Soviet Family Policy and Nation Building Represented Through

CEU eTD Collection Soviet Family Policy and Nation Building Represented through (magazines “Rabotnitsa” and “Krest’ianka” taken asan In partial fulfillment of Master of Arts in Gender Studies of ArtsinGender ofMaster In partialfulfillment Feminine Images inWomen’s Magazines from the 1930s through 1950s Department ofGenderStudies Central European University Central Supervisor: Professor Eva Fodor Anastasia Onoprienko Anastasia Budapest, Hungary Submitted to example) 2008 By CEU eTD Collection took placeUnion theSovietcollapsed.took after which movement anti-feminist so-called the of reasons on light shreds it since important roles. Investigation these of performing thenecessity justified party andhowthe activist, anda public mother, of this ‘multifunctioning’“Krest’ianka” expected from were women used appears to encourage to be consciousness? meansratherThrough which was thismodel conveyed to readership?"the women to perform("Rabotnitsa" taken and "Krest'ianka" as an example)plantin soughtto women's the triple magazines Sovietthe period of women's model which world the of What was role of a worker, constructionthe femininity?femininityof is How represented both visually and textually? a does theideology influence period? How main of historical Whatare the this characteristics images of of textual Whatwomen 1930-1950speriod? the theseunderlines context images? utilized for purpose the are of nation-building? What majorthe visual peculiarities of Stalin’s erawerekey to Nation-building in Sovietthe Union 1930-1950s. of Sovietthe policy concerning women and representation of Sovietthe woman during the arguethat will thesis The asan example). taken and“Krest’ianka” “Rabotnitsa” (magazines of inmagazines 1930-1950s women of women’s Soviet concerned representation the with Stalin’s rule, from specifically the 1950s. 1930s the Thethesisthrough be will particularly In this study I will show how women images in the magazines “Rabotnitsa” and In my study I will with the following research questions: How women images were The inMA thesisthe addresses position women of Sovietthe Union during the Abstract i CEU eTD Collection Bibliography ...... - 63 - ...... - Bibliography 58 - Conclusion...... - 42 - era...... - Chapter 2. The meaning ofbeing amother and awife in Sovietthe Union during the Stalin Chapter 1. Industrialization and Genderfrom the 1930s through the 24 1950s...... - - Literature Review...... - 12 - Methodology...... - 5- 1- ...... - Introduction ii Table of Contents...... i ...... Abstract Soviet 53 women- ...... - thank Stalin Reproduction: in whose interest – women or state?...... - 42 - Non-working wives and obshchestvennitsi 36 - movement...... - Women in 29 - agriculture...... - Women 24 in- industry...... - 17 - Theoretical ...... - Background Historical 12 Background...... - - 11 - Limitations...... - 9- ...... - Sample 5- ...... - Methods Table of Contents ii CEU eTD Collection as the symbolic bearers of the collectivity’s identity and honour, both personally and personally both honour, and identity collectivity’s the of bearers symbolic the as constructed are asthey representation’, ‘burden of carry the to required “Women areoften 29-30) 1998: (Yuval-Davis future”. familial wellasthe as with collective, the therefore and children with in imagination collective the areassociated “women for warsince Enloeis (1990)mentions, it presumably formen of thesake ‘womenandchildren’ that go As Cynthia for. fought be to something as movements, nationalist of symbols as used often However, although women are argued to bethat arena has affectedexcluded their exclusion from that discourse as well”. (Yuval-Davis from 1998: 24) nationalist discourses, from “theof political sphere, exclusion women therefore of from public the perspective the they are consciousness? meansThrough which was thismodel conveyed to readership?"the ("Rabotnitsa" taken and "Krest'ianka" as an example)plantin soughtto women's magazines Sovietthe period of women's model which world the of What was constructionthe femininity?femininityof is How represented both visually and textually? does theideology influence period? How main of historical Whatare the this characteristics images of of textual Whatwomen 1930-1950speriod? the theseunderlines context images? utilized for purpose the are of nation-building? What majorthe visual peculiarities of Stalin’s erawerekey to Nation-building in Sovietthe Union 1930-1950s. of Sovietthe policy concerning women and representation of Sovietthe woman during the arguethat will thesis The asan example). taken and“Krest’ianka” “Rabotnitsa” (magazines of inmagazines 1930-1950s women of women’s Soviet concerned representation the with Stalin’s rule, from specifically the 1950s. 1930s the Thethesisthrough be will particularly According to NiraAccording to nationalism Yuval-Davis, and nations have usually been discussed In my study I will with the following research questions: How women images were The inMA thesisthe addresses position women of Sovietthe Union during the Introduction - 1 - - CEU eTD Collection as women”. (Yuval-Davis 1998: 27) To showpart as women”. of women Sovietthat 27) To important (Yuval-Davis 1998: were an them specifically to relates which legislation body of aseparate a certain extent, to least at citizens of the state and its social, political and legal policies; on the other – there is always, the one hand women are alwayscitizenship –its dualistic Thenature nature. of citizenshipwomen’s “on isdualistic since included, at least to some extent, in the generaltraditions, culture, and language to them.body of belongscommunity is mother. It tothe shewhoeducates children national and transmits native Theleading culture emerges. languageand role in family as the a spiritual loveis formed is and where of the national identity […]“It thefamily revival”. where (Zhurzhenko2001: 28) traditions, and symbolize future through anation’s they childbearing child and care”. Women past the of by a nation represent keeping, transmitting,its anddemonstrating every national culture, proving(ethnic) its authenticity,homogeneity, and uniqueness. to central are “home” and “family”, “women”, of images “the out, points Yuval-Davis memories)”.society religion,2001: 28)AsNira (Zhurzhenko customs, (language, and in context historical of was the really what happening during 1930-1950s. magazines’ areread articles that fact the beto should paid attention Thus, special 1998: 33) toinspire (Harper than weresupposed loyalty images andcritical rather reflection. texts (Yuval-Davis 1998:29) Mother India”. or Russia isit Ireland, Mother Mother whether of collectivity, spiritthe in the cultures many amother, symbolizes often a woman, of “A figure collectively”. […] According to Nira Yuval-Davis, there is one feature which specifies whichwomen’s specifies feature is one there Nira Yuval-Davis, to According national the of basis very “the as represented often is family’ ‘traditional The “Nation buildingbased the mobilization isalways on of cultural the of resources During the totalitarian regime of the Soviet Union, as Harper points out, both visual - 2 - - CEU eTD Collection feminist movement placefeministwhich Union Soviettook the after collapsed. anti- of so-called reasons on the sinceit light shreds important be torather women appears from expected ‘multifunctioning’ of this Investigation necessity theseroles. performing of the justified party the how and perform triple role this to encourage women were usedto “Krest’ianka” and “Rabotnitsa” magazines in the images women how show will I analysis roles - a worker, several perform simultaneously to expected women were character: specific of a rather a caring motherwomen and toprovide them with equal rights as men, the emancipationand 'in Soviet term' was wife, and a public activist.which ended only hisafter in death 1953. In the courseaccidentally, picked they markingwere chosen upnot endsof as family Stalin’sthe policy of the year in Years 1936 andissues each magazine (forty of 1953were total). a correspondent (“Worker woman”) and “Krest’ianka” (“Peasant woman”) of 1936 and 1953 –ten issues of expressed in propaganda magazines. these publishing house,wecan significantinfluence talk about of rulingthe ideology and both of them publishedwere by“Pravda” publishing housewhich was astate-owned magazines themagazinestime.that available only at women’s werealmost Besides, since – two marketthese of by Soviet the peculiarities popularity the beexplained also could itmentioningwomen’sis magazines Soviettime,during though the worth that their “Rabotnitsa”fact and by was predetermined “Krest’ianka” that the focus on magazines to these My accidental. isnot magazines decision of The choice the Woman”). (“Peasant “Krest’ianka” and Woman”) (“Worker time –“Rabotnitsa” Soviet the nation-building in process 1930-1950s Iused most prominent two women’s magazinesof In the course of andmyIn of course the images of “Rabotnitsa” magazines I analyzedtexts research Although the Soviet government claimed that it was the first in the world to free - 3 - - were the mostwere the popular CEU eTD Collection will talk about the trends in the family policy in contemporary Russia. contemporary in policy family in the trends the about talk will feminism backlash collapsed and after Soviet the Union upon towards of reasons the the servedmagazines as future. of symbols nation’s the in women’s represented mothers as women of images the therefore and nation-building, to Second Chapterwill reproductivethe inargue that policy 1930-1950s of USSRwaskey the The nature. contradictory a rather of was Union Soviet in the emancipation the that fact the to attention bring also will I however women, position in the progress by the exemplified in USSR. the nation-building on process symbolic markersdiffers from my work how the and thesis the in others. addressed matter the of on written been already has what upon progressIn the First Chapter I willfor used inmy Iapply. Review andtheoretical reflects approaches research Literature The show thatthe Soviet nation, women Chapters, andweretwo aConclusion. Methodological In the methods Italk Chapter the about used as therefore playingperiod oftime. to that significant correspondent theideology of a reflection as serve period ofacertain feminine images that show to in order magazines, in women’s part is represented it as ‘women-society’ relationship in the media the in rulingideology. The channeling address thesis theissuewill of the In the Conclusion I will illustrate major findings of my research and will reflect will and research my of findings major illustrate Iwill Conclusion the In The First Chapter will also show that the progress made by the whole nation was Review, Literature Chapter, Methodological an Introduction, of The thesis consists the of role the consideration into take to important is it analysis my of process the In - 4 - - CEU eTD Collection both both visually and textually? is represented femininity How femininity? of construction the influence theideology does How ofperiod? What historical mainare the this images? characteristics underlines these visual images What period? of peculiarities textual of women of context 1930-1950s the women images were used for the purpose of nation-building? What are the major following answerHow questions: the my to of useseveraltechniques I will research In 79) (Heitlinger can one course the approaches…” 1979: these combination of use some comparisons with other countries; one can develop a model as a focus of comparison; or compare the present with the past; Methods one can compare practice with claims; one can make ideology and contain a great number of articles dealing with the ruling policy of that period. magazines of 1930-1950s aredistinguished forinfluenced being significantly bythe ruling women’s magazines being1930-1950s. The nation-building process of means, wasbeing through achieved several one of them. The following inUnion woman Sovietof Soviet the to nation-building representation were key of the chapters will show that women’s x x x x To answer these questions Iapply followingthe methods: “There are different ways of assessing the position of women in any country. One can The thesis addresses the issue of how the policy concerning women thepolicy how concerningand The issueof women addressesthe thesis content analysis content analysis textual images visual of analysis descriptive analysis of historicalthe period of 1930-1950s Methodology - 5 - - CEU eTD Collection the gendered body genderedmetaphor as the for thestate(Yuval body a serving Davis 1998). as well Desfosses 1976), asthrough theory the of (Mazur 1967, discourse reproduction on special attention perspectivethe to statelegitimizingthe of political through rule the reading. 2003:11) (Hodder and production of conditions their of contexts in the be understood should texts Therefore, meaning“true” of 2003:111) (Hodder a textoutsidecontexts.” historical specific meanings, contradictory often sociallyembedded.and always “original” isno Thus there or new is given it contexts in different is reread text the “As it”. of reading and writing in butreside the not inatext has that “meaningdoes shown minds. However, Derrida to types of 2003: evidence”.111) Ithas (Hodder long beenus closer assumedthatwordsget other indication meanings than do original provide of a“truer” “written assumedtexts that been often has it periods historical of archeology in the that fact the to attention brings Ian reading historical Hodder texts. about considerations keep inmindsometo theoretical were heldtobeanimportantpart beof ideologicallysociety to influenced. to note that since the audience of these magazines was women, we can presume that women system, played asignificant rolein influencing the public opinion.is it Besides, important inmediaWomen’sof channeling rulingmagazines, ideology. being the media the a part picked up notaccidentally, they were chosen as marking ends of the Stalin’s family policy. year in Years 1936andissues each magazine (forty of 1953were total). a correspondent (“Worker woman”) and “Krest’ianka” (“Peasant woman”) of 1936 and 1953–ten issues of andimages “Rabotnitsa” magazines of Ianalyzedtexts process, of nation-building the When talking about relationship the between and state the individuals, the Iwill pay isit important as historical texts, beto be referred analyzed can to articles Since the the of role the consideration into take to important is it myanalysis of process the In To show that representation of woman was magazines representation Sovietina part the To showthatof women’s - 6 - - CEU eTD Collection than than critical reflection. 1998:33) (Harper as Harper out,both points visual images and were supposed texts inspireto loyalty rather by Union, totalitarian and state Duringthe Sovietofficials. the regime predetermined of the while during the Soviet period the photographs in editionsprinted were highly censored freedom, havea relevant photographers when circumstances in today’s moreis applicable biases, lack knowledge, and or of knowledge”. (Harper1998:29)However, this suggestion view,of point thephotographer’s of reflections precisely “more are they whereas as ‘truth’, 1998:28) order to changesociety.” (Harper sense photographerthe should social thateducatethe expose publicin to inorder problems influenced Thesesubjects thesephotographic studies. by studies were characterized the if any discussion of little, very was there movement “[i]n Harper, documentary the the to According “Krest’ianka”. issues of representation,in feminineideological are represented points imagesin “Rabotnitsa” magazines and the ideology, or tohow fetchthe relationships out For important. this, make Iwill adescriptive analysis of of historical the 1930-1950s period withthe most significant1998: 27) ideological (Harper of is than rather ‘interpretation’. an thought asa‘reflection’ rather photography points,in reports notes recent that Harper 1998: 60)Douglas externalthe world. (Winston and then inentirely strong itself, stand,of imagea sensethat photographic of the cannot asevidence will analyzebe too this However, appearsto claim 1998: 60) be (Winston consideredto asevidence”. how these “From points. its beginnings photography has made a claim on hasscience which allowed it In the course of the imagery analysis I will take into account the following theoretical the account into take Iwill analysis imagery of the In thecourse Howard S. Becker attracts attention to the fact that photographs are often thought of thought often are photographs that fact the to attention attracts Becker S. Howard in ideology of For myimagesis rulingthe visual presence the quite research - 7 - - CEU eTD Collection 2) articles about women in two women’s magazines: “Krest’ianka” (“‘Peasant woman”), (“‘Peasant “Krest’ianka” women’s magazines: inwomen two about 2) articles images; 1) data: primary two of consists research this of part empirical The data. empirical in 1930-1950s,and then I will my to mainturn attention the partof thesisthe – the general understanding of real the world.1998: 67) (Winston is understand needs havea (Winston 1998: 66)Thus,to what image, one authentic to inthe To understand “ slow-motion”. or like “fast- itHe calls image”. of photographic the fundamental property (Winston need1998: 66) beguaranteed”. nothing can be guaranteed to be guaranteed nothing can legitimacy of the realist imagefrom realist of the legitimacy (Winston 1998: 66)By taking‘a mild realist Winston suggests “moving position’ the photographer is notnecessary denyto totally that you can still see something of the world.” unmarkedby Buttoacknowledge photographer’sthe finger-prints. thepresence of the sophisticated tobelieve a imagephotographic islike a window onthe world, awindow wearenow “So, thefollowingtoo way: hedescribes images photographic which positions andinterests to photographicthe art”. (Harper 1998:30) social their carry whom of both viewer, the and maker the by isconstructed photograph postmodern critique of “thedocumentary holds photography which meaningthe that of fundamentally, all images“are socially and technically (Harperconstructed”. 