FILOZOFICKÁ FAKULTA UNIVERZITY
PALACKÉHO V OLOMOUCI
KATEDRA ANGLISTIKY A AMERIKANISTIKY
ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES (bakalářská práce)
Autor: Hrozová Hana (Anglická filologie)
Vedoucí práce: Mgr. Jiří Flajšar, PhD.
OLOMOUC 2013
Prohlášení
Prohlašuji, že jsem bakalářskou práci vypracovala samostatně a všechny použité zdroje jsem uvedla v seznamu literatury.
V Olomouci ______Podpis ______
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Poděkování
Za metodické vedení, odbornou pomoc a cenné rady bych ráda poděkovala vedoucímu své bakalářské práce, Mgr. Jiřímu Flajšarovi, Ph.D.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ...... 5 2. ORIGINS OF ENVIRONMENTALISM IN THE UNITED STATES ...... 7 2.1 PRESERVATION ...... 9 2.2 CONSERVATION ...... 10 3. DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTALISM ...... 14 3.1 CONVENTIONAL VALUES VERSUS ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES ...... 15 3.1.1 NATURE ...... 15 3.1.2 HUMANS ...... 15 3.1.3 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ...... 16 3.1.4 PRODUCTION AND ECONOMICS ...... 16 3.1.5 POLITICS ...... 17 4. BEGINNING OF MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT ...... 18 4.1 SILENT SPRING ...... 19 4.2 THE FIRST EARTH DAY ...... 22 5. ENVIRONMENTALISM SINCE 1970s TO 1990s ...... 25 5.1 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES ...... 25 5.2 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS ...... 28 5.2.1 SIERRA CLUB ...... 30 6. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ...... 32 6.1 OIL SPILL ...... 32 6.1.1 EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL ...... 33 6.1.2.1 OIL POLLUTION ACT OF 1990 (OPA) ...... 37 7. CONCLUSION ...... 38 RESUMÉ ...... 42 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 44 ABBREVIATIONS ...... 50 ANNOTATION ...... 51 ANOTACE...... 52
1. INTRODUCTION
Why I decided to write about environmentalism? It all started years ago, when I decided to follow vegetarian lifestyle and try to save innocent animals from being consumed. As I read books, articles and watched documents concerning vegetarianism and animal rights, I have realized that it is simply not enough just to stop eat meat. I wanted to do more to be excluded from cruelty we are causing to innocent species, who also have a right to live. That was the time when I became more concerned about the environment as well as human health. I think it is important to present this topic as it is part of our everyday life. We should not act selfishly and we should think about future generations. We need to deal with environmental issues and protect our health. The aim of my bachelor thesis is to present the development of environmental movement in America, I will focus on modern environmental movement, which covers period approximately from 1960s. I have chosen modern environmental movement, because it is still somehow connected to our present. It still affects our lives today in a good way as well as in a way that reminds us what we have done wrong in the past. Before the emergence of modern environmental movement, there was no environmentalism as such, but there were movements, whose aim was to protect natural resources in a different way. The movements are known as preservation and conservation. I introduce both movements and outline their main thoughts. Both movements are represented by prominent leaders, in case of preservation, it is John Muir and the conservation’s prominent figure is Gifford Pinchot. Then, I focus on explanation of the term environmentalism itself. After I explain what environmentalism mean, I compare the conventional values with the environmental values, which are also called “green” values. The modern environmental movement emerged around the time when Santa Barbara oil spill (1969) took place and it was also time when people were exposed to multitude of chemicals. One of the reactions on the current environmental situation was publication of the Silent Spring, book written by marine biologist, Rachel Carson. The other notable event, which possibly emerged modern environmental movement, is the first Earth Day, celebrated in USA in 1970. Both of the events are considered as milestones in history of modern environmental movement. The events also awakened
5 new thinking about environment. Simply noted, people started to worry about the environment they lived and its future. I provide details and background on both of the events and I finish the chapter with changes in environmental policy due to publication of Rachel Carson’s book and positive response of the first Earth Day. In the chapter, which deals with the environmental movement from 1970s to 1990s, I present the key legislation, which was passed during this era. The era was on its peak and we can consider it fairly successful. What is more, environmental organizations increased in membership and area of their concern broaden due to more people, who cared to protect their environment. Furthermore, during those twenty years, new organizations were established. I have selected Sierra Club for a detailed analysis, because it was one of the first organizations, which played an important part in emergence of environmental movement in USA. I present the main interests of the club and its activities. The Club’s main focus is to bring people to take a closer look on nature and experience it, all in order to preserve it and care for it. Finally, the last topic I will comment on is the environmental issues in the United States. The environmental organizations were mostly oriented on dealing with pollution and waste during the modern era, which had lasting impact on nature surroundings and on living conditions of citizens. In the chapter, I will focus on oil spills. The most notable event which happened, was the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska in 1989. The accident had a devastating consequences on not only people being dependent on fishing, but also on beautiful nature, which was polluted by oil. To sum up, the environmental movement is still developing and changing due to different approaches in the field of industry. There are more and more people, who are committed to living environmentally friendly, it is also due to environmental organizations, who advocate education on the problems we are facing now.
