consciousness. Different news of evolution are summa- man refers to any practitioners who enter controlled ASCs, no mat- . ': what type of altered state. Such definitions include, for exam- . rized, the poseible evolution of transpersonal techniques and ter ple, mediums and yogis. ,, . Narrow definitions are more precise a4d,9 would argue, more ,' useful. They specify such things as thei type of altered state, ; AUTHOR'S NOTE: I would like to thank J. P. Tarcher lor permission to use portions prototypical experiences, and the practitioner's goals. One such ; ".: ofTheSpirirofShnmanism as s basis for an updated diaeusrion ofshamanicexperi. definition (Walsh, 1990) states that ences, and the many people who aaaieted in the preparationof this and related arli- .,: . cles. These people include especially Angeles Arrian. Marlena Dobkin de Rias, . Cordon Clobu, Michael Harner, Arthur Haatings.Stan Krlppner, John Lavy,Larry Shamanism can be defined an afamily oftraditionn whose practitio- . Peters, Don Sandner. Huston Smith. Churl- Tart, Frances Vsughan.-Michael nera focua on voluntarily entering altered states of consciousness in .',!.. Winklemen, Tom Greening. the editor of Journal ofHumnnutic Psychoha, and which they experience themnelves, or their spirit(s), traveling to .,' several anonymous reviewera. Bannie L'Allier provided her uaual excellent admln- other realm at will, and intaracting with otherentitiw in order tn -, . istrstivs and muetarial aasistanca. nerve their mmmunity. (p. 11) ...... ,, . Journal cfHumi8tic P~~holop)..Vol.41 No.3. Summar 2W1 31.62 . 0 2W1 Sags Publicationm, Inc. This definition will probably not satisfy everyone. Judging from . the history of the field, probably no definition will. In particular, it . ; ' 31 does not encompass those practitioners who enter altered states .'

and experience themselves as inviting "spirits" into them (incorpo- . , 34 Shamanic Experiences Roger Wabh 33 dreams, lucid dreams, near death, and spontaneous out-of-body rating them) but who do not experience themselves traveling to experiences (LaBerge, 1986,1993; Ring, 1984,1993). other realms. Many researchers consider these practitioners to be Not surprisingly, therapists have become interested in incorpo- shamans. However, the narrower, more precise definition will rating shamanic journeys and other shamanic techniques into serve us well for this article. Western psychotherapy (e.g., Gag~n,1998; C. M. Smith, 1997). There have also been preliminary studies suggesting that sha- manic journeying may have beneficial effects on subjective Controversy Over the Nature of Shamanic Experience well-being and on the immune response (Harner & Tyron, 1996). The nature of the experiences induced by shamans has been a Of course the shamanic joumey state is not the only altered topic of enduring conilict and confusion. Early Western research- state used by shamans-othera include those states induced by ers diagnosed shamanic experiences as clearly pathological and fasting, solitude, and psychedelics (Harner, 1973; Walsh, 1990). described them as, for example, epileptic, neurotic, hysteric, idiotic, However, in view of its importance and the misinterpretations it psychotic, and schizophrenic (for reviews and assessments of these has suffered, the shamanic journey is a major and useful focus for claims for pathology, seeFeuers@in, 1991; Kakar, 1982;Noll, 1983; , discussion. Walsh, 1989c, 1989d, 1990). . : Phenomenological mapping of the sharnanic joumey state of In recent years, an opposite but equally extreme view of sha- consciousness shows, contraryto many daims,that it is clearly dis- manic states has appeared in the popular literature. Shamans are tinct from schhophrenic, Buddhist, and yogic states (Walsh, 1990). now being advanced as saints, sages, and even "masters of death." It differa from them on several experiential dimensions such as Consider, for example, the claims that the shaman 'experiences awareness of the environment, concentration, control, sense of existential unity-the samadhi of the Hindus or what Western identity, arousal, affect, and imagery. Consequently, these spiritualists and mystics call enlightenment, illumination, unio phenomenological analyses together with other data suggest that mystica" (Kalweit, 1988, p. 236). and that "shamans, yogis and shamanism in general, and the shamanic journey in particular, Buddhists alike are accessing the same state of consciousness" ! cannot simply be dismissed as pathological or equated with other (Doore, 1988, p. 223). In addition, Kalweit (1988, p. 1l)claims that traditions. Shamanic journey experiences are very different the shaman is "a master of death; he actually dies and is actually indeed from, for example, the fragmented hallucinations of acute reborn" (whatever that means). schizophrenia (Noll, 1983),the microscopic investigation of experi- ence of Buddhist insight meditation (Goleman, 1988), or the unwa- vering attention of yogic samadhi (Feuerstein, 1998). The Shan~anicJourney However, the phenomenological mappiiig and comparisons that Acentral experience that has evoked many ofthese claims, both have been done so far have not taken a crucial dimension into positive and negative, about shamanic health is the shamanic account. That dimension is development. Consequently, this arti- journey. The