Hong Kong Studies Reader Series

Home , Cai Chusheng, Hong Kong Dollar, Kit Chan, When Heaven Burns

Series Editors Brian C. H. Fong Academy of Hong Kong Studies The Education University of Hong Kong Tai Po, Hong Kong

Tai-Lok Lui Academy of Hong Kong Studies The Education University of Hong Kong Tai Po, Hong Kong

Stephen Chiu Academy of Hong Kong Studies The Education University of Hong Kong Tai Po, Hong Kong In recent years, Hong Kong society has undergone significant political, economic and social changes. Hong Kong Studies, as an interdisciplinary field of area studies that takes “Hong Kong” as a central subject of analysis, has become the focus of attention for both locals and non-locals from different backgrounds. There is a growing demand from local and non- local students, school teachers, scholars, policy researchers, journalists, politicians and businessmen to understand the development of Hong Kong in a more systematic way. The Hong Kong Studies Reader Series is designed to address this pressing need by publishing clear, concise and accessible readers to key areas of Hong Kong Studies including politics, history, culture, media, etc. The series aims to offer English-Chinese- Japanese trilingual guides to anyone who is interested in understanding and researching Hong Kong.

More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15923 Klavier J. Wang Hong Kong Popular Culture

Worlding Film, Television, and Pop Music Klavier J. Wang Tisch School of the Arts New York University New York, NY, USA

ISSN 2523-7764 ISSN 2523-7772 (electronic) Hong Kong Studies Reader Series ISBN 978-981-13-8816-3 ISBN 978-981-13-8817-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8817-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu- tional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © Yuji Sakai / Getty Images

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Hong Kong Studies Reader Series

Hong Kong Studies is an interdisciplinary field of area studies that takes “Hong Kong” as a central subject of analysis. In recent years, Hong Kong society has undergone significant political, economic and social changes, making Hong Kong Studies the focus of attention for people both inside and outside Hong Kong. As a result, there is a growing demand from local and non-local students, school teachers, scholars, policy researchers, journalists, politicians and business- people to understand the transformation of Hong Kong in a more systematic way. The Hong Kong Studies Reader Series is designed to address this pressing need. By publishing clear, concise and accessible readers on key areas of Hong Kong Studies ranging from politics and history to society and culture, we aim at offering academic guides to anyone who is interested in understanding and researching Hong Kong. For Hong Kong Studies, it is probably the best of times.

v vi Hong Kong Studies Reader Series

The Academy of Hong Kong Studies (AHKS), established in July 2015, is the first, and so far only, academy dedicated to fostering Hong Kong Studies within local tertiary institutions. Adopting the strategic direction of “Worlding Hong Kong Studies”, the AHKS drives interdisciplinary knowledge creation and transfer initiatives on Hong Kong-centric subjects and fosters the development of a “cross-regional Hong Kong Studies research community”. https://www.eduhk.hk/ahks

Academy of Hong Kong Studies, The Education Brian C.H. Fong University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong Tai-lok Lui The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Stephen Chiu Tai Po, Hong Kong On Translation and Romanization

Translations from Chinese materials to English are based on several rules. Translation of Chinese film titles is consistent with the “Hong Kong Filmography” published by the Hong Kong Film Archive. The original Chinese film titles presented in pinyin and original Chinese characters are also given following the English translation. Translations of television drama titles, song album titles and song titles are mostly mine unless another translation version is available from the production entity (e.g. TV drama When Heaven Burns/Tian Yu Di 天與地). Similar to the translation of film titles, pinyin transcription and original Chinese characters of the titles follow English translations. Names of people from Hong Kong are generally Romanized and presented according to the style commonly used in Hong Kong. Some go with English first name followed by Chinese surname (e.g. Bruce Lee, Leslie Cheung), while some follow the original order in which surname goes before first name (e.g. Ng Cho-fan, Wong Kar-wai). Names of people from mainland China are usually transcribed according to the pinyin system (e.g. Cai Chusheng, Ruan Lingyu). Special cases such as film stars who are known to the world by their stage name are directly Romanized according to the Cantonese or Mandarin pronunciation (e.g. Kong Suet, Siu Yin Fei). The different treatments on the translations are based on how these people are conventionally known to the society and thus trans- literated according to the Hong Kong, Taiwan, mainland Chinese or Southeastern Asian Romanization system. For the sake of clarity, Chinese characters are supplemented following the translation.

