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Home , Asian water monitor, Common spotted cuscus, Laotian rock rat, Phiomorpha, Victoria crowned pigeon

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2 3 4 5 6 7 The first known fossils in are represented by the three taxa Cachiyacuy contamanensis, C. kummeli, and Canaanimys maquiensis, as well as teeth from Eobranisamys sp. () and Eospina sp., the latter two found also in the Santa Rosa fauna from the late or early . By the late Oligocene, all superfamilies and most families of caviomorphs are present in the fossil record.[citation needed] During this time, South America was isolated from all other continents. Several hypotheses have been proposed as to how hystricognath colonized this island continent. Most require that a small group of these rodents traveled across ocean bodies atop a raft of or driftwood. The most common hypothesis suggests that the ancestor to all modern caviomorphs rafted across the Atlantic Ocean (then narrower) from (Lavocat, 1969; Huchon and Douzery, 2000). This is supported by molecular results, which suggest that the (as restricted to Bathyergidae, Petromuridae, and Thryonomyidae) are sister taxa to the . In fact, until the discovery of the Laotian rock , all modern hystricognath families were restricted to South America, Africa, or had a range that included Africa (Hystricidae). The principal alternative hypothesis is that the caviomorph ancestor arose in and migrated to South America through another continent. Most commonly, is cited as the most likely continent (Wood, 1985) as connections between North America and Asia were common via Beringia, and North America appears to have been closer to South America than any other continent at this

8 time. The "Franimorpha" were once proposed as a potential North American rodent group that may represent an ancestor to the Caviomorpha, but most modern researchers consider franimorphs to have been protrogomorphous instead of hystricomorphous. Fossil evidence suggests the Entodacrya may have originated in Asia (Marivaux et al., 2004) and this is cited as potential evidence for an Asian origin for Caviomorpha as well. Likewise, Jenkins et al. (2005) argue that their discovery of a hystricognath rodent (Laonastidae) exclusive to Asia may be further evidence for an Asian origin of caviomorphs. Alternatively, the caviomorphs may have originated in Asia, but traveled through Africa, and Antarctica, or Africa and Antarctica (noted but not advocated by Huchon and Douzery, 2001). Alternatively they may have originated in Africa and traveled to South America via Antarctica. New World monkeys appear to have colonized South America from Africa at a similar time. Caviomorphs went on to colonize the West Indies as far as the Bahamas, reaching the Greater Antilles by the early Oligocene.[1] This is commonly viewed as another example of oceanic dispersal,[2][3] although a role for a possible land bridge has also been considered.

8 The long-term isolation of South America during most of the Cenozoic produced a highly peculiar terrestrial vertebrate biota, with a wide array of groups, among which caviomorph rodents and platyrrhine primates are Mid- Cenozoic immigrants. In the absence of indisputable pre-Oligocene South American rodents or primates, the mode, timing and biogeography of these extraordinary dispersals remained debated. Here, we describe South America’s oldest known rodents, based on a new diverse caviomorph assemblage from the late Middle Eocene (approx. 41 Ma) of Peru, including five small rodents with three stem caviomorphs. Instead of being tied to the Eocene/Oligocene global cooling and drying episode (approx. 34 Ma), as previously considered, the arrival of caviomorphs and their initial radiation in South America probably occurred under much warmer and wetter conditions, around the Mid-Eocene Climatic Optimum. Our phylogenetic results reaffirm the African origin of South American rodents and support a trans-Atlantic dispersal of these during Middle Eocene times. This discovery further extends the gap (approx. 15 Myr) between first appearances of rodents and primates in South America.

9 The platyrrhine primates, or New World monkeys, are immigrant mammals whose fossil record comes from Tertiary and Quaternary sediments of South America and the Caribbean Greater Antilles1,2. The time and place of platyrrhine origins are some of the most controversial issues in primate palaeontology, although an African Palaeogene ancestry has been presumed by most primatologists3,4. Until now, the oldest fossil records of New World monkeys have come from Salla, Bolivia5,6, and date to approximately 26 million years ago7, or the Late Oligocene epoch. Here we report the discovery of new primates from the ?Late Eocene epoch of Amazonian Peru, which extends the fossil record of primates in South America back approximately 10 million years. The new specimens are important for understanding the origin and early evolution of modern platyrrhine primates because they bear little resemblance to any extinct or living South American primate, but they do bear striking resemblances to Eocene African anthropoids, and our phylogenetic analysis suggests a relationship with African taxa. The discovery of these new primates brings the first appearance datum of caviomorph rodents and primates in South America back into close correspondence, but raises new questions about the timing and means of arrival of these two mammalian groups.

10 11 Prije formiranja prevlake svaki kontinent imao je 26 porodica kopnenih sisavaca, a nakon što se prevlaka formirala 16 porodica uspjelo je priječi na jednu ili drugu stranu. Od ukupno sjevernoameričkih sisavaca 29 rodova proširilo se na jug za vrijeme razdoblja pliocen/pleistocen prije odprilike 2,5 milijuna godina. Oni su uključivali rovke, glodavce, zvijeri (mačke, pse, medvjede), slonove, tapire konje, pekarije, ljame i jelene (Slika 5.7; 5.8; 5.9). Istovremeno su iz Južne Amerike prodrli su pasanci dikobrazi, dikobrazoliki glodavci i tipavci. Slijedili su ih prije 1,5 milijuna godina tobolčari (oposum) i mravojedi. Fauna koja je prešla Panamsku prevlaku bila je prilagođena vegetaciji savana. Stoga se pretpostavlja da je ovaj tip vegetacije tada egzistirao u srednjoj Americi. Tropska kišna šuma razvila se tek krajem pleistocena (Burnham i Graham 1999). Iako je jednaki broj porodica migrirao južno i sjeverno, sjevernoamerički doseljenici bili su mnogo uspješniji od južnoameričkih. U Sjevernoj Americi samo 29 rodova (21%) danas živućih kopnenih sisavaca su potomci južnjačkih useljenika. Nasuprot tome u Južnoj Americi čak 85 rodova (50%) danas živućih kopnenih sisavaca su potomci sjevernjačkih useljenika. Najuspješniji su od njih bili porodice hrčaka koji su u Južnoj Americi evoluirali u 45 različitih rodova svrstanih u tri endemične podporodice: Neotominae, Sigmodontinae, Tylomyinae (ove tri podporodice nazivaju se popularno „miševima i štakorima Novog svijeta“). Razlozi ovakve uspješnosti su različiti. Južna Amerika bila manje povezana nego što li je to bila Sjeverna Amerika i Europa. Tako su se sjevernoamerički doseljenici mogli razvijati neometano oslobođeni kompeticije novonastalih vrsta u Sjevernom svijetu.