journey is a major defining technique and experience cle makes developmental comparisons of shamanic journey states of shamanism (Eliade, 1964; Walsh, 1989b, 1994). In it, shamans with the states and stages of consciousness elicited in other tradi- enter an ASC, technically a trance state. They then enter controlled tions and then uses these comparisons to explore the evolution of out-of-body experiences in which they experience themselves consciousness. roaming at will through this or other worlds and meeting, battling. or befriending the spiritual inhabitants. Most important, all this is done (at least ideally) to leam or to acquire power, help, and heal- WILBER'S MODEL OF TRANSPERSONAL DEVELOPMENT ing for their people (Harner, 1982). Several types ofpresent day experiences bear some similarities. Studies of child and adult development indicate that certain These include Jung's active imagination, Watkins', (1976)waking stages and capacities tend to develop later than others and to Roger Wahh 36

emerge in a fixed sequence. For example, Piagefa formd-operationd possible to group experiences from different practices and tradi- thinking and Kohlberg's postcoqventional morality appear later in tions into clusters. life than preoperational thought and conventional morality. Along these lines, Wilber has suggested that we may be able to It seems that similar sequehces may occur with the develop- cluster states and stages of transpersonal development according ment of states of consciousness. Invariant sequences of states are to~. the~ -- underlvina~~ deeo structures of the experiences (Wilber, 1980, described in several traditions, such as the samadhis ofyoga or the 1983a, 1997;hiber, Engler, &Brown. 1986).The deep structure of stages of insight and concentration meditation in Buddhism a family of experiences is the common form that underlies and (Eliade, 1969; Feuerstein, 1989,1998; Goleman, 1988). These and molds them. Thus, for example, human faces vary so dramatically other traditions claim that their practices induce a constellation of that we can distinguish almost every person on the planet from states that emerge in a fixed order, and later states are usually almost everyone else. Yet, underlying theae almost infinite differ- regarded as more developed thhearlier ones. encas in appearance ljes what Wilber would call the same deep How then can we map state@that emerge at different stagea. structure composed of two eyes, a nose, a mouth, and two ears. In Ken Wilber (1982)suggesta three criteria.'The firat is the sequence other words, the deep structure of each face is the same. Yet, thh of emergence; in general, stabare more developed if they tend to single deep structure can produce literally billions of different emerge later than earlier. The eecond criterion is access to other appearances. states. Astate can be said to be miore developed than others if a per- On the basis of a wide-ranging review of the world's contempla- son who can enter it can also access those other states but not vice tive traditions and experiences, Wilber has suggested that under- versa. Third, later developmelltal states may have additional lying the vast array of such experiences lies a finite number of rec- capacities not available in earlier ones: ognizable deep structures. For example, WiIber(1980)suggab that So it seems that in addition to comparing states experientially the Buddhist nirvana, Vedantic nirvikalpa samadhi, and gnostic orphenomenologically,we may aiso be able to compare them accord- abyss all epring from the same deep structure: a condition of form- ing to their developmental sequence. hletaphorically speaking, we , less, objectless awareness. can now add a vertical dimension of assessment (developmental)to Wilber's approach is obviouaiy an intriguing one, for he is sug- the horizontal dimensions (experiential, phenomenological) that gesting a way in which it may be possible to make sense of the have been used up to now. extravagant profusion of experiences found in the world's con- That we can map states occhmng in a particular tradition or templative traditions. Hidden beyond different experiences, practice on a vertical developm6ntal dimension seems clear. How- ever, it is not clear whether we can hope to make developmental names, and interpretations may be common charadenstic8 and clusters. further research aupports thia claim, it will be a major comparisons of states occurring in different traditions or practices If because different practices induce very different types of advance in our understanding of transperhnal states and stages of consciousness. experiences. Wilber goes further to suggest that deep structures emerge in a Yet, some underlying commor~alitiescan be found. To give some set sequence during contemplative practice and that this same obvious examplea,the Christian contemplative and thejourneying sequence is found across different traditions andpractices: That is. shaman who report seeing images of angels and spirits, respec- it is culturally invariant Wilber, 1980, 1997). There may be, he tively, are both seeing images of spiritual figures. The Buddhist suggests, a widespread, perhaps universal, sequence of develop- and Vedantic meditators who a!tain nirvana and niwikalpa sam- ment or emergence of transpersonal states. In other words, no