Closed-loop waste management Recovering wastes – conserving resources IMPRINT
Published by: Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) Public Relations Division · 11055 Berlin · Germany Email: [email protected] · Website: www.bmu.de/english
Edited by: Ruth Friederich, Dr. Andreas Jaron, Jürgen Schulz (BMU)
Design: design_idee, büro_für_gestaltung, Erfurt Printed by: Silber Druck oHG, Niestetal
Photo credits: Title page: Jose Giribas (four bin waste separation system; from left to right: bin for paper, glass bin, bin for packaging waste and residual waste bin) p. 4: Laurence Chaperon p. 5: Manfred Ruckszio/Naturbildportal p. 7: Claudia Hechtenberg/Caro Fotoagentur p. 8: BMU/Christoph Edelhoff p. 15: Jochen Zick/Keystone p. 16: Therese Aufschlager/Caro Fotoagentur p. 18: vario images p. 21: BMU/Thomas Härtrich/Transit p. 24: artvertise fotodesign p. 26: Rupert Oberhaeuser/Caro Fotoagentur p. 27: Linus Morgen p. 29: Wolfgang Maria Weber/tv-yesterday p. 31: Rainer Weisflog p. 32: Franco Banfi/WaterFrame p. 35: Edsweb/fotolia.com p. 36: Thomas Ruffer/Caro Fotoagentur p. 38: Rainer Weisflog p. 40: W. H. Müller/Bildagentur Geduldig p. 43: ecopix Fotoagentur p. 45: Walter G. Allgoewer/JOKER
Date: Juli 2011 Third Print: 3,000 copies
2 CONTENTS
FOREWORD 4
FROM WASTE TO AN ECONOMIC FORCE 6
THE STATUTORY FRAMEWORK 7
GERMANY’S WASTE POLICY: SUCCESSES AND GOALS 11
SUBSTANCE MANAGEMENT FOR RESOURCE CONSERVATION 14
TASKS FALLING TO PRIVATE INDUSTRY 16 Voluntary commitment 17 Recovering used graphic papers 18
RETURN AND RECOVERY 20 Packaging 20 Waste glass 24 End-of-life vehicles 26 Batteries 27 Waste electrical and electronic equipment 28
HIGH STANDARDS IN WASTE DISPOSAL 30 Municipal waste 30 Waste management is climate protection 32 Biowaste 34 Sewage sludge 37 Waste oil 38 Waste wood 39 Persistent organic pollutants 40 Production waste 41 Landfilling of waste 42 Control is better 43
TRANSBOUNDARY SHIPMENTS OF WASTE 44 How much waste is imported and exported? 44
INFORMATION AVAILABLE ON THE INTERNET 46
3 DEAR READERS,
Modern, closed-loop waste management systems recover resources, mitigate climate change and maintain environmental quality – in short, they are beacons on the path towards a green economy.
While in the past waste was simply dumped in landfills, today we have a very high-tech system of waste management operating within closed substance cycles, with specialised companies and excellently trained staff. Innovative processes and technologies allow us to fully and efficiently recycle our waste and return the resources it contains to the economy. It is currently estimated that German industry already substitutes around 13 percent of its primary resource requirement by using secondary resources. Consistent application of the polluter pays principle delivers the financing needed for closed substance cycles: extended producer responsibility, fees that recover system costs, and the high quality of recycled materials attracting good prices on the resource markets allow the necessary investment in and efficient operation of a mod- ern infrastructure.
Our sustainable waste policy has driven the rapid evolution of disposal and environmental technology over the past 25 years. This technology is now a key sector of the German economy. Companies that produce and apply appropriate waste management technology are among the most successful internationally and are well prepared to take their place on the lead markets of the future.
4 That creates competitive advantages for the wider economy in other ways too. Energy and materials are becoming increasingly scarce worldwide, yet at the same time their consumption is rising and greenhouse gases are accelerating climate change. We therefore urgently need innovations and investments that promote the efficient use of resources and energy. The requirements are clear, but have to be transformed into demand on the markets. For this to be done, international standards must be raised and market conditions improved. The global markets need uniform and high environmental and social standards in order that a level playing field can emerge – this, too, is a particular goal of the German federal government.
With our closed-loop waste management systems we have already largely succeeded in reconciling ecological and economic concerns in Germany. This reveals that a green economy is no utopia.
Dr Norbert Röttgen Federal Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety
5 FROM WASTE TO AN ECONOMIC FORCE
Waste management has evolved substantially since the early 1970s: Before the Waste Management Act of 1972 came into effect, each village and town had its own tip (around 50,000 in the whole of Germany). In the 1980s and 1990s their number dropped to below 2,000, whilst at the same time strict regulations were introduced regarding their construction and operation. Today only 160 landfill sites in Germany handle municipal waste (Class II landfill sites). The number of incineration plants, municipal waste facilities and plants for industrial waste has, by contrast, increased significantly.
In the mid-1980s the political credo of the waste hierarchy – “prevent – recover – dispose of” – gained acceptance. In addition to the existing recovery of metal, textiles and paper, other recoverable materials were to be recycled by means of separate collection, sorting and reuse. This rationale formed the basis for the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act which came into force in the mid-1990s.
In the meantime, the waste industry in Germany employs more than 250,000 people – from engineers to refuse collectors to administrative staff. Various universities have Waste Management faculties, and there is a separate voca- tional qualification in waste management. The industry generates an annual turnover in excess of 50 billion euros.
