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In In partial of fulfillment the requirement anti When writing turnsWhen writing savage: Contextualizing - Semitic graffitiSemitic onthestreets of Krakow Department of Sociology and Social and Department Sociology of Anthropology Central European University Central European Prof. Jean Prof. Monterescu Daniel and Budapest Budapest,Hungary Stanislav Lukac Submitted to Supervisors: 2014 - Louis Fabiani Louis By

s for theMaster of degree of Arts

CEU eTD Collection to inform the anti continue that preconceptions engrained deeply the as well as statements racist such of ambiguity as it using or cities contemporary of streets the to over spilt that debate political heated a in opinion one's voicing of way a as form, hooligan localities different in consequences different for accounts and forms anti inscribed the contextualize its con of forms memory.collective and individual of arena urban o in space of interpretations schemes the regeneration in new areas problematic of and neglected framework of restoration the on emphasis the with combined renegot B Budapest and Krakow commentary social unrestrained “an provide too, graffiti, disc particular a by governed is which position”, “take also graffiti landscape, urban context and city of imaginingssocial and Abstract t cte wr fre t udro udmna chang fundamental undergo to forced were cities oth

ope ntr dsre a pr a deserves nature complex In order to interpret the meaning of graffiti as well as well as graffiti of meaning the interpret to order In iate

- the sensitivity of graffiti as general social phenomena. social general as graffiti of sensitivity testation. T

yblc meanings symbolic - Semitic discourseSemitic nowadays.

propose a number of intriguing parallels worthy of attentive investigation attentive of worthy parallels intriguing of number a propose he phenomenon of anti of phenomenon he scapes, it is of crucial importance to acknowledge importanceto crucial of is it scapes, - eiim s goa sca peoeo ta takes that phenomenon social global a as Semitism pr n cmrhnie analysis. comprehensive and oper of Such

. Similarly, it also brings about challenges for challenges about brings also it Similarly, . several

processes of reidentification generate reidentification of processes

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Apart from “taking place” in the the in place” “taking from Apart

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CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Appendices 8. Conclusion 7. Discussion 6. Resistance toanti 5. Anti 4. Methodology 3. Why 2. hasbeenWhat graffiti done on orgraffiti's onacademic imprint literature Introduction1. Table ofcontents

6.2 Anti anti local6.1 Municipal policies and initiatives 5.3 “Jew” as a term 5.2 Anti 5.1 Hooligangraffiti 2.3 Racist graffiti 2.2 Graffiti asvandalism 2.1 Graffiti a -

Semitic graffitiSemitic Krakowand in Budapest Krakow and Budapest?Krakow and - Semitic graffitiSemitic asa political statement

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CEU eTD Collection is articulated distinctivelyin different contexts. local an as phenomenon worldly a such that case the elucidate could that hypothesis anti the in Eur Central communities Jewish the toward resentment rising the upon Drawing times. at startled feel me made it that hate with loaded so and explicitlyviolent rude, graffitiwere encountered that wan my contrary,during the On it. idealize to continue many which in ways the reflect always not does making graffiti that shows which form, the with cope to decided I thesis my In scenery. urban the onto inscribed get that forms a feelings of myriad a is that graffiti, addition, In from. stemming is existence graffiti's the which from foundations very the devalue as well as subculture graffiti the to fundam both that problematic fairly also is graffiti frames conceptual opposing two the between line the writing on balances constantly it since contemplate of practice the However, youth. rebellious adventurous an promises it is it Yes,dynamic, fun. of lot a like seems it put, simply because, attention the grab quickly that those of one is subculture graffiti The on. hands their put to like might sciences social of student the 1. Introduction oipltcl icmtne udr hc anti which under circumstances sociopolitical - Semitic sentiments in Krakow and Budapest. My inquiry was informed and motivated by the the by motivated and informed was inquiry My Budapest. and Krakow in sentiments Semitic Looking at Looking n h floig ae I sie o rsn a oeet con o m poe no the into probe my of account coherent a present to aspire I pages following the In opean region, I sharpened my research focus on both textual and visual expressions of of expressions visual and textual both on focusresearch Imy sharpened region, opean entally de entally

contemporary cities contemporary - essentialize the roles that graffiti that roles the essentialize

offers a vast array of fascinatin of array vast a offers ride and it is emblematic of independent spirit and and spirit independent of emblematic is it and ride derings around the streets of Krakow and Budapest, I Budapest, and Krakow of streets the around derings - 1 eii gaft fn ter ot ot te ur the onto route their find graffiti Semitic

fulfill

for those who get engaged in engaged get who those for nd messages in a range of range a in messages nd g social phenomena that that phenomena social g ti - Semitic graffiti Semitic ban ban CEU eTD Collection dimensions of these urban contenurbanthese of dimensions several reflects phenomenon social paradoxical a as Graffiti cityscapes. of renegotiation forced a to dwellers urban of resistance the towards contributed greatly least at or in, resulted has spaces o practices the as well as regeneration urban of projects various The decade. previous the of studies, cultural of field the in namely and research, scientific social the 2. What has been done ongraffiti or graffiti's imprint academicon literature urban from graffiti of eradication for environment. efforts political the to Europeanization of concept expan will I thesis, the of part final the In background. subcultural the from coming resistance of acts the and authorities local anti to resistance of strategies various omit not will manner.I contemptuous and and abusive an in symbols Jews Jewish to referring routine the behind rationale the interpret and debate, public in opinion grhooligan anti the in inherent ambiguity the identify will I analysis. of process the in transpired anti consider I will work. Then field myduring a provide also will I practices. graffiti on literature academic the of overview wider the in investigation scholarly for interest of matter a as graffiti to approach my ground first will I findings, my on elaborating Before cities. both of landscapes it continues to be framed and categorized in binary terms, either as an aesthetic presentation of of presentation aesthetic an as either terms, binary in categorized and framed be to continues it The s The affiti, examine how graffiti get utilized to voice the individual as well as the collective the as well as individual the voice to graffiti getutilized how affiti, examine tudy of graffiti as the visual representation of urban sentiments has proliferated in proliferated has sentiments urban of representation visual the as graffiti of tudy

d on the issues of visibility and indifference and apply Fleming's apply and indifference and visibility of issues the on d tions. Graffiti's essence has proved hard to capture.Nonetheless,Graffiti's tions. to hardproved has essence - Semitic graffiti, including both the top the both including graffiti, Semitic - Semitic inscriptions in three separate clusters that clusters separate three in inscriptions Semitic 2

brief outline of research methods that I used used I that methods research of outline brief piaiain f urban of privatization f

a detailed evaluation of evaluation detailed a - down influence of influence down - Semitic

CEU eTD Collection and context and site acknowledge to importance crucial of is it cityscapes, of imaginings social and foreground for attention (2010: inthe struggle visibilityand 322 public walls” on interventions “tactical as graffiti and arena urban a 316 (2010:boundaries its of identification with an as graffiti of ac character practice interstitial porous This those. of one single any to reduced easily be cannot it however, vandalism, or art as such fields, social established already varying, of boundaries cons in is that practice” interstitial “an as conceive graffiti to instead, suggests, She outlook. dichotomous a in graffiti considering from result treated“culturally asactivity meaningful be to deserve they landscape, urban the in communication alternative of mediums the of one as 2012 and city the to connection a finding of forms many Hutton amongst one represent graffiti that emphasize & (Rowe subculture graffiti the within expressions graffiti of forms distinctive the of hierarchization the as well as taxonomy imperfect and fuzzy its is rationalize to problematic graffiti makes what Moreover, 872). 2010: Holmes 82; 2012: Hut & & YoungRowe (Halsey 275; fabric 2006: urban the defacing activity criminal a or self nlss f eta patcs sugges practices textual of analysis firm link between walls as governmental objects that determine and control th control and determine that objects governmental as walls between link firm h wr o aohr oil hoit Bihni 21) cnepae te iiain that limitations the contemplates (2010), Brighenti theorist, social another of work The In order to interpret the meaning of graffiti as well as well as graffiti of meaning the interpret to order In - sensitivity of graffiti as general social phenomena. Chmielewska (2007) in her visual her in (2007) Chmielewska phenomena. social general as graffiti of sensitivity ons o is iia psto i pbi dsore n cue difficulties causes and discourse public in position liminal its for counts ts to account for inseparability of graffiti from the urban urban the from graffiti of inseparability for account to ts ” (2012: 67, 70). (2012: ” - 317). In addition, Brug Inaddition, 317). 3

at neato ad nefrne ih the with interference and interaction tant

their ,

n re t big hm o the to them bring to order in

pla : 73). Rowe and Hutton Hutton and Rowe 73). : - henti's contribution sets up sets contribution henti's ce within urban dynamics dynamics urban within ce 323).

e movement in movement e - specificity specificity ton ton CEU eTD Collection at all at the centre of communication” (Iedema in Lynn & Lea 2005: 45). Contrarily, the the Contrarily, 45). 2005: Lea & Lynn in (Iedema communication” of centre the at all at not is “language that byshowing expression of “multimodality” of importance the demonstrate to of work the Inspiredby 43). (2005: moment the beyond live which utterances, tangible as graffiti regard authors The graffiti. of characteristics mentioned above writing” to aspects important “unauthorized several adds inquiry academic their of core the of Nevertheless, 40). (2005: piece a call they what of meaning the understanding for contexts accommodation practices indiscursive (Wolf 1999:6). its with only reveals graffitisign a in essentialized indication expressive an or act communicative “take also graffiti landscape, urban position” the in place” “taking from Apart dimension. spatial, its material to only constrained not is communication of medium a as graffiti of positionality pollutionexceptionalby addi textual familiar somehow a render to contributes also it but meanings of multilayering possible thus and contexts of complexity the clarify help it does only Not significance. considerable of frame a possible, as context accurate as in intervention literaryurban and visual them understand to crucial deems and texts graffiti “semiotic of these in deployed language and surface aggregates” both of importance the emphasize to seeks she “inscriptions”, as place first the in them Seeing inscribed. are they which upon surface accentuation of materiality can pr can materiality of accentuation ,

Similarly,Lynnand as long as they sustain their presence in the urban landscape, become heteroglot as they as heteroglot become landscape, urban the in presence their sustain they as long as wih s oend y priua dsore 20: 6) Te usac o a of substance The 161). (2007: discourse particular a by governed is which , (2007: 149, 155). Additionally, Chmielewska realizes temporality and spatial context spatial and 155). temporality Additionally,149, realizes (2007: Chmielewska Lea recognize the interconnectedness of textual, spatial and temporal and spatial textual, of interconnectedness the recognize Lea ove beneficial in understanding the expression of historical and and historical of expression the understanding in beneficial ove ngplace - specific nuance to it (2007: 150, 151). However,150,151). (2007: it nuanceto the specific 4

n situ in Iedema, Lynn and Lea utilize graffitiLynn Iedema,Leautilize and . With regard to reading both the the both reading to regard With . locality comes to serve as serve to localitycomes the the CEU eTD Collection vandalism of act an graffitias art, graffitias on concentrate will I subsections three following the In writing. graffiti of aspects specific of research the in applied concepts the elucidate to on move now will order integrity”existential and (Fliegstein 17,22). 2012: and McAdam of sense shared “the for search the and crisis field of times in worlds social alternative creating w 420), (2009: action strategic larger of field the within deployed frequently quite be “do named Carrington that narratives textual these of elaboration fragment substantial sometimes but hidden somewhat often reveal landscape, urban the along there and here scattered is particularly wit quintessential decoding and coding of question The 53). 2005: Lea & (Lynn context right the “urban in the speech” of pieces and bits the interpret and read can who those of number the limit might specificall more coding; of use the is audiences their cultural ofstructures qualities social (ibid.). Furthermore, Carrington proposes to treat graffiti as autobiographical writings, which, which, writings, autobiographical as graffiti treat to proposes Carrington Furthermore, and writers for communication of means effective an graffiti makes what Nonetheless, In the light of the general overview of academic literature dealing wi dealing literature academic of overview general the of light the In ,

and graff racist o oes ujcie xeine 20: 1, 2) Te osrcin and construction The 420). 410, (2009: experience subjective one's of s iti. iti. h regardgraffiti to nonverbal as representations.