6 2. ORIGINS OF ENVIRONMENTALISM IN THE UNITED STATES
Since the colonization of America the land has been exploiting. People could learn more about nature from the earlier works of purely American writers, I mean, there were also writers who followed the British tradition. The appreciation of wilderness has its roots in the American Romanticism, more precisely in transcendentalism. At the beginning of nineteenth century, there were “the cultural archetypes that represented three different attitudes towards the environment: the primitive, as represented in James Fenimore Cooper’s frontier hero, Natty Bumppo, the pastoral, as represented in Jonathan Chapman, better known as Johnny Appleseed, and the commercial, as represented in Washington Irving’s restless Yankee, Ichabod Crane.”1 James Fenimore Cooper was the first American writer, who is inspired by American landscape. He was witnessing decay of the buffalo and other endangered species, such as panther. This “influenced Cooper’s understanding and appreciation of nature, and he was the first to criticize the human impact on the American environment.”2 We should not forget about the one of the early intellectual, Ralph Waldo Emerson and his well known essay Nature. Ralph Waldo Emerson is one of the earlier conservationists, who was realizing that human progress would change nature in the future. As John Adams argues in his article about R. W. Emerson. “On the one hand, Emerson praises nature and, especially the experience of nature, but on the other hand, he fully embraces the idea of progress and man’s dominion over nature, which are the very ideas that brought about transformation of the American environment.”3 By the year 1850 respect for nature was developed by an American writer Henry David Thoreau in his book, Walden, which was published 1848. The book was written after a two-years living experiment in the woods Walden Pond, Massachusetts. There Henry David Thoreau spent time by walking, growing vegetables and reading. His aim was to describe the harmony between nature and individual. “Henry David Thoreau was especially eager to avoid Lowell, Massachusetts, already the center of the county’s
1 Jon Adams, Roots of American environmentalism (Los Gatos: Slack Water Press, 2012) 4.
2 Jon Adams, Roots of American environmentalism (Los Gatos: Slack Water Press, 2012) 81.
3 Jon Adams, Roots of American environmentalism (Los Gatos: Slack Water Press, 2012) 93.
7 Industrial Revolution.”4 He put down his impression of surrounding nature and published it. “The journals of his experience, published in 1854, rejected the materialism which saw only monetary worth in nature.”5 His environmental consciousness was awaken by Ralph Waldo Emerson’s Nature, but later he became “a natural historian and environmentalist than a romantic thinker.”6 What is more, “Henry David Thoreau is considered one of the first major American writers to address environmental issues.”7 As he once said: “In wilderness is the preservation of the world.” The idea of living in harmony with nature was later developed by John Muir. He was very fond of hiking and traveling throughout Yosemite and the Sierra Nevada Mountains. He published series of articles in Century magazine, which comprise of his travels. In the 1892 he founded the Sierra Club, “which is still among the most important preservationist organizations in the U.S.”8 The roots of American environmental movement are traced back to the conversation movement, which emerged in the 19 th century America. The movement was a reaction on “reckless exploitation of our natural resources.”9 “Conversation had been coined during the administration of Theodore Roosevelt (1901-09) by a forester, Gifford Pinchot.10 The environmental movement was on rise at that time and the president and government had to take a stand towards the nature and show that they would support the movement. “Early conservationists emphasized the wise management
4 Chad Montrie, A people's history of environmentalism in the United States (London: Continuum, 2011) 7.
5 David Pepper, Modern Environmentalism: an introduction (London: Routledge, 1996) 197.
6 Jon Adams, Roots of American environmentalism (Los Gatos: Slack Water Press, 2012) 105.
7 Jon Adams, Roots of American environmentalism (Los Gatos: Slack Water Press, 2012) 105.
8 Jon Adams, Roots of American environmentalism (Los Gatos: Slack Water Press, 2012) 147.
9 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 2.
10 Victor B. Sheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991) 3.
8 of natural resources for continued human use, but a few individuals such as John Muir argued for the preservation of nature for its own sake.”11 There were two opposing groups of environmentalist with a different view on saving nature. On the one hand, there is preservation and on the other is conservation. In the following sections, I briefly discuss the differences between the two as they are often confused.
2. 1 PRESERVATION
“The wrongs done to trees, wrongs of every sort, are done in the darkness of ignorance and unbelief, for when the light comes, the heart of the people is always right.” John Muir
Preservation of environment focuses on protecting areas, which are not touched by human’s progress. People were and still are exploiting nature, which results in loosing the natural areas. It is not only farming, industry, but also housing and tourism, which have negative impact on nature. As Moseley states in his article, “preservation typically refers to the non-use or non-consumptive use of natural resources in an area.”12 One of the significant figures of the nineteenth century preservation was John Muir. He was born in Dunbar, Scotland on April 2, 1838. He experienced strict religious upbringing by his father, Muir called it: “the old Scotch fashion of whipping.”13 His family emigrated to the United States in 1849. The Muir family settled on the farm near Portage, Wisconsin. Since that time he was fascinated by nature. He was very skilled young man, he crafted wood and was interested in mechanics. In 1860 he entered University of Wisconsin, but he left without degree. He began working as a mechanic in
11 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement,1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 2.
12 William G. Moseley, “Beyond Knee-Jerk Environmental Thinking: Teaching Geographic Perspectives On Conservation, Preservation And The Hetch Hetchy Valley Controversy,” Journal Of Geography In Higher Education 33.3 (2009) 433 - 451. Web. 13 March 2013.
13 “Biography of John Muir” YouTube. YouTube, 15 Sep 2010. Web. 14 March 2013.
