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Summary of Subtle, but Important Distinctions in the Theories About Christ

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Summary of Subtle, but Important Distinctions in the Theories About Christ Summary of subtle, but important distinctions in the theories about Christ Arianism – the Son of God was a subordinate entity to God the Father, the First of the Creatures. Condemned by the Council of Nicaea in 325. Docetism – Christ is strictly divine, and only the appearance as human, without any true reality. Condemned by the Council of Nicaea in 325. Adoptionism – Christ was a man “adopted” by God at his baptism in the Jordan, or his resurrection, or his ascension. Condemned by the Council of Nicaea in 325. Nestorianism – Christ is two persons, divine and human, living in the same body. The "School of Antioch" emphasized Christ’s humanity (including the limited knowledge and "growth in wisdom" of the Christ of the Gospels). Condemned at the Councils of Ephesus in 431, Chalcedon in 451. Monophysitism – Christ is one person and one hypostasis in one nature – divine – after the union of the divine and the human in the historical incarnation. This theory was born in the theological "School of Alexandria" which emphasized divinity (including the fact that the divine nature was itself "impassible" or immune to suffering). Condemned by the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Eutychianism – Christ's divinity consumed his humanity as the ocean consumes a drop of vinegar. Condemned by the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Miaphysitism – Christ is one person with divinity and humanity united in one (mia) nature (physis), without separation, confusion, and alteration. [The distinction is that the incarnate Christ has one nature, but that single nature is still of both a divine character and a human character, and retains all the characteristics of both.] Condemned by the Council of Constantinople II in 553. Monothelitism – Christ has two natures but only one will. This theory formally emerged in Armenia and Syria in 629 after Constantinople II; condemned by the Council of Constantinople III in 681. Dyophysitism – clearly distinguishes between person and nature, stating that Christ is one person in two natures, which are "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation." This is the official Orthodox and Catholic doctrine, established at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and reaffirmed thereafter. Much has been said about the difficulties in understanding the Greek technical terms used in these controversies. The main words are ousia (οὐσία, 'substance'), physis (φύσις, 'nature'), hypostasis (ὑπόστασις) and prosopon (πρόσωπον, 'person'). Even in Greek, their meanings can overlap somewhat. These difficulties became even more exaggerated when these technical terms were translated into other languages. In Syriac, physis was translated as kyānâ (ܐܢܝܟ) and hypostasis was qnômâ (ܐܡܘܢܩ). However, in the Persian Church, or the East Syriac tradition, qnoma was taken to mean nature, thereby confounding the issue further. The shades of meaning are even more blurred between these words, and they could not be used in such a philosophical way as their Greek counterparts. Just as the Second Council of Constantinople (known as the "Fifth Ecumenical Council") condemned a certain understanding of the Dyophysite formula introduced at the Council of Chalcedon, it likewise condemned a certain understanding of the Miaphysite terminology of Cyril of Alexandria introduced at the Council of Ephesus, thus leaving room for other orthodox understandings for both Dyophysitism and Miaphysitism. A certain understanding of Miaphysitism thus was affirmed as acceptable doctrine among the Chalcedonians. In the light of modern historical research and ecumenical discussions, the miaphysite and Chalcedonian positions appear to differ mainly in their usage of the key term "nature" (Greek: φύσις, phýsis, as used in the original texts of the relevant Ecumenical Councils) rather than in the underlying Christology, but other smaller differences of interpretation or emphasis may also exist. Intercommunion between the Oriental Orthodox and various Chalcedonian churches has not yet been reestablished; however the agreement of 1994 between the Latin Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East is a step in this direction. 1 II. Western Fathers: The Search for the Faithful Disciple in the Church Tertullian of Carthage 160 – 225 Tertullian, living in Carthage, became a Christian after a sudden and decisive conversion, transforming his own personality; he describes it as "Christians are made, not born." He was a prolific author, the first to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature: "the founder of Western theology." He is the oldest extant Latin writer to use the term Trinity and his is the oldest formal exposition of a Trinitarian theology, using terms such as "three Persons, one Substance." Like Origen, he was never canonized by the Catholic Church due to some questionable theories. Two books addressed to his wife confirm that he was married to a Christian wife. In middle life (about 207), he was attracted to the "New Prophecy" of Montanus, a movement