vii Acknowledgments

First and foremost, I cannot express enough gratitude for the generous intellectual, material and affective support from the Academy of Hong Kong Studies (AHKS), the Education University of Hong Kong. Without the consistent and generous support from AHKS, I could not have produced this monograph. The AHKS is the first ever and still the only Hong Kong-based institution that is dedicated to fostering Hong Kong Studies within local tertiary institutions. Embracing the “worlding Hong Kong studies” mission, the AHKS drives interdisciplinary knowledge creation and transfer initiatives on Hong Kong-centric subjects and fosters the development of a “cross-regional Hong Kong Studies research community”. This mission neatly interlocks with my overall academic pursuit in popular culture research and Hong Kong history, especially in terms of how Hong Kong has been playing a crucial role in converging talents of multi-ethnicities and spreading “culture made-in Hong Kong” to the world. It is indeed a tremendous honor for me to be AHKS’s first post- doctoral research fellow and to be granted sufficient room and resources to bring this mission into action–the production of this monograph, Hong Kong Popular Culture: Worlding films, television and pop music. My privilege and precious opportunity as a new PhD graduate back in 2016 when I joined the AHKS are concretized by the provision of this book project under the groundbreaking book series Hong Kong Studies Reader Series edited by Dr Brian C. H. Fong, Professor Lui Tai-lok and Professor Stephen Chiu Wing-kai. Acclaimed scholars on Hong Kong society and cultural development, Professors Lui and Chiu have always been such illuminating mentors, and I owe them my greatest gratitude. I

ix x Acknowledgments am also indebted to Dr Brian Fong for his never-failing support and encouragement on my prolonged information gathering, book planning and writing journey. At the juncture that Hong Kong, after 20 years of her reversion to the People’s Republic of China’s sovereignty, is experiencing an identity crisis and has witnessed flows of social movements that demand larger room for democratization and political freedom, the inauguration of the Hong Kong Studies Reader Series is a timely contribution. I join force to respond to the call of time by completing this book, recounting, re-discovering and re-positioning Hong Kong popular culture as the crown jewel to the city and a (hidden) gem to regional and world cultural scape. Special thanks also go to scholarly advisors, colleagues and friends who have offered me valuable and constructive ideas, comments and sugges- tions at different stages of the book composition: Professor Chris Berry, Dr Chow Yiu Fai, Professor Chu Yiu-Wai, Professor Francis Lee Lap Fung, Dr Stephanie Ng Yuet-wah, Dr Enoch Tam Yee-lok and Professor David Der-wei Wang. In addition, encouragement and intellectual spark could always be obtained from heart-warming conversations with Professor Anthony Fung Ying Him, who led me down the road of popular culture research back to my Masters degree studies; Professor Eric Ma Kit-wai, my qualitative research method teacher who motivates me through his inspir- ing life experience and teaching methods; and Professor Ng Chun Hung, whose Hong Kong popular culture research works laid the founding stone in this field. Notably, insightful views from anonymous reviewers at the early stage of my book manuscript preparation helped me better craft the book structure and focal points. This book takes a century-long journey of Hong Kong’s popular culture development and its profound connection with the world. Standing on giants’ shoulders–the prolific and extensive literatures on Hong Kong film, television and popular music studies contributed by scholars from Hong Kong and abroad–I have been deeply enlightened by not only the focus from academic and mass publications, but also the arresting history of Hong Kong. Hong Kong’s popular culture is a hallmark of the city. To further enrich the landscape of this area, I sought assistance from a large variety of organizations whose treasured archival resources, historical records and statistical data made the completion of this book possible. I express my gratitude for the support and courtesy provided by these organizations: Special Collections at the University of Hong Kong Libraries, The Ephemera Archive at Chao Center for Asian Studies at Rice University, Acknowledgments xi

The Hong Kong Film Archive, the Hong Kong Motion Picture Industry Association, Hong Kong Box Office Limited, Broadway Circuit (Hong Kong), CreateHK of the Hong Kong government, Hong Kong Leisure and Cultural Services Department of the Hong Kong government, Census and Statistics Department of the Hong Kong government, the Hong Kong Public Records Office, the Taiwan Film Institute and The National Archives (London, England). As the book also includes the latest developments in Hong Kong popular culture, I gathered valuable opinions from professionals who are working in the industry. Here I express my gratitude to Au Man-kit, Chan Chi-fat, Dr Chow Yiu Fai, Jess Leung, Tessa Lau, Gary Mak, Ng Ka-leung, Vicky Wong, Adam Wong and other anonymous interviewees who gener- ously shared with me behind-the-scenes insights. Some data-compiling jobs for this book were completed by my intern at AHKS, Mark Garcia, who is passionate about Hong Kong culture. I owe a million thanks to my beloved colleagues at AHKS during the years I have been engaged in this book project, who have never failed to give me endless encouragement and back-up. Last but not least, I thank my hus- band Ben and my family’s unreserved love. Praise for Hong Kong Popular Culture