12 Megatherium – bio veličine slona, jedan od najvećih kopnenih sisavaca ikad Megatherium is one of the largest land mammals known to have existed, weighing up to 4 tonnes[11] and measuring up to 6 m (20 ft) in length from head to tail.[12][13] It is the largest known ground , as big as modern elephants, and would have only been exceeded in its time by a few of mammoth. The group is known primarily from its largest species, M. americanum. Megatherium species were members of the abundant Pleistocene megafauna, large mammals that lived during the Pleistocene epoch. Thylacosmilus – tobolčarska sabljozuba “mačka” – izumro ranije, istisnuo ga Smilodon Smilodon – zvijer, mačka Doedicurus – najveći pasanac ikad, bio je dugačak do 4 m, visok oko 1,5m

13 14 15 Marmosa murina – arborealni, noćni tobolčar. svejed. velik 15ak cm (s repom do 20), težak do 250 g

16 Pasanci: danas ima oko 30 vrsta, u nekoliko porodica i rodova. Dasypus are non-territorial, have large progeny, have few predators, and are capable of living in various environments, thus accounting for their large distribution. They are, though, limited by a lack of sufficient as a food source and their low metabolic rate, which prevents them from livingincoldclimates.[6] Dasypus originated from South America but has expanded and diversified across numerous countries.[7] The existence of human developments and construction has generally increased the armadillo's ability to expand by facilitating the crossing of previous obstacles. As of 2011, within the United States, they have not yet migrated south due to the lack of rainfall or water availability.

Golemi pasanac – danas najvećiživući pasanac, dugačak oko 1,5 s repom (od tog tijelo 1 m, rep 50ak cm), težak do 50 kg u divljini. slabo istražena biologija i ekologija u prirodi, status – ranjiv, zbog lova (zbog mesa)

Mravojeda danas ima 5 vrsta (u dvije porodice) Veliki mravojed – najveći mravojed, dugačak do oko 2 m, težak oko 40ak kg. uglavnom živinatluzarazlikuodvećine drugih koji su arborealni. hrani se mravima i termitima, dolazi u travnjačkim i šumskim ekosustavima

Tipavaca ima 6 vrsta danas (4 vrste su least concern, 1 vulnerable, 1 critically endangered). Sloth's lower metabolism confines them to the tropics and they adopt thermoregulation behaviors of cold-blooded like sunning themselves. Baby learn what to eat by licking the lips of their mother.[38] All sloths eat the of the cecropia. Two-toed sloths have a diverse diet of insects, carrion, fruits, leaves and small lizards, ranging over up to 140 hectares. Three-toed sloths, on the other hand, have a limited diet of leaves from

17 only a few trees, and no mammal digests as slowly. They have made adaptations to arboreal browsing. Leaves, their main food source, provide very little energy or nutrients, and do not digest easily, so sloths have large, slow-acting stomachs with multiple compartments in which symbiotic break down the tough leaves. As much as two-thirds of a well-fed sloth's body weight consists of the contents of its stomach, and the digestive process can take a month or more to complete. Three-toed sloths go to the ground to urinate and defecate about once a week, digging a hole and covering it afterwards. They go to the same spot each time and are vulnerable to predation while doing so. This behaviour may be related to maintaining the ecosystem in the sloths' fur.[39] Individual sloths tend to spend the bulk of their time feeding on a single "modal" tree; by burying their excreta near the trunk of that tree, they may help nourish it.[40] Recent research shows that moths, which live in the sloth's fur, lay eggs in the sloth's feces. When they hatch, the larvae feed on the feces, and when mature fly up onto the sloth above.

Troprsti tipavac – živi na drveću, biljojed. Velik oko 50 cm, težak nekoliko kg (ženke su većeiteže). Ima 3 prsta na udovima s dugim pandžama. ima 9 vratnih kralješaka što mu omogućuju izrazitu fleksibilnost u okretanju glave. Ima dugu zaštitnu dlaku na kojoj mu rastu simbiontske zelene alge (daju mu zelenkastu boju = kamuflaža) i podlaku

17 nutrija – autohtona u suptropskoj i umjerenoj Južnoj Americi, zbog uzgoja radi krzna unesena u Sjevernu Ameriku, Europu, Aziju i AfrikuOriginally native to subtropical and mara – spada u por. , koja uključuje i kapibaru i zamorce -žive u otvorenim staništima, grade podzemne nastambe, herbivorne su. ekološki kao zečevi (njem. naziv je Pampahasen isto kao i hrv) - patagonijska mara je daleko bolje istražena kapibara –najveći glodavac na svijetu (naraste do 130 cm u duljinu, 60cm u visinu i preko 60 kg), živi u savanama i šumama blizu vode. Žive u skupinama do 100 jedinki, biljojedi su

18 Rodentia: Viskača – jedna jedina recentna vrsta, veliki glodavci, teški do 9 kg; prosječna duljina tijela oko 50 cm, a rep do još 20 cm. Žive u kolonijama, imaju zajedničku nastambu koja se sastoji od sustava podzemnih tunela. Aktivni su noću

The two living species of chinchilla are Chinchilla chinchilla[1][2] (formerly known as Chinchilla brevicaudata)andChinchilla lanigera.[9] C. chinchilla has a shorter tail, a thicker neck and shoulders, and shorter ears than C. lanigera. The former species is currently facing extinction; the latter, though rare, can be found in the wild.[10] Domesticated chinchillas are thought to have come from the C. lanigera species.[11] Formerly, chinchillas occupied the coastal regions, hills, and mountains of Chile, Peru, Argentina, and Bolivia. Overexploitation caused the downturn of these populations, As early as 1914, one scientist claimed that the species was headed for extinction. Five years of fieldwork (published in 2007) in Jujuy Province, Argentina, failed to find a single specimen. Populations in Chile were thought extinct by 1953, but the was found to inhabit an area in the Antofagasta Region in the late 1900s and early 2000s. The animal may be extinct in Bolivia and Peru, though one specimen found (in a restaurant in Cerro de Pasco) may hail from a native population.