5

, h dpomn o a oa cd, which code, local a of deployment the y, - it - yourself biographies” might might biographies” yourself

th graffiti practices, I graffitipractices, th

hich aims at aims hich CEU eTD Collection to its surrounding environment and environment surrounding its to t precipitates that process” affective “an as graffiti understand to ( possibilities creative of array an recognize materia 286 (2006: meaning and signification adding by imagery visual the in gaps “negative” boring, enlightening Stree qualities. aesthetic differing manifests which of each practices, marking competing of field a as city the understand they and (Brighenti Halsey& 2010:217; Young 2006: completion upon work their the of appeal in aesthetic the lies and motivation performance graffiti their the of that enjoyment and pastime”, childish “a than rather lifestyle their of part painti graffiti complex and refined creating in engage that writers those for that evidence bring authors several space, urban in practices writing graffiti of analyses their In a of production the for necessitated skills of developing and training of process lengthy the justifies and esteem self of feeling writer's the bolsters community wider the within piece art street individual's an self of forms positive (Row activity artistic perceivably about a of performance bring can gang”) graffiti “a to opposed 2.1 of embeddedness in the world as well as induces “a heightened sense of belonging, with other with belonging, of sense heightened “a induces as well as world the in embeddedness of Graffiti art as Halsey and Young argue that thewriters “ocular have ainurban distinct orientation” space (as crew” graffiti “a in membership the that shows literature graffiti of review The l space, the one that provides “a canvas that they can walk and live on” and in which they which in and on” live and walk can they that canvas “a provides that one the space, l - 8) Ti dsicie ae t h ct alw te t se ifrn lyr o the of layers different see to them allows city the at gaze distinctive This 288). n artwork under physically arduous conditions (Halsey & Young 2006: 280, 283). & Young(Halsey280, conditions 2006: arduous physically under artwork n

at o te i aot rnig ie o lfls places”, “lifeless to life bringing about is them for art t which, which, through its intensity its through Kótun & Ruszty 2009: 3 2009: Ruszty & Kótun 2 79; 6

Rowe & 81). Hutton2012: e & Hutton 2012: 68 2012: Hutton & e ,

enhances the individual's feeling feeling individual's the enhances he connection of a writer's body body writer's a of connection he ). Halsey and Youngand tryHalsey also ). - 69). The recognition of recognition The 69). - ngs, doing graffiti is graffiti doing ngs, fimto through affirmation

- CEU eTD Collection 289). Young2006: & Halsey 418; 2009: (Carrington landscape visual its deaestheticize and pollution cr “enviro as regarded also are graffiti delinquency, and use drug of spiral downward a to leads that crime signal a as seen being from Young&276). Apart 2006: soci anti of indicator an as graffiti consider makers policy the of Most environment. urban in role 2.2 of form alternative an as graffiti” of subcu their death questioning “the to of lead way eventually efficient could and an legitimacy, be would graffiti of commercialization increasing o appropriation the from resulting dangers the to attest also they Nevertheless, 82). (2012: setting urban contemporary the in evident processes commercialization of contestation the to contribution own their make writers proj for canvas as walls public using by Furthermore, public. the in appreciated and represented legitimately be can art of form what of conceptualizations people and (20 toother places” destructive act made out of bore of out made act destructive Graffiti vandalism as al behavior and correlate graffiti with other, more violent forms of criminal activity (Halsey activity criminal of forms violent more other, with graffiti correlate and behavior al ltural (2012: expression 67 oe n Hto rao ta gaft a sre at oe hleg t te established the to challenge pose art street as graffiti that reason Hutton and Rowe Although municipalities frown upon graffiti writers and tend to demonize their work as a a as work their demonize to tend and writers graffiti upon frown municipalities Although their and graffiti understanding of pole other the towards leans narrative criminology The f graffiti's “subcultural elements” by mainstream culture and warn that warn and culture mainstream by elements” “subcultural graffiti's f

06: 276 - dom and lack of respect for other people's property, Rowe and Rowe property, people's other for respect of lack and dom 68; 83). - 277).

7

cig hi iaiain graffiti imagination, their ecting ime” that adds up to the city's the to up adds that ime” - CEU eTD Collection significance for the youth living in an urban an in living youth the for significance 410). (Carrington constraints and culture” participatory of framework legitimacy government's (Holmes 873;Halsey 2010: & Young the 2006:295). to threat subversive a present claims territorial and ideological th which in ways the since control stringent more under practices related graffiti put to interest considerable a has State the account, that On 295 (2006: space public of integrity r and cleanliness order, of that categories delineated already one the urbanity”, of sense orthodox “the breach they because authorities to problematic and different as seen are They othering. of practice normative the to exposed are & Young 2006:287,294). (Halsey practice irrational highly meaningless, a of in immersed are advocates they that discourse hegemonic the from criticism fierce counter thus skills, their of improve to terms efforts in deliberate thinking of ways strategic a exhibit writers graffiti themselves, on limits imposing to addition In 80). (2012: elderly) the for homes care schools, th of scope the on limits impose do ownership, than rather use of terms in property to conceptualize inclination their despite writers, the that demonstrate which findings, their to refer Hutton the public, making a statement about their own private feelings or fears, or disputing mainstream disputing or fears, or feelings private own their about statement a making public, the i atvt ad eonz a eis f ao pae usial fr rfii ncitos (e.g. inscriptions graffiti for unsuitable places taboo of series a recognize and activity eir Halsey and Halsey rwn o ter eelos aaiy gaft ne t b studied be to need graffiti capacity, rebellious their on Drawing

Young assert that people who are actively involved in the graffiti subculture subculture graffiti the in involved actively are who people that Young assert

Ten Eyck and Fischer argue that graffiti might prove to be of huge huge of be to prove might graffiti that argue Fischer and TenEyck the

expression of individual agency vis agency individual of expression jungle when it comes to reaching out their voice to voice their out reaching to comes it when jungle ey politicize the landscape and make their own own their make and landscape the politicize ey 8

lnig coeain and cooperation planning, lo wti the “within also - à - vis structural vis elies on the the on elies - 296). ,

CEU eTD Collection uhrte (05 5) Bsds Holm local Besides, by 57). unnoticed (2005: go to authorities perpetrators the of agenda the helps hatred manner obvious implicit of expression an in it communicate to is communities foreign in an passing of way efficient most the that out found the gang thenatives andcommon archenemy and theunwanted, 51). a (2005: 42, divi strict the and threat resolute a implies which often tone, definitive its and line argumentative its of deficiency recognize also They 40). (2005: prejudice” mo pay (2012: oppression for tool the and territory marking (2005). TenFischer and Eyck te and territoriality of to concept attempted the have deploy who scientists, social few among fact in are They investigation. research my of topic the for suitable greatly find I territoriality,which of concept the around revolves Lea 2.3 largerwithin social structures” (Tenand Eyck Fischer 2012: 839). beingt middle repetition and the intimidating message inscribed on an urban wall grows in power with its its with power reproduction (2010: 873). in grows wall urban an on inscribed message intimidating the and repetition Racist graffitiRacist he case, graffiti has potential to become“ to graffitipotential case, has he - In pursuance of the racist thread in graffiti literature, the account p account the literature, graffiti in thread racist the of pursuance In Furthermore, taking the example of anti of example the taking Furthermore, re attention to definition of racist graffiti, which they classify as “imbued with hatred and and hatred with “imbued as classify they which graffiti, racist of definition to attention re class values that keep them cut off in the position of diminished power (2012: 835). Such 835). (2012: power diminished of position the in off cut them keep that values class

,

likewise ,

es maintains that graffiti become meaningful in their their in meaningful become graffiti that maintains es perceive racist versions of graffiti as the emotive work of work emotive the graffitias of versions racist perceive rtra dmrain ih eeec t ht graffiti hate to reference with demarcation rritorial - 9 a marker of both the self and individual existence individual and self the both markerof a Semitic graffiti into consideration, Lynn and Lea Lynnand consideration, into graffiti Semitic

832). Nevertheless, it is Lynn and Lea who Lea and Lynn is it Nevertheless, 832). timidating message to ethnic groups and groups ethnic to message timidating sion between “us” and “them”, “them”, and “us” between sion

,

as restraining from the the from restraining as rovided by Lynn and and Lynn by rovided

CEU eTD Collection were not unknown to me prior to start of my field work, and I could draw on the ties I had made made had I ties the on draw could I and work, field my of start to prior me to unknown not were therefore, cities, Both on. later time of period same the about for Budapest in studying up ended Krakow in study to opportunity Krakow3. Why and Budapest? Lynn (Chmielewskato it 2007:149; Lea& 2005:42). straightforwa afor aim to seem theyregard, graffitiassociated with areand not theyforms, art street the in observe can we which detail, to attention and refinement the miss they quality, a of lack the in differ they Nevertheless, 42). 2005: Lea & (Lynn commentary” social space definedby therenegotiated 2010:326 boundaries (Brighenti a well as identity for search the in role its play to supposed is marker,which territorial a respect tension (2010: 325). Territories “at the exist thus boundaryinherentlyForher, construction to is linked “claimingspace” of and entails territoriality making. territory of stabilization and production for prerequisites the of one as reiteration views i n the past to obtain insight into the questions related to my research focus. I could also easily say easily also could I focus. research my to related questions the into insight obtain to past the n Similarly to other types of graffiti expression, racist graffiti, too, provide “an unrestrained unrestrained “an provide too, graffiti, racist expression, graffiti of types other to Similarly Holm likewise and, territoriality of notion the upon elaborates well, as Brighenti, The choice of the places of my research inquiry turned up somehow naturally as I had an an had I as naturally somehow up turned inquiry research my of places the of choice The –

between relationships and spaces” (Brighenti 2010: 324). The anti The 324). 2010: (Brighenti spaces” and relationships between due to the Erasmus exchange program for almost a year, and I and year, a almost for program exchange Erasmus the to due

po int of convergence of int rd insult without any “disturbing” artistic value added added value artistic “disturbing”any without insult rd ,

10 or founded on a particular artistic tradition. In this artistic tradition. a particular on founded or

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which is which - 327).

of course also a point of a of coursepoint also of - Semitic tag is in this in is tag Semitic esthetic esthetic es, she she es, s CEU eTD Collection 1 of renegotiation as well as planning urban in changes fundamental undergo revival and un rather a represents and out stands Krakow of case the numbers, in disparity obvious this of light the In 169). 2009: (Keresztély 1999 in population total city the of cent per 4.5 comprised which residents, Jewish 000 85 had period, transformation beginning the after decade a still but data older to according though Budapest, contrary, (Murzyn 2009 in members 180 than less registering congregation two the between Murzyn points” meeting “hip of district seventh the and Kazimierz with years, recent the in revival Jewish contemporary of loci the become also Second Worldthe before period war the in populations large Jewish anti of topic the to reference with so more investigation, attentive of worthy parallels intriguing of number however,a propose the urbangot experience they have onoffer. of aspects several with identified feel and cities both to attachment solid a developed have I that 2

population. The numbers were high in Krakow as well where one fourth of the pre the of fourth one Judaism. where well as Krakow in high were numbers The population. wa Budapest of population Jewish the WarWorld Second the Before Budapest’s041. residents, 334 740 1 758, amounts to has Krakow While population Taking nte pit f eatr fr y eerh s h fc ta bt cte wr fre to forced were cities both that fact the is research my for departure of point Another - uiz 09 38 Krs 21) Nvrhls, ht oe a a tiig distinction striking a as comes what Nevertheless, 2013). Karasz 388; 2009: Kupisz (Keresztély anti

into account the difference in difference the account into - Semitism

cases is the current size of their Jewish communities, with Krakow's Jewish Jewish Krakow's with communities, Jewish their of size current the is cases Erszébetváros

2009: 169; Szulc2014) 169; 2009: o local for

shake hands one in place. - Semitic graffiti. Apart from the fact that b that factgraffiti. Semitic the from Apart

n itrainl ot tgte (aobr & aiosa in Waligorska & (Saxonberg together youth international and

res pectively, developing into “pulsating cultural centers” and and centers” cultural “pulsating into developing pectively,

the 11

cities' population size population cities'

ique example when both the intense Jewish intense the both when example ique s 184 000 and made up 16% of the total total the of 16% up made and 000 184 s 2 , Krakow and Krakow , - uiz 09 33. o the To 373). 2009: Kupisz oth cities had significantly significantly had cities oth 1