“In Hong Kong Popular Culture, Klavier Wang sets out to examine a broad range of Hong Kong popular culture from film texts, TV images, to popular music. Based on a historical perspective, Wang showcases how Hong Kong popular culture serves as collective memory of Hong Kong’s cultural identity and transform- ing values and everyday life culture.” —Anthony Y. H. Fung, Professor, School of Journalism and Communication, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

“In this path-breaking book, Klavier Wang takes on an intriguing project to docu- ment and historicize ‘the understudied while enthralling “global-ness” of Hong Kong popular culture’. This is a very challenging task as the topic has been glar- ingly left out by the English-speaking academic community. Having set a valuable standard for Hong Kong studies, the book provides an essential guide to popular cultural products and icons of the city through vivid accounts of Hong Kong film, television, pop music, and their worldings. This framework offers not only sign- posts to the study of Hong Kong popular culture, but also theoretical routes into Hong Kong studies as an academic discipline. Thoroughly engaged with the exist- ing scholarships in related areas, this book contributes enormously to our understanding of how its popular culture has promoted the brand name of Hong Kong to audiences around the world. Besides the fascinating cultural treasure hunt that will generate renewed interest in Hong Kong, the inclusion of educational ele- ments–such as further reading materials and discussion questions–is also a remark- able undertaking. They are useful to common readers as well as researchers who would have the chance to reflect on their perceptions of Hong Kong from different perspectives. Informative, enjoyable and long overdue, this book is a must read for anyone who is interested in Hong Kong culture and related topics.” —Yiu Wai Chu, Professor, School of Modern Languages and Cultures (Hong Kong Studies), The University of Hong Kong

“Interests in Hong Kong’s film, pop music and television are plenty and yet few attempts have been made to offer an integrated account of its popular culture. Klavier Wang takes up the challenge and presents her insights to us about how to understand the worlding of Hong Kong’s popular culture. Her analysis is solidly grounded on an account of the historical development of film, pop music and television. At the same time, she is able to highlight the distinctive features of Hong Kong’s popular culture at the levels of industry and organization. More specifically, she sees its development as contextualized in a global setting. This is both an introductory text for understanding Hong Kong’s popular culture and a monograph that researchers in the areas of cultural studies, East Asian studies, and media studies will refer to.” —Tai-lok Lui, Chair Professor of Hong Kong Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Making Hong Kong Film 33

3 Worlding Hong Kong Film 117

4 Making Hong Kong TV 217

5 Worlding Hong Kong TV 295

6 Making Cantopop 341

7 Worlding Cantopop 409

8 Epilogue 455

Index 487

xv List of Figures

Image 2.1 Ngan Mok Street 36 Image 2.2 Advertisement of Edison’s Kinetophone exhibition in Hong Kong 37 Image 2.3 Booklet of World Theater No.41, August 16, 1928 42 Image 2.4 Apollo Theatre in 1960s 79 Image 2.5 State Theater at North Point 81 Fig. 2.1 Composition of cinema chains in the 1990s 82 Fig. 2.2 Box-office change of Hong Kong and foreign films 91 Image 2.6 State Theater in the 1990s 94 Image 2.7 Mini-theater of BC 96 Image 2.8 Leisure space BC 97 Image 2.9 First Art House BC 98 Fig. 3.1 Number of films screened in Taiwan—Hong Kong films and Taiwan films 151 Fig. 3.2 Change of price of exported Hong Kong films in Taiwan 152 Image 3.1 Clear Water Bay Film Studio of Shaw Brothers 174 Fig. 3.3 A general picture of domestic exportation of Hong Kong exposed and developed films 199 Fig. 3.4 Re-export of exposed or developed film 201 Fig. 3.5 Re-export of exposed or developed film 202 Image 4.1 Citizens living at rural Wang Toi Shan area 232 Image 4.2 Communities under the Lion Rocks in the 1960s 252 Image 4.3 Lion Rocks with banner 257 Fig. 5.1 Change of TVB business annual turnover 309 Fig. 5.2 Change of TVB overseas business annual turnover 310 Image 6.1 Tatming and Chow Yiu Fai 380