19 20 panđaši su najmanji primati. prije se smatralo da su primitivni, međutim u novije vrijeme se smatra da su njihovi preci bili veličine kao kapucini, ali da predstavljaju evolucijski trend patuljastog rasta (kao kod otoka), s time da se radi o “otocima staništa”, tj. dijelovi šuma su u nekom trenu okruženi suhim staništima ili su formirane velike rijeke. arborealni su, hrane se kukcima, voćem, biljnim i voćnim sokom, ali mogu jesti i male kralješnjake. socijalni su, žive u manjim grupama zlatni lavlji tamarin – je najveći (oko 25 cm i 600 g); ugrožen prvenstveno zbog gubitka staništa (krčenja šuma), a ekološki jako važan za rasprostranjivanje biljaka (mutualistički odnos sa gotovo 100 vrsta biljaka)… Patuljasti marmozet je najmanji majmun i jedan od najmanjih primata na svijetu (manja je jedna vrsta lemura), teži oko 100 g, dug je oko 15 cm. Nasljava rubove šuma i specijalist je što se tiče prehrane, hrani se biljnim sokom.

21 The night monkeys, also known as the monkeys or douroucoulis, are the members of the Aotus of New World monkeys (monotypic in family Aotidae). The only nocturnal monkeys, they are native to Panama and much of tropical South America. Night monkeys constitute one of the few species that are affected by the often deadly human malaria protozoan Plasmodium falciparum, making them useful as non-human primate experimental subjects in malaria research. Night monkeys can be found in Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Bolivia,andVenezuela. The species that live at higher elevations tend to have thicker fur than the monkeys at sea level. Night monkeys can live in forests undisturbed by humans (primary forest) as well as in forests that are recovering from human logging efforts (secondary forest).

Atelids are generally larger monkeys; the family includes the howler, spider, woolly,andwoolly spider monkeys (the latter being the largest of the New World monkeys). They are found throughout the forested regions of Central and South America, from Mexico to northern Argentina.Thesearearboreal and diurnal animals, with most species restricted to dense rain forest, although some howler monkey species are found in drier forests, or wooded savannah. They mainly eat fruit and leaves, although the smaller species, in particular, may also eat some small insects.

Cebid monkeys are arboreal animals that only rarely travel on the ground. They are generally small monkeys, ranging in size up to that of the brown capuchin, with a body length of 33 to 56 cm, and a weight of 2.5 to 3.9 kilograms. They are somewhat variable in form and coloration, but all have the wide, flat, noses typical of New World monkeys. They are omnivorous, mostly eating fruit and insects, although the proportions of these foods vary greatly between species.

Howler monkeys (genus Alouatta monotypic in subfamily Alouattinae) are among the largest of

22 the New World monkeys. Fifteen species are currently recognized. These monkeys are native to South and Central American forests. Threats to howler monkeys include human predation, habitat destruction and being captured for pets or zoo animals. These monkeys are famous for their loud howls, which can travel three miles through dense rainforest.

22 vikunja i gvanako = divlje vrste

23 grivasti vuk –sliči lisici, ali je vuk (Canidae), iako nije blisko srodan vukovima roda Canis. najveći predstavnika Canidae južne Amerike. Živi na otvorenim staništima, solitaran je pampaski jelen –živiumočvarnim područjima, zbog gubitka staništa ima znatno smanjen areal, tj. samo u malim otocima močvara…

A tapir is a large, herbivorous mammal, similar in shape to a pig, with a short, prehensile nose trunk. Tapirs inhabit jungle and forest regions of South America, Central America, and Southeastern Asia. The five extant species of tapirs are the Brazilian tapir,theMalayan tapir,the Baird's tapir,thekabomani tapir,andthemountain tapir. The four species that have been evaluated (the Brazilian, Malayan, Baird's and mountain tapir) are all classified as endangered or vulnerable. Their closest relatives are the other odd-toed ungulates, which include horses, donkeys, zebras and rhinoceroses.

24 ocelot – isto kao i jaguar dolazi i u sj. Americi (redovito do Texasa, ponekad se nađei Arizoni). nekad bio jako tražen i lovljen zbog krzna, sad više nije ugrožen medvjed naočar – jedini medvjed u J. Americi, živi u Andama

The South American coati or ring-tailed coati (Nasua nasua)isaspecies of coati and a member of the raccoon family (Procyonidae), from tropical and subtropical South America.[3] In Brazilian Portuguese, it is known as quati. An adult generally weighs 2–7.2 kg (4.4–15.9 lb) and is 85– 113 cm (33–44 in) long, with half of that being its tail.[4] Its color is highly variable and the rings on the tail may be only somewhat visible, but its distinguishing characteristic is that it lacks the largely white snout (or "nose") of its northern relative, the white-nosed coati. The South American coati is widespread in tropical and subtropical South America. Most of its distribution is in the lowlands east of the Andes (locally, it occurs as high as 2,500 m or 8,200 ft), from Colombia and The Guianas south to Uruguay and northern Argentina. Chile is the only South American country where the species is not found.[

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 The traditional "theria hypothesis" states that the divergence of the monotreme lineage from the Metatheria () and (placental mammal) lineages happened prior to the divergence between and placental mammals, and this explains why monotremes retain a number of primitive traits presumed to have been present in the synapsid ancestors of later mammals, such as egg-laying. The time when the monotreme line diverged from other mammalian lines is uncertain, but one survey of genetic studies gives an estimate of about 220 million years ago.[32] Fossils of a jaw fragment 110 million years old were found at Lightning Ridge, New South Wales. These fragments, from the species Steropodon galmani, are the oldest known fossils of monotremes. In 1991, a fossil tooth of a 61-million-year-old platypus was found in southern Argentina (since named Monotrematum, though it is now considered to be an Obdurodon species). (See fossil monotremes below.) Molecular clock and fossil dating give a wide range of dates for the split between echidnas and platypuses, with one survey putting the split at 19–48 million years ago,[33] but another putting it at 17–89 million years ago.[34] All these dates are more recent than the oldest known platypus fossils, suggesting that both the short-beaked and long- beaked echidna species are derived from a platypus-like ancestor. Michael Benton suggests in Vertebrate Palaeontology monotremes arose in Australia in the Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous, and some subsequently migrated across Antarctica to reach South America, both of which were still united with Australia at that time.[39] However, a number of genetic studies

32 suggest a much earlier origin in the Triassic.