Today, much more than 60% of municipal and production waste is consigned to material recovery. In some fields, for example packaging, the propor- tion from which materials were recovered reached 74% in 2009; if energy recovery processes are included, the figure rises to around 95%. 89% of the construction and demolition waste arising in the building sector is now recovered. Figures for the total volumes of waste recovered make impres- sive reading: 30.6 million tonnes of municipal waste, 35.3 million tonnes of production and industrial waste, and 173 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste each year. More than three tonnes of waste is recovered for each resident in Germany, that’s roughly equivalent to the weight of three small cars.
6 Substance cycle and waste management technician in training
These figures provide impressive proof that environmental protection has developed into a key economic factor, making a significant contribution to the German economy’s value added chain.
THE STATUTORY FRAMEWORK
Waste management law is based on European law, German Federal law, the regional laws of the Federal Länder and the statutes of the local authority waste management services.
Environmental protection, and thus also substance-cycle and waste manage- ment, is one of the core concerns within the European Union (EU). Since 1974 the EU has adopted a number of Directives and Regulations and thus decisively shaped the Member States’ waste legislation in an attempt to harmonise requirements governing waste prevention, and environmentally sound waste recovery and disposal. The European Commission’s 2005 The- matic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste now forms the basis for the further development of this body of law.
7 Control room of a waste recovery facility
The Waste Framework Directive is one of the pivotal European Directives. Comprehensively amended in 2008, the new Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) stipulates measures to maintain environmental quality and protect human health by preventing or reducing the harmful effects of the generation and management of wastes, reducing the overall impacts of resource use and making more efficient use of resources.
8 In addition, there are EU-wide provisions governing the classification and treatment of hazardous waste, the establishment and operation of land- fill sites and waste incineration plants, and the transboundary shipment of waste within and outside the EU. Finally, the EU has also adopted various Directives aimed at the prevention and recovery of specific types of product waste. For example, there are provisions governing packaging, batteries, end- of-life vehicles, and electrical and electronic appliances, as well as selected types of particularly problematic waste such as waste oil, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs).
In Germany, waste legislation is governed by the Act for Promoting Closed Substance Cycle Waste Management and Ensuring Environmentally Compat- ible Waste Disposal, better known as the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act. The Act is being amended comprehensively in the course of transposition into German law of the new EU Waste Framework Directive and is being refined in order to improve environmental protection, climate change mitigation and resource conservation. The definitions of terms used in the Act are being harmonised with those of European waste law. As a result, there will for the first time be provisions governing the point at which a material is no longer considered waste but rather a resource. There will also be provisions governing the distinction between waste and by-product, and the distinction between recovery and disposal.
The introduction of a new five-tier waste hierarchy will be a key element of the amendment. While the hierarchy applicable up to now took a three- tier approach (prevention, recovery, disposal), the new one differentiates the recovery tier in greater detail. Prevention will continue to be the top tier of waste management – and thus have top priority wherever possible – and is now followed by preparation for reuse, then recycling, then other recov- ery processes such as energy recovery and, as bottom tier, final disposal as before.
Prevention, the supreme objective, is now promoted not only by the concepts of product responsibility and producer responsibility, but also by waste pre- vention programmes that must be drafted by 2013. Resource conservation, and especially recycling, is to be improved by establishing recovery rates for specific types of waste that must be achieved by 2020, and by adopting new provisions on waste segregation.
9 Prevention
Recovery
Preparation for reuse
Recovery
Recycling
Other recovery
Material recovery Energy recovery (insofar as one of the higher • equivalent to the two higher recovery recovery tiers in this waste tiers if the calorific value of the wastes pyramid, such as recycling, is > 11,000 kJ/kg does not apply) • has lower priority than the two higher e.g. underground waste recovery tiers if the calorific value of the stowage wastes is < 11,000 kJ/kg
Final disposal
Waste hierarchy: prevention, recovery, disposal in an environmentally sound manner
The general provisions contained in the Act are set out in more concrete terms in a number of statutory ordinances. In particular, these include the provisions on extended producer responsibility (for packaging, batteries, end-of-life vehicles, waste oil, electrical and electronic appliances). A second- ary resource collection bin is to be introduced in this connection, the statu- tory basis of which has already been established by the amendment to the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act. The statutory require- ments governing the environmentally compatible recovery of waste are specified by the Ordinance on Biowaste, the Commercial Waste Ordinance, the Waste Wood Ordinance or the Ordinance on Underground Waste Stow- age, while the requirements governing the environmentally compatible disposal of waste are specified by the Landfill Ordinance in particular.
10 GERMANY’S WASTE POLICY: SUCCESSES AND GOALS
We are not yet fully realising the potential that is present in waste in terms of energy and raw materials. Consumption of primary resources – such as mineral oil or iron ore – is still far too high. Scope thus remains to improve the German economy’s overall resource efficiency.
That is why today’s waste management aims to increase and optimise the ef- ficient use of raw materials, to maximise recovery quotas and to permanently remove from our environment that residual waste which can no longer be used.
Germany is already on the right track. Regulations governing waste manage- ment and modern facilities and technology have led to the following envi- ronmental successes over the past 15 years:
˘ Less waste has been produced overall in recent years. The total volume of domestic waste has remained virtually constant over many years. The link between economic growth and the volume of waste has thus been severed, given the fact the economy grew by 15% between 1992 and 2004.
˘ The way in which waste is handled has changed substantially: far more is recovered and much less consigned to final disposal than in the past. The population’s willingness to separate its waste has helped to improve possibilities for recycling. Germany therefore remains at the forefront of packaging recycling in Europe. Today, with over 8 kilograms per inhab- itant and year, more than twice as many waste electrical appliances are being collected from private households than prescribed in the European Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive. The recovery rate of municipal waste increased to 77 percent (2008).