1998: 29) However, more at”. waspointed of camera a reality the trace avisual itholds Therefore, first, I will review the political,social and economic situation in the USSR Robert Fairthorne, a radical film critic, in 1933 wrote that “’actuality’ is not a “’actuality’ isnot in wrote that aradicalfilmcritic, 1933 Fairthorne, Robert It is to keepin important mind photographic the that image is‘true’ in sensethe “that Brian Winston proposes Brian Winston proposes up“ato take mildrealist in position’ dealing with the consideration into take to important is it analysis imagery the of course the In them ” one deeds to have prior knowledge of ” one deedstohavespeed in knowledge of prior real the world. reception representation – by the audience or the viewer – where nothing where – viewer the or audience the by – - 8 - - – the screen or the print – where CEU eTD Collection political system during the two periods. The representation of periods. political magazines The atthe system thewomen’s two of during representation waschosen. why data reasons this the Sample system. normalizing by judgments magazineswere produced of asapart women’s the media the constructed and controlled by ideology in an equal way. Besides, it will also be shown what are discourse life day every the and women on discourse media the both that research this in intoaccount it betaken will Therefore, it astrue. accepts that its owndiscourse words, or,in other each has itsowntruth, that society rathersupposes life. It “real” inwomen relevance or irrelevance Althusserian ofideology theory usapossibility avoid claimsgives strong aboutthe to of images of women 1950s. This how willshow these two periods are represented in magazines’the created articles. by means 1930- USSRof in the situation andsocial economic political,the with contextualize them of the media analyses. First,to I will present my findings from “real”imagery and textual analysis, and then I will period? specific economic, political and social situation, and most importantly,ideology of a certain with the inconnection signify a does representation Whatparticular reveal? analysis this imagery Whatkinds of dothe period? structural assumptions and textual patterns and andextentwhat How questions: inanswer the arewomen magazines to of represented the In woman”) of analysisIwill course the 1953.the 1936 and of (“Worker “Rabotnitsa” It is at It look women’s images essential throughthe in to of perspective magazines the Before moving directly to the analysis of the empirical data, it is necessary to explain (Althusser 1971). ideology of theory Althusserian the alsouse I will In myresearch content and textual, imagery, using am I my research in above, noted was it As - 9 - - CEU eTD Collection Therefore, the same topic of two different periods will always have different representation different have will always periods different of topic two same the Therefore, benever detached views from ideological the and to thisattitudes issuein society.the forcesideological behindthem. way issueis in The a certain media can represented printed the about think us let and circulate they inwhich society the about us tell usually issues. Differentimages in press havethe alwayshad a behindstory them, images these but also opinion publicthe represents the of oncertain and views shapes of and society the in USSRof the 1930-1950s. unconnected topics contributed, asitwill be shownfurther, to nation-buildingthe process “Stalin’s Constitution”), country’s and industrialization, fashion since these smilingly so-called (the Constitution new of the law, discussions newfamily the with articles dealing magazines “Krest’ianka”) (“Rabotnitsa” the of andFor and analysis1936 Ichose 1953. atgoingperiod. that on that time. Besides, the at content magazines women’s only magazines the available were almost market two – these Soviet of the both of them depictworth mentioningthe whole picture that their of“Krest’ianka” what popularity was could also“Rabotnitsa” and byfactthat predetermined the focus onthese magazineswas decision to be explained by the peculiarities and“Krest’ianka”) of 1936 and choice 1953.The of magazinesthe accidental. isnot My of the to such an extent by the state, however certain ideological points are still inherent. controlled not is media printed the days These state. the by censored constantly and owned werestate- stations radio TVand journals, newspapers, magazines, all period Sovietthe inmarket contemporary Russia sharply from differs in situation the 1930-1950s.During the Printed media has always been noted for being an agent that not only reflects morals reflects only not that agent an being for noted been always has media Printed magazine(“Rabotnitsa” issues of each of on 10 basis the conducted was The research In the course of the research I have read all the articles of each issue of the both were the most popularitwere the of magazines is women’s time, Soviet the though - 10 - - CEU eTD Collection otherwise mentioned, all from translations aremine.Russian magazines. mainstream national only from analyze taken toare articles I am the going Moreover, accounts. media printed the of analysis the on only based is research this However, media sources. in other represented images from the differ significantly) (or slightly period.is Itmedia inof images women that represented possible would printed that the major magazines lookat women’s magazines periodthe of 1930-1950sIwill not other Limitations in values. media reflected the as dominant are later images by these society, accepted the media printed and other, issues. formulates Beingopinion shapespublic on different andbehavior society. tothe principles imagesof Marginalizing and some accumulating the norms the dictate which magazines the of articles and images in the implicit government from issuesview,of point thusexpressing government’s the theof ideology the the about speak period Soviet the of magazines The communism. building of issue common sexuality women mainlyas‘comrades’and males collaborating present in with the media. by printed the reflected society of the values dominant the andabout behind implications articles ideological the the about speculate me will allow to media accounts Analysis of printed in exist society. that the attitudes in the media,thisbeingideology explainedby periodsdifferent of the and different The language of The language of isRussian. Itshould unless articles alsobenoticedthe that, Analyzing two account. into taken be should that of limitations number There area female of discussion avoid to tended media Soviet the that demonstrate will I - 11 - - CEU eTD Collection if her husband committed a crime, this “woman’s property” could not benot could acrime, taken property” “woman’sas if herhusband In a fine. committed this which “woman thatawoman a separate includedandpart” can property use asshewanted, property which allowed them not only to trade but have political weight as well. There was intensified thespread with Christianity. of Women inAncient had Russia rights of Perun major and maletradition god beganbecame a of god domination when war the is “homeland” for word as to referred – are for example Volga, like Russia one the of Mother Russian culture the was leavinghomefor waror on pursue of honor orsuccess. (Gray 1990: 48) Anglo-Saxon custom, ason needed hismother’s blessing rather than his father’s,whenhe what their mothers or aretoobey of epics The heroes Russian life. forceful role in family rather and maintained wives say rather than infew other developed societies women powerforretained solong institutions over tribal any male that note authorities;Historians birth. fertility, health, fate, marriage, control who goddess – archetypes in contrastWomen Powerful of full is still to folklore Russian Latin culture. Russian the of part constituent or been a has always “GreatMother” Worshipof the are deepinscribed intheorders culture. which have a long history. Russia is Background Historical a region in which woman-centered cults and social Dominating of males is not an inherent trait of the Russian culture. In religion, the religion, In culture. Russian the of trait inherent an not is males of Dominating in image woman of the ideaof importance express the the soforcefully Few idioms innumber factors speakwomen of aboutstatus To Russia,weshould a consider rodina (from (from the word Literature Review Matushka - 12 - - rod . (gentle way of calling mother), while the while mother), calling of way (gentle Many of the country’s major rivers – the which means“birth”). (Gray 1990: 49) CEU eTD Collection independency. However, in independency. 19 However, the (Liborakina 1996:85) It is worth negotiations. of means by solved were conflicts the all as states neighboring with wars noting have that not did thetriumphher rule almost demonstrated (945-964)Russia during of diplomacy: thereShe politician. farseeing werea and statesperson outstanding an been have to recognized women among took rulethe was in945when herhusbandkilled. Igor Prince Princess Olgais widely the members of Olga’slandlords, women-church-builders, women-donators. (Liborakina 1996:84) delegations.documents 12-13century dated found and inNovgorod arementionedthere women- might have been responsible for the habit of privacy concerning family matters which matters habitmight havebeen family the for of concerning privacy responsible allremain silentabout such domesticanyone problems.complain to It abuse, and about to not should wives whereas “politely”), (privately, wives their beat must husbands how way This manual behaviorin themodels prescribed familyof life, it instructions on offered the theTerrible. by andCzar Ivan supported monkSylvester by waswritten Home)the which crudely misogynist documents of (Liborakinafactors. 1996:85) the Christianeconomic and cultural political, of a number to due philanthropy women into eratransformed – the Domostroiself-realization for search Women’s family. the inside culture patriarchal and rights (or the Law of theparticipate in public even and political life in conditions legalof limitations of women’s conditionswomen had on legal moreproperty, rights though waslimited.their status This provided for development of the philanthropy – sphere which allowed women to With the introduction of patriarchal norms of Vizantian church, women lost their lost women church, Vizantian of norms patriarchal of introduction the With She Russia. Ancient in women-politicians famous most the of is one Olga Princess The attitudes in Russia towards womanhood were also affected by one of were womanhood most by also in the of one affected towards The attitudes Russia th century, in century, comparison countries, toother Russian - 13 - - CEU eTD Collection upbringing wassupposed tobesolved with helpof the public institutions. (Polivaeva 1996: in the of process achieving between equality women men,and while issuethe of children targets of the cultural revolution was ‘freeing’ women which was seen as an important step 1930-s there began amass involvement of inwomen production.public Oneof mainthe in But andacaregiver. ahousekeeper usually was breadwinner, awife and husband wasa legislation allextended to policies onwomen’s (Mezentsevaemployment.” 1994:109) could notbesacked because pregnancy. “This tendency of ‘protectionist’ in labor and work of types lighter to be transferred to supposed were –women breastfeeding and placement, They andsoon. also provided rights speciallabor for women during pregnancy provided equal for both rights sexes tosecondary and professional jobeducation, mentionedasanevidencelegislation were usually this. of government Formally, the USSR had achieved full sexual equality in the workplace. The USSRConstitution andlabor workplace. For 70 years of in attitudes would women fullhomea radical that at way, and guarantee equality andatthe the Soviet male rule, change automatically would capitalism the of overthrow the that Sovietbelieved also They 32) leaders declared thedomestic (Friedrich enslavement” words) on imposed Engels’ them (Gray long ago. 1991: claim that the householdsnuclear would the “open replacefamily and would putan end to disguised or communal the and force labor in the participation full women’s that believed Lenin women’s right to work became one of the central Soviet and for equal work, its insuringlaws equal issued pay constitution. were into There notions of citizenship. Engels and history which emancipation declared women’s as oneofits andprimary itgoals, included (Gray 1990: 50). almostworker. to presentingsocial an culture anykindof obstacle prevailed inSoviet Until Until late 1920-s the traditionalthe family model was inprevailing USSR: the a After Revolution the of 1917, the Bolshevik regime became thefirstgovernmentin - 14 - - CEU eTD Collection kitchens will let awoman have muchmore free time for herself instead of struggling with rich could by surrounded samethe ease hygiene and light, andbeauty previously only very that the afford”.Russia“in should that be She be woman the eased. working underlines sufficiently Soviet She believes that (Kollontai or mother”. 