32 Danas postoji 5 vrsta ukupno – čudnovati kljunaš + 4 vrste ježaka The platypus is semiaquatic, inhabiting small streams and rivers over an extensive range from the cold highlands of Tasmania and the Australian Alps to the tropical rainforests of coastal Queensland as far north as the base of the Cape York Peninsula. The platypus is a carnivore: it feeds on annelid worms, larvae, freshwater shrimp, and freshwater yabby (crayfish) that it digs out of the riverbed with its snout or catches while swimming. It uses cheek-pouches to carry prey to the surface, where it is eaten.[53] The platypus needs to eat about 20% of its own weight each day, which requires it to spend an average of 12 hours daily looking for food.

The short-beaked echidna's diet consists largely of ants and termites, while the Zaglossus (long-beaked) species typically eat worms and insect larvae. Echidnas do not tolerate extreme temperatures; they use caves and rock crevices to shelter from harsh weather conditions. Echidnas are found in forests and woodlands, hiding under vegetation, roots or piles of debris. They sometimes use the burrows of animals such as rabbits and . Individual echidnas have large, mutually overlapping territories.

33 FIG. 5. Paleogeography of the Late Cretaceous and dispersal routes of marsupials and placentals (based on Kardong 2015). Marsupials radiated from North America in two directions: 1) to Australia via South America and Antarctica and 2) to Eurasia and North Africa, where they became extinct during the Eocene (dashed arrows). Placentals most likely originated in and from there spread to Africa and Americas. Hoatzin, the ancient neotropical that is sister to all other landbirds, was very likely infected early after its emergence after the K/T boundary, by vestibuliferid trichostomes originated from marsupials or placentals migrating to South America from North America.

34 Retroposons are repetitive DNA fragments which are inserted into chromosomes after they had been reverse transcribed from any RNA molecule. In contrast to retrotransposons, they never encode reverse transcriptase (RT). Therefore, they are non-autonomous elements with regard to transposition activity (as opposed to transposons). Non-LTR retrotransposons (such as the human L1 elements) are sometimes falsely referred to as retroposons. Retroposition accounts for approximately 10,000 gene-duplication events in the human genome, of which approximately 2- 10% are likely to be functional.[2] Such genes are called retrogenes and represent a certain type of retroposon.

In Australia, they radiated into the wide variety seen today. Modern marsupials appear to have reached the islands of and relatively recently via Australia.[13][14][15] A 2010 analysis of retrotransposon insertion sites in the nuclear DNA of a variety of marsupials has confirmed all living marsupials have South American ancestors. The branching sequence of marsupial orders indicated by the study puts Didelphimorphia in the most basal position, followed by Paucituberculata, then Microbiotheria, and ending with the radiation of Australian marsupials. This indicates that Australidelphia arose in South America, and reached Australia after Microbiotheria split off.

Figure 2. Phylogenetic tree of marsupials derived from retroposon data. The tree topology is based on a presence/absence retroposon

35 matrix (Table 1) implemented in a heuristic parsimony analysis (Figure S3). The names of the seven marsupial orders are shown in red, and the icons are representative of each of the orders: Didelphimorphia, Virginia opossum; Paucituberculata, shrew opossum; Microbiotheria, ; Notoryctemorphia, marsupial mole; Dasyuromorphia, Tasmanian devil; Peramelemorphia, bilby; , kangaroo. Phylogenetically informative retroposon insertions are shown as circles. Gray lines denote South American species distribution, and black lines Australasian marsupials. The cohort Australidelphia is indicated as well as the new name proposed for the four ‘‘true’’ Australasian orders (Euaustralidelphia).

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 The (Tarsipes rostratus), also known by the native names tait and noolbenger,[3] is a tiny Australian marsupial. It is the only species in the genus Tarsipes and in the family Tarsipedidae. Male honey possums weigh just 7 to 11 g, and females weigh 8 to 16 g; about half the weight of a mouse. Their body length ranges from 6.5 to 9 cm. Its teeth are fewer and smaller than is typical for marsupials, with the molars reduced to tiny cones. It is one of the very few entirely nectarivorous mammals; it has a long, pointed snout and a long, protrusible tongue with a brush tip that gathers pollen and nectar, like a honeyeater or a hummingbird. Floral diversity is particularly important for the honey possum, as it cannot survive without a year-round supply of nectar and, unlike nectarivorous , it cannot easily travel long distances in search of fresh supplies. Although restricted to a fairly small range in the southwest of Western Australia, it is locally common and does not seem to be threatened with extinction so long as its habitat of heath, shrubland, and woodland[5] remains intact and diverse. The honey possum is mainly nocturnal, but will come out to feed during daylight in cooler weather. Generally, though, it spends the days asleep in a shelter of convenience.

The red kangaroo ( rufus) is the largest of all kangaroos, the largest terrestrial mammal native to Australia, and the largest extant marsupial. It is found across mainland Australia, avoiding only the more fertile areas in the south, the east coast, and the northern rainforests. The red kangaroo ranges throughout western and central Australia. Its range encompasses scrubland, grassland, and desert habitats. It typically inhabits open habitats with some trees

43 for shade.[10] Red kangaroos are capable of conserving enough water and selecting enough fresh vegetation to survive in an arid environment. The kangaroo’s kidneys efficiently concentrate urine, particularly during summer.[11] Red kangaroo primarily eat green vegetation, particularly fresh grasses and forbs, and can get enough even when most plants look brown and dry.[ Like all Australian wildlife, the red kangaroo is protected by legislation, but it is so numerous that there is regulated harvest of its hide and meat. Hunting permits and commercial harvesting are controlled under nationally approved management plans, which aim to maintain red kangaroo populations and manage them as a renewable resource. Harvesting of kangaroos is controversial, particularly due to the animal's popularity.