adhi, respectively, are both in states in which no thoughts, images, matter what the practice being used, certain deep structures and or sensations arise to awareness; there is only awareness. It is also their corresponding types of experience may tend to emerge before clear that there radical differences between the first pair and are othere. second pair of experiences. Consequently, we can see that it maybe Of course Wilber's theory is not without its critim, including those who object to all hierarchical developmental and evolution- Roger Walah 37 ary models, though Wilber seems to have held his own in the Self as its Self, and to recognize itself in all things. Several tradi- debate (for reviews of these criticisms and Wilber's responses, see tions claim that this is the deepest contemplative realization (Free Rothberg, 1986; Rothberg & Kelly, 1998; Wilber, 1997,1999). John, 1985,1988; Wilber, 1995,1997; Wilber et al., 1986). Wilber's map and terms have varied somewhat from one publi- If these arperiences seem difficult to comprehend fully, it is cation to another (1977, 1981, 1983a, 1983b, 1995, 1997; Wilber hardly surprising. They and the states in which they occur are so eta]., 1986).However, he consistently points to three major classes unlike our usual waking experiences that we have little basis for into which transpersonal states seem to fall. These he calls, in comparison and understanding. Contemplative experta repeatedly order oftheir emergence, subtle, causal, and nondual, which would warn that it is difficult to fully.comprehend these states without correspond, for example, to the Buddhist sambhogakaya, direct erperience of them (Komfield, 1993). Indeed, a Buddhiet dharmoknya, and svabavikakaya. precept forbids monh and nuns speaking about advanced medita- Subtle experiences comprise those faint images and sensations tive experiences to laypeople because the experiences would that tend to emerge when the more raucous mental contents are almost inevitably be misunderstood. stilled as, for example, in meditation (Goldstein, 1983).The experi- This difficulty of comprehending alternate states and stages of ences that arise may be with or without form. Fonnless experi- which we have limited personal experience may be understood in ence~include~ureli~htorso&d:~xperiencea with form may com- several ways. In terms of altered state8,it may be seen as an exam- prise all manner of images including scenes of extraordinary ple of the constraints imposed by what have been called state ape- richness and complexity. Archetypal figures symbolizing cific knowledge and state specific communication, for which there hanspersonal and spiritual qualities may arise, such as images of is experiential, experimental, and theoretical support (Globus, sages, angels, Christ, or Buddha. Subtle experiences may be stably 1993; Tart, 1983; Walsh, 1989al. Epistemologically, this limited accessed in, for example, shabd yoga, Buddhism's jhanas, or Hin- understanding can be seen as a failure to open whatWilber(1983b) duism's savikalps samadhi (Feuerstein. 1998). calla the "eye of contemplation," with the result that we lack ' . Beyond the subtle lies the causal. This is the state in which adeguutio: Wearenot adequate to or capable of recogniziug the cor- there are no longer any objects or things in the field of awareness. ! responding states and experiences (Schumacher. 1977). But Only awareness itself remains, but that awareness is not an although the upper scales of cont - may be awareness of any thing; it is simply awarenese, pure and simple. only partly comprehensible to the many of us who have not done This is the unmanifest realm or void in which no phenomena these practices, we can at least gain enough of a sense of them to whatsoever appear. This realm is experienced in states such as begin to appreciate the differences between the subtle, causal, and Buddhism's nirvana or Hinduism's nirvikalpa samadhi nondual conditions. !'? (Feuerstein, 1998; Goldstein, 1983). Rare as this causal experience is, it seems that it is still not the final one..Accordingto some traditions, there lies beyond it a fur- ther state which Wilber (1996,1996) and others call the nondual. DEVELOPMENTALSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Actually, this is not so much a state or stage but rather the ground OF SHAMANIC STATES of all previous ststes and phenomena. Here, phenomena are said once again to appear but now are recognized as creations and mod- The obvious question that arises now is, Where do shamanic ifications of consciousness, Mind, or Spirit. Consciousness, Mind, states of consciousness fit into this scheme? One of their major or Spirit alone is now perceived as manifesting nnd expressing states is that in which the shamanic journey occurs. From the itself in and as all the levels and phenomena ofthe universe.This is many descriptions available to us, we know that the journey is the realization of Zen's "One Mind" or Hinduism's firya or Sahaj often done at night because the images may be faint; that complex sarnadhi (Feuefitein, 1998; Kapleau, 1980). Consciousness or worlds, lights, sounds and other images occur; and that encounters Mind is said to have rediscovered its true nature, returned to its with spirit figures are common (Eliade, 1964; Walsh, 1990).These are clearly consistent with subtle-level experiences, and Wilber Roger Walah 39