11 Separating waste makes sense: More recoverable materials than residual waste in 2008
1990 2008
Residual waste Residual waste
87% 34 million tonnes 39% 16.7 million tonnes
Organic Paper Organic waste Packaging Glass waste Paper Glass
13% 5 million tonnes 61% 26.5 million tonnes
Source: Federal Statistical Office 2010, Federal Environment Ministry (BMU)
Material recovery for energy efficiency: Saving as much energy as a major city needs
Corresponds to the energy Energy savings 70,000 requirement of 440,000 persons 64,000 Savings from: 60,000 50,000 Scrap metals 40,000
Waste glass 30,000
[1,000 gigajoules] 20,000 Waste paper 8,350 10,000
0 Recoverable materials Recoverable materials Lightweight packaging 1990 2004 Source: IFEU (Institute for Energy and Environmental Research) 2006 study on household waste, Federal Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt, UBA)
12 ˘ Modern waste incineration plants have helped significantly to reduce the burden on the biosphere.
˘ Greenhouse gas emissions have been considerably reduced. The compre- hensive implementation of the Ordinance on Environmentally Compat- ible Storage of Waste from Human Settlements and on Biological Waste Treatment Facilities in 2005 alone led to a reduction of 56 million tonnes
of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year generated by municipal waste in 2006 compared the 1990 baseline.
˘ There have also been notable resource savings.
˘ The increased recovery of energy and substances from waste also means an eight-fold saving of fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal in comparison to 1990. That is equivalent to the annual energy/raw material consump- tion of a city with more than 400,000 inhabitants.
From debit into credit:
Waste management sector delivers substantial CO2 savings
Waste consigned to storage after 2005 emits almost no greenhouse gases
40 Greenhouse gas emissions in 35 million tonnes CO2 equivalent 30 25 20 15 emissions (debit) 2 10
CO 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 removals (credit)
2 -30
CO 1990 2006 2020
Source: IFEU 2010 study, Öko-Institut e. V.
13 SUBSTANCE MANAGEMENT FOR RESOURCE CONSERVATION
Resource demand is rising worldwide, with the result that primary resources such as oil, gas or ores are becoming increasingly scarce while the environ- mental pressures generated by their extraction are mounting. The long-term goal must therefore be to reduce absolute resource consumption levels. The waste management sector is making an important contribution to this goal. When recycling processes achieve greater recovery of secondary resources – such as waste paper or tinplate packaging – this substitutes primary resources and boosts resource productivity. That is why our waste policy needs to focus more on substance flows and substance characteristics in future. The goal is substance flow management within closed cycles. Today’s wastes, but also the anthropogenic reservoirs present in built structures and landfills, can therefore be viewed as the “mines of the future” – today’s products are tomorrow’s resources.
What is “substance flow management” or “substance management”?
The substance flow approach allows the entire substance cycle to be analysed and steered: from extraction of raw materials from the environment to production, use and consump- tion, to collection and reuse or release into the environment. The volume and structure of these flows are to be steered in such a way that overall resource efficiency is increased and the development of the volume of waste arisings is decoupled from economic growth in the long term.
For substance management to be successful, production and consumption must both be addressed. Products should be made in such a manner that they can be readily disassembled, consist of readily recyclable materials, and the contaminants contained in them can be removed easily in order to prevent them re-entering the substance cycle in new products.
14 A secondary resource: compressed tinplate after sorting
Guiding principle of German waste policy: An integral part of sustainability
Trade
Extended producer responsibility Deposit-return systems
Production Target: 2020 Consumer
Internal recovery Waste recovery
Waste disposal Municipal waste Production waste Recoverable materials Products Residual waste Residues Source: Federal Environment Ministry (BMU)
15 TASKS FALLING TO PRIVATE INDUSTRY
Environmental policy is based on: the precautionary principle, the polluter pays principle and the principle of co-operation. These principles are reflec- ted in extended producer responsibility, which the manufacturer and seller of a specific commodity bear. As producers of a commodity they are required to consider the environmental impacts and possible risks of a product during its entire lifecycle (precaution). In collaboration with the other parties involved – producers, distributors, consumers, disposal and recycling companies, as well as government offices (cooperation) – the producer is required to create a system which minimises the adverse environmental impacts and maximises the recovery of resources (recycling, reuse).
Beverage containers are collected and recycled through the “Yellow Bin/Bag” system
For that reason, waste management policy in Germany centres around the concept of extended producer responsibility. In this way, even during the production phase, the foundations are laid for the effective and environ- mentally compatible prevention and recovery of waste. Manufacturers and distributors must design their products in such a way as to minimise the amount of waste produced during manufacturing and subsequent use, so as to focus on high-quality and comprehensive recovery of waste, and, finally, to facilitate ecofriendly removal of those components of the waste which can no longer be reused.
16 Voluntary commitment
It is the responsibility of industry to make improvements to the development and manufacturing phase of products. First of all that can be done on a voluntary basis, for example in the form of voluntary commitments. This conserves resources and prevents waste.
In 1996 the German construction industry made a commitment to the Ger- man Environment Ministry to “halve by 2005 the volume of recyclable con- struction waste being landfilled” (1995–2005). According to the concluding survey carried out in 2005, more than 70% of mineral construction waste (construction waste, road construction waste) was recycled, that is 50 million tonnes. That means the recovery quota set out in the voluntary commitment was more than fulfilled.
An example: Construction and demolition waste
Along with mining waste, construction and demolition waste represents the largest waste segment in terms of volume. Often it comprises a mix of mineral waste, wood, metal, paper and plastics which are sometimes contaminated with hazardous substances.