, Krakow and Budapest, and Krakow , - war population adhered to to adhered population war

symbolic meanings meanings symbolic Budapest have Budapest of the of

CEU eTD Collection 3 and Krakow of collective cityscapesand individual of redefinition the to challenges the with in linked closely become Budapest, tourism heritage Jewish the in increase and recognition to the overall revenue (Murzyn2006). 2006;Kovács contribution significant a make and cities the for asset commercial valuable a constitute districts been has areas residential service these more be of to reconsidered functions the buildings, the of dilapidation extensive to led which authorities, municipal from disdain and neglect of poor.decades marginalized After after abandoned and Erszébetváros Kazimierz 163). 2009: Keresztély 51; 2006: (Kovács renewal urban for districts located t of potential the realized that projects revitalization of expense the at character and Krakow in Kazimierz like quarters 153 2007: (Murzyn arena urban in space of interpretations arbitrary and decisions hasty to led often schemes regeneration new of framework the in areas problematic and neglected of restoration rapi increasing The 39). 2006: Kovács 81; Murzyn2006: 130; regimes (Szmygin 2007: socialist of collapseaftertransformationthe political of times the ensued that contexts, national dissimilar in though areas, urban various in acquired 4

th by avoided notably.be to More used nineties. Kazimierz early and socialism during reputation good enjoy not did and Kazimierz both residents, their of poverty the and quarters the of neglect prolonged the to Due street, Budapest. narrow its along placed restaurants and cafes Jewish many as well as Synagogue Street Dohanyi the like landmarks the with Nevertheless, Budapest. in VII. that aware well am I that note to like would I - e Krakowians who looked down on it as a scene of danger and crime. and ofdanger scene a it ason down looked who Krakowians e 5) Bt c Both 154). h rngtae identity renegotiated The

had indeed similar fate in history as the houses of the previous Jewish residents, Jewish previous the of houses the as history in fate similar indeed had

h Wr poie a i suc o ten of source big a provided War, the te eprecd mjr erae n ulc osn ad h fre Jewish former the and housing public in decrease major a experienced ities

- , retd n wloe o omrilzto. oaas both Nowadays, commercialization. to welcome and oriented 4

n te oe tha role the and Erszébetváros dity of changes, combined with the emphasis on the on emphasis the with combined changes, of dity

district of of district 12

Erszébetváros

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t these places started to play after the the after play to started places these t in Budapest in rszébetváros mn huig o te rus f the of groups the for housing ement

is viewed to represent the the represent to viewed is

is not the only former Jewish quarter quarter Jewish former only the not is 3

started to lose its residential its lose to started ee centrally hese eih oe of core Jewish Erszébetváros - styled styled

CEU eTD Collection f y nomns n uaet h Itre i ovosy to a audn rsuc o graffiti of resource abundant an too, obviously, is Internet The Budapest. in informants my of collection, myown to In addition myanalysis. to relevant be could that inscriptions visual and textual of photos take to Budapest, and Krakow “graffiti time of amount considerable a spent g local find to where on recommendations or contacts I some receive although to managed work, my to success much bring not did stopovers such However, artists. graffiti of galleries and museums the on contempor called also I sources. academic of list my supplemented which Krakow, in University Jagiellonian the of library the visit to me compelled Krakow on bee had background theoretical of elaboration the for required literature academic the of share great and The Hungary. Poland Krakow,Budapest, in May of beginning the and April in place took thesis, this in on draw 4. Methodology forms. anti of phenomenon the that believe I and contestation, city the to, relation their and within, (Murz identity own one's of renegotiation the for calls also it presence, Jewish the of acknowledgment the through but, heritage their and areas urban these dela the does only Not memory. photos but I decided to use only the photos, which were attached to the newspapers articles that I that articles newspapers the to attached were which photos, the only use to decided I but photos yn

h fed ok o m rsac poet which project, research my for work field The - Kupisz 2009: 388). Of course, such processes of reidentification generate new forms of of forms new generate reidentification of processes such course, Of 388). 2009: Kupisz ary art to gather more information on street art and conceivably establish rapport with with rapport establish conceivably and art street on information more gather to art ary

n perused beforehand. Nevertheless, the shortage of the literature literature the of shortage the Nevertheless, beforehand. perused n yed redevelopment urge revaluation processes with regard to to regard with processes revaluation urge redevelopment yed

- I was given photo documentation compiled bycompiled two documentation givenphoto I was 13 utn” mvn aon dfeet ra o both of areas different around moving hunting”,

- rvdd e ih h qaiaie aa I data qualitative the with me provided Semitic graffiti epitomizes one of these these of one epitomizes graffiti Semitic raffiti writers. I writers. raffiti CEU eTD Collection illegality, and for that reason tend to be suspi be to tend reason that for illegality,and of verge the on balance always almost graffiti do who people Understandably,the conversations. trust gain to difficult subc graffiti the in novice complete a As times. at field the within myself o twenty from range the into fell interviewees the of age The lives. their in point certain a at making graffiti in actively participated or subculture graffiti with full had others four the while education, university of levels varying at students were six occupation, of terms In Finnish. was that sample Krakow the in expat one for except citizenship, Hungarian or Polish of holders were or Budapest pers the of studies. their All pursue to years andteenage their in cities these to moved Krakow in raised and born were who people of consisting sample, diverse in content the rewrite and notebook my use to me required circumstances the cases few a were in but interviews recorded of majority The cities. both in work field my of course the in conversations in five and Krakow in (five interviews of all three t in to refer that many of my interviewees felt quite uncomfortable to speak about the issue of issue the about speak to uncomfortable quite felt interviewees my of many that f thirtyage median andoftwenty the n re t ad tngahc ult t m rsac, cnutd e semi ten conducted I research, my to quality ethnographic add to order In Regarding the limitations of my research, I have to admit that I found it hard to position position to hard it found I that admit to have I research, my of limitations the Regarding

he sources of my visualmaterial. sources ofmy eal fe ter opein Te rfls f h itriwe asmld rather a assembled interviewees the of profiles The completion. their after detail empirical part empirical f the of

of the thesis. The photos you find in appendix present a combination a present appendix in youfind photos thesis. The the of - time jobs, most jobs, time

rfii rtr ad eeo or nones no prolonged into encounters our develop and writers graffiti -

seven years.seven Three were myfemales. of informants Budapest), although I engaged in several shorter informal informal shorter several in engaged I although Budapest),

ly of a professional character. Four were acquainted character.were Fourprofessional a of ly cious of the unverified newcomers. I also detected detected also I newcomers. unverified the of cious 14

- one to fifty to one - six years, with the mean the with years, six lue i ws rather was it ulture, ons interviewed ons anti - - structured Semitism

CEU eTD Collection artistic quality, and were often perceived as “primitive outbursts” tied with the activity of lower of activity the with tied outbursts” “primitive as perceived often were quality,and artistic in manifested were sentiments anti more much seemingly it gangs. making thus Budapest, in seen be can that hooligan interventions urban or diversity the lacks scenegraffiti football Krakow's intelle and the cultural of between image Krakow's war despite Furthermore, ongoing an to attributed be could anti observa own my on drawingHowever, Budapest. and Krakow both in found be 5. with the tra helped friends Hungarian my of network the and English fluent spoke interviewees Hungarian all anti implicitly many by passed had “ of process the in problematic most the proved Hungarian. languagespeakbarrierTheread nor I neither factthat the was Budapest,in work field my limited have could that and for account to like would I thing last The analysis. empirical my had we conversations the attitudes, such Despite it”. about details much know not do “they that stating to tried they cases, of distanc majority consciously the In Krakow. in notably most hooliganism, football and educated strata of society. The written form of of form society.written of The strata educated Anti - Semitic “throw Semitic Anti ,

- showed very fruitful for that matter and their accounts supplied a large con large a supplied accounts their and matter that for fruitful very showed Semitic graffiti Krakowin and Budapest nslation ofall therelevant materials. - Semitic graffiti represent only one of the several forms of urban inscriptions that can that inscriptions urban of forms several the of one only representgraffiti Semitic tesle fo te xrsin o rcs ad anti and racist of expressions the from themselves e - ups” are much easier to easier much are ups” - the style of scribbles or tags, which were deficient in any form of of form any in deficient were which tags, or scribbles of style the eii fr ly iio. o al y nomns anti informants, my all For visitor. lay a for Semitic - Semitic inscriptions, which I could not decipher.not could I which Nonetheless, inscriptions, Semitic idi Kao hni Budapest; in than Krakow in find anti 15 graffiti

- Semitism - hunting” as it could have happened that I that happened have could it as hunting”

projected on the urban lan urban the on projected ta cne o Pln, h city's the Poland, of center ctual - eii sniet by sentiments Semitic tions in the field, the in tions

the fact, which which fact, the tribution to tribution dscape in in dscape - Semitic Semitic - CEU eTD Collection compared to such activity in Budapest. That is not to say that Budapest has been spare been has Budapest that say to not is That Budapest. in activity such to compared landscape urban the in invested is it which in ways inscribed 5.1 the three anti types distinct of comprehensivewhich be will analysis, developedin the following that subsections instances. variet a fact, of Budapest.matter a and As Krakow both of districts Jewish former the in found charged messages politically and graffiti such of rate high surprisingly a with suburbs, urban to limited completely the differentiation, spatial expected and apparent spite In centers. historical the of outskirts the on areas residential inner the towards the districts of out moving as often more graffiti of type this across coming proportionate, acts their asabusive efforts of art. street andhacking“real” the negative purely in regarded also was cities both various express various Hooligan graffitiHooligan blee ht h cmlx aue f anti of nature complex the that believe I anti of distribution The olgn rfii ae p n o te set I ol nt mt n h eauto of evaluation the in omit not could I aspects the of one up make graffiti Hooligan a

nti - Semitism ions of football hooliganism, which is present also in its graffiti form in the places the in graffiti form its in also present is which hooliganism, football of ions o ubn ufcs ee sd n oesrbln ws ahr omn n both in common rather was overscribbling and used were surfaces urban of y

. The scope of t of scope The . - Semitic graffitiSemitic inthe found - eii gaft oe te ifrn prs f h cit the of parts different the over graffiti Semitic he fight between the hooligan gangs in Krakow in gangs hooligan the between fight he 16

terms by terms

hnmnn f anti of phenomenon - Semitic inscriptions deserves a proper and and proper a deserves inscriptions Semitic ,

creates a considerable imbalance when when imbalance considerable a creates

places ofmy research inquiry. graffiti artists, who conceived of such such of conceived who artists, graffiti

- eii gaft ws not was graffiti Semitic elaborate upon y was not not was y

,

d and the the and of both of

of the of - city

CEU eTD Collection 8 7 6 5 such and fans Cracovia and Wisla both for power of demarcations territorial of strategy the in s and writingsGang Jude as anti of predominance the demonstrate would territoriality) of terms in area Podg of part large the and Kazimierz 3), over,crossed David of Star the with accompanied cases most Wislathe Huta, Nowa and Bronowice, Azory in city. while the Therefore, clea Cracovia and Sharks Wisla between relations power the another”, to flats pro or city form (Bleacher 2008). written and inits Report symbolic war” Holy “the fight to order in to resort they which wings ultra the between clashes of brutality the from team. Apart Jewish formerly the and Polish the between polarization historical city,the in Wislateams o bases hooligan hardcore the graffitirepresenting with smotheredcityscape Krakow is which to extent the Nevertheless, 1). appendix (see stadiums football the nearby 9

territory constituted and controlled by the Nazis. controlled and territoryconstituted Jew Podg de Jutrzenka tea Jewish two the between rivalry the firstdescribe to used was allegedly termthat The duri weapons use to weapons lethal include often and theirbrutality for infamous gangs are thenot two between nationwide gangs football other the all binds which Agreement”, Wisla in founded was It existence. city. the teamJewish”of in still club football Polish oldest the is Cracovia KS in 1906. founded was It clubs. football Polish mostsuccessful Wisla and oldest ofthe one Krakow is rly visible for me as an observer in the amount of team related graffiti in different districts of districts different in graffiti related team of amount the in observer an as me for visible rly rby between rbybetween WislaCracovia. and ish ghetto during World War II, when Krakow belonged under administration of the General Government Government General the of administration under belonged Krakow when II, War World during ghetto ish - Cracovia, and as one of my informants said, “it can change if you go from one block of of block one from go you if change can “it said, informants my of one as and Cracovia, ó Although it is not possib not is it Although ’s rze is an old residential district, situated on the southern bank of the Vistula the of bank southern the on situated district, residential old an is rze

and Cracovia and

Krakow .