(1981) hasproposed that the ahamans were the frat to access this or "magic flight" in which they felt unshackled from the body level systamatically. as Of course a skeptic might argue that these experiences are sim- (Harrier, 1982). They experienced themselves free "soula" jour- ple fantasies or even pathology-induced hallucinations. However, neying through other realms, mastering and placating their inhab- the shamanic journey is undertaken purposively on behalf of the itants and bringing their information and power back from these community. Moreover, careful analyses of shamanic experiences, realms to their earthbound compatriots (Eliade, 1964). In any functions, lifestyles, and social roles reveal that these are incom- event, irnegerfisclearly an important topicand has played a major patible with significant pathology and that shamans may even be role in multiple religious and contemplative disciplines (Durand, exceptionally healthy (for a review, see Walsh, 1990). 1987), especially in shamanism and Tibetan Buddhism (Powers, However, critical interpretations of shamanic experiences do 1995), thus warranting further research. point to the primitive stage of our mapping skills with regard to The description of the subtle-level experiences given above is states of consciousness. Many questions remain unanswered. For actually a simplified one, and there are also other possibilities at example, what exactly defines subtle experiences and how, if at all, this level. Thus, for example, although shamans usually experi- are subtle-level images to be differentiated from ordinary fantasy? ence themselves as free souls, separate from other beings and Are they to be differentiated by intensity or by the type or meaning worlds, they may also sometimes unite with spirita. In other con- or religious significance of the objects encountered? templative traditions, the sense ofbeing a separate individual may At the present time these questions cannot be answered defmi- give way to an experience of union, not only with other individuals tively. My own tentative estimation is that ordinary fantasy and or spirits but with the entire universe or God. Thus, in the upper subtle-level images are overlapping parts of a continuum, but that reaches of the subtle realms, there may occur certain forms of the they differ in certain ways. Subtle-level experiences are usually unio mystica or mystical union so celebrated and sought aRer by I deliberately induced for a religious purpose. They occur in altered the world's mystics (Underhill, 1974). Other types of union charac- states characterized by heightened sensitivity to inner experience. terize the causal and ultimate states. The objects of awareness can be very subtle or faint, though not invariably so, and hence may only be recognizedin sensitive states Mystical Union in Shamanism and eupportive environments, whereas ordinary fantasy is rela- tively intense and easily recognized. The apparent scale of subtle Do ahamans ever experience mystical union? Many researchers experiences may be much larger than ordinary fantasies. Whole think not. One authority categorically states that in shamanism, worlds or even universes may seem to arise in which the Earth Venever find the mystical union With the divinity so typical for seems a mere speek. In subtle states, there also seems to be a the ecstatic experiences in the 'higher' fomof religious mysti- greater likelihood of encountering spiritually significant images cism" (Hultkrantz, 1978, p. 42). Conseqdently, Hultkrantz con- and themes and archetypal figures such as sages, spirita, or angels. cludes that shamanism can be considered a form of mysticism By contrast, our usual waking fantasiee tend to focus on more only 'if mysticism is not restricted to mean just the Unio mystica" mundane topics. For an excellent discussion of imagery in religious (p. 28). experience see Joy (1987). However, there are four lines of evidence that suggest that this Of course, not one of these characterietics by itaelf would neces- conclusion might be incorrect. These are the facts that (a) some sarily distinguish ordinary fantasy from subtle-level experiences. anthropologists have recently reported unitive experiences in sha- However, taken together, they - mans, (b) powerful psychedelics may be used, (c) some Westerners the person having them, may seem major in scope, subtlety, and report unitive experiences, and (d) the fact that shamanism is an significance. oral tradition means that such experiences may haveoccurred, at Shamans, then, were perhaps the earliest mastera of this subtle least occasionally, but have been lost to subsequent generations realm. Their specialty wasjourneying, 'soul trave1,"'spirit travel," and of course to anthropologists. Without writing, there may be no Roger Walah 41 causal or nondual experiences (Grinspoon 8: Bakalar, 1986; U'alsh, way to preserve adequately a record ofthe highest, and rarest, 1982), and ha mans who use them might therefme sometimes flowerings of a tradition. have these experiences. The third line ofevidence comes 'om the The anthropologist Larry Peters (1990) did record one report by unusual psychological test pattern of an outstanding Apache sha- a Tamang shaman of possible unity with a