9 a factory, but he had an accident, which left him blinded. He had to reconsider his future. However, his sight was recovered and he could fully enjoy the United States, so he set on his journey.14 He undertook hikes in Sierra Nevada and spent long time in Yosemite Valley. The hikes inspired him later when establishing the Sierra Club. As a writer, he wrote several essays, articles, which he published in American magazines. He advocated, “to solve the problems endangering the Western American landscape and nature he called for national parks and forest reserves.”15 He wrote several articles concerning Yosemite, which inspired readers and contributed protection of the area. His mission was completed: “in 1903 Muir escorted President Theodore Roosevelt on a field trip to Yosemite [...] three years later Roosevelt signed bill that put Yosemite Valley and the surrounding park under federal administration [...].”16 Another result of their friendships was “Roosevelt’s creation of the US Forest Service in 1905 and the addition of 148 million acres to the National Forest System before leaving office [...].”17 Before he took the president hiking, he established the Sierra Club with a help of two of his companions. “In 1892, Muir, two Berkeley professors and a San Francisco attorney start the Sierra Club, modeled after the Appalachian Mountain Club. Muir is nominated president, a role he enthusiastically fulfills until his death in 1914.”18 It is said that “within his own historical context Muir had a remarkable influence - literary, political and philosophical - on those who were to follow him in environmental ethics and environmental education.”19 One of his followers was for example, Aldo Leopold, who is best known for his book A Sand Country Almanac
14 “Biography of John Muir” YouTube. YouTube, 15 Sep 2010. Web. 14 March 2013.
15 Jon Adams, Roots of American environmentalism (Los Gatos: Slack Water Press, 2012) 147.
16 Jon Adams, Roots of American environmentalism (Los Gatos: Slack Water Press, 2012) 147.
17 James W. Shores, “A Win–Lose Situation: Historical Context, Ethos, And Rhetorical Choices In John Muir's 1908 “Hetch Hetchy Valley” Article.” Journal Of American Culture 29.2 (2006) 191-201. Web. 13 March 2013.
18 James W. Shores, “A Win–Lose Situation: Historical Context, Ethos, And Rhetorical Choices In John Muir's 1908 “Hetch Hetchy Valley” Article.” Journal Of American Culture 29.2 (2006) 191-201. Web. 13 March 2013.
19 Peter Blaze Corcoran, Joy A. Palmer, and David E. Cooper, “John Muir 1838-1914” Fifty Key Thinkers On The Environment (2000) 131-136. Web. 13 March 2013.
10 (1949). He coined the term land-ethic: “an ethic dealing with human’s relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it.”20 John Muir was inspired by Henry David Thoreau’s impressions and thoughts of nature. “Earlier, among Americans, only Thoreau spoke with such moral authority; later only Carson had such an influence on environmental thinking.”21 The preservationist field of expertise was applied in different areas. “The preservationists approach also was introduced to developing countries during the colonial era when many parks and wilderness areas were established.”22
2.2 CONSERVATION
Considering conservation of environment, its pioneers focus on renewable and non-renewable resources. The aim is to manage human development in order to have better future, but such doing cannot be wasteful. The source defines the movement, “conservation (sometimes also described as utilitarian approach in environmental history, or as resource conservation in UK) typically refers to use within certain biological limits, or within the annual growth increment of a particular resource.”23 As I pointed out earlier in the text, the movement emerged in the nineteenth century America and the term Conversation was coined by Gifford Pinchot. “He defined conservation as the wise use of the earth and its resources for the lasting good of man.”24
20 Aldo Leopold, A Sand Country Almanac, and Sketches Here and There (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949) 226.
21 Peter Blaze Corcoran, Joy A. Palmer, and David E. Cooper, “John Muir 1838-1914” Fifty Key Thinkers On The Environment (2000) 131-136. Web. 13 March 2013.
22 William G. Moseley, “Beyond Knee-Jerk Environmental Thinking: Teaching Geographic Perspectives On Conservation, Preservation And The Hetch Hetchy Valley Controversy,” Journal Of Geography In Higher Education 33.3 (2009) 433 - 451. Web. 13 March 2013.
23 William G. Moseley, “Beyond Knee-Jerk Environmental Thinking: Teaching Geographic Perspectives On Conservation, Preservation And The Hetch Hetchy Valley Controversy,” Journal Of Geography In Higher Education 33.3 (2009) 433 - 451. Web. 13 March 2013.
24 Sandra Weber, “Gifford Pinchot: Walrus Of The Forest.” New York State Conservationist 55.3 (2000) 12. Web. 15 March 2013.
11 However, the “interest in conservation followed early soil exhaustion in the East in the eighteenth century, and the US Department of Agriculture was established in 1862.”25 The leading figure of American conservationism was Gifford Pinchot, he was born into a wealthy family and his parents were respected personalities. He graduated from Yale, where he studied science. He was fond of hiking, camping and fishing, and because in the United States, there was no school of forestry, he was sent to Europe to study the field. When he got back from Europe, he was managing private forests. “Pinchot began to earn a reputation as a forester - the first professionally trained scientific American forester.”26 He befriended with Theodore Roosevelt and when he became president of the United States, he “reorganized the management of the national forests, creating the United States Forest Service and appointing Pinchot to the powerful job of Chief Forester.”27 After being appointed, he travelled around the country to educate people about the use of land. He also befriended John Muir, they both share passion for hiking and traveling, but their paths parted when the great debate started. The great debate referred to debate over Hetch Hetchy Valley and its damning. Since then, the famous disagreements between John Muir and Gifford Pinchot were on. Both of them had different ideas about the development of environmentalism. John Muir as preservationist, considered foresters and other conservationists as intruders into nature. However, they used to be friends and enjoyed debates and hikes together. Their major disagreement was over Hetch Hetchy Valley, located in Yosemite National Park, California. San Francisco, after the earthquake in 1906, claimed drinking water rights. They demanded to dam Hetch Hetchy Valley. “The fight over the dam project becomes a representation of the preservationist, conservationist, and industrialist
25 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 219.
