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Permeation of Roxarsone and Its Metabolites Increases Caco-2 Cell Proliferation

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Permeation of Roxarsone and Its Metabolites Increases Caco-2 Cell Proliferation Advances in Biological Chemistry, 2013, 3, 389-396 ABC doi:10.4236/abc.2013.34041 Published Online August 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/abc/) Permeation of roxarsone and its metabolites increases caco-2 cell proliferation Gladys S. Bayse1*, Latanya P. Hammonds-Odie2#, Kimberly M. Jackson1, Deidre K. Tucker1, Ward G. Kirlin3 1Department of Chemistry, Spelman College, Atlanta, USA 2Department of Biology, Spelman College, Atlanta, USA 3Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, USA Email: #[email protected] Received 23 June 2013; revised 20 July 2013; accepted 27 July 2013 Copyright © 2013 Gladys S. Bayse et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ABSTRACT tional health concerns. We conclude that micromolar levels of these benzenearsonates are adequate to stim- The benzenearsonate, Roxarsone, has been used since ulate Caco-2 cell proliferation. 1944 as an antimicrobial, growth-promoting poultry feed additive. USGS and EPA report that Roxarsone Keywords: Benzenearsonates; Roxarsone; (4-hydroxy-3-nitrobenzenearsonate) and metabolites, Phenylarsonates; Arsenicals; Caco-2 including AHBA (3-amino-4-hydroxybenzenearsonate), contaminate waterways at greater than 1100 tons an- nually. To assess human impact of these organic arse- 1. INTRODUCTION nic water contaminants, it was important to study their potential absorption. The human adenocarcino- The number of concentrated animal feeding operations ma cell line, Caco-2, is a model for intestinal absorp- (CAFOs) has increased in the US since the late 1980s. tion. We found proliferative effects on Caco-2 cells at Governmental agencies and public health groups have in- micromolar levels of these compounds, as monitored dicated that farming practices account for declining wa- by [3H]-thymidine incorporation into DNA. Flow cy- ter quality in the US [1,2]. From the 1940s, benzenearso- tometry cell cycle analysis confirmed accumulation in nates have been used as approved feed additives to pre- S phase from 21% (control) to 36% (24 hour expo- vent infections and to promote growth in commercially sure to 10 μM AHBA). Confluent Caco-2 cells grown grown poultry and swine [3]. Roxarsone (4-hydroxy-3- on collagen-coated Transwell plates were dosed on the nitrobenzenearsonate) is the major feed additive used for apical side. After exposure, media from apical and broiler production [4]. Roxarsone and its metabolites are basolateral sides were collected separately. Following primarily excreted, adding more than 1100 tons per year removal of FBS by 30K centrifugal filtration, the ben- to waterways, especially downstream from CAFOs [5-7]. zenearsonates in the collected media were analyzed Additionally, poultry litter (excrement, spilled feed, cage by HPLC. Analyses were at wavelengths in the ultra- straw) is frequently used as fertilizer [8]. Some states violet/visible range where the absorbance values were have recently banned or decreased poultry litter use as linear with respect to concentration. Concentrations fertilizer, but enforcement procedures are not clear [9,10]. were calculated by comparison with analytically-pre- The highest density of poultry CAFOs exists in the Del- pared commercial standards. Results from cells dosed marva Peninsula (Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia), the at 10 μM for 24 hours with AHBA, Roxarsone, or Ozark Plateau (Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, and some Acetarsone indicated 6% - 29% permeation occur- areas of eastern Texas), Georgia, and the Carolinas [5]. ring from apical to basolateral side, modeling absorp- The areas downstream of poultry CAFOs where the popu- tion across intestinal epithelium to the circulatory sys- lations’ drinking water is provided by the local ground- tem. Benzenearsonate feed additives are frequently ap- water are of particular concern [11]. plied in combination with antibiotics, raising addi- The Roxarsone reduction product, AHBA (3-amino-4- hydroxybenzenearsonate), has been identified by poul- *Dr. Gladys Bayse deceased suddenly on July 25th, 2013. #Corresponding author. try excretions [12] and produced by anaerobic bacterial Published Online August 2013 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/abc 390 G. S. Bayse et al. / Advances in Biological Chemistry 3 (2013) 389-396 action [13]. The structural formulas for Roxarsone bio- 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS transformations to the reduced AHBA and N-acetylated 2.1. Chemicals Acetarsone are shown in Figure 1. Several studies have revealed rapid AHBA and inorganic arsenic (iAs) pro- Roxarsone and AHBA were obtained from Pfaltz and duction from Roxarsone, using both chicken litter and Bauer, Inc. (Waterbury, CT). Acetarsone, RNase A, and anaerobic microbial-containing sludge [13]. propidium iodide were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. A pure Clostridium strain has been reported to reduce Louis, MO). HPLC grade water was purchased from Roxarsone to AHBA [14]. Aromatic amines such as ThermoFisher Scientific Co., Suwanee, GA. The human AHBA easily form azides that are usually toxic and often colon adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cell line, Eagle’s MEM carcinogenic [15,16]. We previously observed that the (EMEM) growth media and Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) Roxarsone metabolite, AHBA, can be N-acetylated to were obtained from American Type Culture Collection Acetarsone (3-N-acetylamino-4-hydroxybenzenearsonate) (Manassas, VA). in vitro by cloned human N-acetyltransferase 1 [17]. The acetylation rate of AHBA to Acetarsone is slow when 2.2. Supplies compared to the model substrate, p-aminobenzoic acid, Microsep 30K centrifugal microconcentrators from Pall and to the swine feed additive, Arsanilate [18]. Acetarsone Life Sciences were purchased from VWR Scientific Co. had three times the toxicity of Roxarsone in the rodent (Suwanee, GA) and were used to remove FBS from model [19]. culture media prior to LC analysis. Centrifugation was The FDA recommendation to reduce the use of Rox- at 5˚C and 5000 × g. Transwells were a product of arsone in poultry feed may impact water contamination Corning Costar Corp. (Tewksbury, MA) and were a 6 downstream from CAFOs [20]. However, investigators well format of 0.4 micron pore size with collagen coat- have shown that years of soil penetration by Roxarsone ed PTFE membranes. The Whatman 4 mm syringe fil- and its metabolites is such that leaching into ground wa- ters with a pore size of 0.45 microns were purchased ter is likely to continue for some time [5,7]. Chronic ex- from ThermoFisher. posure of humans to such arsenic-containing compounds, especially in the water supply, is a matter of serious con- 2.3. Cell Culture for Proliferation, Cell Cycle cern. The nature of the organic moiety in feed additives Analysis and Transwell Studies is also of concern, since structurally similar aromatic com- Cells were cultured in EMEM media supplemented pounds can be metabolized to active electrophiles, poten- tially reacting with DNA and proteins to cause tissue ne- with 20% FBS, 100 U/ml penicillin G, 100 µg/ml strep- crosis and/or to form mutagens [21,22]. tomycin, 0.25 µg/ml amphotericin B, 1.0 mM sodium This laboratory has reported proliferative effects of pyruvate, and 2.0 mM L-glutamine and incubated in a these compounds both on freely cycling and on synchro- humidified 5% CO2 atmosphere at 37˚C. Cell viability nized Caco-2 cells, the human colon adenocarcinoma was determined microscopically by exclusion of Trypan cell line [17,23-26]. These observations were confirmed Blue. Prior to treatment with benzenearsonates, cells by using flow cytometry analysis after dosing the cells used in the proliferation and cell cycle analysis studies with micromolar levels of Roxarsone, AHBA, and Acet- were gradually serum deprived to zero over a four-day arsone [23]. In this report, we tested the hypothesis that period, followed by addition of 20% serum to synchro- if benzenearsonates are present in drinking water, these nize the cells to move from G0 into the proliferative compounds can be absorbed upon ingestion. Data in our phase of the cell cycle. preliminary reports indicated that concern over potential 2.4. Cell Proliferation human impact of benzenearsonates in drinking water was justified [17,23]. Thus, we postulated that it was impor- Cultures were replicated in quadruplicate on ninety-six tant to study their absorption and possible metabolism by well plates, seeded with 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 × 104 cells, intestinal epithelial cells. The Caco-2 cell line is a model synchronized and at 70% - 80% confluence, were ex- frequently used for that purpose by the pharmaceutical posed to micromolar concentrations of Roxarsone, AHBA, industry [27-29]. Caco-2 cells are adherent and are ex- and Acetarsone for 16 and 24 hour periods. Cells were tensively used for permeability studies involving Trans- then incubated with [3H]-thymidine for 6 hours and har- well devices. In an effort to mimic absorption from the vested (Skatron Cell Harvester, Sterling, VA) onto glass intestinal lumen across the epithelial monolayer into the fiber filters. The filters were placed in scintillation vials. circulatory system, we dosed Caco-2 cell on the apical Radioactivity incorporated into DNA was determined side with the benzenearsonates, Roxarsone, AHBA and by a scintillation counter as a relative measure of cell Acetarsone. proliferation and expressed as percent of control, desig- Copyright © 2013 SciRes. ABC G. S. Bayse et al. / Advances in Biological Chemistry 3 (2013) 389-396 391 nated as 100%. For tightness of replicates, data were 2.7. HPLC analyzed by coefficient of variation (standard deviation/ The HPLC System (ThermoSeparations Products, Ri- mean). viera Beach, FL) was a C-18 Aquasil column (Therm- oElectron, Bellefonte, PA), 4.6 × 250 mm, with a mo- 2.5. Cell Cycle Analysis by Flow Cytometry bile phase of 17 mM ammonium acetate buffer pH 6.0, Caco-2 cells were replicated in triplicate in six well a flow rate of 1 ml/min, and a variable wavelength ul- plates and seeded with 2.0 × 104 cells, synchronized traviolet/visible detector.
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