Construction and demolition waste 2008 (incl. road construction waste, non-hazardous)
Total: 192 million tonnes (mill. t), of which:
Recovery: 171.7 mill. t Final disposal: 20.3 mill. t
Material recovery: Landfill: 19.9 mill. t 171.1 mill. t Recovery rate Energy 89.4% Incineration recovery: and treatment: 0.6 mill. t 0.4 mill. t
Source: Federal Statistical Office 2010, Federal Environment Ministry (BMU)
17 Recovering used graphic papers
Following a suggestion made by the Federal Environment Ministry (BMU), the German graphic papers working group (Arbeitsgemeinschaft Graphische Papiere, AGRAPA), a group formed by the associations and organisations of the papermaking industry, paper importers, paper wholesalers, the printing industry and publishers, undertook in its voluntary commitment of 26 September 1994 to increase the material recovery rate of used graphic papers (printing and administration papers) in several stages and to reach a recovery rate of 60% by 2000.
The actual development of the recovery rate over the period from 1994 to 2000 has significantly exceeded the expectations set in the voluntary com- mitment. In response to this positive development, AGRAPA reaffirmed in September 2001 its 1994 commitment and moreover pledged to maintain the rate permanently at a level of 80% (+/– 3%). This promise has been kept. This is a major environmental success story, and shows that the industry is meeting its extended producer responsibility.
It further underpins the high priority given to paper recycling in the Ger- man paper industry and makes a very significant contribution to reducing environmental pressures.
Waste paper: baled for recycling
18 Recovery of used graphic papers 1994–2008
1,000 t [%] 9,500 100 9,000 87.5 88.7 87.0 83.9 86.0 83.7 8,500 81.8 79.5 8,567 8,687 8,449 8,000 72.3 8,586 8,805 80 8,071 8,275 8,871 7,500 64 7,598 7,363 7,473 7,000 7,200 7,371 7,347 7,059 7,056 60 6,500 7,679 6,766 6,000 5,500 40 5,000 5,325 4,917 4,500 4,000 20 1994 1995 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Consumption of graphic paper products Recovery of used graphic papers Recovery rate [%] Source: AGRAPA, UBA 2010
19 RETURN AND RECOVERY
It is not necessary to introduce legislation until voluntary commitments are no longer sufficient to meet the demands of extended producer responsi- bility – or until the EU introduces specific requirements.
Packaging
To counter the steady increase in the volume of packaging, the German government enacted the Packaging Ordinance in 1991. This was the first comprehensive regulation to be based on the concept of substance cycles. The Packaging Ordinance aims to put extended producer responsibility into practice by extending the manufacturers’ and distributors’ responsibility for their products. That responsibility now begins when the product is manu- factured and ends when it is disposed of in an environmentally compatible manner.
This obligation upon manufacturers and distributors has been realised by setting requirements governing packaging return and recovery. This resulted in the deployment of collection and management systems (“dual systems”) that cover the entire territory of the country and are operated by the indus- try itself.
The Packaging Ordinance has proved to be an effective instrument. The annual increase in packaging consumption has been halted. For many years now, packaging consumption has levelled out at around 15 to 16 million tonnes and is thus decoupled from economic growth. The willingness of the population to collect wastes separately is the precondition to the improved recycling opportunities.
Recovery of used packaging has been continuously increased: 6.1 million tonnes were recovered in 1991, 13.1 million tonnes in 2008.
20 Modern waste technology – Success sorting waste
In Germany, glass, paper, old clothes, biowaste, packaging, metal, bulky waste and hazardous waste from private households are collected separately by public-sector or private-sector disposal companies for recovery.
Because of the high standards imposed on these recovery processes, retail packaging, for exam- ple, that has been separately collected still needs to be further sorted. Originally, this sorting was done manually and with the aid of magnetic separators, air classifiers and vortex separa- tors. Since 1997, however, more and more automatic post-collection sorting systems have been introduced.
It is now possible to separate different types of plastic using a refined detector system based on near infrared spectrography (NIR), which is capable of identifying the type and colour of materials. The system is linked to a computer with such a high processor speed that separation of the individual pieces via precise compressed air jets occurs in real time. As a result, different types of plastic are separated from the sorted waste with a high degree of accuracy.
Waste sorting facility
21 Development of packaging waste recovery rates (in %, 1991–2008)
100 93.6 91.2 88.1 85.9 82.2 81.0 80 80.0 71.2 68.4 67.8 62.2 55.8 55.0
60 53.7
40 37.1
20 16.6 11.6
0 Glass Aluminium Tinplate Plastics Paper Beverage containers 1991 2003 2008 Overall recovery rate 39.2% 78.0% 81.6%
Source: Gesellschaft für Verpackungsmarktforschung mbH (GVM), 2010
Deposit-return systems for drinks make a significant contribution to re- ducing the volume of waste because the packaging can be reused. However, below a certain market share, deposit-return systems are no longer viable. Examples from neighbouring European countries (e.g. Belgium, Austria and Switzerland) show that without effective protective provisions, deposit-return systems will be forced out of the market within a very short time.
The German Packaging Ordinance adopted in 1991 and amended in 1998 made provision for a compulsory deposit on non-recyclable beverage contain- ers if the proportion managed within deposit-return systems falls below 72%. This was the case for the first time in 1997, and recurred in subsequent years. In accordance with the provisions in force at the time, six months after pub- lication of the data concerning the deposit-return proportion the mandatory deposit entered into force as of 1 January 2003 in order to provide protection for the ecologically favourable deposit-return beverage containers.