1920) reduced hercaresashousekeeper organizing crushingburden ithas on madewoman’s shoulders: having without hera wage-worker of publica “placing of A. capitalism says accuses she roles”, this point At these fulfill Kollontai. restaurantsto do. “The woman iswho wife, mother and worker has expendto every ounce of energy to and time a womancommunal had to perform all the household duties that she was traditionally accustomed same Atthe family. needsof forthe the insufficient were wagesof “breadwinner” the handsthe of (Kollontai 1920) collective”. the task of bringing upthe children which was formerly theirs is passing more andinto more the because either, family the need not do family the of members The labour. productive economy is no longer profitable: the family distracts the worker from more useful and thedomestic because notneed family, the does “The state argues, Kollontai issue, family himguarantees both his and mother andmoral When material addressingsupport”. the life”. Kollontaisocial education of the rising generation to be one of the fundamental aspects of the new is the society considers that“communist upbringing concerningchildren points issueof the also work,insists the society has to to needtime since parents that thinks She collective. the relieve to family from the pass child will that the family of “communistthe carecommunist of the children.societythat affirms (1920) Family” the and “Communism will article her One in Kollontai comeAlexandra of40) the to crucialthe aidsociety of the parents, and that thetakes responsibility forcare the of every child and Kollontai believes that with the introduction of communism the life of a woman will factthat the wasdueto many times living earn their had to women why The reason - 15 - - CEU eTD Collection when losses in military family “The allowancebegunin Soviet program midstWorldwas Wara of atthe II, time manpower at the frontrose rather sharply, especially for those whohad had ten children. (Heer and Bryden 1966: 516) been prodigious whoBrydenhad those, more 1966: 515)For fourthan children,the amountof payments and it was uncertainandchildren”. (Heer andsubsequent third extendedto War “theprogram was World II, seventh and subsequentchildren until theirfifth birthday.in Then, 1944, until end the of families was established inthe Union.Soviet Theprogram annual provided allowances for largeby inaidlegalizedlaw minimal only 1955.Besides,a 1936 the of state program to by introduced was made by government,in the abortionwhichwas1936 prohibiting and areproducer. producer leadership itneeded a a facedadilemma: both 1991: 33)Gradually woman Soviet as the the Glory of Motherhood,fertility Medals,state even Orderof series of rewards glorifying –Motherhood developed a Motherrespect to women and family structure – there arose a quiteintenseHeroines cult of motherhood. The (those1991: 33)Theyears Stalin brought an reversalunexpected of earlierthe ideals Bolshevik in having tenfactors – labor shortages, rapid economicchildren growth, and deficitin the male population”. (Gray or more). demographic “pragmatic, women’s wasbased on equalemployment USSR’s concern about (Gray Engelsfree to women appearedbe to utopian. In retrospect, it also becomes evident that the from her domestic slavery and makesherlife richer and happier”. (Kollontai 1920) woman liberates “communism that believes firmly Kollontai washtub. the over slaving from woman a free also will opinion, Kollontai’s in laundries, central of introduction cookingthe last and spending free herin hours kitchen the preparing dinner.The One of Onefirst steps of the of so-calledthe or retreat’, ‘Great newreproductivethe policy However, after the first fifteen years of the Soviet rule, those ideals of Lenin and - 16 - - CEU eTD Collection advancement as since 1930 it closed the itclosed as since 1930 advancement women’spromote keep its promises to regime failed to 1998: 135)However, the force. (Reid labor theindustrial enhance maleand thus in engage occupations traditionally to encourage women campaigns to initiating repeated kept central authorities therefore labor1998: 135)Meanwhileremainedincrease furthercrucial women’s productivity, to rights to vote, work and rest, as well as provideto formaternity leave and childcare”. (Reid Bryden 1966: 518) when the war would end and what would be the nature of the postwar world.” (Heer and Besides, this discussion coincided with a new discourse about the “crisis of masculinity” – masculinity” of about “crisis the new discourse with a coincided discussion this Besides, freedom of choice between theirfamily and professional duties”.2001: 24) (Zhurzhenko burdencalled“which stressed carried double bywomen, necessity the havingof the Theoretical Background inprocess. this representation of role women focused on nation-buildingthe process in USSRin the 1930-1950s, and specifically on the discussedin followingthe section, we while inmindkeep that this is particular work by perspectives can befound These will works inanumberof works be authors. prominent from reality Soviet tothe different approached related of issues Discussion the superiority. propaganda keptattemptingreinforce to thenuclearfamily. 1998:135) (Reid caring forback feminineand the whilelegislation of to domain traditionally household the provision womencommunal of come diningand childcarefellshort, were supposed to society”. Afterstate in women Soviet equal declaringwerealready that ‘women question’, Articles 122 and 137 of the USSR Constitution were to guarantee women “equal weretoguarantee Articles and 137of 122 USSRConstitution the In late 1980-sSovietsociologists journalists and initiated discussion the of so- the Thus, by1930s state the needed a strong nation convinced ofits defenselessness and Zhenotdel - 17 - - and “curtailed further and“curtailed ofthe discussion CEU eTD Collection consistently taken for granted as a goal by the communists, as has their view of women view of ashastheir communists, by asa the goal for granted taken consistently hasbeen equality sex income to “[i]nequalization, contrast that women, emphasizing industrial (Heitlinger 1979:191) growth. for rapid were essential workers which to industries attract needed to country the that fact by the justified was this differentiation”, wage greater of a system by Stalin under replaced egalitarian“cut and proclaimed beginningof the short was Sovietrulethe policy at unlike sex neveron full socialistthe 1979:191)The agenda”.equality, (Heitlinger was income full equality, “the goal of factthat the to attention brings be. also She to itclaimed statistical data, Heilinger shows that the USSR has never been a truly egalitarian society, as andvariousmanyPresenting childhousework (Heitlinger care”,among 1979:4) others. “the structural of existence arrangements,namely traditional individualfamily, the and numbermultiplying inthe production, ofwomen force,engaged the size ofthe labor economicwhich increasing growth aimed at by of volume the the production increasing socialist of character extensive the like factors, several to attention brings and level policy liberate to attempts a them from wasfar numerous at beingEurope despite satisfactory (Conze 2001; Buckley Goldman 1985; 2001; Ili comrades. male with comparison or success women’s of terms in absolute than rather of in restrictions terms spoken of often is quite emancipation this sametime, Atthe terms. social and economic, in political, measured isusually emancipation this emancipation, and even“matriarchy” infamily”.2001: 24) (Zhurzhenko Soviet the family,fatherin leadership education of women’s children, the deficiencies inthe the “concerninglack the growing ofinitiative and men,among responsibility absence the of the As manyauthors, triple Heilingeother dwellsupon performed role the bySoviet makes inquiryAlena in (1979) women position of Heitlinger an Eastern why the Starting from 1920s the Soviet governmentclaimed toguaranteewomen’s full - 18 - - þ 2001) CEU eTD Collection implicit reasons of “upon separation. a question When issues’ implicitreasons of women what posing inWilliams suggests contrast, 1986)McAndrew’sanalysis (1985), wereother there that 1974; within it. (Bobroff interests careof their and oversee take contrary, to the on but, movement, proletarian women from the separate to not positioned were organizations such separate that was on question women’s Kollontai’s perspective Alexandra 2001:14) time”.at the (Scheide least prevalent conditions under the at organizations, Rabotnitsa Kollontai who was “the most prominent Bolshevik feminist at the time of the foundation of Alexandra of words the attention to alsoattracts Scheide 2001:13) directly”. (Scheide “ issues. pay women’s “Pravda”attentionto to sufficient notes, Carmen Scheide failed (2001) of citizen an as andpublic’sinfluencing in However, average Soviet consciousness. part dawn the in rule“Pravda” played Soviet animportant life the of newspaper depicting (Heitlinger 1979:193) asa matter”. private motherhood regard not do societies “thestate-socialist Heitlinger, benefits” leave since,according to maternity other paid and andunpaidmaternity “the in length maternity of and care,women’s activity, child economic paid participation social for andprovisions broadeningof work, of education acceptedscope women’s the men between totakeplace: of legal inequality and women, elimination usually admitted are impressive achievements of anumber sametime Atthe attained. only partially goal was needsthe Although be declared of sex country. itsthe this USSR the priority, equality to to in response role, triple this within in emphasis shifts were there that important is quite it men”.for 1979:192)However, (Heitlinger never out been woman’s triplespelled has role playing mother threefold the of acounterpart tothe role (housewife)-worker-citizen; Mass media has always played a significant role in transmitting state ideology. At ideology. state in transmitting role significant a played always has media Mass Rabotnitsa ” who argued that “women had specific interests ” whoseparate “women that interests hadwhich required argued specific was the Bolshevik’s only initiative to address the female proletariat female address the to initiative only Bolshevik’s wasthe - 19 - - CEU eTD Collection which will “Ourbe furtherdiscussed: beauty … liesinsimplicity,in in reality,of therouge whichpp. 15-16) corresponds with contentof the magazines the 1936 and even of 1953 Attwood brings up the following example from magazinethe “Rabotnitsa” of 1927 (no.37, 2001:34)Toprove inwas noplace for claim the society”. suchthings socialist (Attwood its general wasthat there firm. cosmetics attitude of products a private advertising the Yet in its articles at theher“the magazine entirely wasnot consistent,condemning analysis, and fashion cosmetics same time as providing outby pointed isAttwood “Rabotnitsa”’s attitude towardsbeauty and fashion. According to readers with 2001:30-31)One issues the Stalinthe of changes era”.(Attwood the transition with to stylish it how and women, and men to dressrelation in differs portrayal this how is portrayed, patterns leisure and even “how to attention paying particular power, decades of Soviet two in first the “Rabotnitsa” haveagreed upon to originally meaning specificforlacked political women. inmany (Bonnel1991;Buckley works 2001; Scheide 2001;Schrand1999)andis generally imageThe between 1936and of 2001:17) 1940.”(Scheide ideological peak in the from emergedmiddle very became the 1920s.Thisimage the of popular andreached its of orderly the running and dailylife of theirneighbourhoodfamilies, and workplace, (McAndrew 1985:94) theemancipation women”. Soviet of of nature andUSSR, of partial,the one-sided the in women and men of experience life different qualitatively the of indicative is USSR women’s of inthe magazines that“the existence separate USSR,McAndrewthe suggests in achievedreality asthe was proclaimed sexes the of equality while isjustified”, women sphere basis of forjournalistictheoretical of existence a separate production continued the Lynne Attwood’s Lynne Attwood’s study examines(2001) the portrayal leisure in of magazinethe “The image of the socially active soviet woman (the dvizhenie zhen obshchestvennits dvizhenie - 20 - - (volunteer wives’ movement) wives’ (volunteer obshchestvennitsa obshchestvennitsa ), taking care is discussed CEU eTD Collection points out that “[t]here has been a great deal of Soviet research in recent years on yearsthe on inrecent Sovietresearch deal of “[t]here hasbeenagreat out that points 118) to theachievementan of route 1985: sexual equality”.‘automatic’ (Peers as perceived was this as employment, female of levels high maintain “to was commitment work”. (DaviesAt 2001:samethe 90) impactthe ideological time, of Sovietthe perhaps or fact that, the 1930s despite distinctmen for roles and women in strongly remained force SovietUnion in inthe the secure equalityOne forof thewomen conclusions with numbersthe ideas of gender?’working impact women about (Davies 2001;Conze 2001) men, they a number come to ofis examplesthat although revealwelfare policies. (Chatterjee1990; 2001; Gordon Koven and Michel1993) the proclaimedthat “theSovietsymbolize is Woman’ often argued to the beliefingenderequality Soviet and notionpolicy claimedof means of justification for Stalinist (Chatterjee policies”. 2001: 49) The image of ‘Newthe to from a symbolbackwardnessa symbol in to propaganda served of modernity of Soviet as a 49) The argument of Chatterjee’s runs work “thethat transformation of Russianthe woman mediahyperbole”. 2001: the (Chatterjee inalanguageStalinistwith overladen peculiarly by lavishly “wereWomen-heroines feted andpromoted education rule. Stalin’s the during hands for working’”. 2001: 34) (Attwood character …and inway:lay it capable of knowledge, of a strong ‘thepossession of strong now perceived Attwood,“femalebeauty2001: 34)Accordingin new was anentirely to see womenfemale equality, men not since would (Attwood ascomrades andco-workers.” attention of a blood.hotskirts […]man Make-upandfail would attract short to ‘simple the andhealthy from our “proletarian society”’, and would also hinder the cause of Maggie McAndrew in her study “Women’s inSoviet Union” (1985) Magazines the Maggie McAndrewinher study One of central the putby questions isa numberof authors ‘howdid the increase in The cult of a heroine waswidely in literature,filmindustry used and evenin because - 21 - - , so many women were now going out to CEU eTD Collection relation to the position of distance from realitythe of most women’s lives”. (McAndrew 1985:112) women duringimage the Sovietof themselves timemagazines are part of a complex ideologicalsince structure asconfronting Soviet womenthe with the it Super-achiever,is positionconcerned of with the refer to female they type: a certain andpromote create not themselves do magazines womenthe a New outsideSoviet is that“women’s McAndrew to (McAndrew comes conclusion 1985: 81)Thegeneral Woman, the pageswhich andorganizations’”. parties classes,political social of iscertain interests the with accordance of at thesome magazine”.information and propaganda and it exerts an influence on public opinion,“In moulding mass of it media in principal the of one is magazine the ‘a read: they what by influenced Soviet case, inpeople“Mediaof are that isbasedontheassumption USSR: the policy USSR the women’s itsby McAndrew,isSoviet relationship intimate press, as emphasized government the with women.Soviet crucial of 1985:80)One (McAndrew characteristics of the defining the partsystem in USSRandthe of animportant played behavior determining andof attitudes 1985: 80)Thus, thatwomen’swithin shesuggests magazines operated ideological the (McAndrew women”. Soviet on implicit, and explicit both expectations, and demands women’s approach magazines to attitude the thestate of towards women,identify to messages were often rather explicit and hortatory.McAndrew argues that “we can use these (McAndrew as it 1985:78-79)However, is highlighted by Sovietpropaganda author, the life”. wayof of style reproduction the and butthrough strengtheninga defined and magazines is directly madeusually “not ideas,propaganda doctrinesthrough and slogans, conclusion the to she78) In comes her(McAndrew research women 1985: readersperse”. as that the spreadingrelationship between the press andits readers, but no research intowomen’s publications or of a definite ideology through the articles of women’s This current study This study iscurrent similar insomerespects to whathas been already done in - 22 - - CEU eTD Collection of of genderedthe body serving asametaphor for state (Yuval the Davis 1998). theory the as well asthrough 1976), Desfosses onreproduction (Mazur 1967, discourse the legitimizing through political state rule of the perspective era,the USSR during the Stalin significance of the Soviet women representation for the nation-building process in the – the taken perspective different of sense inthe beendone has already from what bedifferent this However, will research magazines inparticular. in general, women’s and the interrelation of ideology and the media, and representation of women in the Soviet press industrialization,new ofthe Stalin’s Familylaw, Constitution the discussion of 1936 and experiencedcalled by ‘double burden’ in women, role Soviet women’s of process the so- the authors: many by approached already been have which issues topical of number - 23 - - CEU eTD Collection whole.” be (Reid can 1998: 136)This explained portraying factthat by of the life. “Such serve seemed the purpose to of confirming theiremancipation in and participation public images were not about inindustry Women women alone, but representedin and which they were produced made public”. (Reid 2001:194) Sovietestablish conditions the is to itessential society, in Soviet functioned visual representations society as a for free. toperform expected which they were will be dedicated to discussion of the third role imposed on women – a public activist and wives “Non-working section third The nation. the by made theprogress illustrated brightly most andtherefore mostbackwardpartof society, the agriculture” will deal mostly with the images of peasant women who were considered in “Women section The second productivity. increase to whole nation encourage the to be show the role of women in the process of industrialization, and how theirimages were used in“Women will is section industry” thefirst sections: called chapter three into divided The nature. contradictory a rather of was emancipation this women, emancipate to claimed ideology Soviet the although that show also will chapter The USSR. the in nation-building symbolic markers of progress for the nation, therefore playing crucial role in the processin of depictions of industrialization.USSR in periodthe 1930-1950s,and images will showthat women of played a central role Thus, the chapter will argue that women were used as Chapter 1. Industrialization andGender from Chapter the1930s 1. Industrialization The fact that women were presented as central protagonists in the printed media inthe printed protagonists ascentral women werepresented The factthat As how Susan Reidrightlypoints out,“[i]f drawanyconclusions about we areto This will chapter examine the role in of women industrialization the in process the through the 1950s - 24 - - obshchestvennitsi movement” CEU eTD Collection life”. (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, issue 32, p. 3) First andforemost articleFirst the issue emphasizes life”.p. 3) 1936, (“Rabotnitsa”, 32, is stated that “the masses are assessing the results of their work in the struggle for the happy it article the of At beginning the power. cameto government Soviet the made after progress (Reid‘Great Retreat’.” 