that called for a reliance on the spontaneity of the Holy Spirit and a more conservative personal ethic, similar to modern Pentecostalism or the charismatic movement. They spoke in ecstatic visions and urged their followers to fast and pray, so that they might share these revelations. A council of elders tested all prophecy to determine genuine revelation. Montanism was particularly influenced by Johannine literature, especially the Gospel of John and the Apocalypse of John (also known as the Book of Revelation). In John's Gospel, Jesus promised to send the Paraclete or Holy Spirit, from which Montanists believed their prophets derived inspiration. Tertullian was the best-known defender of the New Prophecy. He admired the movement's discipline and ascetic standards. Some Monanist communities seem to have split from the mainstream church, but it was never condemned as a heresy. As a Monatanist, Tertullian continued to write against heresy, especially Gnosticism. Thus, by the doctrinal works he published, Tertullian became the teacher of Cyprian of Carthage and the predecessor of Augustine, who, in turn, became the chief founder of Latin theology. Hippolytus of Rome 170–235 Hippolytus was the most important 3rd-century theologian in Rome. A presbyter under Pope Zephyrinus (199–217), he was distinguished for his learning and eloquence. It was at this time that Origen of Alexandria, then a young man, heard him preach. He came into conflict with the popes of his time and seems to have headed a schismatic group as a rival bishop of Rome, and is considered the first antipope. He accused Pope Zephyrinus of Modalism (i.e., the names Father and Son are simply different modes of the same divine subject). Hippolytus championed the Logos doctrine of Greek apologists, notably Justin Martyr, which distinguished the Father from the Logos ("Word"). An ethical conservative, he was scandalized when Pope Callistus I (217–222) extended absolution to Christians who had committed grave sins, such as adultery. At this time, he got himself elected as a rival Bishop of Rome, and after Callistus died, he continued to attack Pope Urban I (222–230) and Pope Pontian (230–235). Under persecution, Hippolytus and Pontian were exiled together in 235 to Sardinia. It is quite probable that he was reconciled before his death; under Pope Fabian (236–250), his body and that of Pontian were brought to Rome. Hippolytus is considered a martyr and is canonized (along with Callistus). Hippolytus is similar to Origen in his voluminous writings in exegesis, homiletics, apologetics and polemic, chronography, and church law. He recorded the first liturgical reference to the Virgin Mary, as part of the ordination rite of a bishop. Hippolytus explained Daniel's prophecies by relating them to the empires of the Babylonians, Medo-Persians, Greeks, and Romans. He believed that Rome would be partitioned into the predicted ten kingdoms, followed by Antichrist. All this would be ended by Christ's Second Coming. Of the dogmatic works, On Christ and the Antichrist survives in a complete state. Among other things it includes a vivid account of the events preceding the end of the world, and it was probably written at the time of the persecution under Septimius Severus, about 202. His chronicle of the world, embracing the whole period from the creation of the world up to the year 234, formed a basis for many chronographical works both in the East and West. Hippolytus was apparently the first to set a specific date for the Second Coming through calculation – A.D. 500 – which would be 260 years after his time. He assumed, like Irenaeus his teacher, that inasmuch as God made all things in six days, and these days symbolize a thousand years each, the end will come in six thousand years from the creation (based on the Septuagint which had the world beginning about 5500 B.C.). 2 Pope Callistus I also called Callixtus I (b? - 223) Callistus was a slave in the imperial Roman household, in charge of the bank. He lost the money, fled and was caught. After serving time for a while, he was released to recover the money. After being arrested for brawling (trying to collect a loan), he was condemned to the mines of Sardinia. After winning his freedom, Callistus was made superintendent of the public Christian burial ground in Rome (still called the cemetery of St. Callistus). The pope ordained him a deacon and made him his friend and adviser. He was elected pope by a majority vote of the clergy and laity of Rome, and thereafter was bitterly attacked by the losing candidate, St. Hippolytus, who let himself be set up as the first antipope in the history of the Church. He attacked Callistus on two fronts – doctrine and discipline. Hippolytus found Modalism everywhere. He also accused Callistus of leniency: 1) Callistus admitted to Holy Communion those who had already done public penance for murder, adultery, fornication; 2) he held marriages between free women and slaves to be valid – contrary to Roman law; 3) he authorized the ordination of men who had been married two or three times; 4) he held that mortal sin was not a sufficient reason to depose a bishop; 5) he held to a policy of leniency toward those who had temporarily denied their faith during persecution.
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