26 Sandra Weber, “Gifford Pinchot: Walrus Of The Forest.” New York State Conservationist 55.3 (2000) 12. Web. 15 March 2013.
27 Sandra Weber, “Gifford Pinchot: Walrus Of The Forest.” New York State Conservationist 55.3 (2000) 12. Web. 15 March 2013.
12 sentiments of the day.”28 The conservationists claimed that flooding the valley brings more benefits to society and that the valley will look “better.” Public was in favor of Muir’s view, which meant that they opposed to flooding. “For the first time, citizens who were not a part of the small elite group of preservationists, conservationists and outdoor enthusiasts got involved in environmental debate by writing letters, newspaper articles and participating in public debates.”29 However, the outcome of the debate was lost for Muir and his followers. “The US Congress passed the Raker Bill in 1913 allowing the flooding of Hetch Hetchy Valley. The Hetch Hetchy Valley was submerged in 1923 when construction of O’Shaughnessy Dam was completed.”30 However, since the dam no other intrusion into National Parks was allowed, which was generally considered as a fairly good outcome.
28 James W. Shores, “A Win–Lose Situation: Historical Context, Ethos, And Rhetorical Choices In John Muir's 1908 “Hetch Hetchy Valley” Article.” Journal Of American Culture 29.2 (2006) 191-201. Web. 13 March 2013.
29 Dorceta E. Taylor, Race, class, gender, and American environmentalism. (Portland, OR: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 2002) 92-93.
30 William G. Moseley, “Beyond Knee-Jerk Environmental Thinking: Teaching Geographic Perspectives On Conservation, Preservation And The Hetch Hetchy Valley Controversy,” Journal Of Geography In Higher Education 33.3 (2009) 433 - 451. Web. 13 March 2013.
13 3. DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTALISM
As it is generally known, environmentalism is closely connected with nature and its protection, restoration and conservation. Its main aim is to improve the relationship between human beings and nature. Environmentalism focus on air and water pollution, protection of endangered species and protection of untouched landscape. People, who participate or are active in other ways in the movement are called environmentalists. There are several different environmental organizations, which deal with different fields of environmental issues, such as human rights, animal rights, ecology, health. Environmentalism developed from conservation, which is “the preservation and careful use of natural resources.”31 The environmentalists did not considered conservation as a wrong approach, but they wanted to emphasize ecology, which is explained by Sheffer as “the study of the relationships between living organisms and their surroundings.”32 According to article written by Jeremy Stranks, “environmentalism is a broad social, philosophical and political movement that advocates a range of actions and policies aimed at protecting what nature remains in the natural environment; and restoring or expanding the role of nature in this environment.”33 Heywood argues that “environmentalism is a belief in the political importance of the natural environment; environmentalism is often used (in contrast to ecologism) to denote a reformism approach to nature that reflects human needs and concerns.”34 Another source claims that “environmentalism is truly multidisciplinary, involving, at a minimum, interactions between a natural science (ecology) and a value system (ethics).”35
31 Victor B. Sheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991) 3.
32 Victor B. Sheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991) 3.
33 Jeremy Stranks, “Environmentalism” A-Z Of The Environment (NP: 2008) 149 -150. Web 14 February 2013.
34 Andrew Heywood, Political Ideologies: an introduction ( New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992) 265.
35 Raymond E. Grizzle, “Environmentalism Should Include Human Ecological Needs” (NP: 1994) 264.
14 In other words, environmental movement is a social movement, which aim is to influence politics by lobbying, activism and providing education in the field of protecting natural resources. Environmentalism is often connected with green color, therefore, the movement and its members can be called “green.” Anyone can be an environmentalist as long as the person care about the environment in which he or she lives. Every day you can redound to better environment, for example, by recycling, using public transport more often, buying organic produce and support agriculture in your area. It is up to us to make the earth healthier and cleaner place for next generations.
3. 1 CONVENTIONAL VALUES VERSUS ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES
David Pepper in his book Modern Environmentalism: an introduction sums up and compares different approaches of living and thinking from the conventional and environmental point of view. I paraphrase the most important approaches in the following sections.
3. 1.1 NATURE Humans due to their moving to towns, industrialization grew apart from nature. They no longer respect it and consider it as part of their life. We use its resources for our benefit and we do not face the consequences enough to realize that our doing is wrong. Environmentalists, on the other hand, value the nature and respects its laws. They live in harmony with nature and try to protect it.
3. 1.2 HUMANS Human nature is competitive and aggressive. There is a hierarchy in human societies and status is measured by material things they own. Another aspect of conventional values is that people more value logical, rational thinking rather than intuition. General trust in facts and scientific evidence. Environmentalists take a different view. People are naturally cooperative, hierarchies are not natural and undesirable. Emphasis is on loving relationships rather than on material things.