2001:195) the dubbed subsequently difference, gender of notions conservative with along privilege and power of hierarchical relations of restoration legitimated theongoing Stalin and itof fuelled“at cult the same the in time, world’, democratic the most as‘the proclaimed 135) 1998: reinforcefamily. nuclear the (Reid to keptattempting andpropaganda legislation cometo caring backto traditionally forthe feminine domain of householdthe while provisionAfter state of womencommunal diningand childcarefellshort, supposed were ‘women question’, as well as declaring closingadvancement, the Zhenotdel in 1930and“curtailingthat further discussion the of women were already equal in Soviet women’spromote keep its promises to regime failed to 1998: 135)However, the society”. force. (Reid labor theindustrial enhance maleand thus in engage occupations traditionally to encourage women campaigns to initiating repeated kept central authorities therefore labor1998: 135)Meanwhileremainedincrease furthercrucial women’s productivity, to rights to vote, work and rest, as well as provideto formaternity leave and childcare”. (Reid most vividly contrastthe betweendemonstrate ‘oldthe and new’”. the (Reid 1998:137) most and elementsociety, “femalefigures backward of oppressed pre-revolutionary could be the made. to Sinceconsidered women were progress the illustrating establishedof way an already was industrialization socialist through lives women’s of transformation The article called “Under the Banner of Stalin Constitution” reflects upon the upon reflects Constitution” of Stalin Banner “Under the The article called Although Constitution everynowthe of was and 1936 then praised and was women “equal weretoguarantee Articles and 137of 122 USSRConstitution the - 25 - - CEU eTD Collection Several million of Several invested million in hospitals, theconstruction maternity were of roubles of women-mothers to healthy and government and theraisingof generation children. the of mentioning traditionalhelp cannot article the sametime the At as awhole. society Soviet the characterized role of women as women of role and position as ifthe mothers: asawhole, nation by the achieved progress “A great attention positionthe inwomen of Union symbolize 1930-1950swas Soviet the during used to the is paid by the partypositions in country”.our (“Rabotnitsa”,issue 1936, 32,p.4)These examples prove that predominant andsometimes significant, to take “Women started argues, sentence another is instatement font written boldin article). issue (“Rabotnitsa”,the 1936, 32,p.4)Or is especially forchanges fast the distinguished role inthe and of position (this a woman” socialism of country happy “The foregrounded: is USSR the in women of position nation, issuelife”When (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, 32,p.4). talking progress made aboutthe bythe persistentlymostimportant captures positionsin the industrial inproduction cultural and machineryproduction, building, –“a agriculture woman in the Soviet Union quickly and woman in theit Sovietinforms the number Union about the – readers of engagedin women issue (“Rabotnitsa”,The 1936, 32,p.4) rest of articlethe position tothe isdedicated a of society”. socialist by the educated new person of this traits characteristic the are these women,towards love and towards, responsibility for children and taking careof them – respect towards laborlove and public property, motherland,internationalism, tothe respect ideology, Soviet obtain “Courage, ‘newtype this of person’ was to traits: following the the issueto being 1936,32,p.4)Accordingborn”.new of person is (“Rabotnitsa”, type prosperous life!” It argues that the old way of lifeis changing “in front of our eyes”, that “a on is in way forward the made moving country a spheres: “The greatprogress all to has nation the government Soviet the of rule the under that statement the prove to figures inachievements heavy industriesand light asin as agriculture, providingwell particular - 26 - - CEU eTD Collection emancipates women – thus women perform as indicators of the level of democratism and be by seem supported to statementthe thatthe newConstitution freestotally and The Constitution is claimed to be truly democratic, awhole. as society the by humane made andprogress the progressive,symbolize to appear andwomen this claimConstitution, new (“Rabotnitsa”,issue 1936, role 32,p.5)The of iswomen emphasizedin many of parts the citizens of theforce. socialistjoinlaborencourage more people and to farms, to Soviet production and collective the statewomen inwere foregrounded massthe media toillustrate achievements in industrial of 1936,issue fields”.production 32,p.5)Such (“Rabotnitsa”, imagesexamples that prove of workersof number in a movement Stakhanovite initiated who women were “these addition, In and peasantsConstitution for goodharvest. the They are the leadersamong in Stakhanovites agriculture. “[i]t is areimportant equaltois that issue It argued 5). also 1936, 32,p. (“Rabotnitsa”, world” whole the for importance emphasize that womenin mother’s and child’s interests. Thisis capture called as“thewere onehaving historical their the first to carry is protection –theSoviet andstate providedof government importance whatof crucial rights!” the bannereducation, and insurance social have rest, ofto right the Stalin’swith provided labor, for remuneration labor, for rights equal governance, state in participate to men with rights equal with is everywherein Sovietreality.”our (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936,issue 32,p.4) being a human about the for care Such family. Soviet the of strengthening the and mothers, women- generations, future careof signs arethe of measures unprecedented all these material assistance to future mothers, and state assistance to families with several children – abortionincrease concerning and thein government decree kindergartens; prohibition “The new Constitution embodied consistent democratism of the Soviet system. All system. Soviet the of democratism consistent embodied Constitution new “The women provided government Soviet the in emphasizes that article every Almost - 27 - - CEU eTD Collection the worldthe performedjumps; who master 500parachute M.Zemplyakova, of G. sports; mentioned spheres (G. Pyasetskaya,images faces happy photo who in of achieved high depicting women results above the reiterated champion of with articleThe textof the issupported male perceived aspurely ones. been traditionally the USSR, the first woman in Soviet ashighlyis society depicted jobs hadsince women progressive perform can which of DOSAAF” (“Rabotnitsa”,issue 1953, 4,p.10-11) is composed insuch a waythatthe issue The article 1953, pilots.(“Rabotnitsa”, called“Activists 4,p.10) jumpers, glider and defense at that time – radio operators, telephone operators, truck drivers, pilots, parachute for country the important were especially which andspecializations acquiring professions (Voluntary issueSpecialwomen-members 1953, paid 3,p.12). attention Societywas to of DOSAAF of Support in“Rabotnitsa”, 1953,issue 19), Woman-Aeronaut” 8,p. even minersor (“Rabotnitsa’, to the possible positions –factory collectiveworkers, farm pilots (“Firstworkers, Russian Army, Aviation, in as all with textual both imagery meanswomen engagedare depicted helpof and the andmatter: in this illustrative quite are magazines Fleet).Women’s examples. specific provide to had Those women were development of the country”. (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, issue 35, p. 4) andcultural industrial of all spheres a way women to for farms opened of collective system developed well and incities industry of development High USSR. the in women of promotion as manyunprecedented in attheSecondMeetingnumbers reflect as These 1924. meetingseven times – the at of them 419 were There Meeting. General the at represented were well “women-delegates thefact highlights that for General Meeting, and the came who women of number the emphasizes itonly participants, male of number the mention even not article does the Sovetov), (S’ezd Soviets the Meeting of General the talking about areexpressed inWhen which government of progressive Constitution. the views Soviet the To prove women that finally an got opportunity to actin all spheres life,of state the - 28 - - CEU eTD Collection is the day which symbolically recognizes women’s achievements, “providing Soviet the isachievements, recognizes women’s the day which symbolically 8 March since symbolic rather havebeen to Day) appears Women’s March 8 (International popular film Pyr’ev’s Ivan in Ladynina Marina by played icon, a cinematic representation, cultural in and, AngelineandMariya Demchenko, byPasha and personified heroine, Stakhanovite shock-worker in celebrated reality, a driverhad both, become tractor decade,the female the of modernise end in thethe production 1930s.By drivethe agricultural womenrecruit to to byt’ ‘ and the pans)of pots (the vestiges crushing are the of tractor wheels the the picture Inthis steeringline a tractor. seatedatthe carriedwheel of woman of a smiling a drawing woman, headheld high, driving a tractor. On the same day, the front cover of young joyful a see we in which side, right the on picture the to contrast stark in is This away. walking is seen cane, and monocle hat, top with man, a well-dressed background the in but her, to next seat empty is an There wine. of glass is aspilt there which on a table on Sheappears andis smokinghaggard, tired her with slumped acigarette. and resting elbows is sitting woman young a side, left the On two. into divided is picture The youths). two and carried a cartoon picture with the caption ‘Dva mira inagriculture Women … I dve molodosti’ (Two worlds … images of women. bemeasured through to policy appears state of the character progressive Thus,the etc.) E.Vladimirskaya, jumper parachute in motorcycling; champion DOSAAF Konovalova, (old way life).of On 8 March 1930 the frontpage of industrialthe newspaper, These images provideThese aclear images indication of intentiongovernment’s Soviet the to Traktoristy (1939). (Ili (1939). þ 2001: 110) The publication of such Thepublication on drawings 2001:110) of - 29 - - Za industrializatsiyu, Izvestiya staryi also CEU eTD Collection agricultural sector was particularly burdened by labor shortages: “There werecollective laborshortages: burdened by wasparticularly sector agricultural men’sand nowThe took in women inthe recruited allspheres ofwork. places 1930s, been trained of women. Having employment the specifically force, of labor the structure farms ( of from February 1933, “aftermuch-publicised Stalin’s pronouncementat the First Congress starting organized more and active drivers became recruit astractor women Campaigns to poster, inmoviesposter, as andwell as praised literature insongs.were (Ili appearedin and pictures articles, tractors cartoon innumerous Besides beingmentioned as was pointed out, was tractor, The collectivisation. in the andregard peasantry the state between the relationship to play a significantcollectivisation role in the transition campaigns.by to the(Violacollective 1986)peasantry. The farming. article in face resistance widespread it of problemsencountered and the collectivisation dealtwith aimed to proclaim As a wasnew type notedof the by L. Viola, peasant women were the first to resist Success: Problems of the Collective Farm Movement” was published in was published Movement” Farm Collective the of Success: Problems industrialization industrialization (Ili drive.” governmentbegan its well-publicisedrecruit campaignswomen masse to en tothe Women’s Department (the symbolisedby and inJanuary1930 signified closure the Party’sof Communist the regime, of Soviet the achievements declared in fact, now, were They was working. liberation and sexual equality were notsome far-off towardswhich goals Sovietthe Union sexual equality”. (Ili liberation women’s publiclyand its to reiterate commitment withto state opportunity the Kolkhoz zhenschiny v kolkhozah –bol’shayasila) The participation of Sovietthe in Union World WarIIsignificantly impacted the The year 1930 was also significant. “From an official perspective, by 1930 women’s Shock-workers that peasant women had become a great force on collective forcethe on had agreat become women peasant that Shock-workers þ 2001:111) Zhenotdel) þ 2001: 111) On March 1930 Stalin’s article “Dizzy with article Stalin’s March 1930 2001:111)On as havingfulfilled its Soon purpose. theSovietafter, - 30 - - ”. (Ili þ 2001: 113) 2001: Pravda. þ 2001:111) The article CEU eTD Collection was in supply”.short (Ili labour male when upon called only largely were skills women’s image, different wholly of “despite officiala the be contradictory. endorsement policy rather appears to addition, In had job”. beentrained (Ili this for men of number a significant after only but drivers, tractor as be recruited should women being itwas public. “…in arguedthat regions Moreover, Russian of the some republic, in and media in mass about spoken rarely was nature women’s about notions gendered of reproductiveof social (Ili and roles”. women’s “innotions had gendered This roots undoubtedly farm prejudice female workers. collective other from surprisingly but colleagues male their from only not prejudice and resistance factories. neededsurroundings)more state isthatthe farms handsin in collective than urban urban and in rural women (between treatment differential the for reason The birth. a giving after month one and before month one only leave maternal to entitled only were farms two month before giving a birth and two monthpolicy of 1930-1950s: women engaged in urban production were entitled tomaternal leave after, while women working on collective of pro-natalist the explain peculiarities the help to farms. facts these All collective charge of their training and every day theirlives.” (Ili training everyday working and of course in the resistance with met often were they and recognition professional for battles sphere. “Yet, in reality, the working lives of women tractor drivers were complicated by harvesters. They ploughed and sowed.” (Ili harvesters. ploughed andsowed.” They job. combine- and became skilledatthe They million worked tractors athem over of drive to learnt They farm. a collective of chairman of responsibilities the over took number farms left any able-bodied males. without in. The womenjustAn increasing stepped Thus, the imageThus, the of þ 2001:127) traktoristka þ 2001: 112) Therefore, theproclaimedTherefore, emancipatory 2001:112) was praised and glorified in mass media and public and media mass in glorified and praised was þ - 31 - - 2001: 125) Furthermore, women had to stay in hadFurthermore, women to 2001:125) þ 2001: 127) Such behavior caused by behavior caused 2001:127)Such þ 2001: 127) Women had overcome 2001:127)Women CEU eTD Collection (collective farm worker) on a tractor. (Bonnel 1993: 57) If we look at the pictures in pictures atthe look If 1993:57) (Bonnel we ona tractor. farm worker) (collective The pictures. (now and werehonored with heroic status only in of terms their presence. (Bonnel 1993: 56-57) women lower in position occupied malehierarchy the Bolshevik or than workers peasants peasant that indicated artists this device Soviet Through in pictures. the appeared alone Before 1930sheseldom subordination patriarchal the 1993:55) (Bonnel world”. to rural and greed, ignorance, as as well shrewdness and included fecundity context, on depending traits, whose woman a peasant describe to “aused term ‘baba’, with associations contradictory. from As depicted 1920s, the image of implied peasantwoman the officially obtained heroic status in the revolution,appear until May Day 1920”.