deity figure that may be man whose Rorschach tests showed marked similarities to that of an example of one type of subtle state Unio mystico. Likewise an advanced Buddhist meditation master (Brown & Engler, 1986). Michael Harner (1990) states that in his experience, learning to Because this Buddhist practitioner had achieved causal level real- merge with "nonordinary teachers" is common cross culturally in ization, the Rorschach similarities may indicate that the Apache shamanism and is a goal of the advanced training he offers. How- shaman also accesaed this state. On the other hand, it could simply ever,& report does not provide sufficient details to categorize the be that mastery in any contemplative tradition results in overlap- type of union involved. ping personality changes and consequently similar Rorschach Although not an essential part of shamanism, the use of psy- responses. chedelics is common in some areas (Harner, 1973). A significant Taken together, then, these lines of evidence suggest that, number of those people who ingest peyote and ayahuasca report though shamans traditionally aimed for the experience of soul unitive experiences (Grof, &d8; McKenna, Callaway, & Grof, travel in thesubtle realms, a'few of them also may have explored 1998), for example, in the Native menc can Church or the Brazil- the causal and nondual. But no matter how many or how few inves- ian ayahuasca ceremonies (Grof, 1998).Several researchers regard tigated these higher states, it seems that shamans may have been these unitive experiences as genuine mystical ones (Stace, 1987; the first to develop a systematic psychological technology M'alsh, Stafford, 1983).For an excellent review ofthis topic, see the classic 1989~)that allowed them to regularly access and explore subtle article by Huston Smith (1964). Because shamans may use these states. substances, it seems probable that they could have drug-facilitated mystical unions. r Finally, Westerners trained in shamanic practices may report SHAMANISM AND THEORIES OF unitive experiences; I have personally heard two such accounts. THE EVOLUTION OF CONSCIOUSNESS These seem to be experiences of union with the universe rather than with a deity, and as such would be examples of a so-called nature mysticism rather than theistic mysticism (union with God) The shaman's states and journeys mhy represent a developmen- (Wilber, 1983a). Though unitive experiences may not be the pri- tal advance not only for the individual shamqbut also in the evo- lution of consciousness. For if the capacity to access subtle states mary aim of shamanic journeys, which focus on soul travel, they lies latent within all of us, then the question arises as to whether may occur. In light of this and the other lines of evidence considered above, shamanism may sometimes deserve to be considered a mys- shamans were in some way evolutionary fore~nners(Wilber, tical tradition. 1981). The answer to this question depends on one's view of evolu- This then raises the question of whether shamans may have tion since paleolithiitimes. Therefore, before we can decide on the gone beyond subtle states altogether and accessed either causal or shaman's place in evolution, we need to consider various theories nondual states. Here we are on shakier ground, and it seems of the evolution of human consciousness. impossible to make definitive statements at this time. However, three lines of evidence suggest the possibility that shamans occa- Theories of the Evolution of Human Consciousness sionally have done this.The first is the general observation that in any tradition, one may find a few practitioners who access realms In general, these take three main forms. The first is mainly a of consciousness beyond those aimed for by the tradition OVilber, downhill view that things are getting worse, human consciousness 1981).The second is that psychedelics appear to occasionally elicit is not evolving but devolving. The second is a no change view, namely, that con~ciousness,or atleast religious consciousness, has 44 Shamanit Experiences Roger Wabh 43 idea that different paths lead to the same final endpoint; they are not evolved significantly since paleolithic times. The third is an all just different roads up the same mountain. upward view, the idea that human consciousness has evolved sig- Some of the more sophisticated popularizers of this idea use the nificantly since earlier times. language of states of consciousness to claim equivalence of sha- A more detailed evolutionary analysis would trace separately manic andother states. These include claims that "shamans, yogis the evolution of two different modes of consciousness. The first and Buddhists alike are accessing the same state of consciousness" would be the averagemode ofthe population, and thesecond would (Doore, 1988,p. 223), and that the shaman "experiences eihtential be the mode of contemplative practitioners. However, because unity-the samadhi of the Hindu's or what Western spiritualists these are correlated (Wilber, 1981,1995) and follow similar evolu- and mystics call enlightenment, illumination, unio mystica" tionary trends, we can consider them together here because of (Kalweit, 1988, p. 236). spnce limitations. However, we have also seen that when the states of shamans. The idea that the human condition and consciousness