After one of the Jutrzenka players joined Cracovia, the term started to be used to portray the the portray to used be to started term the Cracovia, joined players Jutrzenka the of one After ’s

ultras are the only football hooligans in Poland that did not sign the so the sign not did that Poland in hooligans football only the are ultras 5

and Cracovia and

crawls (see appendices 4 & 5). The hooligan graffiti play a major role role graffitimajor a hooligan5). Theplay& 4 appendices crawls(see

le to state that particular neighborhoods are exclusively pro exclusivelyare particular neighborhoods that state leto

of both teams prior and after their local derbies local their after and prior teams both of 6 , is incomparable to Budapest, which lacks the intensity of intensity the lacks which Budapest, to incomparable is , ó rze

9

(which, in my opinion, denotes the most contested most the denotes opinion, my in (which, 17

8

spills over to the material landscape of the of landscape material the to over spills

would prevail (see appendices 2 & 2 appendices (see prevail would River

’ 1906 s Anty - . Makk ms, like f the greatest football greatest the f Wisla graffiti as well well as graffitiWisla It served as a site for the the for site a as served It ’ Jd Gn were Gang Jude s

and it is seen as “the “the as seen is it and machetes g fights. ng

Jude graffiti, in graffiti, Jude 7 , the violence the , - abi called “Poznan “Poznan called

Krakow .

The fights The - Wisla

and and ’ s ,

CEU eTD Collection attractiveness dwelling.for residential and livability of scale the on position unfavorable an in them puts and dangerousness potential to how about residents navigat the informs sort, some of indicator risk a provides graffiti hooligan of amount the Moreover, afterwards. immediately or rivals traditional the between match the violen the of course the in assaulted stadiums of twiceflat think thevicinity beforework, ain would renting stated thatWisla they and Cracovia to moved and Krakow of outside born were who people or expats them of all informants, my of several instance, For safety. personal of feeling the to connected issues further and overscribbling intensive to leads often deaestheticization of Krakow gangs both for territorialization of narrative the in represent messages graffiti these that potency the Gosia, interviewees, my on by suggested As teams. the of either by unnoticed go not does boundaries of delineation 10

The stadiums of the two teams are only 500 meters from each other,Park. meters fromeach onlyby Jordan 500 are divided the two stadiumsteams ofthe The e the city in a safe manner, positions particular areas of the city on the spectrum of of spectrum the on city the of areas particular positions manner, safe a in city the e The violence inherent in the communication between the hooligans raised also a series of of series a also raised hooligans the between communication the in inherent violence The 10

u t a rae ptnilt o gtig nehd n h hoia cnlc o being or conflict hooligan the in enmeshed getting of potentiality greater a to due it (Gosia) think I So it. on Cracovia write or it erase just they and comes Cracovia from somebody day next to Wisla,theconnected something writes somebodywhen example, “Th ey might do it because they want to show the power. For For power. the show to want they because it do might ey

’ s visual landscape (see appendix 6). s visual landscape (see appendix

t spree initiated by one of the gangs in the period coming into into coming period the in gangs the of byone initiatedspree t

18

’ js soig h power.” the showing just s

the city for studies or or studies for city the

e of of e CEU eTD Collection otne t b epotd n eea wy b pol sadn o te oh ie o te rivalry the conflict of sides both the on standing people by ways several in exploited be to continues set was which team, the of Jewishness the decades, for team Cracovia on player Jewish a been not has there Although justifications. ideological valid beyond live to on went oft Judaism with imbued are Krakow the in that graffiti fact The hooligan teams. the of either with identification of process the in fans Cracovia and It Krakowians. many by interpreted anti the which with attention 11

Where However, what came as striking to me during the course of my interviews was the lack of of lack the was interviews my of course the during me to striking as came However,what 11 as Cracovia fans call themselves “ themselves call fans Cracovia as B adn ti fobl dmnin o h rc ad utfctd artv of narrative multifaceted and rich the to dimension football this adding By . en in opposing and contradictory terms, is embedded in the historical frame, which which frame, historical the in embedded is terms, contradictory and opposing in en We I ie i Aoy te gr the Azory, in lived I “When a a is there dangerous how and see think you graffiti much how I between correlation So stuff. and cameras and police more much Townthere Old causethe in graffiti put to difficult more much be to able were they if that infer can you graffiti of lot a see you when “Basically are paintingthese Ant anti really are they and hooligans Wisla itsel in scary guysdrinking thecorner.group on beer ofsome bald Yeah, it fine, it when place a in scary.Like very is It there. live to wanted never I why reasons certain placecan potentially.” be (Jarek)

f but it but f write it, it means it meansit it, write ’ s dark and there is no one to be seen except for this for except seen be to one no is there and dark s

- Semitic graffiti written by Wisla supporters were read and and read were supporters Wisla by written graffiti Semitic ’ s even scarier if you know that these people are people these that youknow if scarier even s

y is true that the word “Jew” has been hijacked by both Wisla both by hijacked been has “Jew” word the that true is Ż

ydi Jude graffiti.”Jude (Noora) ” (Jews) and the group of their ultras is referred to as “Jude Gang”, “Jude as to referred is ultras their of group the and (Jews) ” ’ s not so heavily protected. It would It protected. heavily so not s 19 fii sw hr ws n o the of one was there saw I affiti

a

nti - Semitism - Semitic probably and they and probably Semitic

and appropriate the symbols of of symbols the appropriate and ’ ’ s s n h past, the in a nti - CEU eTD Collection f rd pae MK te rd uta wud o ms a hne o hn islig anti insulting chant to chance a miss not would ultras Fradi the MTK, played Fradi if certaintythat expressed Zoltán, myinterviewees, of one and team, historicallyJewish a framedas Polish the of reproduction constant the on based is chargewhich Krakow, in that emotional to similar the be would that of rivalry football the characteristics in harbored the show not does subculture, hooligan the within and concernKrakowians. among the alertness of levels low the explain might which apart, two the tell inability,to cases many in and Jewis local the targets means, all by it, or supporters Cracovia to only addressed is it whether interpretation individual anti as Semitism 12

active ones in Budapest. activeones of supporters hardcore The sonsofbitches) anti of abbreviations use hooligans Wisla - Semitic, become ambiguous and fairly confusing, as it becomes unclear and contingent on on contingent and unclear becomes it as confusing, fairly and ambiguousbecome Semitic, n oprsn Bdps, ept te xsec o sm fobl ultras football some of existence the despite Budapest, comparison, In

in Poland, the inscriptions such as “Anty Jude” Jude” “Anty as such inscriptions the Poland, in the team or not? the team ornot? You never know.” (Gosia) anti something and David it Jews, the about their in connection this have they that know I it, crossed a with tag hooligan a I see “When football community.” (Szymon) anti it think “I

or “Anty Jude”. “Anty or - eii gaft i gnrl sne it since general, in graffiti Semitic h community. The excerpts from my interviews demonstrate the confusion, the demonstrate interviews my from community.excerpts h The

’ s hard to split these two things, the things, two these split to hard s Ferencváros

’ s about the team. But when I see only the Star of Star the only see I when But team. the about s

o - - r Fradi, as it has been nicknamed, are considered to be among the most most the among be to considered are nicknamed, been has it as Fradi, r eih ihtm. Nonet dichotomy. Jewish Semitic terms, such as such terms, Semitic - eii, hn don I then Semitic,

20

’ s so deeply rooted in the the in rooted deeply so s -

out Star of David next to next David Starof out or “AJ”, which would be normally read read normally be would which “AJ”, or “Jebać Żydów Skurwysynów” (Fuck the Jews, Jews, the (Fuck Skurwysynów” Żydów “Jebać

hooligan graffiti and graffiti hooligan ’ ko; s t about it is know; t ees MK uaet s also is Budapest MTK heless, mind that mind

it ’ s

not 12

w o operate ho - Jewish

CEU eTD Collection Gebert & Maryniak 2009: 90). In addition, there are trends that show the link between the rising the between link the show that trends are there addition, In 90). 2009: Maryniak & Gebert conditions, anti of form any penalize mi communicationSemitic (Gebert Molnár 2010). 92; & Maryniak2009: anti to population Hungarian and Polish both by tolerance of level high the in reflected be to continu and kind, and degree different a to although countries, both in apparent still is agenda, of circum sociopolitical wider from meaning its derives aggregates, graffiti individual of interpretation and understanding a for frame presents which dimension, discursive particular A climate. political contemporary to point non or racist forms, be it various whether its in graffiti understand To expression. political of form a as graffiti Semitic 5.2 diverted intoFerencváros Wisla the of of One opponents. their at remarks rates of anti of rates frue o bt idvda a wl a mr asrc ntoa lvl i te nilnns to unwillingness the is level, national abstract more as well as individual both on sfortunes anti Anti - Moving away from the hooligan subculture, I will now provide a closer look at the anti the at look closer a provide now will I subculture, hooligan the from away Moving Another problem that deepens the roots of finding false justifications for failures and and failures for justifications false finding of roots the deepens that problem Another Semitism - Semitic graffitiSemitic statemeas apolitical anti - Semitic sentiments all over the continent and recent financial crisis, which paralyzed paralyzed which crisis, financial recent and continent the over all sentiments Semitic - Cracovia one might be that the previous tensions have been substituted and fully and substituted been have tensions previous the that be might one Cracovia - Semitism , fueled by the recollection of past experiences and invoking of the nationalist nationalist the of invoking and experiences past of recollection the by fueled , ’

s rivalry with ÚjpestFC.s rivalry has become “a convenient venue for the expr the for venue convenient “a become has - - Semitic behavior in both societies. Gebert argues, that under such such under that argues, Gebert societies. both in behavior Semitic racist, one has to acknowledge graffiti acknowledge to has one racist, stances (Chmielewska 2007: 146, 151). The political discourse political The 151). 146, 2007: (Chmielewska stances the reasons why such antagonism did not develop to the scale scale the to develop not did antagonism such why reasons the nt 21

's quality to act as a reference a as act to quality 's

ession of frustration” (In frustration” of ession es - - CEU eTD Collection different variations of the Celtic cross but take inspiration from the country's past and come to to come and past country's the from inspiration take but cross Celtic the of variations different neo traditional the of only consist not do graffiti racist in deployed symbols Krako of landscape visual the on (re)appearance their of timing understand and inscriptions graffiti such accommodate to contribute Poland and Hungary political and economic denial, Holocaust far Polish and Hungarian both by used rhetoric anti the with complies it above, examples the in languageused violent the category the under fall not do anti overtly find can manner,one likewise a In 8). & 7 appendices (see ( area metropolitan Budapest the de cemeteries Jewish in tombstones the and Budapest measures tha perceive Hatzioni Hanoar of branch Hungarian the in active is who student, young a Peter,Similarly, econ European the of growth the 13

moral values that contribute to the preservation to contribute values that moral Youth Zionist The In recent years, there have been several cases when the Jewish memorials were violated in wereviolated memorials Jewish the when cases several been years,have there recentIn d

the unsanctioned anti unsanctioned the t would lead to its reduction. toits t wouldlead with big noses. youknow who about...” we (Peter)And are talking will they something, do they if And courts. the or government the from people mean, I anti say openly can they media, the in people politicians, like figures public other or celebrities “Also, a itrainl ot mvmn ta rgrs uas a te ilr f ainl sca and social national, of pillar the as Judaism regards that movement youth international an ,

of hooligan graffiti, in Krakow as well (see appendix 9). Evaluating9). (seeappendix graffiti,well Krakow as hooligan in of - Semitic discourse and the reluctance of the authorities to apply to authorities the of reluctance the and discourse Semitic h Codnto Frm o Cutrn nieiim 2012 Antisemitism Countering for Forum Coordination The

omies (Foxman 2008: Clavane: 2014; Waterfield 2013). 2013). Waterfield 2014; Clavane: 2008: (Foxman omies not call us Jews but they will call us people us call will they but Jews us call not

of integrity and continuity of the Jewish people. Jewish ofthe continuity and integrity of anti - Semitism 22 -

right. The larger narratives of scapegoa of narratives larger The right.