The koala ( cinereus, or, inaccurately, koala bear[a]) is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant representative of the family and its closest living relatives are the wombats. The koala is found in coastal areas of the mainland's eastern and southern regions, inhabiting Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. Koalas typically inhabit open eucalypt woodlands, and the leaves of these trees make up most of their diet. Because this eucalypt diet has limited nutritional and caloric content, koalas are largely sedentary and sleep up to 20 hours a day. They are asocial animals, and bonding exists only between mothers and dependent offspring. Adult males communicate with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates. Males mark their presence with secretions from scent glands located on their chests. Being marsupials, koalas give birth to underdeveloped young that crawl into their mothers' pouches, where they stay for the first six to seven months of their lives. These young koalas, known as joeys, are fully weaned around a year old. Koalas have few natural predators and parasites, but are threatened by various pathogens, such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria and the koala retrovirus, as well as by bushfires and droughts. Because of its distinctive appearance, the koala is recognised worldwide as a symbol of Australia. Koalas are listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. he woylie or brush-tailed (Bettongia penicillata) is an extremely rare, small marsupial that belongs to the genus Bettongia. It is endemic to Australia. The two are B. p. ogilbyi and the now extinct B. p. penicillata. The woylie once inhabited more than 60% of the Australian mainland, but now occurs on less than 1%. It formerly ranged over all of the southwest of Eastern Australia, most of South Australia, the northwest corner of Victoria, and across the central portion of New South Wales. It was abundant in the mid-19th century. By the 1920s, it was extinct over much of its range. As of 1992, it was reported only from four small areas in Western Australia. In South Australia, a several populations have been established through reintroduction of captive- bred animals. The woylie has an unusual diet for a mammal. Although it may eat bulbs, tubers, , insects, and resin of the hakea plant, the bulk of its nutrients are derived from underground fungi which it digs out with its strong foreclaws. These fungi can only be digested indirectly. In a portion of its stomach, the fungi are consumed by bacteria. These

43 bacteria produce the nutrients that are digested in the rest of the stomach and small intestine. When it was widespread and abundant, the woylie likely played an important role in the dispersal of fungal spores within desert ecosystems.

43 The numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus), also known as the banded anteater, marsupial anteater, or walpurti, is a marsupial native to Western Australia and recently re-introduced to South Australia. Its diet consists almost exclusively of termites. Once widespread across southern Australia, its range is now restricted to several small colonies, and it is listed as an endangered species. The numbat is an emblem of Western Australia and protected by conservation programs. Today, numbats are found only in areas of eucalypt forest, but they were once more widespread in other types of semiarid woodland, Spinifex grassland, and even in terrain dominated by sand dunes. Numbats are insectivores and eat an exclusive diet of termites. An adult numbat requires up to 20,000 termites each day. The only marsupial fully active by day, the numbat spends most of its time searching for termites. It digs them up from loose earth with its front claws and captures them with its long, sticky tongue.

The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) is a carnivorous marsupial of the family Dasyuridae. It was once native to mainland Australia and is now found in the wild only on the island state of Tasmania, including tiny east-coast Maria Island where there is a conservation project with disease-free animals. The size of a small , the Tasmanian devil became the largest carnivorous marsupial in the world following the extinction of the thylacine in 1936. This disappearance is usually blamed on dingoes, which are absent from Tasmania. Because they were seen as a threat to livestock and animals that

44 humans hunted for fur in Tasmania, devils were hunted and became endangered. In 1941, the devils, which were originally seen as implacably vicious, became officially protected. Since then, scientists have contended that earlier concerns that the devils were the most significant threat to livestock were overestimated and misplaced. The Tasmanian devil's genome was sequenced in 2010 by the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute.[31] Like all dasyurids, the devil has 14 chromosomes.[32] Devils have a low genetic diversity compared to other Australian marsupials and placental carnivores; this is consistent with a founder effect as allelic size ranges were low and nearly continuous throughout all subpopulations measured. Allelic diversity was measured at 2.7–3.3 in the subpopulations sampled, and heterozygosity was in the range 0.386–0.467.[33] According to a study by Menna Jones, "gene flow appears extensive up to 50 km (31 mi)", meaning a high assignment rate to source or close neighbour populations "in agreement with movement data. At larger scales (150–250 km or 90–200 mi), gene flow is reduced but there is no evidence for isolation by distance".[33] Island effects may also have contributed to their low genetic diversity. Periods of low population density may also have created moderate population bottlenecks, reducing genetic diversity.[33] Low genetic diversity is thought to have been a feature in the Tasmanian devil population since the mid- Holocene.[34] Outbreaks of devil facial tumour disease (DFTD) cause an increase in inbreeding.[35] A sub-population of devils in the north-west of the state is genetically distinct from other devils,[36] but there is some exchange between the two groups.

Common wombats are widespread in the cooler and better-watered parts of southern and eastern Australia, including Tasmania, and in mountain districts as far north as the south of Queensland, but is declining in western Victoria and South Australia. Common wombats can be found at any elevation in the south of their range, but in the north of their range are only found in higher, more mountainous areas. They may be found in a variety of habitats including rainforest, eucalyptus forest, woodland, alpine grassland, and coastal areas. In some regions, they have adapted to farmland and can even be seen grazing in open fields with cattle and sheep. Common wombats are herbivorous, subsisting on grass, snow tussocks, and other plant materials. Foraging is usually done during the night.

The taxon dingo refers to the native dog found in Australia but may at times also refer to some similar native to peninsular and island and neighboring regions, such as the singing dog. The genetic evidence indicates that the dingo originated from East Asian domestic dogs and was introduced through the Southeast Asian archipelago into Australia,[13][14] with a common ancestry between the Australian dingo and the New Guinea singing dog.

44 The (Varanus giganteus) is the largest or goanna native to Australia, and the fourth-largest living lizard on earth, after the , Asian water monitor, and the monitor. Found west of the Great Dividing Range in the arid areas of Australia, it is rarely seen because of its shyness and the remoteness of much of its range from human habitation. Uncommon, generally avoid human contact and will retreat before they are seen. Being able diggers, they can excavate a burrow for shelter in only minutes. Their long claws enable them to easily climb trees. They often stand on their back legs and tail to gain a better view of the surrounding terrain. This behaviour, known as "tripoding", is quite common in monitor species. Perenties are fast sprinters, and can run using either all four legs or just their hind legs.