22 Since 1 May 2006 the compulsory deposit on non-recyclable beverage con- tainers applies as a matter of principle to all non-ecologically favourable non-recyclable containers between 0.1 and 3 litres containing mineral water, beer, soft drinks and alcoholic mixed drinks. The deposit has stabilised the proportion of recyclable packaging in these segments of the beverage mar- ket and has put an end to the throw-away mentality. The deposit is 25 cents for all types of containers.
Fruit and vegetable juices, milk and wine, as well as ecologically favourable non-recyclable drinks packaging – such as cartons, polyethylene bags and stand-up bags – are deposit-free.
Deposit-return proportion of beverage containers* from 1992 to 2008 (in %) 73.54 73.55 72.87
75 72.27 72.21 71.33 70.13 70 68.68 64.98 65 63.60 61.13 60.33 60 56.20 55.99 55 50.64 50 46.44 45 44.12 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
* The percentages concern the following segments of the beverage market: mineral water, fruit juices and other non-carbonated beverages, carbonated soft drinks, and beer and wine.
Source: Gesellschaft für Verpackungsmarktforschung mbH (GVM), 2009
23 The concept and implementation of the 1991 Packaging Ordinance received a great deal of international attention. The German ordinance prompted neighbouring countries such as Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium and France to introduce their own national measures. It then also formed the basis for the adoption of the European Directive on packaging and packag- ing waste of December 1994, which is now binding for all EU Member States.
Waste glass
In Germany, container glass is used primarily by the food and drinks indus- try in the packaging of drinks, vegetables and yoghurt. Glass lends itself par- ticularly well to recycling as it can be melted down and processed into new products any number of times. Compared to the production of new glass, the recycling of waste glass helps to conserve raw materials and reduces energy requirements: 0.2 to 0.3% less energy is required per percentage point of waste glass added.
Waste glass at a civic amenity centre
24 3.1 million tonnes of waste glass are transported within the substance cycle: Glass recovery long established
3.1 million tonnes of waste glass … … replace 3.3 million tonnes of minerals
Source: IFEU 2006 study on household waste, Federal Environment Agency (UBA)
In Germany a minimum recycling quota of 42% was introduced for glass with effect from 1993 by the Packaging Ordinance, which was increased to 72% in 1995 and to 75% in 1999. These quotas have regularly been ex- ceeded. In 2007, 2.36 million tonnes of glass were collected across Germany, with a recycling quota of 83.7%. However, non-reusable glass bottles are not an ecologically advantageous form of drinks packaging. Reusable glass or plastic bottles are significantly more favourable. Reusable glass bottles can be refilled around forty times. This saves even more raw materials and energy than can be achieved by recycling glass.
25 End-of-life vehicles
There are 42 million passenger cars on Germany’s roads. In 2008 some 7.5 million cars were retired, which means they were either temporarily or finally deregistered. According to the Federal Motor Transport Authority (KBA), the final retirements account for around 40% of the cars taken off the roads. This translates into a figure of approx. three million cars finally retired in Germany per year. Of these, between 420,000 and 500,000 are consigned to recovery processes in Germany under the End-of-Life Vehicle Ordinance: dismantling facilities suction the operating liquids off, remove components containing contaminants and extract spare parts. The remaining bodywork is then shredded.
Of the approx. 3 million cars finally retired, in 2008 about 1.5 million were exported as second-hand cars to other EU states and were registered again there – mostly in Poland, Romania and the Czech Republic. A small propor- tion was also exported to non-EU states.
The End-of-Life Vehicle Ordinance of 2002 allows consumers to return end- of-life vehicles to their manufacturer or importer free of charge. Authorised return points, dismantling companies, shredder facilities and other facilities for further treatment can be found on the Internet at www.altfahrzeugstelle. de. Since 2006 those involved in this sector must ensure that at least 80% of the average empty weight of all end-of-life vehicles received per year is reused or the materials contained are recovered, with the further target that at least 85% is reused or otherwise recovered. In 2008 Germany achieved a reuse-plus-material-recovery rate of around 89%, and a reuse-plus-other- recovery rate of around 93%. The requisite rates have thus once again been exceeded. Based on these figures, Germany regularly leads the field in the EU.
26 Batteries
Each year in Germany more than 40,000 tonnes of batteries and accumula- tors enter the market. The German Battery Act prescribes the procedures for recovery of discarded batteries. The Battery Ordinance, in force since 1998, has now been replaced by the Battery Act following the establishment of a new statutory framework by the European Union through its Directive 2006/66/EC. The Act entered into force on 1 December 2009.
As before, the Battery Act assigns responsibility for taking back and dispos- ing of discarded batteries and accumulators to the manufacturers, import- ers and distributors as a matter of principle. Discarded batteries are largely returned via retailers. The Act has now set binding return rates for the first time, namely 35% of the batteries placed on the market by 2012 and 45% by 2016. This presents manufacturers and consumers with a challenge, for far too many batteries are still consigned to residual waste.
The Battery Act also stipulates recovery rates – depending upon the chem- ical system of the batteries. The EU will also formulate qualitative recovery requirements that will then become binding in Germany.
The development and deployment of innovative sorting technologies has made it possible to improve battery recovery rates in recent years. None- theless, the requirements placed upon recovery systems continue to rise due to the development of new battery systems and new battery applications – such as lithium batteries in electric vehicles – and are further driven by the increasing scarcity of resources.
27 Waste electrical and electronic equipment
An average quantity of 1.7 million tonnes of electrical and electronic equip- ment entered the market annually in Germany in recent years. Depending upon their specific service lives, these units will arise as waste in the foresee- able future.