xvii xviii List of Figures

Image 6.2 Lyrics from Beyond’s Hit Song 383 Fig. 6.1 Recording industry in numbers—album unit sales 394 Fig. 6.2 Recording industry in numbers—album retail value 395 Image 6.3 Photo Album of Twins 398 Image 6.4 Chow Yiu Fai and Anthony Wong 404 Image 7.1 Columbia-Wo Shing production label 418 Image 8.1 CityHall in the 1960s 461 Image 8.2 Pigture film studio established by Chan Chi Fat 475 Image 8.3 Chow Yiu Fai 477 Image 8.4 WeWillBeBack 480 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Early images of Hong Kong 38 Table 2.2 Hong Kong Films before the anti-Japan war 47 Table 2.3 Genres of Hong Kong films in the pre-war period 47 Table 2.4 Hong Kong Films in different languages in the post-war period 60 Table 2.5 Total number of films produced annually—in comparison (1950s–1980s) 60 Table 2.6 Productions of major film companies, 1957–1970 68 Table 2.7 Number of Cantonese and Mandarin films in the 1960s and 1970s 68 Table 2.8 Exhibition of Hong Kong films and Foreign Films in the 1990s and 2000s 86 Table 2.9 Changes of revenue from overseas markets 100 Table 2.10 Number of Hong Kong films after CEPA (including Hong Kong films and co-production films) 106 Table 3.1 Production of films in Shanghai and Hong Kong before and during wartime 128 Table 3.2 Mainland film industry collaborated with Hong Kong and Taiwan 140 Table 3.3 Box Office in Taiwan—Hong Kong films and Taiwan-invested Hong Kong films (thousand, New Taiwan Dollars) 154 Table 3.4 Population of Sino-population in Southeast Asia in 1970 178 Table 3.5 Percentage of different linguistic groups among Sino- population in Southeast Asia in 1950 188 Table 3.6 Box office performance of Hong Kong films 196

xix xx LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.7 A general picture of domestic exportation of Hong Kong exposed and developed films over and less than 35 mm in width (measured in quantity and value) 198 Table 3.8 Imports and Exports of Videotapes, Laser Disks and Other Compact Disks (HKD) 200 Table 3.9 Changes of major buyers of Hong Kong domestic exported films (values of films exported to different countries) 203 Table 3.10 Changes of major buyers of Hong Kong domestic exported films (values and quantities of films exported to different countries) 205 Table 4.1 development of early broadcasting in Hong Kong 220 Table 4.2 Number of household TV set 234 Table 4.3 Annual loss of RTV/ATV 243 Table 4.4 Net profit of TVB 1979–1994 (Hong Kong dollar) 258 Table 4.5 Viewership of Chinese television channels 260 Table 4.6 Annual loss of ATV 1988–1991 260 Table 4.7 Audience viewing preference survey 262 Table 4.8 TV program genre preference by people of different occupations 263 Table 4.9 Viewing rate of ATV and TVB 1982–1991 272 Table 4.10 Viewing rate of TVB’s Miss Hong Kong Pageant final contest 272 Table 4.11 Percentage of working women of different ages 273 Table 4.12 TVB Jade audience viewing behavior 274 Table 4.13 development of home video and video-leasing shops 274 Table 4.14 Hong Kong Television Appreciation Index 2000–2016 277 Table 5.1 Change of TVB overseas market turnover 308 Table 5.2 Change of TVB overseas market turnover 309 Table 5.3 Television dramas imported by ATV 312 Table 5.4 Viewership of foreign (including Hong Kong) and local television programs in Guangdong 319 Table 5.5 Viewership of Hong Kong television programs in Guangdong (in comparison with CCTV channels) 319 Table 5.6 Viewership of television dramas of top 5 popular channels in 2004 321 Table 5.7 Roles of mainland Chinese in Hong Kong television dramas 325 Table 6.1 Number of gold or platinum TV song albums 362 Table 6.2 Number of gold discs obtained by different local singers (1977) 366 Table 6.3 Number of gold discs obtained by different local singers (1978) 367 Table 6.4 Number of gold and platinum discs obtained by local singers 376 List of Tables xxi

Table 6.5 Sales of Cantopop albums (1988–95) 381 Table 6.6 Sales and revenue of Cantopop albums (1995–1998) 392 Table 8.1 Total number of cinemas and seats by year between 2005 and 2015 470