The thorny devil or thorny dragon (Moloch horridus) is an Australian lizard, also known as the mountain devil, the thorny lizard, or the moloch. This is the sole species of genus Moloch. The thorny dragon grows up to 20 cm (7.9 in) in length, and can live for 15 to 20 years. The females are larger than the males. Most of these lizards are coloured in camouflaging shades of desert browns and tans. These colours change from pale colours during warm weather and to darker colours during cold weather. The thorny devil also features a spiny "false head" on the back of its neck, and the lizard presents this to potential predators by dipping its real head. The "false head" is made of soft tissue.[2] The thorny dragon's scales are ridged, enabling the animal to collect water from any part of its body by simply touching water, usually with their limbs; via the

45 capillary principle water is transported to the mouth through their skin

The frilled-necked lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii), also known as the frilled lizard, frilled dragon or frilled agama, is a species of lizard which is found mainly in northern Australia and southern New Guinea. This species is the only member of the genus Chlamydosaurus. Its common name comes from the large frill around its neck, which usually stays folded against the lizard's body. C. kingii is largely arboreal, spending the majority of the time in the trees. The lizard's diet consists mainly of insects and small vertebrates. The frill- necked lizard is a relatively large lizard, averaging 85 cm (2.79 ft) in total length (including tail) and is kept as an exotic pet. Because of its unusual appearance, it is a popular subject in animation.

The New Holland (Cyclorana novaehollandiae), or wide-mouthed frog is a large species of burrowing frog native to northern New South Wales and the eastern 3 quarters of Queensland, Australia. The New Holland frog is a large species reaching a maximum size of 100 mm. It is normally pale grey, brown or yellowish, occasionally with darker blotches. This species is associated with black soil plains and flood plains near rivers. They inhabit dams, ditches and claypans in woodland and grassland. Being a burrowing species they spend extended periods underground in order to survive dry conditions. After heavy rains fall during spring, summer and early autumn, become very active and males make a deep "waah" call from in or beside water.

45 46 Matschie's tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei), also known as the Huon tree-kangaroo is a tree-kangaroo native to the Huon Peninsula of northeastern New Guinea island, within the nation of . Under the IUCN classification, Matschie's tree-kangaroo is an Endangered species. With a body and head length of 20 to 32 inches (51–81 cm), Matschie's tree-kangaroo are much smaller than Australia's well-known red kangaroo.[3] An adult male weighs between 20 and 25 lb (9–11 kg). An adult female weighs between 15 and 20 lb (7–9 kg). Matschie's tree-kangaroo lives in the mountainous rainforests at elevations of between 1,000 and 3,000 metres (3,300 and 9,800 ft). The kangaroo tends to live either alone or with very small groups, usually composed of just a female, a joey, and a male. They spend most of their time in the trees and come down occasionally to feed. They are very adept at hopping and can leap up to 30 feet (9 m). The Matschie’s tree-kangaroos are mainly folivorous, eating anything from leaves, sap, insects, flowers, and nuts.[6] It was also found that they have eaten chickens in captivity as well as feeding on a variety of plants, carrots, lettuce, bananas, potatoes, hard-boiled eggs, and yams. Since they eat high fiber foods, they only eat maybe about 1 to 2 hours throughout the day and the other time of the day they are resting and digesting their food.[6] Their digestion is similar to that of the ruminants; they have a large, “tubiform forestomach”, where most of the fermentation and breakdown of tough material takes place at; in the hind stomach, there is a mucosa lining with many glands that help absorption begin here.

Lumholtz's tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus lumholtzi) is a heavy-bodied tree-

47 kangaroo found in rain forests of the Atherton Tableland Region of Queensland. Its status is classified as least concern[2] by the IUCN, although local authorities classify it as rare. It is the smallest of all tree-kangaroos, with males weighing an average of 7.2 kg (16 lbs) and females 5.9 kg (13 lbs).[5] Its head and body length ranges from 480–650 mm, and its tail, 600–740 mm.[

The common spotted ( maculatus) is a cuscus, a marsupial that lives in the Cape York region of Australia, New Guinea, and nearby smaller islands. The common spotted cuscus is about the size of a common house , weighing 1.5 to 6 kilograms (3.3 to 13.2 lb), body size about 35 to 65 centimetres (14 to 26 in) long, and a tail 32 to 60 centimetres (13 to 24 in) long. The common spotted cuscus is typically very shy, so it is rarely seen, especially in northern Australia. It is nocturnal, hunting and feeding at night and sleeping during the day on self-made platforms in tree branches. It also has been found resting in tree hollows, under tree roots, or among rocks. It is slow- moving and somewhat sluggish, sometimes mistaken for sloths, other possums, or even monkeys. Unlike its close relatives, the common spotted cuscus has been observed feeding during the day on rare occasions. The common spotted cuscus lives in rainforests, mangroves, hardwood and eucalypt forests below 1,200 metres (3,900 ft); unlike most of its relatives, it is not restricted to rainforest environments.[6] Because it lives in dense wooded habitats, it is not easily seen, especially in Australia.

The long-nosed bandicoot (Perameles nasuta) is a species of bandicoot found in eastern Australia, from north Queensland along the east coast to Victoria. Around 40 centimetres (16 in) long, it is sandy- or grey-brown with a long snouty nose. Omnivorous, it forages for invertebrates, fungi and plants at night. It is nocturnal, non-climbing, solitary, and omnivorous. Its body length is around 40 centimetres (16 in), including a tail length of 14 centimetres (5.5 in), and it weighs 1.5 kilograms (3.3 lb). Long-nosed bandicoots benefit from a mosaic of mixed habitats, including open grassy areas (such as lawns in urban areas) that they forage in at night-time and sheltered areas with undergrowth that they retreat to and nest in. Widely distributed, it is classified as least concern on the IUCN Red List, with some localised decline in the southern part of its range.

47 The birds-of-paradise are members of the family Paradisaeidae of the order Passeriformes. The majority of species are found in eastern , Papua New Guinea, and eastern Australia. The family has 42 species in 15 genera.[1] The members of this family are perhaps best known for the plumage of the males of the sexually dimorphic species (the majority), in particular the highly elongated and elaborate feathers extending from the beak, wings, tail or head. For the most part they are confined to dense rainforest habitat. The diet of all species is dominated by fruit and to a lesser extent arthropods. The birds-of-paradise have a variety of breeding systems, ranging from monogamy to lek-type polygamy. A number of species are threatened by hunting and habitat loss. 15 genera, 42 species Most species have elaborate mating rituals, with the Paradisaea species using a lek-type mating system. Others, such as the Cicinnurus and Parotia species, have highly ritualised mating dances. Males are polygamous in the sexually dimorphic species, but monogamous in at least some of the monomorphic species. Societies of New Guinea often use bird-of-paradise plumes in their dress and rituals, and the plumes were popular in in past centuries as adornment for ladies' millinery. Hunting for plumes and habitat destruction have reduced some species to endangered status; habitat destruction due to deforestation is now the predominant threat. The naturalist, explorer and author Alfred Russel Wallace spent six years in what was then called The Malay Archipelago (published 1869), shooting, collecting and describing many specimens of animals and birds including the great, king,

48 twelve-wired, superb, red and six-shafted birds of paradise.