For instance, in 2009 alone some 27 million mobile phones were sold in Ger- many – their average service life is only around two and a half years. Regret- tably, many of these units are still disposed of without making suitable use of their components as secondary resources. The hazardous substances they contain also have adverse environmental effects.
The EU has established the legal framework governing producer responsi- bility by introducing the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive and the Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (RoHS).
These Directives were implemented in Germany by means of the Electrical and Electronic Appliances Act. In accordance with this legislation private consumers in Germany have been able, since 24 March 2006, to return old electrical and electronic appliances free of charge to local authority collec- tion points. Manufacturers are now obliged to accept the returned appli- ances and to recycle them in an environmentally sound manner. Since 24 March 2006 extended producer responsibility also applies to end-of-life appliances used for commercial purposes. In addition, since 1 July 2006 major restrictions have been placed on the use of particularly hazardous substances such as lead and cadmium in electrical and electronic appliances introduced to the market.
The purpose of these statutory provisions is to ensure that new appliances placed on the market in future can be recycled more readily and have longer service lives. Modern resource management seeks to recover to the greatest possible extent the secondary resources contained in discarded equipment while removing potential contaminants, in order to then return these resources to the production process.
28 Recycling mobile phones
29 HIGH STANDARDS IN WASTE DISPOSAL
Municipal waste
Municipal waste comprises waste from private households and similar insti- tutions, as well as domestic-type waste produced by trade and industry. Municipal waste includes, for example, household waste, biowaste, bulky waste, road-sweeping, market waste and separately collected recoverable materials such as glass and paper. In total, 48.4 million tonnes of municipal waste arose in 2008. Of this, around 75% was recovered.
Municipal waste compared to total waste arisings (in million tonnes, incl. hazardous wastes)
total 450 total 406.7 total 395.2 total 400 381.3 total 366.4 total total total 50.1 total 49.4 339.4 340.9* 351.1* 344.6* 350 52.8 331.9 48.2 49.6 49.2 47.9 48.4 45.5 48.4 46.6 46.4 300 46.7 47.7 45.3 42.0 42.9 39.3 42.2 50.5 52.3 250 46.7 58.5 56.4 53.1 54.8 200 48.1
150 260.7 251.3 240.8 223.4 201.8 200.5 100 187.5 184.9 197.7
50
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Municipal waste Construction and demolition waste Mining tailings * excl. wastes from waste treatment facilities Manufacturing and commercial waste Source: Federal Statistical Office 2010
30 Such landfilling ended in May 2005
The Commercial Waste Ordinance of 2002 stipulates that commercial municipal waste and certain construction and demolition waste should be stored separately if at all possible and that as much commercial waste should be recovered as possible.
In accordance with the Ordinance on Environmentally Compatible Storage of Waste of 2001, as of 1 June 2005 it is prohibited to landfill untreated bio- degradable wastes. The residual wastes that arise from households and indus- try are to be treated in a way which prevents biological conversion processes from occurring in landfills. This presupposes that the residual waste is pre- treated by thermal or high-end mechanical-biological methods. Such pre- treatment turns fermenting, rotting and foul-smelling residues into slag or a substance resembling soil which is no longer harmful to the environment. The generation of landfill gas is reduced to almost zero. This is not only of exceptional importance as regards soil and water resource conservation, but particularly with regard to climate protection, as the methane gas produced has a strong global warming impact.
Germany thus goes far beyond the goal set in the EU’s Landfill Directive, which envisages reducing to 35% the volume of biodegradable municipal waste deposited – but not until 2016.
31 By 2020 as much municipal waste as possible is to be recovered in Germany and the number of above-ground landfills for recyclable materials is to be further reduced. In order to achieve that goal, among other things, residual waste processing procedures need to be developed so that only such sub- stances are produced that do not need to be stored but can be recycled, thus conserving raw materials.
Waste management is climate protection
The various waste management measures have different impacts on the sector’s greenhouse gas emissions inventory. A study conducted in 2005 found that the sector still emitted around 38 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) in 1990. This was mainly due to the landfill gas emissions from household landfills. Worldwide, such landfills are the source of 25–30% of methane emissions! Methane is the main component of landfill gas and has a global warming impact per unit emitted that is 25 times higher than carbon dioxide.
A more recent study performed in 2009 has found that a reversal of the situation was already achieved in 2006. This was thanks to improvements in landfill gas capture and recovery, and especially the termination of the landfilling of untreated wastes:
32 Today the municipal waste management sector including waste wood re- covery is a contributor to climate protection, generating savings in the order of 18 million tonnes CO2 per year. This is equivalent to the CO2 emissions of 7.7 million passenger cars, or just under 19% of the present German fleet. Taking 1990 as the baseline year, the climate change mitigation contribu- tion made by the waste management sector up to 2006 thus totalled around
56 million tonnes CO2. This means that the sector already delivered in 2006 some 20% of the overall savings of 280 million tonnes CO2 achieved by Germany as part of its Kyoto commitment. Particularly large contributions came from waste wood use, packaging, glass and paper recovery, and waste incineration.
No longer a climate killer Waste deposited after 2005 emits almost no radiative forcing gases
(in million tonnes CO2 equivalent)
Total radiative forcing emissions of the household wastes land- filled in the year in question
Year landfilled
Source: IFEU 2006 study, Federal Environment Agency (UBA)
33 Biowaste
The Ordinance on Biowaste ensures that only biodegradable waste with a low pollutant content is utilised as a fertiliser or soil improver after compost- ing or fermentation. The aim is to eliminate the accumulation of pollutants in the soil. In addition, composted or fermented and subsequently composted biowaste is an important source of humus.