have yogis, and Buddhists are carefully compared, they appear quite dif- degenerated is found most ofien i? world mythology.The story of a ferent. Of course these experiential differences do not necessarilv prehistoric golden age or Gardv ofEden is common in myths, as is prove that the states are not at the same developmental level. fo the story of a subsequent fall fr& grace. In Christianity. it is the compare the developmental level or atage of these states, we need Garden of Eden and our subsequent eviction; in China, the age of to have a developmental scheme by which to assess the level, and virtue and subsequent decline. In Hinduism, it is the fall from the such achemes are nowhere to be found among the people claiming Satya-Yuga, the golden age of righteousness and wisdom, into our the equivalence of these states. For that, we must turn elsewhere, present Kali-Yuga, a time of viciousness and ignorance (for an and we will find it in the work of some of those holdings the third extensive review, see Campbell, 1976). view, namely, that consciousness has evolved, and may still be The second idea holds that there has been no significant change evolving, upwards. for better or worse in human consciousness, or at least in religious For most of human history, time was regarded not so much as a consciousness.* People holding thisview argue that the earliest reli- march of progress but rather aa cycles of day and night, winter and gious practitioners were on a par with the latest ones, prehistoric summer, birth and death. The idea that time is going somewhere, realizations were as deep as contemporary ones, and early sha- that there is an ongoing evolutionary process, is a surprisingly mans accessed the same experiences, states, and realms aa recent recent idea but one that is now firmly entrenched in the Western mystics. Such ideas are at least implied, although not necessarily mind. Consequently, it is not surpri~ingthatconscioueness itself is forcefully argued, by such notable scholars as Mircea Eliade, also seen as evolving, and this idea has bern advanced by such Joseph Campbell, and Carl Jung. Eliade (1964) notes that luminaries as the 19th century German bhiloaophers Hegel and Schelling, and more recently by Teilhard de Chardin, Jean Gebser, More than once we have dieeerned in the shamanic experience a Ken Wilber, and Sri Aurobindo. Chardin's view is inspiring but not "nostalgia for paradise" that auggests one of the oldest types of without problems (H. Smith, 1976), and because Wilber (1981, Christian myetical experience. Aa for the'inner light." which plays a 1995,1996) draws on Hegel, Schelling, Aurobindo, and Gebser, we part of the first importance in Indian mystieiam and metaphyaies a9 well as in Christian mystical theolow, it is, as we have seen, already can focus on his work aa representative ofthis evolutionary view. documented in Eskimo shamanism. (p. 608) It must be noted that parts of Wilber's theory of evolution,espe- cially as laid out in his book Up From Eden (1981) have received This theme is now being echoed more forcefully by some of the significant criticisms (Fox, 1990; Staniford, 1982; Winkelman, 1993) new popularizers of shamanism. To these people, shamanic erperi- to which Wilber has replied (1995, 1997). However, aa we have ences, statea, and insights are on a par with, or even greater than. seen, Wilber does provide an intriguing scheme for locating trans- those ofthe mystics oflater traditions. This represents an example personal states of consciousness along a developmental contin- of a currently popular but questionable view of "equitinality," the uum, and if we foeus on these transpersonal states, setting aside

- -pp - - Roger Walah 45 46 Shamanic Experiences hisdiscussion ofearlier (prepemonal and personal) states and stages, Ethical training is widely regarded as an essential preliminary wecan use his ideas while sidestepping some ofthe controversies. to any significant transpersorial development. However, this is not Wilber suggests that just as the subtle, causal, and nondual a fear or conventionally based morality (Kohlberg'e moral stages 2 states emerge sequentially in today's contemplatives, so too did to 4). Rather, it is a precise discipline of mind training based on the they emerge sequentially in human history. He therefore offers the understanding that unethical behavior both springs from and fur- idea that the subtle states were among the earliest transpersonal ther reinforces such destructive mind states as greed, hatred, states that humankind realized. This realization was followed judgment and jealousy. Ethical behavior, on the other hand, tends thousands of yeara later by the causal and hundreds of years later to weaken their disruptive iduence on the mind and life. It alao still by the discovery of the nondual (Wilber, 1981,1995,1996). reinforces more healthful and helpful states--generosity, calm, The subtle states, he suggests, emerged in the dawn of prehis- and compassion-that foster transcendence (Goldstein, 1983). tory with the shaman. The causal he locates some 2,000 to 2,500 Interestingly, ethical behavior seems to have significant psycho- years ago with such sages as the authors of the Upanishads, the logical benefits in benefita, a fact that Buddha, the early Taoists, ang Jksus. The nondual, he