15 Emotions and intuitions are on the same level as rational, logical thinking. In general, spiritual and simple life is preferred.
3. 1.3 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY In this field of expertise, progress is mark of success and what is more there is a belief that science and technology can be useful in dealing with environmental problems, but mostly it is not reliable. “We can change society and economics as we like: technology should be servant not master.”36 We have little control over the progress (nuclear power) in technology and also there should be no further developing of technology, which causes harm to humans and other species. We should not solve problems by analysis (splitting into parts), but there should be solving problems by synthesis (all parts seen as a whole). To understand nature does not mean to know all parts in order to control them, but “there is more to nature (and society) than the sum of its parts.”37
3. 1.4 PRODUCTION AND ECONOMICS Main stress is on profit regardless of society’s needs. The lower the costs are the more efficient the produce is. “Efficiency should be measured by how many jobs are produced, and how much material needs of people [...] are satisfied with minimal resource depletion.”38 Finite resources are not endless, that is why economy cannot grow forever. Another factor, which cannot be overlooked is creation of pollution. There is no emphasis on recycling of materials. Economic planning does not cover more than 5 to 10 years ahead as “investors have to see a reasonable return by than.”39 Today’s economy does not focus on self-sustaining regions, but we are rather dependent on bigger economies. As we automatize production, there is loss of job opportunities, not to mention employing underaged children in order to save money.
36 David Pepper, Modern Environmentalism: an introduction (London: Routledge, 1996) 11.
37 David Pepper, Modern Environmentalism: an introduction (London: Routledge, 1996) 11.
38 David Pepper, Modern Environmentalism: an introduction (London: Routledge, 1996) 12.
39 David Pepper, Modern Environmentalism: an introduction (London: Routledge, 1996) 12.
16 3. 1.5 POLITICS State as the most important unit as opposed to local communities as a part of international community; “think globally: act locally.”40 There is no way to change environmental situation without changing political, economical system. Living in community is the step ahead not back as the conventionalists think. There should be no authority which would decide for us, it is us who decide about aspects of our lives. “The way forward is through direct democracy, that is, by consensus decisions and delegates.”41 The future is “in a green society people should organize themselves as they wish, but there should be strongly enforced laws protecting the environment.”42 Simply, going back to our roots is not going backwards, but step forward.
40 David Pepper, Modern Environmentalism: an introduction (London: Routledge, 1996) 13.
41 David Pepper, Modern Environmentalism: an introduction (London: Routledge, 1996) 13.
42 David Pepper, Modern Environmentalism: an introduction (London: Routledge, 1996) 13.
17 4. BEGINNING OF MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT
Modern environmental movement differs from the conservation and preservation in two respects. While the preservation and conservation focused on protection and management of the renewable resources, the focus of the modern era is on control of pollution.43 Second, modern environmentalism displayed “social roots” decidedly absent from the first era.”44 Mark Dowie claims that “the environmental movement differs markedly from other American social movements because it was saddled, from its inception, with conservative traditions.”45 There are several ecological disasters that led public to realize that the environment is being harmed by man. However, at the beginning, few were those who stand up and spoke their mind for the better environment to live in. In this section, I describe the most remarkable events, which are considered as beginning of the movement. The beginning of modern environmental movement is dated back to 1962, which was year of publication of Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring. Chad Montrie presents his view in his book as follows, “the book’s impact, so the story goes, was largely due to improvements in economic well-being and increased leisure time experienced by people living in suburbs [...] they could care about quality of life and, as they witnessed events like [...] oil spill near Santa Barbara, California, many became members of mainstream environmental groups [...].”46 The year 1970 was another landmark in history of modern environmental movement in the USA. The first Earth day was celebrated on April 22, it was “organized by Wisconsin Governor Gaylord Nelson and Harvard University student
43 Char Miller, Out of the woods: essays in environmental history (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997) 146.
44 Char Miller, Out of the woods: essays in environmental history (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997) 104.
45 Mark Dowie, Losing ground: American environmentalism at the close of the twentieth century (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995) 28.
46 Chad Montrie, A people's history of environmentalism in the United States (London: Continuum, 2011) 3.
18 Denis Hayes.”47 The main aim was to engage attention not only of public but more importantly of politicians who did not have environmental issues in their political agenda.
4. 1 SILENT SPRING
“Only within the moment of time represented by the present century has one species -- man -- acquired significant power to alter the nature of the world.” Rachel Carson, Silent Spring
As I stated above, Silent Spring (1962) is a book written by Rachel Carson, who was not afraid to point out the dangers of spraying with DDT and other chemicals that affect the everyday life of people all around the world, especially in the United States in the 40s and 50s. Rachel Carson was one of the environmental writers, who inspired many people to change their attitude towards the nature. Silent Spring was not her first book, she also published two books on marine related issues called The Sea Around Us and The Edge of the Sea. The book, Silent Spring was considered as one of the classics among ecofeminist groups in the USA. However, she was not ecofeminist herself, she was well known sea biologist. The book was remarkably influential not only in content but also in style of writing. “It was Silent Spring’s literary quality as well as its scientific content and popular influence, that earned it a place among the great books of the twentieth century.”48 The book begins with the chapter called “A Fable for Tomorrow”49 which provides description of “a town in the heart of America where all life seemed to live in harmony with its surrounding.”50 She describes actual town where people live in
47 Jordan Gold, “Timeline.” Corporate Knights Magazine 2.2 (NP: 2003) 42-43. Web. 19 February 2013.
48 Victor B. Sheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991) 119 - 120.
49 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962) 10.