Biodegradable substances must be collected separately if they are to be turned into biowaste composts and fermentation residues with low levels of pollutants. If farmers were to use composted waste as a fertiliser, up to 10% of mineral fertilisers could be replaced. Around nine million tonnes of bio- waste is currently collected separately as green waste or via the bio-bin in Germany each year and processed into compost and fermentation residues. An average of around 50% of the population in Germany collects biowaste using bio-bins. A study conducted on behalf of the Federal Environment Ministry (BMU) found that the collection of biowaste can still be improved significantly. In response, the draft Act amending the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act provides for the introduction, from January 2015 onwards, of separate biowaste collection across the entire territory of the coun- try. The details of such a scheme can be stipulated by statutory ordinance.
The German government – together with the governments of Austria, Spain, Portugal and eight other countries – is committed to the creation of a European regulatory regime governing biowaste. According to a proposal put forward by the German Federal Environment Ministry, there is also to be a transitional phase across Europe after which only biodegradable waste from separate collection may be used in the manufacture of compost fertil- isers. In addition, minimum requirements are to be imposed on pollutants and foreign materials in compost.
The supplemented and amended EU Waste Framework Directive strengthens biowaste recovery by introducing a specific provision (Article 22). Under this, the member states are to promote the separate collection and environ- mentally sound recovery of biowaste. Moreover, the European Commission
34 is called on to carry out an evaluation of environmental policy regarding bio- waste management and to formulate requirements upon biowaste treatment as well as quality standards for composts and fermentation residues.
35 Fermenter in a sewage treatment plant
36 Sewage sludge
Sewage sludge from local authority sewage treatment plants contains high levels of phosphorus. That is why around 30% of sewage sludge is currently used as a fertiliser. The German government is also promoting techniques for extracting low-pollutant phosphate from sewage sludge and domestic sewage. During the current 17th parliamentary term the Federal Environ- ment Ministry aims to amend the Sewage Ordinance of 1992 in order to better safeguard the interests of precautionary soil protection.
Sewage sludge disposal and reuse
Management routes for sewage sludge from municipal sewage treatment facilities in 2009* Total quantity of sewage sludge: 1.96 million tonnes
Landscaping Thermal processes 14.4%
52.5%
30.1% Farming
Others 2.9%
Sewage sludge recovery in farming – Development of recovery rates from 1991 to 2009 – [%] 100 80
60 41.0 37.0 33.4 29.8 28.8 28.6 30.1 40 20.0 20 0 1991 1997 2000 2003 2006 2007 2008 2009
* Deviation of total from 100 percent is due to rounding. Source: Federal Statistical Office, BMU 2010
37 Waste oil
End-of-life lubricants such as are used, for example, in machines, engines, transmissions, and turbines and which need to be disposed of in an environ- mentally friendly manner are classified as waste oil. Since they are extremely dangerous for groundwater and soil, Germany already introduced regula- tions governing the complete collection and correct storage of waste oil in 1979.
In Germany the waste oil market is purely market-economy-based. Since the provisions of the Waste Oil Ordinance came into effect in 1987 this sys- tem has been running smoothly. In 2008 493,000 tonnes of waste oil was collected and completely recovered, 76% materially and 24% energetically.
Since the Waste Oil Ordinance was amended in 2002 reprocessing of waste oil has top priority. Thus, separating the hazardous substances from the waste oil produces base oil which can be returned to the lubricant sub- stance cycle.
38 Development of waste oil recovery (in 1,000 tonnes)
485 486 480 493 473 467 463 462 120 158 165 110 130 112 129 106 (24%) (33%) (34%) (23%) (27%) (24%) (28%) (23%) 376 373 355 356 350 334 (77%) (76%) 315 320 (76%) (77%) (73%) (72%) (67%) (66%)
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Material recovery Energy recovery Source: Federal Environment Ministry (BMU)
Waste wood
The Waste Wood Ordinance of 2002 establishes specific requirements gov- erning the material and energy recovery and disposal of waste wood. The Ordinance thus ensures that the environmentally compatible recovery of waste wood is promoted in Germany and that pollutants are not recycled or do not accumulate during recovery.
The Ordinance covers production residues from the dressing and treatment of wood and wood materials, as well as end-of-life products such as wooden packaging, pallets, furniture and demolition wood, provided that it consti- tutes waste.
39 Overall, the Ordinance guarantees a binding standard for the management of waste wood that applies across Germany. It thus creates identical competi- tive conditions in particular for small and medium-sized waste management companies, since they are the ones primarily active in this area.
Persistent organic pollutants
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic materials which biodegrade with difficulty and can accumulate in organisms. These substances are so dangerous because they are disseminated via the water, the soil and air and thus take on global significance. POPs include, among others, pesticides, industrial chemicals such as PCBs, and dioxins and furans.
The EU’s Regulation on POPs of 2004 introduced a general prohibition on the destruction or conversion of these hazardous substances. POP waste must be treated in such a way that this prohibition is complied with. Only if the level of POPs in waste is below strict limits can it be disposed of in the same way as normal waste. In adopting this Regulation the EU has taken an impor- tant step towards reducing the environmental burden caused by extremely hazardous organic substances.