places in the was appreciated in classical times but is only now being redbcov- early centuries of the commoi 'era and associates with names like ered by contemporary therapists (Andrews, 1987). Bodhidharma in China, Padmasambhava in Tibet, and Plotinus in Work on transforming emotions is part of and reinforces ethical the West. training. Almost universally, the great contemplative traditions Where then do shamans fit in this evolutionary view of con- emphasize the importance of working to reduce disrupting emo- sciousness? Wilber places them at the beginning of this process tions, such as fear and anger, while simultaneously cultivating and regards them as the first humans to symtematically access sub- more personally and socially beneficial atates such as love, joy, and tle states.Though they may occasionally have broken thmugh into compassion (Walsh, 1999; Walsh & Vaughan, 1993). the causal void, their focus was clearly on certain subtle states and 8xperiences, and both their mythology and technology were ence on . : . . - -i- ...... no longer caught directed toward, and effective in, assisting people to attain these between the pull of greed and the push offear, it becomes easier to states (Walsh,1989~). It was probably only centuries, millennia, or concentrate and hold attention on whatever the practitioner even tens of thousands of years afler the first shamans that tech- wishes. This allows further development because the mind can nologies were developed to systematically access the causal and now be consciously directed toward, and thereby cultivate, desired absolute realms beyond the subtle through practices such as rigor- aa ous ethics, concentration, meditation, and yoga Walsh, 1999). states such love and compsasioh. This is an example of an ancient idea4hat" ? virtues or positive mental qualitiee mutually support and strengthen one another. The l'echnology of Zkanspersonal Deuelopment The idea is found, for example, in Buddhist psychology (the Abhidharma), in Plato, the Greek Stoics (who referred to it as The technologies of contemplative traditions that produce antokalouthia), andmore recentlyin Wilber's (1999) and Murphy's causal and nondual realization seem to contain several common (1992) idea of 'integral practice' to foster balanced development elements of practice (Walsh & Vaughan, 1992).These include a rig- and make use of this "mutual entailment of the virtues" (Murphy, orous system of ethics, training of attention and concentration, 1992, p. 559). emotional transformation, and the cultivation of wisdom. Of Contemplative traditions claim that attention can and must be course, different paths focus more on some of these elements than trained. However, Western psychologists have largely agreed others, but all of them seem to occur in varying degrees among with William James (1899, p. 51), who said that voluntary atten- authentic causal and nondual traditions. Ancillary practices that tion cannot be continuously sustained. There is thus a dramatic refine perception, redirect motivation, and foster generosity and contrast between the ideas ofmainstream Western psychology service are also valuable and widespread Waleh, 1999). (attention cannot be trained) and those of contemplative tradi- 48 Shamanic Experiences

Yousee yourcamp burning and bloodwaters rising, and thunder and rain, and earth rocking, the hills moving, the waters whirling, and tions (attention must be trained). This makes understandable the trees which stand nwaying about. Do not be frightened.. . . Ifyou Schumacher's (1977) claim about attention that "no subject occu- hear and see these thlnge without fear you will never be Hghtened of anything. (Elkin, 1086, pp. 70-71) pies a more central place in all traditional teaching;no subject suf- fers more neglect, misunderstanding and distortion in the think- ing of the modem world" (p. 67). Shamans have often been described as having superior powers However, although James (1961) recognized the limits of our of concentration (Eliade, 1964). There seem to be no reporta indi- untrained attention, he also realized the importance of training it cating that shamans practiced techniques to develop the extraor- and stated that dinary degrees of unshakable attention cultivated by later yogis. However, it is clear that arduous attentional training was some- the faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention over times part of their initiation. For example, the Eskimo shaman and over again is the very mot ofjudgement, character and will. No Igjugajuk was left for 30 days in a tiny snow hut. He received only one is cornpus sui if he have it not. An education which would small amounts of food and water and "was exhorted to think of the improve thie faculty would be education par excellence. (p. 424) Great Spirit and of the helping spirit that should presently 1, .: appear-and so he was left to himself and his meditations" (Ras- Meditative traditions claim to provide this education par excellence. mussen, 1927, p. 83). The final strand of this four-part training program is the culti- Thus, it seems that there has been a significant evolution of vation of wisdom. This is not ordinary knowledge or even worldly transformational techniques and of the technology of transcen- wisdom. Rather, it is in large part a transrational wisdom