(Bonnel 1993: 55) the messagenot did thefemale (krest’ianka) peasant of “a representation standardized etc.), magazines, of their image wasmedia posters, (newspapers, printed images in common wererather Soviet the peasant rather male While 55) 1993: (Bonnel art”. political Soviet of lexicon in the image controversial representation of peasant(Ili sector”. agricultural women: “[t]he peasant traktoristka woman presented the most complex and new based order Soviet family”.the on 136) (Reid 1998: the of pillars the they were educators, and grandmothers) (or “As mothers collectivization. Women figuredpredominantly invisual propaganda serving as a symbol promoting kolkhoznitsa To illustrate collectivization, Soviet artists often used an image of the rural woman rural image of the an used often artists collectivization, Soviet illustrate To Although formally belonged which of women toone peasants fourthe groups Thus, from starting early government adopted 1930-s the Soviet imagethe of the Starting from 1930s becamewomen importantan theme in fine andart mass media. “as the symbol of its self-proclaimed progressive policies in relation to the to in relation policies progressive self-proclaimed its of symbol the “as krest’ianka – the collective farm worker) who stood in the foreground of inmany of who foreground stood the worker) farm –the collective þ 2001: 111) Victoria Bonnell traced this transformation in the transformation this traced Victoria Bonnell 2001:111) (peasant woman) with a sickle was replaced bythe replaced sickle with was woman) a (peasant - 32 - - kolkhoznitsa CEU eTD Collection propaganda posters and pictures in the Soviet printed media. (Bonnel 1993: 70) Very media.(Bonnel1993: 70)Very often and printed intheSoviet propaganda posters pictures techniques was colorseemingly alien images of women tractor driverssymbolism more familiar and acceptable. One of such whichframework was one of the basic in a women tractors) and peasant example, novel images (for topresent attempted parts thatof learning means of devicesSovietthese artists make photographers familiar. By unfamiliarthe wasto “read” known to thegenerally”. (Bonnel 1993: 64) viewers.signifier for collective farms in visual propaganda asymbol and moreof progress Several“a becameIn fact, thekey tractor by tractor. the wasreplaced sickle, and the disappeared techniques labor. message creative the joyful,intense, of wereconvey to try to seem magazines the of pictures in the depicted women used peasant The labor. to make peasant inagricultural pictureswomen engaged depict Most 1993: 60) peasants”. (Bonnel male vis-à-vis position in aprominent and of front in placed were they cases, other “In of starting urban from the worker, theybegan appearalone early 1930s to in pictures. the by hierarchy with Bolshevik in place image whichdefinedtheirdominated the workers the countryside”. (Bonnel 1993: 60) the from “the that viewers to message a conveyed kerchief the wearing the chin (the way peasant kerchiefher ratherhead is workers) which behindthan (in of tied style the under women women used to be represented). a each Almostwears woman socialism.in ofbuilding common cause the new assistant The differencea in magazinesof many atractor, women “Krest’ianka” are showndriving 1953, pictures in the style of The application of traditional styles and color symbolism helped Soviet artists and artists Soviet helped symbolism color and styles traditional of application The woman, peasant for marker class traditional the above, mentioned already was As or withmalepeasants together women were depicted formerly peasant Whereas baba of the past; she belonged to a new breed of - 33 - - kolkhoznitsa homo sovieticus was different in the in CEU eTD Collection peasant women may have suggested to viewerspeasantwomen may have to that suggested pairssometimes or even in without groups, even thepresence men. of “The clustering of aperson (Bonnel object”. on 1993:71) or sacredstatus conferred connotations,its positive appreciate color redandto the interpret to how viewers“But knew driving. since redthe colorwas of a a privilegedpeasant woman’s clothes color is red, in as bothwell as thereligious color of the tractor and sheBolshevik is art. It tractors”. (Ili smiling,women awash with driving peasant kerchiefed countryside 1930swas the of imagination popular have wouldand personal testimony, Soviet usbelieve the that with coupled drivers, tractor of women achievements the about reports press plentiful images and “Suchrealistp.the socialist 2, 16-17) issue No. women”. (“Krest’ianka”, its greatcare inof takes means, “kolkhoz home, village.By these the andamedicalcenter kolkhoz work or dealing agriculture of process inthe predominantly with women depicting pictures of full is domestic article The animals. The by performedwomen. farm a greatdeal in was collective meansof that the work literally text inserted among16-17) This 2,p. No. issue hand”. feel (“Krest’ianka”, female a caring can everywhere one the pictures claimsare farm there collective of in piece each “Everywhere, sentence: that are a great power”.dedicated to women in kolkhoz. The heading of one of the articles says “Women in kolkhoz The meaning of collectivity”. (Bonnel 1993: 76-77) this headingthe first is time,further full confidence revealed from the authorities, in the notfollowing just as individuals but as a social In contrast to the early 1930s, in early 1950-s peasant women appear more often in more women often appear in tothe1950-speasant early early 1930s, In contrast In general, majority the of articles in“Krest’ianka” (ofboth 1936 and 1953)are really takes care of women since it introduced new amaternity kindergartens, introduced care women since it really of takes þ 2001:112) - 34 - - kolkhoznitsy had earned, perhaps for had perhaps earned, kolkhoznitsi working, CEU eTD Collection completely life. with happy their completely satisfied and say they be are tryingto that theyseem to look from way they the havethem anicesmile, kerchief behind tied theirhead and any a simple hint dress without on sexuality.All of majority of formulas: andattractive’”. ‘simpleand attractive’ 1996:70)The and ‘modest (Vainshtein women depictedoutfit functional”.be entirely fashion […]The canon Soviet key wasbased of ontwo in the correspond with ideology beauty ruling the whichof that “demanded era during thatan pictures wear they of clothes The are dressed. they intheway of number similarities reveal agreat “Krest’ianka” magazine(“Krest’ianka”,issue 1936, 4) 23,p. are wearing in factories, andin harder work field,school.” bringthe nearthrough Stakhanovite a and more. “The happy life that we have today will be even happier tomorrow which we will moreeven produce orto Union in expected, encouraged, since every Soviet was the citizen illustrative is quite yields milk increase further to desire her expressing and Constitution them.”issue 19,p.14)Thisexample (“Krest’ianka”,1936, a woman thenew of discussing […] Ihavedesires: two study to furtherand to increase milkyields, and Iam realizing Constitution inspired me more,even and nowIwant increase to milkyieldthe 6,000. up to liters.increase5,000 milkthe yield liters Stalin’s Idecidedto every then upto cow, from increase productivity “Atof beginningthe their work: milk of 1936 Ipromised to 4,500 provide examplesofhappy made women by were (who happy who state) the promise to (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936,issue 36, p. 4)Another way encourageto women towork more was to aman”. with full equality beingand here becameahuman obtained she farm), (collective in power “Womenirreplaceable arethe great workers: beingso good, them for If we look at the clothes women depicted in these magazines are wearing, we will magazinesin arewearing, these women at clothes If depicted look the we To further encourage women join to workforce,the thegovernment keptpraising - 35 - - kolkhoz CEU eTD Collection (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, issue 35, p. 7) The reasons for such propaganda seem to be quite seem to for suchpropaganda reasons issue7) The 35,p. 1936, (“Rabotnitsa”, issue 35, p. were350 thousand planted trees by 6) hands the commanders’of wives”. (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, “There is issue “…plantingmilitary 1936, in 35,p.6)and of camps,casernsand gardens trees towns. plenty of work (“Rabotnitsa”, wife”. –acommander’s woman a of feel initiative not would where one for a Army Red in the commander’s aplace such no is There training. political and military better for them wifemakeshappy soldiers andcommanders, gives them spend a place leisure to time, organizes in the Red Army”. club,Army, ground, agood well-organizedgreen sports plantations andflowers –allthis This meant –almost everywhere. “A cozy, well-decorated casern, a model house of the Red issuea human beingis 1936, where (“Rabotnitsa”, careabout35,p.6) needed”. Stalin’s is place “Their husbands. their ‘help’ to expected were they working, not were women Evenifwork. persuadepeople donein time ideology needed to to work they special record have to the of lists work, perform endless to hands’ needed‘free desperately government Soviet theperform Since some duties. public they not, supposedto or were worked well as supporting theirhusbands and model families”. (Davies 2001: 91)Either women ideabourgeois-seeming of doing engineers’ andmanagers’ useful as wives charity work, the “through elevated was movement andobshchestvennitsi wives Non-working working. from attention distracted have not should it useful, In governments’the opinion, clothes, the firstof all,have been should and convenient asclothes. matters with insignificant such havetheir thoughts not occupied should society, socialist the building of cause common in the males of comrades true being women, Non-working ‘wives’ were also expected to be useful for the society – their status Generally, the sections dedicated to fashion seem to convey the message that Soviet conveymessage that fashion the seem to to dedicated sections the Generally, obshchestvennitsa - 36 - - movement, which promoted the very the promoted which movement, CEU eTD Collection of commanders’ wives, encouraginghuge K.E. USSR the wassaid Voroshilov movement the becarefully Marshal to observing and guiding thateven by canbe that made fact proved also the progress by the youngthe state demonstrate movement: “[a] commander’s wife, issues. towards naturally inclined taking careof all child-related 35, p. 7) Thisissue 1936, (“Rabotnitsa”, carecenters. child show initiative inarranging expectedto also statementissue Women 35,p.7) 1936, were outstanding performed(“Rabotnitsa”, bywomen”. work was not even groups participants of – thousand directsuchtalent arethemodestfiguresthese revealing questioned and talent groups, headsamateur 20 headsthousand clubs,600 of political of different since women in 1.5 political 1thousand workers Redthe librarians, teachers, “2thousand army…” were supposeddescribed as progressive. “Commanders’ wives comprise a huge army cultural of and to beliterature,(“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, issue 35, p. 6) This sentence seem presumeto that if even women read newspapers,Lenin’sliterature, Stalin’s and works”. newspapers, “Sheand reads culturally”. and(“Rabotnitsa”,issue 1936, Commander’s 35,p.6) wife was “’grow’ supposed to politically especiallyin the Lenin’s Red army asitso-calledwork” was named “political-cultural by “There party.the isnosuch a place andwhere Stalin’s oneengagedin the get facilities or keep caserns decorate clean, either to options inthe army: cannotseveral had women So, army. the “help” works, to hands extra needed feelgovernment the Obviously initiative thehusbands. their “help” but serve to not army, the for society even work to them motivated of a canwoman be – commander’s them care clean? andkeep of andgardens, houses totake nature wife”. treesif the wives it freeforcommander’s can do is sinceitis presumedthatit in women’s obvious: why does the government need to employ people to keep caserns clean and plant The above mentioned assumption that the USSR of mentionedThe USSRof assumption above the that 1930-1950s neededwomen to Besides industrial in and farms,engaging the women production collective party - 37 - - CEU eTD Collection One of One of in articles the “Rabotnitsa” magazine isof 1936 called “Stalin’s Constitution and a special attitude. requiring group as a separate being are differentiated thatthey presumes fact women the are specially treated inThevery its constitution? women distinguish governmentworld they would haveenjoyed the opportunitiessame if asin the USSR. However, the in the nowhere since grateful claims especially be should women and Union, Soviet the as country thatlucky because havelive happy theyweresogenuinely in achanceto to sucha great men and1936. Besides, the ruling ideology was forward toclaimput Sovietcitizens that shouldbe womenConstitution in is issue both “Krest’ianka”quoted every of magazines and “Rabotnitsa” of are fullyissue 3) Itis 1936, articlethe (“Rabotnitsa”, 36,p. quitenew notablethat122of the life.” political and public, equal,cultural, state, economic, of spheres all in men with rights equal whynation-state. does The articleitopportunities since themain getpeople task was to in willingly work name the the of 122specifically of the and rights 1936equal had USSR the in citizens Constitution the all that assumption the on based nation states: “A woman in the USSR has (“Rabotnitsa”,issue 1936, 35,p.14) moods.” such eliminate We, surely, [...] illiteracy their toreveal are afraid some inparticipate publiclife.However, eventhe not those day. whowould ones do I know expected to do – in the name of the state. “The number of women-activists is growing each this statement; lifeitwas keepoutof not unthinkable arguewith quite to try testify andstruggle” that to women wereissue and7) The phrases like“awife 1936, (“Rabotnitsa”, will 35,p. commander’s cannot simply supposed for acommander’swork wife Weproperly need inthe army.to it.” just organize to bemotherland, keepout lifeof and mighty training our of Red Army. Thereis […] plenty of willing to and lifekeep will of his battle not out great of andstruggle do comrade, cannot our whatever they were To make people continue ‘building socialism’ the state needed to form a united - 38 - - CEU eTD Collection this situation as a double burden, they feel rather honored to be worker to aresponsible honored feel burden,rather they adouble thisas situation them: to be a full-time workerfunctions and a mother/wife in such at a honortheway same andthat attention”. time. women Instead (“Krest’ianka”, become of by socialistsurrounded women havechildren are rights, In our and state away. nowpassed perceiving eager issue No.to 5, performp. 