Bowerbirds /ˈbaʊərbɜːrd/ make up the bird family Ptilonorhynchidae. They are renowned for their unique courtship behaviour, where males build a structure and decorate it with sticks and brightly coloured objects in an attempt to attract a mate. The family has 20 species in eight genera. These are medium to large-sized passerines, ranging from the golden bowerbird at 22 centimetres (8.7 in) and 70 grams (2.5 oz) to the great bowerbird at 40 centimetres (16 in) and 230 grams (8.1 oz). Their diet consists mainly of fruit but may also include insects (especially for nestlings), flowers, nectar and leaves in some species.[1] The satin[2] and spotted bowerbirds[3] are sometimes considered agricultural pests due to their habit of feeding on introduced fruit and vegetable crops and have occasionally been killed by affected orchardists.[3] The bowerbirds have an Austro-Papuan distribution, with ten species endemic to New Guinea, eight endemic to Australia, and two found in both.[4] Although their distribution is centered on the tropical regions of New Guinea and northern Australia, some species extend into central, western, and southeastern Australia. They occupy a range of different habitats, including rainforest, eucalyptus and acacia forest, and shrublands.

The western , also known as the common crowned pigeon or blue crowned pigeon (Goura cristata) is a large, blue-grey pigeon with blue lacy crests over the head and dark blue mask feathers around its eyes. Both sexes are almost similar but males are often larger than females. It is on average 70 cm (28 in) long and weighs 2,100 grams (4.6 lbs).[2] Along with its close and very similar-looking relatives the Victoria crowned pigeon and the southern crowned pigeon, it is one of the largest and is considered one of the most beautiful members of the pigeon family.[by whom?] The is found in and is endemic to the lowland rainforests of Papua, Indonesia section of New Guinea; the other species of crowned pigeon inhabit different regions of the island. The diet consists mainly of fruits and seeds. Hunted for food and its plumes, it remains common only in remote areas. Due to ongoing habitat loss, limited range and overhunting in some areas, the western crowned pigeon is evaluated as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed in Appendix II of CITES.

The southern cassowary (Casuarius casuarius) also known as double-wattled cassowary, Australian cassowary or two-wattled cassowary,[2] is a large flightless black bird. The southern cassowary is distributed in Indonesia, New Guinea and northeastern Australia,.[9] It mainly inhabits tropical rainforests but may make use of nearby savannah forests or mangroves stands.[1] The species prefers elevations below 1,100 m (3,600 ft) in Australia,[2] and 500 m (1,600 ft) on New Guinea. It forages on the forest floor for fallen fruit and is capable of safely digesting some fruits toxic to other animals. It also eats fungi, and some insects and small vertebrates. The southern cassowary is a solitary bird, which pairs only in breeding season, in late winter or spring. The male builds a nest on the ground,[2] a mattress of herbaceous plant material 5 to 10 centimetres (2–4 in) thick and up

48 to 100 centimetres (39 in) wide.

48 49 50 The kea (/ˈkiː.ə/; Māori: [kɛ.a]; Nestor notabilis) is a large species of parrot of the superfamily Strigopoidea found in forested and alpine regions of the South Island of New Zealand. About 48 cm (19 in) long, it is mostly olive-green with a brilliant orange under its wings and has a large, narrow, curved, grey-brown upper beak. The kea is the world's only alpine parrot. Its omnivorous diet includes carrion,[2] but consists mainly of roots, leaves, berries, nectar, and insects. Now uncommon, the kea was once killed for bounty due to concerns by the sheep-farming community that it attacked livestock, especially sheep.[3] It received full protection in 1986.[4] The kea nests in burrows or crevices among the roots of trees. Kea are known for their intelligence and curiosity, both vital to their survival in a harsh mountain environment. Kea can solve logical puzzles, such as pushing and pulling things in a certain order to get to food, and will work together to achieve a certain objective.[5] They have been filmed preparing and using tools.

The kakapo (Māori: kākāpō, night parrot), Strigops habroptilus (Gray, 1845), also called owl parrot, is a species of large, flightless, nocturnal, ground- dwelling parrot of the super-family Strigopoidea endemic to New Zealand. It is also possibly one of the world's longest-living birds.[3] Its anatomy typifies the tendency of bird evolution on oceanic islands, with few predators and abundant food: a generally robust physique, with accretion of thermodynamic efficiency at the expense of flight abilities, reduced wing muscles, and a diminished keel on the sternum.[3] Like many other New Zealand bird species, the kakapo was

51 historically important to the Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand, appearing in many of their traditional legends and folklore. It was hunted and used as a resource by Māori, both for its meat as a food source and for its feathers, which were used to make highly valued pieces of clothing. It was also sometimes kept as a pet. The kakapo is critically endangered; as of March 2014, with an additional six[4] from the first hatchings since 2011, the total known population is only 126[5] living individuals, as reported by the Kakapo Recovery programme, most of which have been given names.[6] Because of Polynesian and European colonisation and the introduction of predators such as , , ferrets, and stoats, the kakapo was almost wiped out. Conservation efforts began in the 1890s, but they were not very successful until the implementation of the Kakapo Recovery plan in the 1980s. As of April 2012, surviving kakapo are kept on three predator-free islands

The takahē, Notornis, or South Island takahē (Porphyrio hochstetteri) is a flightless bird indigenous to New Zealand and belonging to the rail family. It was thought to be extinct after the last four known specimens were taken in 1898. However, after a carefully planned search effort the bird was rediscovered by Geoffrey Orbell near Lake Te Anau in the Murchison Mountains, South Island, on 20 November 1948. The takahē is the largest living member of the Rallidae family. Its overall length averages 63 cm (24.8 in) and its average weight is about 2.7 kg (6 lbs) in males and 2.3 kg (5 lb) in females, ranging from 1.8-4.2 kg (4-9.2 lbs).