known, dence since some early human first discovered that if a stretched for example, as gnoaia and marifah in the West or as prqjna and skin was hit, it emitted a resounding sound, and if it was hit jnanain in the East, and it is based primarily on direct experience repeatedly, curious and pleasurable experiences ensued. Shamans and intuitive insight into one's own mind and nature (Walsh & presumably remembered and recreated such chance discoveries ,Vaughan, 1993). and welded them into an effective collection of techniques and wis- Although all authentic paths seem to use all these components dom that could be transmitted across generatiom. Millennia later, and more Wsh,1999), different traditions have focused on some early sages refined aspects of the shamanic technology thus components more than others. For example, training attention to enabling humankind to discover causal and nondual states. Of the point of unshakablestabilityhas been a major focusofclassical course, social, cultural and other factors dpu tless also played CN- yoga (Shearer, 1989). Emotional transformation and the cultiva- cia1 roles (Wilber, 1995),but the evolution Bft\ e technology oftran- tion of love have been the emphaais of bhakti yoga, Sufism, and scendence was surely central to the evolution of consciousness. Christian contemplatives,whereas Tibetan Buddhiam has empha- sized compassion. Wisdom haa been the focus of jnana yoga and some schools of Buddhism (Walsh, 1999). The Relative Difficulty of Accessing Different States Though later traditions may have relined these ethical, em* A crucial question is, What proportion of practitioners actually tional, attentional, and wisdom trainings, their precursors can be found in shamanism. The beat of shamanism has long been based attain the realizations sought for by different traditions? We have on an ethic of compassion and service (Harner, 1982). Somedegree some hints but very little firm data here. These hints suggest that it may be significantly easier to attain some degree of shamanic of emotional transformation, especially the reduction of fear, is an realization than to realize the goals of later traditions. essential component of its training. For example, Australian For example, Harner (1985) implies that in his experience, some aboriginal shamans were warned of the terrifying visions they 90% of people are able to undertake shamanic journeys. Although would confront during their training and that they must not yield journeying is by no means synonymous with mastery-the latter to fear. may take years-this does suggest that a relatively large percent- Roger Walsh 49 age of people may be able to develop some shamanic experiences rapidly. On the other hand, when we come to later traditions, the Fox, W (1990). Thnspenonal ecology. Boston: Shambhala. general sense is that among, for example, Christian contempla- Free John. (1982). Niuanasam. Clearlake, CA: Dawn Home Press. Lives, Indian yogis,Buddhist meditators, or Taoists, relatively few Free John. (1985).The dawn horse testamint. San Rafael, CA: Dawn Horse Press. actually experience significant realization and usually only &r heJohn. (1988). The basket of tolemnce. Clearlake, CA: Dawn Horse years of arduous training. For example, it is said that only 1 in Press. approximately 1000,000 Buddhist meditators is likely to master Gagan, J. (1998). Journeying: Where shamanism and psychology meet. advanced concentration practices (Buddhagosa, 192311915), and Santa Fe, NM:Rlo Chama. certainly very few meditators master the advanced degrees of sta- Globue, G. (1993). Different views fmm different states. In R. U'alsh & F. Veughan (Eds.).Patha beyond ego: The transpersonal vision (pp. 182- ble enlightenment that is the goal of practice (Wilber, 1999). 183).New York: G. P. Putnam. This suggests that there is a relationship between the develop Goldstein. J. (1983). The erperience of insight. Boston; Shambhala. mental order of emergence of a state in individuals and its timing, Goleman. D. (1988). The meditative mind. Los Angelea: J. P. Tarcher. frequency, and ease of discovery~hroughouthistory In genera1,the Crinspn, L., & Bakalnr, J. (1986). Can drugs be used to enhance tho later a state emerges in individuals, the later it may emerge in his- psychotherapeutic process? American Journnl of Psychotherapy, 40, 393-404. tory, and the smaller the percentage of practitioners who realize it. Grof, S. (1998). The cosmicgame. Albany, NY: State University of New York Consistent with this is the fact that shamanism was the earliest Prese. tradition to emerge and even today allows people relatively easy Harner, M. (Ed.). (1973). Hallucinogens and shumanism. New York: access to certain alternate states of consciousness and their atten- Oxford Univernity Press. dant insights. This relative ease may be one of the major reasons Harner, M. (1982). The way of the shamon. New York: Bantam. Harner, M. (1986). Comments. Current anthropology. 26,452. for shamanism's current popularity in the West. Harner, M. (1990). Commentary. Revmion, 13,101-102. Harner. S., & Tyron, W. (1996). Psychological and immunological * responses to shamanic journeying with drumming. Shamon, 4(112), 89-91. REFERENCES Hultkrantz, A. (1913). A definition of shamanism. Ternenoa, 9,2547. 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