6) It isnow live inanew a work when aslaveThe times deprived and way.woman was of civil quite both clear thatroles the ideology expected6-7) “The 5,p. also Asia issueNo. Middle women of argues, magazines” (“Krest’ianka”, from articlewomen’s socialist “Through pagesof the 58) The (Tupitsyn 1994: construction”. of of weapons struggle and class the the is of one stated, “IntheUSSRphotography towards the necessary for the party way’. Furthermore, in journal the Furthermore, party way’. for the necessary the towards under‘educatingthat incommunist way’ he means‘ideologically influencing and directing own, necessary for the party language”. (“Krest’ianka”, issue No. 5, p. 6) It is quite obvious weapon with help the which of party the hourly daily and to speaks workingthe classinits is media,“The themost Stalin printed teaches us,- communism.” powerful -comrade of victory the for fight to them organize to way, communist the in class working the 7) Itsays,“The is Soviet press means in a very party hands powerful the educate our of to in the article “Through pagesthe of magazines”women’s issue(“Krest’ianka”, 5, p.6- No. her talents”. (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, issue 36, p. 4) Constitution fully reflects Stalin’s care of a woman,Stalin’s4) “Theissuep. great 1936, 36, rights whole (“Rabotnitsa”, to the world”. her strengths, skills, these and declares realization Constitution Stalin’s And value. and of honor, rights, her obtained has woman a history mankind’s in the time first the for country inour “Only claims, Constitution new the of discussion tothe Thisdedicated group. article asaseparate distinguished are constitution abovementioned in the women that presumes heading a such Woman”, The importance of the printed media in influencing the public is explicitly expressed explicitly is public the in influencing media printed the of importance The - 39 - - Sovetskoe Foto Sovetskoe it is it CEU eTD Collection a strong Soviet nation. Soviet a strong the Stakhanovite movement, tojoin their efforts with men in the common cause buildingof join to even alot, work to expected were they in them, trust state’s the justify and equality workforce, thus implicitly showing that how right it was of them to let women work. in it input and duetowomen’swas invaluable the claimedthateconomic only sector, within several years – the governmentprovided figures proving made the progress in the hadachieved country demonstratethe progress the needed to state working,keep on the to women further encourage To future. happy the theway to on altogether were they that disregardingbuild backgroundsto cultural believe wasattempting nation amade to unified government Soviet the Thus, women. Russian as rights same the enjoy to started joiningAsianMiddle life. SovietUnion, after women European the culture So, andway of mostly unify citizens,aimed standardscharacteristic the of tothe to Soviet according all Muslims polygamyand supported before according USSR, the Sovietthe government traditions in most women.While populationthe relation of oftheseto countries were their for distinguished particularly were Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, traditions especiallyAsian like women.and concerning customs, countries, TheMiddle subjected to the communistideology, saw their position as a sacred role of being a woman. illusion ideology them into(Althusseras being ‘subjects’. 1971)Sovietturns women, asan this sees theory the beings, autonomous and free as see themselves who individuals ideology transforms also life, of everyday in rituals) the practices (or and represented to transform real relations intoimaginary ones. Functioning through systems and structures, ideology framework, Within serves of idealwoman. Althusserian an theoretical Soviet an leading a country to the bright future of communism and an ideal mother/wife - the symbol Thus, since the state claimed that women were equal with men, to achieve this men, equal women claimed to with were that Thus, sincethestate The SovietUnion consisted of 15 republics, eachof hadthem its particular - 40 - - CEU eTD Collection (Buckley 1992: 226) models.” positive role created they also growth, economic to women catered working confident of images whilst Nevertheless, socialism. of end distant the suit to economy an building practical means of tothe subordinate wasthus liberation goal women’s of normative jobs. The totake women required of socialism construction thatthe assertion in bythe wasmany liberation forcewritings women’s was replaced labour to essential in the participation theme the that By 1930s, later. bethe modified may recommendations modelledideal the attitude of ‘love, honourandobedience’.” 2001:194) (Reid they this time: at cult Stalin the of escalation with the connected wereclosely womanhood to those of industrialisation. The prevalence of female protagonists and the ideal of needs women’s of sacrifice the legitimate and state Stalinist the society to of subjection the naturalise and‘the people’a “drawing gender hierarchy whole,as codes to on conventional for stand femaleimagesto means which created numerous of wereone magazines women’s in the created images rule. The Stalin the under society in Soviet the subordination and of relationships domination articulated in articles magazine the photography and through imagescreated of socialism, women state the forunder women available “The Stalin years provide an apt illustration of illustration“Theyears an of Stalin provide how apt original the spiritof Even though Sovietthe governmentproclaimed newopportunities and public roles - 41 - - CEU eTD Collection expansion expansion maternity of day hospitals, nurseries, and enforcementlegal of kindergartens, prohibition,increasematerial tomothers of andsupport families having children, several “Abortion on newdecree the and Constitution new the of discussion tothe dedicated particular. in law, family new the of introduction and in general, have, they life the for Stalin’ ‘thank inwhich toarticles women is dedicated section second listeners.The perform women as and citizens, toits ‘speaks’ thestate articles these In articles. in magazines’ law family the new the and Constitution new the of discussions the with deals section first the sections: example) to asan 1953 taken 1936 and “Krest’ianka” of magazinesand women’s (“Rabotnitsa” prove women that it orstate? –women interest inwhose wasReproduction: in their interest. The paragraph by introduced government. the consists policy such reproductive to credence extra securing voices, thus women’s through of two furtherpropaganda transmit to wereemployed ‘Thankyoushow the that Stalin’ articles the state and, in reality, turnedreproduction was claimed outto be in women’s interest but, into fact, was politicallybe important tonot always in women’swomen’s interest. in magazines Secondly, represented mothers as women of images the therefore I and willservednation-building, to key as symbols of the nation’s future. Firstly, I will explain how Chapter 2. The meaning ofbeing a mother and a wife inthe This willchapter reproductivethe argue that policy of in1930-1950s theUSSRwas Most of Most of articlesthe magazines inboth (“Rabotnitsa”, “Krest’ianka”) of 1936 are Stalin’s Constitution andthenew family law how in This section issue will was represented of the reproduction deal with Soviet Union during the Stalin era - 42 - - CEU eTD Collection dealing with a specificissue: dealing with children. eventhat before bows children,Stalin females and, consequently, giving who are birth to be kneelingflowers. This seems say asmallwith abunchtrying girl of before picture to Stalin depicts which article heading of abovethe the located picture the with reinforced protection as in USSR”.(“Krest’ianka”,the 1936,issueThis is 20, p.1) statement responsibility new abirthandof giving citizens, educating suchrespect enjoys andlegal important an such bears which citizen, a and mother a as woman, a world the in “in beenamong already people, none that supported Soviet the widely and of countries the issueBefore1936, is citing itnew 20,p.1) the decree, decreehad the that mentioned payingprosecution for not and some in alimony, law”. changes divorce the (“Krest’ianka”, country. The workers of our great country, and especially women, should make every effort “The title of the mother, the educator of a new generation is the most honorable title in our The article dedicated to the discussion of the new decree ends with the statement, the endswith decree new the of discussion tothe dedicated The article 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. each intosubsections, eight family isdivided the concerning The new decree the divorcethe law. (“Krest’ianka”, 1936,issue 20,p.2-5) Enforcementlegal of prosecution for not paying alimony and changes some in above; mentioned activities the of Financing Changes in management; kindergartens’ Expansion of kindergartens; Expansion of day nurseries; hospitals; maternity of Expansion having several children; in from material Increase tomotherssupport and government the families Abortion prohibition; - 43 - - CEU eTD Collection its possible consequences.” (Heitlinger1979: 126) Another argument ran, “... the unstable ran, “... the argument Another (Heitlinger1979: 126) its consequences.” possible protect hadwomennow that considered from operation itself the state so dangerous was to The health. a woman’s to danger the – legalized been originally had abortion which family.the “The prohibition of inabortion wasjustified1936 on samethe grounds on ideology was adopted to justify the reversal in the policy concerning abortion, divorce and be law contradictory. rather abortions new in1920,the the to However, seemed 1936 legalizingmotherAfter of (Evans 1981:766) eight”. asthefuture must betreasured bold parachute jumper a worker, atextile be notonly must as treasured same “Every girls mothers time: atthe and or an engineer – but tobe Women workers in massmedia.were encouraged was beingas the especially extolled, a future mother. The rather sharplywhich policy with Sovietthe contrasted in1920-s.Motherhood proclaimed mother of one child publicwhile advocating sphere, on pro-family other the astrong agenda and pro-natalist in workplace and the it sexual equality glorified messages: onehand the on contradictory no. 20-1, 1936,pp. 12-13; no. 18,1936, pp.12-13). (Buckley 1989: 131) –itis“Motherhood itis no. 17,1936,pp.4-6; a specialfeeling, (“Rabotnitsa”, wonderful!” live”,“Every mustillness”, “Letchildren havea woman “Tobe child”, a happy mother”, “Rabotnitsa” of 1936 speak for themselves: “The tragedy of my life”, “Abortion brings in articles the of names The motherhood. of joys the recount or abortions of horrors dedicated tothe issues related to family,divorce, children, abortion. Many of them describe 2/3 are number of articles about of a conclusion total the that to I came of magazines 1936, (Buckleynotshouldbe averted.” 1989:131)Having 20issuesofwomen’s examined was asalaw. tobe described asasocial treated supposed that responsibility “Motherhood sounds statementin as rather a suggestion, framework of the reality Sovietthe itwas issue 6) Although this practice”.put 20,p. (“Krest’ianka”, lawinto 1936, thisto wonderful Starting from Startingfrom mid the have regime1930-s Soviet to seems been sending rather - 44 - - CEU eTD Collection Great changesGreat in agriculturebrought in andindustry disruption life and daily caused a responsibility than rather hardships andproblems”.(Buckley 1989: 133) largefree. “The general message normalfamilies werequite joy wasthat brought and and 1989: 130)Generally,largefamilies undersocialismbe tended portrayed to as problem- (Buckley fear, theircounterparts.” insecurities to mothers capitalist unlike socialist hadno month’. homes, a kindergartens ofmaternity With provision growing help, and financial and wasincreasing year,in prosperity of ‘the inevery population working the every was being prohibited only now ‘exceptional improvements in well-being’ had taken place Abortion different’. ‘entirely was situation the state, Soviet in the but abort to opportunity large deniedfamilies wereunhappyfamilies. state The oppressive bourgeois since women the necessity a abortion made exploitation and unemployment capitalism, Under systems. economic in different meaning different avery carried abortion of prohibition the wasthat 1930s the of characteristic “An argument society. inacapitalist family large society, since the meaning of having many a Theimagechildren. of a largelarge family had specific significance for the Soviet family in the USSR was families i.e.families, large issue tothe of built dedicated number find of we will articles agreat on the contrast with a longer conditionednothese abortion was notnecessary”.130) obtained, (Buckley1989: (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, p.7)In no.20-1, such circumstances abortion was justified;butsince women to performof the rights accorded theirto them level from of women made pre-revolutionary the ithard forwomenepoch’ makefull useto by the Soviet duties state. Thereforeinbackwardness’ after fivethe CivilWar years the combined cultural ‘the inadequate with as it was citizenshard at thatcircumstances of 1920 hadjustified the provision facilities;of abortion ‘economic time for and mothers ‘without fear of the future’ At the same time there were some practical reasons for praising the family in 1930s. for praising the reasons practical weresome same Atthe there time and“Krest’ianka”, “Rabotnitsa” both in articles the topics of atthe look If wehavea - 45 - - CEU eTD Collection up your children…” (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, issue 25, p. 16) Such words prove that in that prove the Suchwords issue25, p. 16) 1936, your (“Rabotnitsa”, up children…” Therefore, you willhave frequentguests. Soviet activists willcontrol take how youof bring upbringing your ischildren of not onlyyour personal common isthis affair: our business. that attention pay please, mothers, “Comrade floor: the takes meeting a chairman of the that bright andjoyful in motherhood my country is.” (“Rabotnitsa”,issue 1936, 25,p.15)After health are protected by the whole country, by the party, by Stalin himself. Iam happy! How secure about my children,my work I achieved success: after being a simple coil winder I became ashift worker. Ifeel in Even valuable. life my I makes It feel work. my with interfere not does “Motherhood claims that they are precious woman 1936,issue being15)Another pleasurethe of 25,p. amother”.(“Rabotnitsa”, not out found have I now But onlymother. a being of burdens only knew I “Before, says for mothers me: their life, formanygovernment children. giving affordhaving of theman the to One opportunity their and twelve children.All of them extol ideathe of havingfamily, alarge they glorify the 25, p.15-16) provides an meetingexamplefamilies of publicthe of having seven, eight, continue propaganda effectively on a ‘fertilechanneling tohave ground’ largefamilies. circumstances government neededcould the they inwhichpeoplethat felt families, created havingfrom (Buckley Therefore, and surrounding chaos.” 1989: 129) aretreat security, the unleashed andTerror ahaven madefamily arrests purges. bythesecretpolice of protection mass of a time at circle intimate a ‘safe’ offered also unit family the of privacy The many. by familiesemotional support provided ata time of to waswelcome social rapid change to attempts made fines newdiscipline and and forintroduced late beingthis “The work-force absent. turn, its in government, The many. to difficulties some caused conditions start living tofactories, this were toinchanging. new attached People dormitories were structures social towns, into weremigrating peasants Since feeling of uncertainty. The article called “Large Families Obtain State Support” (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, issue (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, Support” “Large Obtain Families State The called article - 46 - - CEU eTD Collection allows combining full-time employment, public work andallowsfull-time combining public life. private employment, (“Rabotnitsa”, 1936, work issue(“Rabotnitsa”,It is 1936, 30,p.9) alsoclaimed only family that Soviettypethe of Charter in –the freedof Stalinmankind”. the clearly greatConstitution stated the […] Thefoundation of Soviet familythe is actual, an full equality of whichiswomen family. a of type history human the to unknown new, “a as characterized even is family shouldbe strictly controlled by public.”(“Rabotnitsa”,the 1936,issue 26,p.16)The Soviet of Accomplishment plan the community construction activists. maternity hospitals of community.the Especially great help should be provided by council members and hospitals institutions […]Womenhelpand need expansion, child care etc. special of and maternity prohibition, abortion decree concerning government such careisthe example of brightest The a whole. as country the and government the party, the by set is which care task important of hermost amother, is becomes baby the she when women, especially of Care being. human a of care than important so nothing is there country our “In claims of fitsissue frameworks theory.(“Rabotnitsa”, inthe 29,p.16)alsoPateman’s 1936, It mutually halves dependent of story”.the (seePateman 1988) (Yuval-Davis 1998:24) both is without sphere, andsimilarly,meaningof misinterpreted original the contract the inbeand“theunderstood fullythe cannot publicrealm claims absenceof private the that Pateman’swhich theory sexual contractof themodel dividechallenges public/private of affair tobe controlled by the government and community members as well. issue ofhow many children a family ishave planning to wasnot aprivate business but the People were notsupposed to have secrets from other members of the Soviet society, and the Family life was notconsidered a private issue,it was approached as a part of the public life. SovietUnion in publicthe andprivatedomains merged of institute family.the Sovietthe The article called “Building of Maternityfits in issueconsidered well aprivate family life wasnot that The statement Hospitals – Under Social Control!” - 47 - - CEU eTD Collection of Family”runs, “Ourof “Soviet articlegoal publicsphere,the the common issuefamily”. theSovietfamilywas 1936, 30,p.10)Since apart considered (“Rabotnitsa”, Soviet the strengthen and simultaneously society socialist of the aworker full memberand great care for a mother, a child, and a Soviet family. A woman gets full opportunity to be a women.