- Semitic stuff and nobody cares. cares. nobody and stuff Semitic stroyed in the smaller towns surrounding surrounding towns smaller the in stroyed , being voiced by the political actors in in actors political the by voiced being , w and Budapest. As for Hungary, the the Hungary, for As Budapest. and w - Semitic messages, which messages, Semitic - Semitic and nationalistand Semitic - Nazi swastika or or swastika Nazi

ting, the the ting, 13 ) , CEU eTD Collection 14 in Krakow. former t of minds the Jews in mainly materialized, the has “theirs” what's of for back coming fear old the crisis, economic the by about brought uncertainty of feeling a With institutionalize increasing gradually a in discourse public the in position” “taking and surface, the to coming back Jews of distrust and fear held long the witness we nowadays demagogues, nationalist the by amplified and fed artificially Commu of collapse the after years immediate the in reemerged only thinking anti of forms such that realize to crucial is it world, the running and power of abundance 11 appendix economic behavior(see and their Jews with relation thereappearancenotionsthat stereotype to of pr script Hungarian Cross, Arrow the (e.g. century the of visual the resemble 15 oponents of xenophobic attitudesoponents 10). (seeappendix ofxenophobic

given predominantly to the poor.to givenpredominantly t also II War is World it After Hungarian, modern the In Ages. Middle the in as known Hungarians the by used alphabet Hungarian old The

In order to contextualize these anti these contextualize to order In Jewis

sz ) é h properties h , kely kely

es wig hue n aiir bfr WI ad now and WWII before Kazimierz in house a owning Jews the of one fact, in anti for reasons be, might That buildings. the reclaim to try and time to time from come who people, Jewish some are “There s el s tep t lgtmz cnprc tere aot h Jw hlig the holding Jews the about theories conspiracy legitimize to attempt as well as 14 í r

ás ás a as bcm coey soitd ih h ntoait uclue n the and subculture nationalist the with associated closely become also has e bnoe Jws hue provid houses Jewish abandoned he (Szekler’s script) (Szekler’s 15

(Szulc 2014). Similar issue was brought up by one of my interviewees my of one by up brought was issue Similar 2014). (Szulc Hungarian Nazi insignia from the from insignia Nazi Hungarian

- Semitism nowadays Semitism Nyilaskereszt, .

d manner ( manner d - Jewish textual inscriptions and visual representations visual and inscriptions textual Jewish 23

n pedx 8) appendix in

Anti . For example, there were some some were there example, For . d the ed

- Defamation League 2007; Molnár 2010 Molnár 2007; League Defamation substantial thirtie .

ore f ulc housing public of source eie, rtn i te old the in writing Besides, s and s forties hose that reside in the the in reside that hose nism. Having been been Having nism.

, of the previous previous the of

- and Semitic Semitic

were ). CEU eTD Collection conversation. anti the of interpretation and usage around mess the to attention bring to necessary was it that considered Zsofia, interviewees, Hungarian cover viable a offers time, same the at while ambivalent, more statements political certain renders fashion interchangeable liberal, rather a in used commonly are categories two the that fact two. The the of confusion complete rhetoric,or anti the between line thin very a is onerous more ever depictions Semitic the far the - diinly wa mks h efrs o eihr h ra mtvtos eid h anti the behind motivations real the decipher to efforts the makes what Additionally, The co right nationalist forces to distort the real image of the Hungarian Jewry and bolster the the bolster and Jewry Hungarian the of image real the distort to forces nationalist right

ntroversy around the Israeli the around ntroversy sometimes novd n dnt ely nw ntig bu te Jewish the about anything know really don't and involved n the of “Most taking Krakow.” over (Pawel) b out move to me paying they’re like attitude was But his another district. to of course, tomove him, paid They Kazimierz. in lived who cousin, my to happened It getto difficultvery it's course, Of back. it have they sometimes and here' lived grandmother great my aial, o te, vroe h' a e i a Irei n vice and versa.”(Zsofia) Israeli an is Jew a who's everyone them, for basically, So Judaism. and Israel between differentiate cannot community,

coming now and taking their things back. Yeah, they're they're Yeah, back. things their taking and now coming ,

their great grandchildren are coming and saying: 'Well,saying: and coming are grandchildren great their

on - Jewish people or people who are not really really not are who people or people Jewish ut still. They're taking things back, they're they're back, things taking They're still. ut - Palestinian conflict provides a series of possibilities for possibilities a of series provides conflict Palestinian

- - up for the for up eii lnug a te ey einn o our of beginning very the at language Semitic 24

it back but sometimes it happens. happens. it sometimes but back it

actual anti actual - Semites. In fact, one of my my of one fact, In Semites. - Israeli and anti and Israeli ‘OK ,

- Se mitic - CEU eTD Collection und uh ersnain it mrig nie ta ae en t elvn h mmre of memories the enliven to meant are that indices marking into representations such turned interven visual anti the of collection my to largely contributed and on Budapest and Krakow both of cityscapes show to cease not did Europe Central the of experience historical the in accumulated di The actors. individual of line argumentative the fit that ways of array an in performed and upon seized be to ready discourse, 5.3 reasoning. nonsen what out pointed Peter 12). appendix of lot similar the recounts pan “invading of oppression the whichunder Palestinians and Hungarians motif”, Palestinization “the for foundation a as features anti their of effect 16

so it is not liable to the Hungarian authorities. the Hungarian to it isnot liable so w The

“Jew” asa The stereotypes about the the about stereotypes The ebsite that serves as an unofficial news portal of the Jobbik party. The domai party. The Jobbik the of portal news unofficial an as serves that ebsite

laughing take some atpeople dead but it it serious.” seriously.are We but know I Hungary. historical the of energy the somehow catch Hungary, to historical the of middle the in soldiers t they So Hungary. historical the of middle the the in in right camp is summer international the organize we where place the that Kuruc.info “In in. h msprpito o te eih ybl b mjrt ppltos has populations majority by symbols Jewish the of misappropriation The tions. term ofabuseterm old that the Israelis do this camps for kids to train them to become to them train to kids for camps this do Israelis the that old - eii acut Mroe, h anti the Moreover, account. Semitic

16

, there was one article, but it was some years ago, years some was it but article, one was there , Jews resume Jews scursive baggage around the term “Jew” that has been been has that “Jew” term the around baggage scursive

sical constructions can derive from such way of of way such from derive can constructions sical 25

to be stored in “the backstage” of the everyday the of backstage” “the in stored be to

- ins rhet Zionist

(Peter) - Judaism” ( Judaism” oric has been extended and and extended been has oric n is hosted on the US servers servers US the on hosted is n

Molnár 2010 Molnár - Semitic Semitic ) (see ) CEU eTD Collection f uh ubrt wt te iiat anti militant the with outbursts such of anti 2014). (Szulc depreciated not of familiarity the and Jews, to relations their in inthe colloquial to Jews language. referring of formsother reflectedupon my financialterms, informants stinginess in implies which negative reprehensible, morally from Starting of 90). 2009: range Maryniak & (Gebert a traits behavioral includes and society Polish in abuse” of term “a as serve to continues “Jew” word the essentialized, thoroughly Maryniak, to According 13). (se identity Jewish the with affiliated places the on shame inscribe and stigmatization los o te rlne eitne f h ltn frs f anti of forms latent the of existence prolonged the for allows - S emitic sense is still highly tolerated in both Poland and Hungary.and Poland both highlyin still tolerated is sensecomparison emitic conscious The As I have outlined above, relieving one's emotional tensions framed in the normatively the in framed tensions emotional one's relieving above, outlined have I As suspicion and worries the abandoned not have Poles many manner, similar the Following

(Zoltán) people.” Jewish insult to used commonly most the or expression langu the into come stereotypes such how of example nice a It's it. with kosher not is something so deck, a in down upside is card one that cards, of deck a in Jew a is there that means which pakliban', a van 'Zsidó Jew! 'You like something say you when somebody, for word bad a it's Hungarian, in “Also much in much

its validity, especially not for an older generation of generation older an for not especially validity, its g. … Bt Sik Jw i te ot obvious most the is Jew' 'Stinky But […] age.

- Tee s lo n xrsin ht says: that expression an also is There ' eii dsore setd y h ntoait radicals nationalist the by asserted discourse Semitic 26

the phrase “good man, despite being a Jew” has has Jew” a being despite man, “good phrase the

- Semit the usual “you act like a Jew! a like act “you usual the ic sentiments. These often often These sentiments. ic the Polish society Polish e appendix appendix e ”

CEU eTD Collection 18 17 unpopularthe Jews. and politician categories unfavored two linking simply than act an such for explanation reasonable a with come not could they 15), appendix (see University Jagiellonian the of library main the in door toi the on chance by found I David, of Star the and “Jude” scribble the by accompanied name, whose politician, the about informants Polish my asked I When either. exception an been not perceived failures. their for account or them dismiss to Jew” “a personality public a or politician other any label to common it's although 14), appendix (see accusations such of object an been has Gyurcsany, Judeo to akin theories conspiracy the in accommodated easily more countries, European Central of the in understanding politics bipolar enduring an to due are, who spectrum, political the of side Left the representi politicians the at targeted often are attacks textual or verbal conduct Such 2012a). (Cummins political acceptable from figure public contemporary or former a of disqualification contes political of framework the In opponent. political one's delegitimize bluntly or reputation the smear to order in distorted be to tend they when competition, political to related events the in fore the to come and resurface

periods between 2006 and 2007. He faced charges over corruption and sexual harassment and was also also was and harassment sexual and corruption over charges faced He Anti the 2007. by condemned and 2006 between periods Minister Prime Deputy the as served also ( RP Samoobrana of leader a was Lepper Andrzej with Jews equate to label usedas a been A

b elief Looking at the Polis the Lookingat and an anti and - Rfrig o oeoy as somebody to “Referring Bolshevism

- Semitic stereotype stereotype Semitic - Defam

17 h case, using a word “Jew” with regard to political representatives has representativeshas political regardto with “Jew” word a usingcase, h

ation League for accepting the honorary diploma from the from diploma honorary the accepting for League ation

t, the word “Jew” translates into “a term of contempt” and aims at aims and contempt” of term “a into translates “Jew” word the t, ( onr 2010 Molnár

that Communis that communists. and the Minister of Minister Agriculture the and

. n ugr, h former the Hungary, In ). Lepper Self

27 m is a Jewish conspiracy that serves Jewish interests. It has It interests. Jewish serves that conspiracy Jewish ma is

- Defense of the Republic of Poland of Republic the of Defense

18

a bscly nedd to intended basically was and Rural Development in the two short short two the in Development Rural and

rm Mnse, Ferenc Minister, Prime

Interregional Academy Interregional ) pol ) itical party, who party, itical –

let let ng an CEU eTD Collection graffiti subculture. as anti to resistance with struggle decision the in measures strategic slo been more have pollution to visual unauthorized adhere and up come to tendencies The globally,$6.8 around o graffiti of phenomenon the control and tackle to supposed are 6. cleanse districts ofanti their municipality Krakow's in councilors anti of profusion the with 19