50 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962) 10.
19 harmony with nature until something bad happened. Then, she presents wide range of pesticides which were sprayed every year and what is more, each year were introduced new chemicals. Carson explains how the chemicals are made and also use of hydro - carbons and organo- phosphates. The use of these chemicals led to not only death of fish, birds, but also to human nervous disorders and other diseases. She pointed out water contamination by herbicides that were said to be harmless to animals and people. Carson warned that cancer can be developed from the polluted water in the future. The reproduction of humans was also at risk. She stated that “the insecticidal poison affects a generation once removed from initial contact with it.”51 The residues from the chemicals mostly DDT were found in the tissues of people and animals. The problem with the chemicals was also that they killed everything in soil not only the targeted organism, which was a problem for ecosystem of such. Furthermore, she pointed out that the companies and government did not inform public about spraying in their area. The officials kept assuring people of harmless effects of the pesticides and herbicides. At the end of the book, she sums up, that insects developed immunity against the pesticides and the spraying proved useless. She offers alternative biological solution. “Two of Carson’s core insights - the trans-generational effects of synthetic chemicals and the ecological context of human health - have continuing relevance for understanding the environmental and human health effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals.”52 The reaction on the publication was sweeping. The excerpts of the book were first published in the New Yorker magazine in July 1962. The book was published on September 27, 1962. The book’s sales were considered as huge success. “By the end of 1962 alone 100,000 copies of Silent Spring had been sold. One-half million copies were sold in 1963.”52 However, not all the reactions were positive. She received negative response from scientists, politicians and chemical companies. Manufactures of the chemicals threatened Rachel Carson by several lawsuits. The book was criticized by the companies mostly because of the ban on DDT in 1972. “Carson was vilified as a “hysterical female,” a “pseudo-scientist,” “probably a communist,” a “bird and bunny
51 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962) 121.
52 Nancy Langston, “Rachel Carson's Legacy: Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals And Gender Concerns.” GAIA: Ecological Perspectives For Science & Society 21.3 (2012) 225-229. Web. 4 March 2013.
20 lover” and a charlatan researcher.”53 They all feared of economic loss from the selling of the chemicals. The reaction on the book was not only negative, it was received mostly positive by general public and many changes were required in ecological sphere. In the period after the publication, there was a rise of membership in existing environmental organizations and also new organizations were established. “The membership of three of the organizations rose dramatically from the 1960 to the 1969 period: Sierra Club from 15 to 83 thousand; National Audubon Society from 32 to 120 thousand; and the Wilderness Society from an estimated 10 thousand to an estimated 44 thousand.”54 The CBS also broadcasted documentary about the book. Shortly, after the broadcasting, Connecticut senator Abraham Ribicoff announced hearings on pollution. Silent Spring was also one of the favorite books of John F. Kennedy. President John F. Kennedy appointed experts, who investigated whether the Department of Agriculture and the Public Health Service were doing their job in the field of pesticide use. Since then the use of pesticides was under the close examination of the government. In the years 1961 - 1969, President Kennedy also began a program of resource conservation, later president Johnson carried the program. It led to the Wilderness Act in 1964, which was signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson. The act defined the wilderness in the United States and protected 9,1 million acres of land. While Carson’s book was gaining recognition, her health was decaying. She suffered from breast cancer. She did not want public to know about her condition, because the chemical manufacturers could blame her for crediting her disease to their industry. She was was fighting with her condition until the last day of her life. Later, she died of a heart attack on April 14, 1964. After her death, she was awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom on June 9, 1980. Postage stamp was issued in her honor in the 1965. Her name is beard by several institutions. The Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society based in Germany; The Rachel Carson Trail Challenge; The Rachel Carson Trails Conservancy; the Rachel Carson Fellowship, supports student with an interest in
53 Monica Weis, “Kindred Spirits In Revelation And Revolution: Rachel Carson And Thomas Merton.” Merton Annual 19.(2006) 128-141. Web. 4 March 2013.
54 Craig Humhprey and Tammy Lewis, “Mobilizing American Environmentalism: The Role Of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring.” Conference Papers -- American Sociological Association (2006) 1. Web. 4 March 2013.
21 nature writing; the Rachel Carson Prize, awarded to female researchers in Norway; Rachel Carson Middle School and a Rachel Carson Bridge in Pittsburgh. “Her adult home in Colesville, Maryland, is a national historic landmark. The Rachel Carson Council, a group dedicated to ending the use of harmful pesticides, continues to fight in her name.”55
4. 2 THE FIRST EARTH DAY
Earth day is mostly celebrated to remind people of nature and existing environmental problems that are caused by humans. There are various programs such as marches, protests, educational programs in which people can participate and learn something new about our unique planet. The event is now held throughout the world to serve as a wake-up call, in America it is no different. There is also so called Earth Week that is held in the same week as the Earth Day and consists of various activities on actual environmental issues. “The celebratory event known as “Earth Day,” created in 1969 and 1970, found its initial inspiration in the 1950s and 1960s, decades marked by tremendous social and cultural awareness, times of activism and change.”56 The first Earth Day in America was held in Wisconsin on April 22, 1970. It was the idea of U. S. senator Gaylord Nelson, who was inspired by student anti-war movement, which were demonstrations held on college campuses. He also witnessed Santa Barbara oil spill in 1969, shortly after that he realized that something has to be done to protect the environment. At first, he delivered speeches, which made public to be concerned about the environment, but government still seemed to resist. “Suddenly, the idea occurred to me - why not organize a huge grassroots protest over what was happening to our environment?”57 Another idea of his was that “he had proposed a
55 Robert Jsenberg, “The Book That Changed The World. (Cover Story).” E: The Environmental Magazine 23.5 (2012) 20-26. Web. 4 March 2013.