“Thelatest law concerning the prohibition isof abortion distinguishedfor Stalin’s non-working wives. whilebe was work’ ‘public ‘a duty to citizen’,proclaimed sacred every of Soviet especially be paidfor, supposed to with was ‘employment’ that and‘public work’, difference the Union in itbadly neededwas 1930s, hands’which ‘free meantunder ‘employment’ were issuewell 30,p.10)This statement with corresponds in situation the which Sovietthe This is a family of the commander. It is inher arms. a daughter young and woman, a military officer, table:the a at very people three cozy in the room, all over the place are There table-cloth. lamp snow-white the on bright is a under A dinner tasty bookcase… one can large a cupboard, a wooden sofa, acomfortable “A life.apartment, cozy private public and character’s the mainly deals with the article career, herprofessional of describing instead became a commander of the Red Army. Her husband is a military officer as well. However, surroundings and a family. One of the articles tells us aboutmen, accomplishments either of inevitablywomen houseor isadescription there of a woman who at 25 years old frowned uponbecause itis ‘selfish’”.(Heitlinger 1979:129) is usually childlessness Voluntary society. to obligation her also but desire, ‘natural’ her only not fulfilling is children rearing and bearing a woman view, official the “In […] “Thus, a‘woman’s to choose’ righthas been not as accepted policy in the SovietUnion…” 1936,issuep. 10) 30, family (“Rabotnitsa”, Stalin of era”. great strengthen the socialist the The is Constitution beStalin tothedocumentproclaimed has finally freed which Even if articles of both magazines deal with the topics of professional - 48 - - is to further CEU eTD Collection lying in more needforthe rural inworkers difference in the length beforemonth leave after givingbirth. wasonemonth andone for Thegrounds such a of maternity (or women peasant for workers: leaveswomen urban for than less between urban and inbe was women However, rural surroundings freefrom work timecould the during which rural workers seem tomonthschild andtwo it, after while woman’s salary preserving allthis time.during be Bolshevik’s program to free a woman from workmother andahousewife. two months before givingthe woman’s professional accomplishments, the article gives examples of howa good shebirth is a to a feel a caringfemalehand.” 1936,issue31,p. 21) Thus, (“Rabotnitsa”, instead of describing beside her, reading a book – such a picture becomes a sort of symbolic since it illustrates a illustrates it since symbolic of sort a becomes picture a such – book a reading her, beside depicts a happy family: a woman of about 45 years old,it continued using a cult of familysewing, to inspire women to reproduce more. and two children dozens million II on had needed grounds of the diedandthat ‘newpeople people’, state the sitting policy which introduced inwas mid 1930sand morewas even reinforced after World War justify itshad factthe governmentpro-natalistmagazines. continuous the to that Dueto changesnosignificant years are passed, there 20 although admitalmost that, we willhave 1953, to in the topics discussedgovernment. special professional be andeducation training supposed to coveredby which were the and the shouldfactor alsobe considered in –women engaged collective farms almostnot need did way women are represented in these two From the very first years of its existence the Soviet government started the to realize started government Soviet the existence its years of first very From the One of in pictures the “Krest’ianka” magazine of 3, 1953, 1953 (issue No. p. 27) If have atthe we a look articles andin images “Rabotnitsa” and of “Krest’ianka” - 49 - - kolkhoz (collective farm). Besides, another Besides, farm). (collective kolkhoznitsi) the maternity CEU eTD Collection picture of picture of Efrosin’ya.have does do However, this picture not with anything her in to work is a there text, the Below labor. collective of field the in Sauh Efrosin’ya of achievements with deals article the Generally, summer. the during times two lint with fields the Sauh. The article tells us the story that she was the firstEfrosin’ya about of example,one children articles the narrates For to upbringing. dedicated to introduce the system of seeding articles andpictures of findanumber wewill magazine content, atthe we have alook passed). Themessage of this picture seems soundto as “Children are our future”. Indeed, if issuemagazine of 1936, 33,which a also depicts itschild cover,on asif years17 hadnot of the “Krest’ianka” magazine of 1953 is almost identical with the cover of “Rabotntsa” she – wastobemother”. “working the requirement However, besidesbeing ideal an mother, awoman wassupposed meet importantto another children. the beside be there, is to who mother is the it important, very not is sphere This brings conclusion ustothe father‘absent’ the that is hispresence since inprivate the mentioned in the text below the pictures, however, not explicitly represented in the pictures. and implied family.is tothis undoubtedly He dedicated none pictures of three the in is isfather father? depicted where The the aquestion arises: of period time. However, that for symbolic became family happy big a such of image The Motherhood. of Glory mentionedMarfa inthetextthat Andreevna Deeva was awardedwith Ordersof three the itis tohave ninewonderful andchildren’, that others shouldfollow the example.is It be wonderful seems ‘how to of text the The message living her. son are with eldest for the hasmother)brought nine but upand alargefamily children,andall them educated – she of doing typically likewomen’s work sewing. knitting or typical Sovietfamily: awoman spending her eveningsathome, educating childrenand The cover of The cover of issue 5,1953depictsthe an No. infantin standing his crib cover (The the of name is the (that Andreevna Marfa that says picture the below text The - 50 - - CEU eTD Collection child. herbe polite more with the Instead, anddedicate time child. shouldhusband she to the message is awoman that not arguewithshould herhusband, thus setting abad example to definitely convey aimed to a message towomen-readers of magazine.the The supposed is magazine, is in section humor’, the way called the of ‘page this “Consequence”. This – second one the saysabove –“Cause”, picture first Thesign the above capricious!” total mess. Thesignunder says: second the picture “Iunderstand can’t whymychild isso shehelpless islookinghergesture, childlyingon at floor,the crying,being room the in scene quarreling. the second The scene depicts of her woman parents ina hands with adinner, standing,lunch or issupposedly was servinghima achild and watching the while is woman the while table the at sitting is who husband her with quarrels woman a them of family. One of the caricatures in the issue No. 7 of the magazine features two scenes: in one 1953) Itis ratherobvious for readerthatwomen the heldare order for the in responsible the 6, inureorder andneatness” (issue No. “How to children to 4,1953), politeness” (issueNo. how makeread or to childrenbe ofsuch Theexamples polite. “Developing include: articles books to which on give recommendations section of the Thearticles home. them at educate aim of this section is to give advice toideally of several children,women whose primarily responsibility is educateto children at home. how they shouldthe state treat which claimedtheir tochildrenroles at the samebe time: beto a full-time workerdoing striving maketo new records for the sake of its andbest take care perform two to Union women were expected in idea Soviet the the that supports This article of its citizens, and to ideal and an idealworker mother is united,be this the way shouldeach woman liveherlife. a mother, an following: be the to seems symbiosis interesting an such of message The her. to book the collective farm. In the picture she is depicted sitting with her daughter and reading a In each issue of the magazine there is a section called “Talks with mothers”. The with called“Talks is there a section issueIn magazine of the each - 51 - - CEU eTD Collection major decisions being made in the country become hadfinally thatwomen made country on grounds in the beingmajorthe decisions additionalstatements magazinescredibility. werepositioned Both inform to women about importance such for claimsin when mouths’ the ofwomen,it are‘put such gives for thearmy.population male moreimportantly, reproduce to in but, not thearmy really serve woman’ to was Constitution under “all USSR citizens”–“honorable sons”,and ‘honorable the duty a of new the in indeed the 132of article who wasmeant clearly illustrates p. 4)This quote provided honorable with an serveduty in army”.to (“Krest’ianka”,1936,issue Red the 23, bringSoviet on inrealization sonswhocanbelater woman isto upworthy article of this Workers’ and Peasants’ Red army is an honorable duty of all USSR citizens”. The task of a in“Military the service new Constitution: article the the 132of to particular attention reproducers ofnation,“Each working washighly and thisrole the praised: woman pays morepurely as women but equal not argument that as perceived were producers enough. well responsibilities her perform not did mother his/her it presumedthat was ifachilddidnotsucceedinstudies, shoulders.woman’s Therefore, presence is very not as important responsibilitythe of educating children was laid on butmostdepicted is his probably he implied.However, Again,disapproval.father isnot at with comer the –look a sister, andabrother family mother, memberof the – every regimeSoviet badly shameful studying and rather was highly irresponsible, considered ‘Fail’his face isanother his hands, sadbecausehemark.Since in expression rather got the is a in depicts picture in hisboy, with standing of who schoolbag forefront picture the the responsibility isof women famousthe by picture F. Reshetnikov called “Fail Again”. The The fact that such messages are stated is in of suchmessages magazines particular The factthat arestated women’s The issue in numerous highlighted periodarticles quite complements of that the Another example proving the that education of ischildren theprimarily - 52 - - CEU eTD Collection articles in women’s magazines of the 1930-1950s were indeed entitled “Thank you great entitled “Thank were indeed in magazinesof 1930-1950s articlesthe women’s lawmagazines prohibiting wasdifferent, abortions the publishedpositive responses, only thankStalin women Soviet part. central in nationparticipate in buildingplay positioneda whichwomen processof the to were come to help women to raise will citizen thatevery phrase the propaganda. Besides, state inchanneling efficienttool the children proves that magazinethe whole society “Krest’ianka”,was expected‘Krest’ianka’”. (“Krest’ianka”, 1936, issue 29, p. 5) Hence, it appearsto quite obvious that the magazine the of subscriber aregular become femaleworker farm collective every along with otherthat secureso andwill of magazine, the holdreadings oral will and “Krest’ianka” magazine means of agitation,as comrade was manner same in the careof them take We will as awhole. country andthe farm Stalin collective positioned takes in moreof and production publicher proficiency, actively life to even a participate becare an of us. farm bring upherchildren,worker-mother study, heran give opportunity to raise level the For that,a collective help to possible everything do will we children, and women of law Stalins’ we will“Implementing abortions: prohibiting agitatelaw new the with connected be logically to positioned for subscription Stakhanovite in worker her field.” work (“Krest’ianka”, 1936,issue 28,p.18)for the andbecome a better work to worker female farm collective every helps magazine implementation the forfor thestruggle […] female workers of party’s the decisions. farm collective organizes “’Krest’ianka’ country. inthe main events be awareof were to they of in therefore activities, sorts all fully engaged society of Soviet the equal citizens Although, in reality, the reaction to the new Constitution and particularly to the new the to particularly and Constitution new the to reaction the in reality, Although, The right to equally asmenThe to was bynewConstitution work right guaranteed the - 53 - - CEU eTD Collection issue 20,p.9)This illustrative example assumptionthe supports made earlierin firstthe 1936, (“Krest’ianka”, work.” farms’ and collective inpublic evenparticipate moreactively maternalinterests, leaves, family protection – allthese give us, women, an opportunity to ideally suits the contentdiscussedlaw draft the concerning abortion and family prohibition protection. law This of the new Constitution.And State we will protection justify theof mother’strustwomen question is in father’slaw. care.Suchattitude everyarticle new the with obvious of paid and to the child’sa approached womanConstitution new the elaborating when in Stalin “Comrade Stalin’s protection: family Constitution. Recentlyissue law with new 20,p.9)deals of discussion the abortion concerning the and prohibition we have (“Krest’ianka”, 1936, theTrust”. Justify “WeWill article called of 1936, an “Krest’ianka” state’sprovision of work,women women opportunity with the to justify were expectedto the trust Therefore, the logic was that sincein the state was so progressive and farsighted regarding the them, i.e. and material position. though “Krest’ianka” of1936women improvements unbelievable for in thank Stalin their social working. issue“Rabotnitsa” inof and Practically magazines articles. magazines’ the every In onemouths’ of women, the government attempted to add extra credencewhat to was said in the of theConstitution”. 1936,issue (“Rabotnitsa”, 29,p.8) Thus, by‘putting intowords such issuesand Stalin comrade himself byincludingpay article awoman aspecial about in the of the party,government much Soviet in the our careandattention advance.knew opinion So our magazineeach ofus,leaders, composing to when talked the Constitution, party the and government if ofthe Constitution class,as “The thoughts working listsall demandsand Proposed the in is followingexpressed “Rabotnitsa” the magazines terms, andusually “Krest’ianka” Stalin’. The feedback of women to the new Constitution provided in every issue of the both Stalin’s Constitution is claimed to provide women with the opportunity Stalin’s provide work. with isclaimed Constitution the to women opportunity to - 54 - - CEU eTD Collection evil…All inwomen the USSRunderstand that the law is aimed to protect their health since the greatest are because abortions abortions newlawprohibiting the greet child. They anda amother careabout Stalin’s family expresses the which newon decree the about be arehappy number Union Soviet of alivethe “Agreat now’. women of isitwonderful to (Buckley 1989: 123) joy of lines.when p.I readthese “Krest’ianka”, (“Rabotnitsa” and 14,1936, no. 14) read the draft of the new constitution, written by our own Stalin. I experience such a feeling Woman is now an equal membergave women economic independence, having her raised dignity inaccessibleheights. to of socialist society.my earlier life was someYou sort ofespecially nightmare. Soviet me thatpower to seems now “It paragraphwas: future. Atypical with abright skilled workers to and feelthe party of thisLenin and Stalinwhen you Stalin’swhich illustrate how have policies lives changedtheir from citizensbeing illiterate (Chatterjee 2001:63) paternal of champion women’s andmobility”. soleof theirrights, guarantor the upward as the dictator imagingthe of public the with in with consonance was credited Stalin was relationship that bound them to Stalin. […] The extensive concern for women’s welfare that and prefixed Stalin’s name with the adjective the with name Stalin’s prefixed and addressed Stalin with correspondents The theheroines. Soviet familiar and Stalin between relationship formsymbolic this of ‘you’, farms. collective in or production industrial in either them engage to time ‘free’ more much with women that chapter main of provideone offamilywas the the to objectives 1930-1950-s of policy The general message that such articles seem to be trying to convey is“How convey be to trying to seem such articles that message general The The articles aimed to glorify Stalin often consist of short biographies of women “The extensive ‘thank you Stalin’ literature in 1930sexemplified literature emergedthat the “The ‘thankyou extensive Stalin’ - 55 - - rodnoi ty , rather than the more formal than , rather the (one’s own) to underscore the familial the underscore to own) (one’s vy , ‘thou’ CEU eTD Collection However, the expressed opinion is distinguished for beingHowever, expressed the is for – opinion quitedistinguished markedlyunanimous all express such ifSovietwomen were interviewed to and hadachance theira way opinion. as party needed women perform to tasks. those the therefore and educated, up, brought be reproduced, to was nation which defenseless The significancestill of party”.1989: 123) party the to unified (Buckley needed the great “Nevertheless line official the of 1930sandthe 1940swas among work that women was lives”. […] of women’s difficulties non-existent the “to attention officially attract liberation. Besides, the woman question was claimed to have been solved, so they could not very same that promote to government ask the not they could Therefore, liberation. their andhelpedfurther to cult”.the (Buckley 1989: 123) theme of the liberation reality since the ‘Thankyou played Stalin’ literature asignificantrole in “Thepropaganda. of women was harnessed However,theseheroic life 1989: 123) were anintegrant on glosses of part political Soviet to the cause of Stalin’s new progressiveness “justtrue, aboutthe aswereremarks (Buckley Constitution”. of personality and terror bloody purges. Claims cult of happiness unbelievable farfromwere actually to being women unanimously express theirhappiness about recentlythe law. introduced in women of from which newConstitution articles the to the so-calledSoviet feedback the is 1936,p.4)Such land”.