40 Production waste
56.4 million tonnes of production waste arose in Germany in 2008, of which 9.6 million tonnes were hazardous wastes. Production waste comprises waste generated by commerce and manufacturing. In principle the producers of the waste bear sole responsibility for its management. They must either recover or dispose of the waste themselves or commission a waste manage- ment company with carrying out this task in a professional manner. In some Federal Länder this obligation has been transferred to regional companies which ensure the waste is managed in an environmentally sound manner. This ensures that the waste is either recycled (currently some 82%) or dis- posed of in an environmentally sound manner by means of chemical/phys- ical treatment or in incineration plants, or that it is landfilled in line with strict allocation values.
Strict regulations call for modern technology Two modern processes instead of immediate storage
Mechanical-biological Waste incineration treatment
Landfill site
Source: IFEU 2006 study, Federal Environment Agency (UBA)
41 Landfilling of waste
The Landfill Ordinance of 2009, which transposed the EU Landfill Directive into German law, sets out legally binding, high standards for landfill sites depending on the type of waste deposited there and the concomitant risks for the environment. By 2009 at the latest all landfill sites must fulfil these requirements. Those landfills which are incapable of meeting the require- ments have been closed.
The Landfill Ordinance requires that especially hazardous waste be disposed of below ground in deep salt mines. This ensures that such waste and the pollutants it contains will be permanently sealed from the biosphere.
The 2009 Landfill Ordinance also contains provisions governing the condi- tions under which waste may be used as substitute construction materials in above-ground landfills. Comparable regulations were introduced for under- ground waste processing in the Underground Waste Stowage Ordinance, which came into effect in 2002.
Structure of a landfill site Degasification, if appropriate
Roof
Waste: Groundwater Surface seal Allocation values monitoring Entry control Storage area Monitoring shaft Pre-treatment
Collection of leachate water
Groundwater
Geological basis
Source: Federal Environment Ministry (BMU)
42 Landfill with gas well in foreground
Control is better
The provisions of German waste law governing the prevention, recovery and disposal of wastes are underpinned by an efficient set of monitoring tools. These range from the right to demand information or conduct on-site inspec- tions to preventive approvals for waste shippers, traders and brokers as well as for waste management facilities.
The Ordinance on Waste Recovery and Disposal Records plays a particular role here. It enables the supervisory authorities to monitor whether haz- ardous wastes, in particular, are being managed properly. For this purpose, every year around 120,000 waste management records, 2.5 to 3 million ac- companying certificates and around 14 million return receipts are submitted to the supervisory authorities for checking or are at least held available by those concerned.
The previous, extremely time-consuming form-based procedure for main- taining records has been replaced as of 1 April 2010 by an electronic proce- dure. The more rapid availability, transmission and evaluation of record data makes the procedure more efficient in terms of environmental performance, while also simplifying it, which is to the benefit of the private-sector stake- holders and the public waste management authorities.
43 TRANSBOUNDARY SHIPMENTS OF WASTE
The transboundary shipment of wastes is regulated in international law by the Basel Convention. Shipments between EU member states are regulated by the EC Regulation on the supervision and control of shipments of waste.
Within the EU waste which is being transported to be recovered is treated principally as “goods”. In most cases transboundary movements of waste in- volve secondary raw materials. Shipments of waste which are to be disposed of or which are hazardous or do not appear on the waste lists must first be authorised by the competent authority.
Germany is economically integrated into the EU and, with nine immediate neighbours, lies in the heart of Europe. National borders no longer constitute obstacles to goods traffic within Europe. This promotes the exchange of goods.
How much waste is imported and exported?
The quantity of wastes imported that were subject to authorisation continued to be large in 2009 as in previous years. It amounted to 7.6 million tonnes; the figure was driven upwards above all by a major construction site near the German-Austrian border. Exports, in contrast, dropped, only figuring 1.2 mil- lion tonnes in 2009. The proportion of hazardous wastes was also smaller than in the previous year – exports only amounted to 160,000 tonnes (a drop by 30%) while imports figured 3 million tonnes (7% less than in 2008). No sub- stantial illegal shipments are known for the year 2009.
The volume of trade in wastes not subject to authorisation – mainly scrapped metal, waste glass, waste paper, and plastics and textile wastes – was substan- tially lower in 2009 than in the previous year: imports amounted to around 10.8 million tonnes, exports to approximately 18.5 million tonnes.
44 Transboundary shipments of waste (in million tonnes) 6.8 7.6 5.8 5.6 6.2
2.0 1.8 1.1 1.6 1.2 requiring official authorisation
21.0* 19.4 18.1 18.5 16.0 14.9 14.1 IMPORT EXPORT 12.2 10.6 10.8
not requiring official authorisation
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 * provisional figures from the Federal Statistical Office
Source: Federal Statistical Office 2010, Federal Environment Agency 2010
45 INFORMATION AVAILABLE ON THE INTERNET
The Federal Environment Ministry’s website includes pages with lots of additional information, links and references, notably to the information offices of the various waste industry and environmental associations: www.bmu.de/3865: Up-to-date information and press releases on the German government’s waste management policy. www.bmu.de/3432: Waste policy in Germany and the EU – Info – Tasks. www.bmu.de/3449: Waste exports. www.bmu.de/3446: Construction and demolition waste. www.bmu.de/3436: Packaging Wastes – Overview – Statistics. www.bmu.de/3442: Electronic scrap and old Appliances Wastes. www.bmu.de/3441: Waste appliances and waste batteries. www.bmu.de/3443: End-of-life vehicles. www.bmu.de/3444: Waste oil. www.bmu.de/3440: Waste paper. www.bmu.de/3439: Waste glass. www.bmu.de/3445: Organic waste. www.bmu.de/4342: Sewage Sludge Ordinance.
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This publication is part of the public relations work of the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety. It is distributed free of charge and is not intended for sale. Printed on recycled paper.