56 Fred Stoss, “Earth Day 1970-1995: An Information Perspective.” Electronic Green Journal (NP: 1995) 1. Web. 1 March 2013.
57 Gaylord Nelson, “Earth Day 1970: History of Earth Day.” Earth Day 1970 - EnviroLink Resource Guide. Web. 1 March 2013.
22 national “teach-in” on the environment in September 1969 and only eight months later, everything was in place for the single largest national demonstration in American History.”58 The teach-in on the environment convinced Pete McCloskey, who was Republican Congressman, to become a co-chair of senator Gaylord Nelson. Harvard student Denis Hayes served as national coordinator, who promote events across the US. He carefully chose the date for the following reasons, “April 22 was chosen as the best date to reach the primary audience, college students; a Wednesday was chosen because it would be the least inconvenient for students who were called upon to participate in the event.”59 Those who do not sympathize with the idea of celebrating claim that Earth Day is connected to communism, because of the date 22 April that is the birthday of Vladimir Lenin, but it is not true. It was also a birthday of “the original environmentalist St. Francis of Assisi.”60 It is said that “the first Earth Day was the largest focused demonstration in history. Congress closed its doors as politicians went home to attend or participate in local events. Legislatures from 42 states passed Earth Day resolutions to commemorate the date.”61 Later, President Richard Nixon also supported the actions by establishing the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or USEPA), which was created in order to protect human health and environment. It was mostly because he realized that more and more people care about environment and “he decided he had to become an environmental president if he wanted to win a second term.”62 More than 20 million people participated in the celebrations of the first Earth Day. The celebrations took place all over the country. “People were also angry about how much had gone wrong over so long [...] and how our government leaders didn’t seem to be focused on what was happening, or much concern about how to change it.”63
58 Ronald Bailey, “Earth Day Then And Now.” Reason 32.1 (NP: 2000) 20.
59 Fred Stoss, “Earth Day 1970-1995: An Information Perspective.” Electronic Green Journal (NP: 1995) 2. Web. 1 March 2013.
60 Fred Stoss, “Earth Day 1970-1995: An Information Perspective.” Electronic Green Journal (NP: 1995) 2. Web 1 March 2013.
61 Fred Stoss, “Earth Day 1970-1995: An Information Perspective.” Electronic Green Journal (NP: 1995) 2. Web. 1 March 2013.
62 Mark Hertsgaard, “Save Earth Day.” Nation 294.19 (NP: 2012) 3. Web. 1 March 2013.
63 Pete Granis, “Earth Day.” New York State Conservationist 64.5 (NP: 2010) 32. Web. 19 February 2013.
23 The main result of the first Earth Day was that environmental issues were recognized by politicians and it led to creation of Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act (CWA) and Endangered Species Act. “The next ten years saw the enactment of the Safe Drinking Water Act (1976), the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (known as Superfund) (1980) and major amendments to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (1972).”64 There was also an increase in membership in environmental organizations. To sum up the section, the outcome of “Earth Day not only marked the replacement of conservation with the full panoply of environmental issues but it mobilized a far broader base of support than had any of the prior waves of conservationism.”65
64 A. Myrick Freeman III. “Environmental Policy Since Earth Day I: What Have We Gained?.” Journal Of Economic Perspectives 16.1 (NP: 2002) 125. Web. 1 March 2013.
65 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 2.
24 5. ENVIRONMENTALISM SINCE 1970s TO 1990s
The environmental movement experienced rapid raise of establishment of environmental groups in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It also received media attention and legislation was formed. The movement also experienced decline as the following source describes,“however, it appeared to lose steam fairly quickly. Within two or three years most organizations experienced slowed growth rates and several disappeared, public awareness and concern declined significantly.”66 At that time, there was a boom of anti-environmental campaigns. The movement experienced decline around mid-1970s. In the following sections, I comment on the law by introducing the major legislation, which was signed during the modern era of environmentalism and then I outline the development of organizations which were formed at that time.
5.1 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES
Main goal of the legislation is to protect the environment for next generations. The legislation was also a response on several protests on campuses led by students, who were dissatisfied with current situation, especially after the catastrophes such as Santa Barbara Oil spill in 1969. As I pointed out earlier in the text, the movement was on its peak between 1960s and 1970s and during those years several laws were enacted. “These laws marked a period of intense scrutiny by the government over issues of health, pollution, and preservation.”67 Since the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was founded in 1970, the pollution, waste management, pesticide use are under control. “EPA placed environmental concern at the forefront of public consciousness.”68
66 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 4.