(”Rabotnitsa”, wonderful native statement atypical of example generation theof our country with honorhealthy –adecent and ‘herculeses’ to give perform be shouldthis role Every ready to future. i.e. mother our conscious generation, agreat future upon children,“are army’ ‘labor to raiseour our constitute but called only Stalin,half not make population,womenthe inourcountry and,accordingto upa of To conclude, articles the magazines of both the of in1936 and1953areconstructed Thus, as it was shown above, women were forced into a position to thank Stalin for madein of the were context the suchstatements forget that not weshould However, - 56 - - CEU eTD Collection employment”. (Davies 2001:92) paid full-time in involved also often now she was that fact the despite housework, wifethe should on take bulkof the for responsibility the shopping, childcareand deal becausethat of assumption matters enduring to were simply the domestic obliged with very important responsibilityto willingly perform both functions of raisingwere ready they that means which literally as Constitution”, in women Stalin’s the rendered to a committed workerof anda newa mother generation who is “We justify thestatement: faith will the highlights bearingarticle almost every Besides, private. the a of Soviet citizens.women, as distinguished from men,“Women were to perform duties and that andpublic spheres, theprivate between idea division of backtothe the brings us relevant to both the public and amother’ and ‘asacitizen expression mothers. The and ascitizens themselves realize issuingStalinfor law such abortionsa wonderful prohibiting andgivinga chance to them thank women, peasant ordinary to departments factory of heads from starting women, - 57 - - CEU eTD Collection subordination in the Soviet society rule. Stalin in society the under Soviet the subordination and of relationships domination articulated in articles magazine the photography and through imagescreated of socialism, women state the forunder women available nation. Soviet a strong the Stakhanovite movement, tojoin their efforts with men in the common cause buildingof join to even alot, work to expected were they in them, trust state’s the justify and equality 29) collectivity’sidentity and honour, both personally and collectively”. (Yuval-Davis 1998: the of bearers symbolic asthe constructed are as they representation’, of ‘burden the carry was inexemplified bythe the women. position progress “Women areoften to required nation whole the by made progress the Thus, nation. the for progress of markers symbolic 1930sthrough the 1950s. the from process role inthenation-building of women’s the from perspective approached the is by numerousof studied this scholars, work this problem thethat was significance work. 1953, themarking ends Stalin’sthe of policy, reproductive issues other among in raised this Ianalyzedpurpose, issues magazines of “Rabotnitsa” 40 the of and “Krest’ianka” 1936 and Sovietthe woman Nation-buildingwere key Sovietinthe to Union of 1930-1950s. Forthat Even though Even though Sovietthe governmentproclaimed newopportunities and public roles achieve this men, equal women claimed to with were that Thus, sincethestate wereusedas women Sovietshowing to that dedicated was Chapter The First been already has Union Soviet the in women of position the of issue the Although The addressedthethesis issuethatpolicy concerning women and representation of Conclusion - 58 - - CEU eTD Collection those tasks. those perform to neededwomen theparty therefore and educated, up, brought bereproduced, needed whichwasto defenselessnation unified the party”. 123) Theparty (Buckley 1989: 1930sandthe work among 1940swasthat significance women was still great of the to of line official the “Nevertheless now’. be alive is to it wonderful “How is convey to trying policy introduced by reproductive credencetothe securing extra thus women’s voices, through propaganda the government. The general ‘Thankthat you Stalin’ articlesin magazineswomen’s further were employed transmit to message that such articles seem to samethe time mothers at be and in being media. especially tobe Women mass extolled, the workers were encouraged responsibility (Buckley than hardships and was rather problems”. 1989: 133)Motherhood normallarge quite message “The joy families were general was and brought that and during the Stalin’s aquite rule intense motherhood cultof was developed. has The shownthat future. Chapter symbols nation’s of servedthe magazines women’s as in images represented of as mothers women the andtherefore nation-building, was key to obedience’.” 2001:194) (Reid of and Stalinthe honour at this cultof theidealattitude they modelled time: ‘love, andideal with escalation were closely the the female protagonists connected of womanhood of industrialisation. prevalence The those of to needs sacrificeof women’s the legitimate and Stalinist society state to the of subjection naturalise the to andhierarchy gender codes female tostandfor ‘thepeople’ asawhole, “drawingon conventional created images The “Sovietsection women thank Stalin” is importancesignificantof since itshows Large families undersocialism tended tobeportrayed asproblem-free anddesirable. The the reproductiveSecond Chapterarguedthat in policy 1930-1950s theof USSR means numerous which of were in one magazines women’s the created The images - 59 - - CEU eTD Collection responsibility for both professional spheresand domestic was never questioned in the Women’s comrade. a wife, andanenthusiastic a caringmother, worker, professional multiple roles socialist women had to fulfill. During the Soviet rule the ideal woman was a communist hadlittle countries (Occhipinti resemblancetheoretical with the work. 1996: 14) in feminism of practice real the that showed bloc socialist the in feminism of practice argumentwas achieved,the follow.ran, equality spheres the in would However, other sphere inpublic as full the equality assoon Thereupon, of capitalistproduction. relations work the of Marx andEngelsin which majorthe cause inequalityof gender as was defined back to traces Europe USSRandEastern in former feminism the foundation of theoretical The West. inthe feminism from differs significantly region inthis feminism of practice theory the isitconsiderand that and necessary USSR, to former the inEurope Eastern (Occhipinticommunist. 1996: 13) tendencysuch a that suggest theorists society. Some a better asa key to ispromoted children widely is a response raising domestic and sphere to return women’s when face situation the we These days Laurie Occhipinti in his article “Twosteps back?: Anti-Feminism into Eastern Europe”. socialistnotes movement”, ‘anti-feminist’ an termed been has what of development the noted has version, increasingbirthrate maximum the to the possible. part of preoccupiednow is with inRussia which policy pro-natalist thecontemporary way reflects thea in era Stalin’s the of policy backlashreproductive the hand, other the On countries. Soviet former against feminismit for background understanding against of ‘backlash’ gives so-called the in the all things There are at least two reasons why this work is significant for today. On the one hand, Eastern European feministsproblems out frequently Eastern European the with connected point inunderstandOcchipinti suggestsanti-feminism that to this tendency order towards Europe issues in Eastern gender “Nearly post-socialist considering every researcher - 60 - - CEU eTD Collection evidentobstacles perform to their in namethe duties of socialism in production, no were there that and men, with equal and free were women that was women’s of articles hardships or obstacles.” (Buckley 1989: 136)The generalmessage thatwefindin the Soviet womenhilt. the to werepraised and Mothers Heroine workers Femaleshock tracts. ideological were portrayed determination andbecame sexuality non-issues, keptoff politicalthe agendaand of out medals. motherhood self-mothers “Domestic andwives, awarded with preferably labour, as great achieversbe whileindustry, caring to home, war, they and force’ at were expected inagriculture, be a‘great to encouraged 1989:136)Women were replaced of (Buckley them”. analysis at home andfemalehave sinceitquestion was about roles to “Assertions presumed beensolved. at work, woman the concerning real no debate was there articles, the to according that, conclusion suffering no (Occhipinti 1996: 15) propaganda’. legacy, apartof of Communist Soviet ‘as with rest the was rejected feministmovementafter 1989.The concept of ‘women in emancipation’ socialist sensethe 1996: 15) (Occhipinti family’. ‘socialist the to responsibility woman’s a as media in the promoted propagandain and state inpopular belief.The principlehighly self-sacrifice of was not impossible to fulfill all those roles successfully. the collective good. (Occhipinti 1996: 14) Consequently for most women it was difficultif but of in satisfaction not and liberty’, measured‘individual Genderterms was equality of individualism,presume‘collectivism’inas it but was theWest, and‘social patriarchy’. media or by the state. The concept of women’s emancipation under Soviet rule did not Thus, havingThus, issues analyzed 40 magazines of women’s of 1930-1950s, Icanmake a Too many demands placed on women during the Soviet era resulted inmany Soviet the anti- resulted the Too era during placedonwomen demands The idealtraditional woman, throughout Russia, of a strong wasextended common - 61 - - CEU eTD Collection national army of workers in industry, agriculture and defense of the country. important part of (Aralovets,proletariat’. 1947,p.17)” (Buckley 137)Thus, women 1989: heldbewere to an the nation-buildingworking process women thedecisive ultimatetask of the workingand class is ‘to goalmouldpeasant out of become,the offemale ‘a real army which labourof the working reserve class, acting an against armywaswomen, the bourgeoisie’.of to He said thatform the reserve, a acting which under the periodcorrectside noted: policy by “In of workingsidethe working of that male class Literature enemieswith comrades. their common the struggle against women withclass and peasantis ablethe womento become, collectiveComradegreat body who could contributeand to economic Stalinmust growth of the country and participate armysees in an enormous of the contributeever-ready to to stateand the praiseto Stalin”. (Buckley 1989: 136) superwomen, Soviet “successful and problem-free istheimageof magazines of women’s Women’s issuesappearbeno to listthe on political Whatfindin of priorities. we thepages 136) full.” 1989: (Buckley the to be utilized to resource economicand demographic reproduction “In and and defense with smilingwomen enthusiasm sum,were an desire. Finally, women were viewed not as individuals needed to be asindividualsviewednot Finally, liberated, needed butasa were women to - 62 - - CEU eTD Collection Palgrave,pp. 2001, 89-110 Stallin’sin Russia, 1934-41”, Sisterhood, in Women intheStalinEra USA: The University of Michigan Press, 1992 in vol.no. 26, 4,1974, pp.540-67 Women intheStalinEra Era Magazine by B. Brewster, in Studies Russian Review Russian Women intheStalinEra , Melanie Ili , Vol. 28,No. 2. (Apr., 1976), pp.244-256 Davies, Sarah, “’A Mother’s Cares’: Women Workers and Popular Opinion in and Opinion Workers Popular Women Cares’: “’A Mother’s Davies, Sarah, Buckley,“Soviet Interpretations Mary, of in Woman the Question”, Conze, Susanne,“Women’s Work and Emancipation in Sovietthe Union, 1941-50”, Buckley, Mary, “The Untold Story of the Chatterjee, Choi, “Soviet Heroines and the Language of inChatterjee,Heroines of and Choi,“Soviet Language the Modernity, 1930-39”, Buckley,“Women ideology M., andin Union”, Mary Soviet the Buckley (ed.), Art”, Political Soviet in Early Women of Representation “The E., Victoria Bonnell, Bobroff,A., “The Bolsheviks and Working Women, 1905-20”,in Attwood, Lynne, “Women Workers at Play: the Portrayal of Leisure in the Althusser, Louis, 1969. “Ideology State”, the “Ideology and Louis, 1969. Althusser, Desfosses, Helen,“Demography, Ideology, andin Politics thein USSR”, Rabotnitsa Barbara Holland (ed.), Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985, pp. 24-54 þ (ed.), New York: (ed.), Palgrave,pp. 29-49 2001, , Vol. 50, No. 3. 50, , Vol. 1991),pp.(Jul., 267-288 Modern Literary Theory. in the First Two Decades of Soviet Power”, in , Melanie Ili , Melanie Ili , Melanie Ili Women in the Stalin Era Women intheStalin Bibliography þ þ (ed.), New Palgrave, York: (ed.), pp. 2001,49-69 (ed.), New Palgrave, York: (ed.), pp. 2001,151-173 þ (ed.), New York:Palgrave, (ed.), pp. 2001, 216-235 - 63 - - New York: New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971 Obshchestvennitsa , MelanieIli Lenin andPhilosophy Women intheStalin þ in 1930s”,in the (ed.), NewYork: (ed.), Soviet Studies translated Soviet Soviet , CEU eTD Collection Sage London, 2003 Norman K., Lincoln, Yvonna S.eds. 514-519 History, andChild”’, Mother of “In Defence the1936Decree Caseof the Crisis”, in 89 the U.S.S.R.”, in and Czechoslovakia”, Great Britan: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1979 1998 Sourcebook QualitativeResearchers, for Plessix Gray. –1 pp. 48-81 1930s”, in Hodder, Ian, “The Interpretation of Documents and Material Culture” inDenzin, and Material Culture” Documents of Ian,“The Interpretation Hodder, Enloe, C. (1990), “Womenandchildren: Enloe,Feminist C.(1990), Making PersianGulf the Sense of Evans, J., ‘The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Women’s Question: Gray, Francine du Plessix, “Soviet Women”, in Women”, “Soviet Plessix, du Francine Gray, Gordon, L. (ed.), “Women, the State and Welfare”, London, 1990 “ Wendy, Goldman, Heer, David M. & Bryden, Judith G., “Family Allowances and Population Policy in Policy Population and Allowances “Family G., Judith & Bryden, M. David Heer, Socialism:“Women UnionAlena, inHeitlinger,and State Soviet the Inequality Sex Douglas,for “AnArgumentHarper, Visual in Sociology” Gray, Francine Women:Walking“Soviet / du Plessix, Francine the Tightrope” du vol.no. 16, 4,1981, pp.757-75) The VillageVoice, Women intheStalinEra st ed.–NewYork: Doubleday, 1991 Journal of Marriage andtheFamily Journal of Babas September 25,1990 at the Bench: Gender Conflict in Soviet Industry inthe Industry in Soviet Conflict Gender Bench: the at , Melanie Ili Collecting and interpretingCollecting qualitativematerials. - 64 - - edited by Jon Prosser, London: Falmer Press, þ (ed.), NewYork: Palgrave, 2001,pp.69- , Vol. 28, No. 4. (Nov., 1966), pp. 1966), (Nov., 4. No. , Vol. 28, The New The New Yorker Journal ofContemporary Journal Image-based Research: a Research: Image-based – Feb. 19, 1990 –Feb. 19, – CEU eTD Collection Alexandra Kollontai Melanie Ili Anthropology Today Posadskaya; byKatetranslated Clark. 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