Resistance to a their districts in order to point out to the scope of the problem, they received insulting mail, in which they were were they which “f to things, amongst other told, in mail, insulting received they problem, the of scope the to out point to order in districts their Dominik councilors local two the When Kiev, in Management an of Personnel whichis considered the input of local initiatives, I will examine the forms of resistance coming from within the the within from coming resistance of forms the examine will I initiatives, local of input the The efforts to eradicate anti eradicate to efforts The l the by adopted approaches of evaluation the to move I Before - makers in Central European cities too. In this chapter, I will concentrate on two levels of of chapter,levels two this Inon concentrate I will too. cities European Central in makers offend this person. If I was called 'Lepper', I would consider it an it consider would I 'Lepper', called was I If person. this offend a like (Jarek)double insult.” be would it Jude', 'Lepper said somebody if And offense. - Semitic graffiti. After I outline the approaches adopted by local councils as well as councils local by adopted approachesgraffiti. the Semitic outline I After

nti billion is billion -

Semitic graffiti - Semitic graffiti, I find it rather fitting to mention that the two local two the that mention to fitting rather it find I graffiti, Semitic - Semitic “pseudograffiti”Semitic (Maciejowski 2014). Szulc 2012; uck off uck Israel” to

spent each year for graffiti removal (Halsey & Young(Halsey 292). removal graffiti2006: for year each spent - Semitic graffiti constitute a part of larger local projects that that projects local larger of part a constitute graffiti Semitic 19 Galas and and Galas

were also stamped Jewish as a result of their initiatives to initiatives their of result a as Jewish stamped also were

and to stop “licking Jewish asses” (Szulc 2014). (Szulc asses” “licking Jewish stop to and

l rahn te ek o mncplte ad local and municipalities of desks the reaching wly Lukasz 28

anti Wantuch - Semitic institution. Semitic started to paint o paint to started ela. t s siae that estimated is It verload.

cl uhrte o fight to authorities ocal ut the anti the ut

- Semitic graffitiin Semitic

CEU eTD Collection ambiguity in the frame of missing information: missing of frame the in ambiguity the anti between explicitly the distinguish and to hooligan trying while interviewees my of some by encountered clarity of visible so are they why that's happen, that incidents the oppose actively not does It problem. this to properly react 201 Cummins (In residents city's the by phenomenon the of acceptance” “passive this against fight to need growing a been has there anti an Machalewska, Iga a intellectual of image Krakow's the with correspond to fails it since built commercial anti spend to claims it that fact the despite municipality, scribb exclusionary and tags hooligan anti by landscape visual city's the of defacement of problem neglected long the to light bring to determined graduates p lawyers, young of group the Poland”, in society multicultural and “open of development the for support promoting statement mission their with line the Along l 6.1 20 anti as it of they don’tthink teams,even football imited, strategy of Krakow's authorities to combat the abundance of racist and hooligan graffiti. hooligan and racist of abundance the combat to authorities Krakow's of strategy imited,

http://www.interkulturalni.pl/ - policies Municipal Semitic graffiti (Cummins 2012a). Moreover, for an attentive visitor that walks out of the of out walks that visitor attentive an for Moreover, 2012a). (Cummins graffiti Semitic - n niomn wt gaft isrpin cn eut n dsoat mrsin f h city the of impression dissonant a in result can inscriptions graffiti with environment in n 00 a oa initiative local a 2010, In ized and tourist friendly historical center, the seemingly unrestrained coverage of the of coverage unrestrained seemingly the center, historical friendly tourist and ized ” (Bulandra in TheNews.pl 2012). In the previous chapter, I referred to the lack the to chapter,referredI previous Inthe 2012). in TheNews.pl (Bulandra ”

and localinitiatives

- - eii wiig (nekluan P' website PL's (Interkulturalni writings Semitic racist activist and one of the founders of founders the of one and activist racist - 34.html

- eii gaft. ahlwk epan te cetne f this of acceptance the explains Machalewska graffiti. Semitic

nekluan PL Interkulturalni

2a). e cnttts ned n vrhlig rbe fr the for problem overwhelming an indeed constitutes les

The group believes that “ that believes group The

29 “Most people seeing the seeing people “Most -

Semitic.[...] What we are struggling against here areagainststrugglingwe Semitic.[...] What

tre u te tgaig ad n t focus its in and stagnating, the up stirred € 5 0 anal o rmvn rcs and racist removing on annually 000 35 sychologists and cultural theory theory cultural and sychologists t he local community does not not does community local he nd cultural heart of Poland. Poland. of heart cultural nd Interkultralni PL Interkultralni

graffiti, will just see two see just will graffiti, 20 . h audne of abundance The ). , says that that says , ,

CEU eTD Collection extensive coverage of the racist hooligan subculture in foreign media prior to a kick a to prior media foreign in subculture hooligan racist the of coverage extensive (Maciejowski 2012). red taggers the catching in active be to people entice to is action joint this of goal another buildings, seventy Since 16). appendix (see 2012) status removal their on information updating and location exact In interventions. future in webs success police the of addition, likelihood the increase to city the of areas particular profiling and hotspots graffiti of map the designing writers, graffiti of activity the monitoring considerable a about bring to claimed is police Krakow's with cooperation The n.d.). PL Interkulturalni 2011; (Casey strategy” response and prevention city a of development xenophobia: and racism “Against called scheme multidimensional larger, com a as implemented being is which graffiti, racist combat to campaign official an subsection of named thewebsite “the Shame (InterkulturalniAlley” PL n.d.). specia the in published get which and city the in across came they which inscriptions, offensive of photos the upload also can residents The affiliation. religious or ethnicity race, their of basis encourage they an which offerform, online they website, their On 2012b). Cummins (In awareness” of lack and indifference is 21

http://www.strazmiejska.krakow.pl/smmk/pl/czysty - add o ose u ter hne fr emusmn o te rc rmvl costs removal pricy the of reimbursement for chances their up bolster to handed With municipality joining the initiative, Krakow became the first city in Poland to launch launch to Poland in city first the became Krakow initiative, the joining municipalityWith t s neetn tog, ht h ct' au city's the that though, interesting is It

ite provides the interactive map of Krakow's graffiti, pinpointing their pinpointing graffiti, Krakow's of map interactive the provides ite

to fill in in case someone experienced mistreatment on the on mistreatment experienced someone case in in fill to - five per cent of graffiti end up on the walls of priva of walls the on up end graffiti of cent per five - krakow.html 30

thorities joined the initiative in the period of of period the in initiative the joined thorities

contribution as well, most notably in notably most well, as contribution 21

Csy 01 Maciejowski 2011; (Casey

ponent of a of ponent - off of the the of off te te l CEU eTD Collection 22 in involved regularly get volunteers of group their and environment urban at aim the that beautifying activities several in engaged is 2004, since around been has which organization, territorialitysubsumed into belong”. not where ofthe does it law Kunst entartete t echoes sense, that in and society, to dangerous as both regards “lettering”, mere and art street the between differentiate not does that law” fascist “a was it that maintained w composure Sá interviews, 2010). (Tenczer issue the with deal to Department Police the within division crackdo a initiated has municipality the Code). Additionally, Penal Hungarian 324 (§ environment aesthetic and healthy for public the of anti 2012b). and racism of issue the over sentime racist of degree the of critical highly were that reports the of Many championship. football 2012 EURO 23

was deemed unsuitable as it was affiliated withwas affiliatedthe Judeo as it unsuitable deemed was Germany in regime Nazi thebyA adopted term Englan 2012a). coffin”(Cummins a home in risk “coming to wanted one unless Championship the to going about warned former a Campbell, Sol of appearance the of because known anti chanting fans controversial most The - graffiti legislation passed in 2011 defines graffiti as a criminal offense that breaches the right the breaches that offense criminal a graffitias 2011 in defines passed legislationgraffiti In Budapest, the local authorities steered the wheel towards more radica more towards wheel the steered authorities local the Budapest, In In terms of local initiatives, initiatives, local of terms In

nts in Poland caused controversy caused Poland in nts e I und h fcs f u cnesto to conversation our of focus the turned I hen dr a rfso a oe f h Bdps uieste, udny ot i calm his lost suddenly universities, Budapest the of one at professor a ndor, 23

or degenerate art. In his opinion, by adopting the legislation “street art became art “street legislation the adopting by opinion, his In art. degenerate or - eii soas n dslyn wie oe smos n oih tdus I bcm widely became It stadiums. Polish in symbols power white displaying and slogans Semitic was

the BBC documentary BBC the

anti - Semitism Szeretem Budapestet Budapestet Szeretem wn on graffiti pollution in the city, setting up a special a up setting city, the in pollution graffiti on wn

to

characterize practically all modern art. Such artistic Such art. modern all practically characterize n oh oa ad ainl ee (umn 2012a; (Cummins level national and local both on “ Euro 2012: 2012: Euro 22 31

but, on the other hand, spurred a public debate public a spurred hand, other the on but,

- Bolshevists and, therefore, banned therefore, and, Bolshevists Stadiums of hate” of Stadiums “ Lv Budapest” Love (“I eedr who defender, d

h anti the , which included the footage of of footage the included which , - rfii regulation graffiti , after seeing the footage, the seeing after , he Nazi concept of concept Nazi he

During one of my my of one During .

l measures. The measures. l , non a ),

expression expression - profit profit . He He .

CEU eTD Collection Carrington 2009: 409). The graffiti writers as well as some other informants that were that informants other some as well as writers graffiti The 409). 2009: Carrington in (Lefebvre images and scripts of variety a in tangible and materialized get worldviews certain act ambivalent the in and presented are argumentation of lines Different 44). 2005: Lea (Lynn& environment urban process” and ofviews “a can dialogical witness anti 6.2 their official websi on articles the of in illustrated as perpetrators, of apprehension the supports and 67) 2012: Hutton pre “a graffiti considers which discourse, the of lines the along 2009) (Nitsche buildings public from graffiti removing 24

http://szeretembudapestet.hu/ Anti anti Anti - Semitic graffitiparticular Semitic in The walls of both Krakow and Budapest manifest also more implicit forms ofresistance alsoBudapest forms andmoreto The implicit walls ofbothKrakow manifest - Semitic graffitiSemitic la o gaft, eeit rpris renov properties offenders”( derelict graffiti, of clean places keeping by mitigated be can crime serious of type This […] crimes. more for beacons all are these window, broken the with problemsgraffiti, disorder, public aggressive turmoil, begging small Reasonably prohibited. is nothing that signaling streets: the into sneaks anarchy of concept the and house.that noone are More cares andwindows for broken more the passers it, repairs nobody and broken is window a “If te

24 of expression, imposition and persuasion, “speech becomes writing” and and writing” becomes “speech persuasion, and imposition expression, of .

Translation in found

,

and the racist ideolog racist the and 32 Kótun & Ruszty2009). counterviews projected

ies of intolerance in general. in urbanites The intolerance of ies .

N evertheless, the organization operates organization the evertheless, td n arresting and ated - eminent signal crime” (Rowe & (Rowe crime” signal eminent –

- can be linked becan linked by will think think will by n city a in

on the visual landscape of thevisual landscape of on –

in touch touch in CEU eTD Collection be removed more easily than paintings and scribbles, they are beco are they scribbles, and paintings than easily more removed be can they gangs. Although graffiti by employed strategies communication the in medium efficient very a as serve opinion, Roland's in stickers, Budapest, and Krakow both in panorama urban to the repertoire of membersAntifa (see20). appendix neo to references symbolic other and swastikas of disposal the portraying bi a of use the Equally, 19). appendix (see streets Krakow's in theme recurrent neo 18) appendix (see neo their with symbols of war street the in involved more much are who movement, resistance Antifa w mess and writers graffiti themselves call who those between differentiate to has one course, Of 17). appendix (see signs these of visual the incl reshape to is space urban denazifying of ways that common the of one symbols, Nazi the overwriting forms classic the from Apart iconography. Nazi to resistance visual outcome observedon thecity walls. stat a such Nevertheless, care.” poster.don't They anti of forms these from themselves distanced with, speak to opportunity an had I that and subculture, graffiti with as a verbalization technique of the groups' interests. The stickers are not only a cheaper cheaper a only not are stickers The interests. groups' the of technique verbalization a as - - Nazi insignia. The drawings of the hangman's scaffolds with the Celtic cross appeared to be a a be appearedto cross scaffolds Celtic the hangman's insignia. the with Nazi of drawingsThe stenciling massive by characterized often is followers Antifa of work The adversaries. Nazi Reflecting on their life personal beliefs, many writers get engaged in a more or less active less or more a in engaged get writers many beliefs, personal life their on Reflecting Among all these types of resistance to anti to resistance of types these all Among

and aims at demarcation of the territory via territory the of demarcation at aims and - Semitic depictions. As Roland told me: “For writers, racist graffiti is like a like is graffiti racist writers, “For me: told Roland As depictions. Semitic

ith Nazi emblems on occasion and the members of of members the and occasion on emblems Nazi ith 33

ement does not necessarily correspond with the with correspond necessarily not does ement