Apteryx australis is based on Greek and Latin. Apteryx means "A-" without "pterux" wings, and "australis" from "auster" the south wind, and "-alis" relating to. Hence Relating to the south wind is the meaning of Australis, not Australia.[4] The Southern brown kiwi belongs to the kiwi family and it is a ratite, and a member of the order Struthioniformes. Like all ratites, its sternum has no keel, it is flightless, and it has a distinctive palate. Southern brown kiwi live in the South Island and Stewart Island. On the mainland (South Island) they live in Fiordland and Westland. Their range is temperate and sub-tropical forests, grassland, and shrubland, the denser the better.[2] They are widespread throughout Stewart Island where they also live on the sand dunes. In 2000, after being recognised by IUCN, they were placed in the Vulnerable status group.[1] They have an occurrence range of 9,800 km2 (3,800 sq mi) and population of 27,000, estimated in 1996.[5] Brush-tailed possums, Trichosurus vulpecula, and stoats, Mustela erminea, will eat the eggs, while stoats and cats will eat chicks and juveniles. Adults are also under threat as dogs, ferrets, and brush-tailed possums, attack them and the juveniles. The Stewart Island population is stable due to the lack of these predators,[1] however stoats may have colonised the island in 2000.

51 52 The ʻiʻiwi (Vestiaria coccinea), pronounced ee-EE-vee, is a "hummingbird- niched" species of Hawaiian honeycreeper and the only member of the genus Vestiaria. It is one of the most plentiful species of this family, many of which are endangered or extinct. The ʻiʻiwi is a highly recognizable symbol of Hawaiʻi. The ʻiʻiwi is the third most common native land bird in the Hawaiian Islands. Large colonies of ʻiʻiwi inhabit the islands of Hawaiʻi and Kauaʻi, with smaller colonies on Molokaʻi and Oʻahu. ʻIʻiwi were extirpated from Lānaʻi in 1929.[2] Altogether, the remaining populations total 350,000 individuals, but are decreasing. These birds are altitudinal migrants; they follow the progress of flowers as they develop at increasing altitudes throughout the year. Seeking food at low elevation exposes them to low elevation disease organisms and high mortality.

The nene (Branta sandvicensis), also known as nēnē and Hawaiian goose, is a species of goose endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. The official bird of the state of Hawaiʻi, the nene is exclusively found in the wild on the islands of Oahu,[2] Maui, Kauaʻi and Hawaiʻi. The Hawaiian name nēnē comes from its soft call.[3] The species name sandvicensis refers to the Sandwich Islands, an old name for the Hawaiian Islands. It is thought that the nene evolved from the Canada goose (Branta canadensis), which most likely arrived on the Hawaiian islands about 500,000 years ago, shortly after the island of Hawaiʻi was formed. The nene is a medium-sized goose at 41 cm (16 in) tall. Although they spend

53 most of their time on the ground, they are capable of flight, with some individuals flying daily between nesting and feeding areas. Some are born without the ability to fly. The nene is an inhabitant of shrubland, grassland, coastal dunes, and lava plains, and related anthropogenic habitats such as pasture and golf courses from sea level to as much as 2,400 m (7,900 ft). The nene is the world's rarest goose.[12] It is believed that it was once common, with approximately 25,000 Hawaiian geese living in Hawaiʻi when Captain James Cook arrived in 1778.[8] Hunting and introduced predators, such as small Asian mongooses, pigs, and cats, reduced the population to 30 birds by 1952.[8] The species breeds well in captivity, and has been successfully re-introduced; in 2004, it was estimated that there were 800 birds in the wild, as well as 1000 in wildfowl collections and zoos.[8] However, there is some concern of inbreeding due to the small initial population of birds. The nene is the state bird of Hawaii. It is also the rarest state bird.

Oʻahu tree snails, genus Achatinella, are a large genus of colorful, tropical, tree-living, air-breathing, land snails, arboreal pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Achatinellidae. There are 40 species[1] of Oʻahu tree snail endemic to Hawaiian island of O`ahu. All are endangered, there being only about hundred individuals of each species left. The IUCN lists a number of these species as extinction and the remainder as critically endangered. In many cases the introduced and highly predatory snail Euglandina rosea has been involved in the extinctions and declines of the native tree snails.[These snails live in trees. Currently they are only found in mountainous dry to moist forests and shrublands above 1,300 ft (400 m).

53 54 The tooth-billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris), also known as the manumea, is a large pigeon found only in Samoa. It is the only living species of genus Didunculus. A related extinct species, the Tongan tooth-billed pigeon (Didunculus placopedetes), is only known from subfossil remains in several archeological sites in Tonga.[2][3] The tooth-billed pigeon is the national bird of Samoa and featured on the 20 tālā bills and the 50 sene pieces of the 2008/2011 series. The tooth-billed pigeon is confined to undisturbed forests of Samoa in the Pacific.Little is known about the ecology and biology of the species but it is believed to feeds on the fruits of Dysoxylum, a tree in the mahogany family. Manuscripts from the 1800s suggest chicks are confined to the forest floor. However the location of nests (in a tree or on the ground) is still unconfirmed.

The kagu or cagou (Rhynochetos jubatus) is a crested, long-legged, and bluish- grey bird endemic to the dense mountain forests of New Caledonia. It is the only surviving member of the genus Rhynochetos and the family Rhynochetidae, although a second species has been described from the fossil record. Measuring 55 cm (22 in) in length, it has pale grey plumage and bright red legs. Its 'nasal corns' are a unique feature not shared with any other bird. Almost flightless, it spends its time on or near the ground, where it hunts its invertebrate prey, and builds a nest of sticks on the forest floor. Both parents share incubation of a single egg, as well as rearing the chick. It has proven vulnerable to introduced predators, and is threatened with extinction.

55 The kagu is endemic to the forests and shrubland of New Caledonia. Within that island group it is restricted to the main island of Grande Terre. The kagu is a habitat generalist and able to exist in a range of different forest types if sufficient prey is present, from rain forest to drier lowland forest. They are also able to feed in some drier shrubland associated with the island's ultrabasic rocks, although not in the low-prey, poor shrubland of this type. They are also absent from areas where extensive ground cover makes foraging difficult, such as grassland or areas with high fern cover, but may pass through such areas to reach other foraging areas. The species has undergone some range contraction due to hunting and predation by introduced species.[2] Its original, pre-human distribution, and the extent to which it and its sister species R. orarius coexisted in lowland areas of New Caledonia, is still not fully understood and awaits further research into the subfossil record.

55