- Semitic projections inscribed on the faces the on inscribed projections Semitic

- à - vis the space colonized by the the by colonized space the vis ming more and more popular popular more and more ming - Nazi subculture belong subculture Nazi ude crossing out or or out crossing ude nman pictogram nman

of of CEU eTD Collection which couldas beinterpreted implici Museum Jewish Galicia the in intern an as worked also who Noora, informants, my of one voice, mural Semitic alteri Besides end. inclusive more its towards continuum hate love the of extreme one the from moving by acts communicative such of meaning the divert anti of links internal the subvert to often is interventions anti to intrinsic hatred of load the defuse the supporters ofthe neo viole symbolic to response antagonistic an for stand sense a in and attitude violent possibly dismissive, a maintain they Nevertheless, 22). appendix (see anti anti of emblems leading the of ones as tone, opposing an in them, frame moti Jewish to ascribed connotations stigmatizing the with away do such to of attempt authors graffiti the imagery, Jewish the in accumulated charge emotive the on Capitalizing manner 21). fine and complex morevisually a transmit enableto city. the the of a Stencilsappearance outward on applied be to effort and time no almost require also they but paint spray to alternative 25

http://www.en.galiciajewishmuseum.org/

sm wies eprpit te ybl lk te tr f ai i a oe way. novel a in David of Star the like symbols the reappropriate stigmatizing writers negative, a some in , representations Jewish the of utilization the to Contrary In recent years there have been occurrences of urban inscriptions, which managed to to managed which inscriptions, urban of occurrences been have there years recent In 25 , directed my attention to some pieces that appeared mostly in Kazimierz and Kazimierz in mostly appeared that pieces some to attention my directed , -

Nazi discourse.

tly pro

re alike getting alike re - Semitic messages (see appendix 23). The aim of aim The 23). appendix (see messages Semitic - Jewish (see appendix 24). (seeJewish appendix 34

- tuned messages in a short time (seeappendix time short a in messagestuned trendier - nce demonstrated and disseminated by disseminated and demonstrated nce Semitic communication or completely or communication Semitic ng the meaning of originally anti originally of meaning the ng

in distinctive urban settings and and settings urban distinctive in

- Semitic discourse Semitic s and fs - such and - - CEU eTD Collection informants. cou field urban the in presence its to accustomed get to propensity the as well as phenomenon the to attention of lack The 874). 2010: Holmes in (Hall not” is what and at looking worth is what advance in knows it thinks which seeing of mode u indifferent be can this 874). attitude 2010: Thus, (Holmes overstimulation visual patterned highly and repetitive the with them cope help that looking?) not said better (or looking” adoptegraffitihooligan urban in place meaningful a environment. occupies it that opinion an expressed them of many although connect would interviewees Polish my of None visitors. its to sell to trying is city the that image commercialized tidy, the overwhelming of impression Wisla to related tags hooligan th hand, other the On subculture. the within writers Westernmany for be” to place “a asestablished been has and Krakowgraffiti scenethan diverse more and stronger ahave to seems about bring to proved anti 7. Discussion - Semitic inscriptions, in Krakow and Budapest, along with the field work in both cities, ha cities, both in work field the with along Budapest, and Krakow in inscriptions, Semitic eetees wa I on ecpinly infcn ws h dge o idfeec to indifference of degree the was significant exceptionally found I what Nevertheless, notably most and scenes, graffiti of comparison The

there used to be. For example, in Kazimierz there used to be quite a quite be to used there Kazimierz in example, For be. to used there least At some. is there But this. to attention pay don't I me, “For

several differences and parallels worth a more detailed inquiry. Budapest inquiry. detailed more a worth parallels and differences several d by the Krakowians, who appeared to have acquired certain “practices of “practices certain acquired have to appeared who Krakowians, the by d - rcva iar i tuy nros n smtms t evs an leaves it sometimes and enormous truly is rivalry Cracovia 35

ld be easily identifiable in the accounts of my of accounts the in identifiable easily be ld Krakow with graffiti art in their minds, their in art graffiti with Krakow ,

the scope of urban coverage with with coverage urban of scope the nderstood as “a “a as nderstood e scale of of scale e ve

CEU eTD Collection indifference, leve at theone the anti with struggle the in role own his upon reflecting Peter, Furthermore, country. the ruled that elites political the with dissatisfaction and an showed voi all almost and counterparts conversation our of topic Hungarian the politicize to inclination their moment, the at representation the political with content country's fairly be to admitted even and politics the on comment to need the feel not did informants Polish young my While interviews. of couple first a conducting after spot to easy taking theissue. an standto ignorant anti to disregard showing of matter the framed Krakow, than population Jewish bigger considerably - Semitic violations in a more political manner and several of them blam them of severaland manner political morea in violations Semitic In fact, the differences in perception of the political situation in both countries was rather rather was countries both in situation political the of perception in differences the fact, In a has which Budapest, in encounter to chance a had I that people the comparison, In lot of graffiti but with time it started to disappear,tho to started it time with but graffiti of lot that much attention to it but I know there is a problem with it.” it.” with problem (Gosia a is there know I but it to attention much that Krakow...I'min graffiti see I “When don't muchof see it.” (Jarek) also I but attention much pay don't just I now Right something. is very bad from my from bad very but sign it's So about it. dimension. another the stupidity behind And also it's the about not But it. about sad I'm and bad it's know “I )

l of a young community inBudapest.l ofa Jewish side that side

actually I don't act against this way of of way this against act don't I actually

- Semitic graffiti, explored another dimension of the of dimension another explored graffiti, Semitic 36

so used to it. Now, I don't pay pay don't Now,I it. to used ugh there still still there ugh ced substantial criticism substantial ced ed the government forgovernment the ed

CEU eTD Collection engrainedgeneration.conservative worldview inthe an ofolder some, For generation. Polish young the in levels posi a with them attributed and Union, European the to accession new the with came easily, that appreciated more cultures new know to also get and freely more travel They to opportunities better. the for changing were things the that impression sincere ha to talked I Krakowians The explanations. matching always not providing in resulted turn, in which, situation, current the evaluate to lenses distinct use to seemed people the generations, o perceptions individual to came it when However, too. space urban the marking in engaged get people old many surprisingly, that, me told Roland although youth, the wonder,with no associated was,graffiti “Doing” varied.

Dedicating a closer look at the generationalDedicatingataspect, then closer the a look thinki mean the old people are still conservative but there is this new new this is there but conservative still are people old the mean open and modern new, huge, really a with conservativea country traditional, of say“I kind it's would youryourIt's in tobeajust mind.” (Peter) mind. enough Jew not in only not and acts your in Jewish be to have you because bad, is (Pawel) oriented.” nationalistically are who people the among only it find anti more tha much Semitic are people older that say would I “Definitely, Ifeeling it's coming toit. changing.”(Noora) think ng. So I'm not going there to remove it or wash it off, which which off, it wash or it remove to there going not I'm So ng.

n the younger ones. Among the younger ones, you can can you ones, younger the Among ones. younger the n f the extent and the role that role the and extent the f 37

anti - Semitism - idd eeain I generation. minded anti arratives of my interviewees often myarratives often of interviewees

tive influence on the openness the on influence tive - Semitism belonged to and was deeply deeply was and to belonged

[Poland]

played for different for played

-

d a a d CEU eTD Collection of verbal and symbolic and verbal of yearsrecent(Cain 2012). witness a been has country the and population Roma sizable a Hungary.Hungaryscores in Poland, unwelcomefeel to to Contrary made is that group minority only the up make not do Jews the that recognize to importance crucial of is it However, 2014). minorit Jewish the and population majority the between tensions the of strengthening of expression the for ground fertile provide to seems country the in existent sentiments amount anti the with tainted is which Jobbik, as such subjects political powerful increasingly the that fact the to out pointed and variation generational Nevertheles integration. European of process Budapes Combined with the potential release of the long suppressed but deeply rooted anti rooted deeply but suppressed long the of release potential the with Combined the by about brought elements positive some with concurred also Budapest in People Despite the escalation of violence between hooligan gangs in Krakow as well as the rise the as well as Krakow in gangs hooligan between violence of escalation the Despite

of youngof voters. t did not have an impression that the amount of racist graffiti has increased in the last the in increased has graffiti racist of amount the that impression an have not did t Jobbik. ItJobbik. youth.” popular themost party is (Zsofia) among the accepting are accept they to something, want they Also, thing. one the Hungary. That's for good be to seems it or Hungary for good be that might something strong, something show they because Jobbik for vote now people young of lot a that see can you age, by “Divided the older strata of the Hungarian society Hungarian the of strata older the anti

- Semitism

in the Hungarian politics, the residents of both Krakow andKrakow both of residents the politics, Hungarian the in - Semitic agenda, win the support from a respectable respectable a from support the win agenda, Semitic s, they were not so optimistic about the notion of notion the about optimistic so not were they s, 38 anti

- Semitism

to waves of anti of waves to , hc cms with comes which current sociopolitical situation in situation sociopolitical current

n blee in believe and anti - Semitism

- Roma outbursts in outbursts Roma i nt even not if , - y (Hurd (Hurd y Semitic Semitic CEU eTD Collection Feig 02 24 Nvk 04. owtsadn te ifrne bten h to cte in cities two, the between differences the rhet Notwithstanding 2014). Eurosceptic Novak of 254; 2012: signs (Fleming the shows that government Hungarian present the to imputed be could Hungary in than Poland in prominent more is past, Eastern “primitive” their of cities adherence that fact 254 (2012: image city new a of construction the for plans endorsed the challenges anti t problems the acknowledge to them caused funding schemes, EU the through supported large by and neighbors, European Western their of image the in areas urban their revitalize to municipalities by made efforts The cities. European Central discourse Europeanization the of implementation the to related closely be can become mor have graffiti hooligan Wislathe with connected violence the opinion, his In worsened. has problem Sz Similarly, ideas. their spread to more blogs and forums Internet useto started that groups bymade theradicalshift to developmentsuch attributed Roland decade. both countries have adopted more restrictive patterns of dealing with graffiti; Hungary even went even Hungarygraffiti; with dealing of patterns restrictive more adopted have countries both - Semitic graffiti comprises only one of the forms of intolerance and generalized anger that that anger generalized and intolerance of forms the of one only comprises graffiti Semitic Fleming (2012) argues that the heightened visibility of the issues of intolerance nowadays intolerance of issues the of visibility heightened the that argues (2012) Fleming e visible in public discourse. e inpublic visible (Szymon) gu one after Definitely, […] machetes. running guys of lot a Like gangs. hooligan two the between fights the of recordings camera CCTV the see can you media the in hand, other the On personally. problems serious any have didn't I told I've media. in intense more got it sure “For to this neo this to only

eevd oe ei atnin n h ps cul o yas thus years, of couple past the in attention media more received - liberal discourse, accompanied by measures that are meant to rid to meant are that measures by accompanied discourse, liberal

in the media recently, it was on the rise.” the on recently,wasmedia the it in 39

hat might stand in the way. The upsurge of of upsurgeway. The the in stand might hat ymon did not think that the that think not did ymon with y - Cracovia fights and fights Cracovia

attempted by the by attempted - 255; 269). The 255; oric oric CEU eTD Collection and what is not. What about the implicit anti implicit the about What not. is what and in H exclusion their at anger their celebrate power of discourse the from excluded normally “a entail to continue graffiti sense, keep could they that so stenciling) and stickers (e.g. interventions urban of forms efficient more novel, developing into writers galvanize actions an ways sophisticated offensive & language (Ferrell Weide themunicipal account, that 82). Hutton 2012: On & less inRowe its in conflicting usually the overproduction, about graffiti bring of and outcome writers the from reaction opposing strong a in result often i is It 267). 259, 2012: (Fleming subculture graffiti delegitimized of members the by unnoticed go not do which contestation, of sites new of creation the to contributes others, over narratives particularhistorical hegemonicurban beautification. discourse of the contest or undermine that groups all towards violence” “representational of ways adopt to thi in engaged crews and gangs the of marginalization reinforces society” of segments backward and “uneducated with graffiti of phenomenon the tie to efforts deliberate and form, artistic more or racist its in be it whether stigmati Moreover, criminalization. increasing of way the for and identify them as threatening to the J the to threatening as them identify and alsey& Young 293). 2006: oehls, h ftsiain f eetd urb selected of fetishization the Nonetheless, Also, it is rather obscure to recognize who exactly decides what is racist or anti or racist is what decides exactly who recognize to obscure rather is it Also, ronical that the attempts by authorities to put tight restrictions on graffiti writing graffiti on restrictions tight put to authorities by attempts the that ronical

s urban activity (Fleming 2012: 258). The local authorities started authorities local The 258). 2012: (Fleming activity urban s lyu ad laual resistance pleasurable and playful ewish minority? Since the municipalities have a limited limited a have municipalities the Since minority? ewish

- Semitic messages? Can local authorities read them read authorities local Can messages? Semitic 40 graffiti's function true to its original intent. In this this In intent. original its to true functiongraffiti's

n eiae s el s roiiain of prioritization as well as heritage an ain f rus on graffiti, doing groups of zation o uhrt wee those where authority to uig more using d ” (Presdee (Presdee ” - Semitic Semitic CEU eTD Collection preconceptions that continuetoinform the engrained deeply or the as abuse well as of statements racist term such of aambiguity the ashighlighted I contempt, it using or cities contemporary of streets the to over spilt that a debate in opinion one's voicing of way a as form, hooligan its in graffiti showing anti of practices writing the to approach my substantiated and piece whole of representations visual and textual contemporary the embed to intent original my twenty the of start the at negotiate to continue cities both that histories dist and insecurity hate, of narratives their anti of producers the that forms of diversity the supplied Budapest, and Krakow inquiry, research my of places the that believe I localities. consequen different for accounts and forms various on takes that phenomenon 8. far the of unenthusiastic, ifnotreluctant,toact against them. opinions the with sympathize actually policemen anti of coordination minori on perpetrated symbolicviolence of continuation the for allow thus agenda,removal the fulfilling and addressing for benchmark lenient more a set can they removal, graffiti to allocated budget

Conclusion ty communities (Lynn & Lea 2005: 58, 60). In addition, my informants highlighted that thehighlightedthat (LynnInmyinformants tycommunities addition, 60). 58, Lea2005: & In my thesis, I endeavored to contextualize the inscribed the contextualize to endeavored I thesis, my In sociopolitical situation of both Poland and Hungary could be traced throughout the the throughout traced be could Hungary and Poland both of situation sociopolitical

- rfii oiis ih h plc i lkl t tr ot nucsfl s many as unsuccessful out turn to likely is police the with policies graffiti anti - rust, as well as insinuated the tacit resemblance of of resemblance tacit the insinuated as well as rust, Semitic graffiti seize upon in order to communicate to order in upon seize graffiti Semitic - Semitic 41

discourse nowadays. anti - ih gro right - Semitism - first century. I hope that hope Icentury. first

- ups and are often often are and ups Semitic graffiti. By By graffiti. Semitic

anti as a global social global a as

e i different in ces heated political political heated - Semitism

in CEU eTD Collection to consider it. Iwona interviews, my of one Duringundersta to fail municipalities which angle opponents. the articulated their over leverage the enjoy to appear they and actors, political by field the in introduced changes the with familiarized have writers graffiti, that hardgraffiti is toimagine it everbe will fullyeliminated. way One oranot vi peoples, and events of documents layered “living, remain to in enmeshed are they dissolution” and of constitution “process adjust toandnavigate theconstant haveurban also to landscape, they t ascribed are and carry both graffiti that significance of levels various the to reference with themselves positioned and interventions urban meaning as graffiti upon reflected Budapest and Krakow from locals the when conducted discernibl were processes Such 298). 278; Young2006: & (Halsey to relate we places and people of groups particular about thinking of way our reinforce or renegotiate to Anti 833). 2012: Fischer & Eyck (Ten wall public a of materiality inscribed the in visible invisible, or assumed unspoken, often the rendering and quo status contesting for platform the become surface urban to compared blogs and forums anti the and Internet, the by eroded slightly

gorous flailings, moments of politicized enactments”gorous ofpoliticized flailings, (Holmes moments 2010:880). - Semitic g Semitic Although the notion of graffiti as a phenomenon belonging to the urban setting has been been has setting urban the to belonging phenomenon a as graffiti of notion the Although Despite the strengthening desire of municipal and governmental agencies to do away with with away do to agencies governmental and municipal of desire strengthening the Despite

raffiti, seen by all but targeted at only a selected group of urban dwellers, force us force dwellers, urban of group selected a only at targeted but all by seen raffiti, o by external actors. While graffiti add to the fluidity of fluidity the to add graffiti While actors. external by o - eii sniet cm i audne n virtual on abundance in come sentiments Semitic s, graffiti, in any of their form, strictly speaking, speaking, strictly form, their of any in graffiti, s, 42

nd; or even if they do, they choose not choose they do, they if even or nd;

e in the interviews I interviews the in e her,graffiti - laden laden CEU eTD Collection 2006: 297). Young& (Halsey realities marginalized of aspects covert the to attention our direct and familiar the of sense our dispute to propensity graffiti's appreciate and recognize should we message, post a of scenery urban However, we should also ask ourselves if it is at all desirable to evict graffiti from the the from graffiti evict to desirable all at is it if ourselves ask also should we However,

“I think the amount of graffiti is not decreasing, it's pretty much the the much pretty it's decreasing, not graffitiis of amount the think “I mental thing. It needs to be changed in some peoples' heads.” heads.” peoples' some in (Iwona) changed be to needs It thing. mental re gets it if even it do still will they impossible, city center. the erase in mainly But it, same. they'retrying to But it's

- oen ol. hte te ht, rtcz, insult criticize, hate, they Whether world. modern 43

moved. It's like a a like It's moved.

r oe n their in love or CEU eTD Collection Appendices on the both sides of the Star of David stand for “Anty Jude”. “Anty for Starstand ofthe David of sides the on both Appendix 2. 2. Appendix Appendix 1. 1. Appendix –

Graffitiwrittenby “Wisla the themselves Wislawholetter Sharks”. call The hooligans, –

Hoo ligangraffiti N inthe Ferencvárosi Ferencvárosi (FTC) épliget

footbal club. footbal city park, nearby park, city Fl Albert 44

April 2014 Kr ó lewska

(Author'sphoto) Street , Krakow , órián Stadion, órián .

May 2014 2014 May .

a home stadium of homestadium (Author'sphoto s “A” and “J” s“A” and ).

CEU eTD Collection Wisla 3. Appendix Appendix 4. 4. Appendix 's coat of arms with the white star standing out on the red background. It explains why the club is also referred referred is also whyclub the explains It background. red the out on standing whitestar with the of arms 's coat –

Wisla graffiti on the sidewall of a block of flats in the Krakow's fifth district of Krowordza. It depicts depicts It ofKrowordza. fifthdistrict Wisla Krakow's in flats the of graffitiblock ofa sidewall the on –

Fuck Fuck Wislacarcasses to as “White Star” Gwiazda). as “White to (Biała -

anti - Wislagraffiti in 45

May2014 Podgórze

(Author'sphoto) ,Krakow .

May 2014 May .

(Author'sphoto).

CEU eTD Collection

Appendix 6. 6. Appendix sons of bitches) used by the Wisla hooligans was overwritten with “KSC”, a contracted version of KS Cracovia. Cracovia. ofKS version withcontracted a “KSC”, the usedby Wisla wassonsofbitches) overwritten hooligans Appendix 5. 5. Appendix –

Example of overscribbling. Exampleofoverscribbling. –

“Jude Gang” graffiti at the entrance hall to a residential building, Kazimierz building, residential a hall to graffitientrance Gang”“Jude the at Królewska StreetKrólewska The “J The , Krakow , Ż (Aut S” abbreviation for “Jeba for abbreviation S” hor’sphoto . 46 May 2014 2014 May

) .

(Author’ ć

sphoto Żyd ó wSkurwysyn ) .

, Krakow , ó w”(Fu .

May2014 ck the Jews, the Jews, ck

CEU eTD Collection

Appendix 7. 7. Appendix Appendix 8. 8. Appendix the Holocaust. Located on the wall of the Jewish cemetery in in Tatabcemetery thewall Jewish theof on Located theHolocaust. – –

This is not yourcountry isThis not

Therebut there Holocaust, wasno will be!!! Budapest. March 2014. Photo byPhoto 2014. March Budapest. , filthy Jews filthy , byG. Laz .

ó GraffitiM the on Martyrs k (Source: index.hu) k(Source: 47

Graffiti on a memorial plate dedicated to the victimsto of dedicated memorialplate Graffitia on avk.hu

(Source: index.hu) (Source: á nya .

, a smaller town 50 kilometers from kilometers 50 town smaller a , emorial in Budapest. in emorial .

May 2012. Photo Photo May2012. CEU eTD Collection Appendix 10. 10. Appendix Appendix 9. 9. Appendix –

Example of the graffiti Exampleo writtenin the ofthe –

Jews to gas. Jewsto

Inscription (Source: belvaros.blogspot.hu). (Source: on the gas box ingas Podg box theon 48 ld Hungarian script. Haller Street Haller script. Hungarian ld

ó rze , Krakow ,

. May 2014 (Author’s May2014 photo). . , Budapest , . March 2011 March .

CEU eTD Collection Appendix 11. Appendix Appendix 12. 12. Appendix -

Never trust a Jew. a Never trust –

Erszébetváros

N é pliget city park. pligetcity ,

Budapest 49

. June 2013 (Source: belvaros.blogspot.hu). (Source: June2013 April

2014 (Author’s 2014 photo ).

CEU eTD Collection Appendix 13. 13. Appendix Appendix 14. Appendix –

The Star of David on the wall of the New Jewish cemetery.Jewish New the of wall Star theStreet,on Krakow.The ofDavid Miodowa by Photo T.

– Minister, in Budapest (Source: Kótun & Ruszty: StreetmarkingBudapest). & Ruszty: in Kótun Minister, (Source: in Budapest

Nazi vs. Jewish scum Jewish Nazi vs. Jakubowicz (Source: Polska Newsweek). Polska (Source: Jakubowicz . . WrittenGyurcs ofFerenc theon poster 50

á ny,Pri Hungarian former a

me CEU eTD Collection Appendix 15 Appendix Appendix 16 Appendix . –

Lepper Jude. Lepper . –

Graffiti

map

Scribble on theon toilet Scribble on

the

websi te ofthe te (Author’sphoto).

door in the main building of the Jagiellonian Library. Jagiellonian ofthe main in the building door

Krakow’spol 51

ice . May 2014 (Screenshot made by author). by made (Screenshot May2014 May 2014 2014 May

CEU eTD Collection

Appendix 18 Appendix Appendix 17 Appendix . –

Fight Facsism * Eat Nazis * Hate Nazi Live StencilsNazi Live Hate Nazis* Eat * Fight Facsism . –

Redrawn swastika Redrawnswastika –

an example of anti anti ofanti anexample (Author’sphoto). collection). 52

-

Semitic graffiti.( Semitic Budapest.

.

Antifa stencil inPodg Antifastencil ó Photo from Photo rze, Krakow. rze, May2014 Roland’s CEU eTD Collection Appendix 19 Appendix . – Appendix 20. 20. Appendix

Graffiti depicting the Celtic cross GraffitiCelticcross the depicting –

Binman pictogram. Budapest. ( BinmanBudapest. pictogram. (Author’sphoto). on the hangman’s the on Krakow.scaffold. Kazimierz, May2014 53

Photo from Photo

Roland’s collection).

CEU eTD Collection Appendix 21 Appendix Appendix 22 Appendix . –

Anti . –

Fuck Nazis.Fuck - Nazi stencil. Budapest. (Source: nacijobbik.com) (Source: Budapest. stencil. Nazi (Photo from Roland’s(Photo collection). 54

CEU eTD Collection Appendi Appendix 23 Appendix x24 . – .

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I love the Jews! love the I you? And Budapest. Budapest. from (Photo S April 2010 55

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