67 Greg Barton, American environmentalism (San Diego, California: Greenhaven Press, 2002) 18.
68 Greg Barton, American environmentalism (San Diego, California: Greenhaven Press, 2002) 19.
25 Let me briefly comment on the laws, which were enacted during the modern environmental movement. One of the first significant laws which were established was National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which came into effect on January 1, 1970. The act was concerned with promoting improvement of environment. The act is result of people’s outcry that resulted from the Santa Barbara oil spill the year before. The law, which guarantee quality of water in the United States was passed in 1972 and it is called The Clean Water Act (CWA). It became effective on October 18, 1972. Main goal of the legislation is to eliminate toxic substances in water and governs standard of cleanliness. The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA), which came into effect on October 21, 1972, protects all marine mammals from hunting, exporting and capturing in the United States. The act that ensure protection and enhancement of coastal zones was enacted October 27, 1972 and its known as The Costal Zone Management Act (CZMA). The Endangered Species Act was passed by congress in order to prevent extinction of animals in the United States. The act is effective since December 28, 1973. President Nixon signs Energy Supply and Environmental Coordination Act in order to balance nation’s energy demands with environmental regulations. The act was introduced on June 26, 1974. The Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 (RPA) was enacted in order to manage forest resources in the United States. The act was signed on August 17, 1974. To ensure clean water system of the country, on December 12, 1974 came into effect Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The legislation, which protects National Forests and national lands was passed on January 3, 1975 and the act is called The Eastern Wilderness Areas Act. The Toxic Substances Control Act instructs EPA to control all existing chemical substances, which are used in the United States. The act was passed on October 11, 1976. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act was enacted on October 21, 1976 and governs management with toxic waste.
26 The Energy Tax Act of November 9, 1978 was created in favor of using renewable energy and to promote fuel efficiency. President Jimmy Carter signed Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, which provided for creation and expansion of National Park lands. The legislation was enacted on December 2, 1980. Love Canal disaster leads to establishing of Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), also known as Superfund program, which controls cleanup of hazardous toxic waste by the party that is responsible. The act came into effect on December 11, 1980. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act mandates industries to report toxic waste releases to the public. President Ronald Reagan signed the act into law on October 17, 1986. Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988 prohibits dumping of all waste into the ocean. The law came into effect on November 18, 1988. The following legislation is further discussed in chapter, which deals with environmental issues. On August 18, 1990 was signed into law Oil Pollution Act (OPA), which provide financial resources in case of oil spill. On August 3, 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) was signed into law by President Bill Clinton. The act controls the standards of occurrence of pesticides in food.69 The legislation helps in many ways to improve environment. It reached its main aims of reducing pollution and monitoring factories’ management of toxic waste. “The result of these policies included the reduction of emissions into the water bodies and the air from sewage treatment systems, factories, electricity-generating stations, and motor vehicles, and the cleanup, and control of some of the nation’s worst hazardous waste sites.”70
69 the section is paraphrase of “Laws & Regulations | Laws and Regulations | US EPA.” US Environmental Protection Agency. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Apr. 2013.
70 Michael R. Greenberg, “Contemporary Environmental and Occupational Health Issues: More Breadth and Depth.” American Journal of Public Health (NP: 2007) 395. Web. 1 March 2013.
27 5. 2 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
The emergence of development of environmental organizations was due to increased interest in living, working conditions of people and also interest in protection of environment. The organizations mostly served as links between citizens and the government, and also town council or other local authorities, which had a say about environmental matters. There is wide range of organizations divided as follows, “the modern environmental movement includes many different organizations - local, state, regional, national, and international - that seek to protect the environment.”71 “The Sierra Club, the Wilderness Society, the Defenders of Wildlife, Greenpeace and Earth First! all have played a pivotal role in the formation of environmental policy.”72 We should not forget about another important group “Big Ten”73 of environmental organizations, which helped to form environmental movement in the USA. The groups are: Sierra Club (1892), National Audubon Society (1905), National Parks Conservation Association (1919), Izaak Walton League (1922), Wilderness Society (1936), Defenders of Wildlife (1947), The Nature Conservancy (1951), WWF-US (1961), Environmental Defense Fund (1967), Friends of the Earth (US) (1969), Natural Resources Defense Council (1970), Greenpeace USA (1972). The group meets regularly to deal with problems and develop strategies of solving the problems. The organizations are also divided according to whether they are governmental or non-governmental. The non-governmental are established outside the government, they are independent. The organizations are for example Sierra Club, Audubon Society. On the other hand governmental organizations are created within government. The governmental organization in the United States is Environmental Protection Agency, which was established December 2, 1970. The Agency was established in order to monitor and ensure environmental protection.
71 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 12.
72 Greg Barton, American environmentalism (San Diego, California: Greenhaven Press, 2002) 19.
73 James Schwab, Deeper shades of green: the rise of blue-collar and minority environmentalism in America (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1994) 388.
28 “As the nation entered the environmental decade of the 1970s, the twelve organizations [...] dominated the movement’s Washington presence.”74 These organizations are: Sierra Club, National Audubon Society, National Parks & Conservation Association, Izaak Walton League, The Wilderness Society, National Wildlife Federation, Defenders of Wildlife, Environmental Defense Fund, Friends of Earth, Natural Resources Defense Council, Environmental Action, Environmental Policy Institute. “Over the 20-year period from the first Earth day in 1970 to the twentieth anniversary celebration in 1990, most of the national environmental lobbying organizations experienced tremendous growth.”75 There were three periods during which the membership in the organizations increased - 1960 to 1969, 1969 to 1972, 1980 to 1989. “The most recent surge in membership occurred at the turn of the decade (1990), stimulated by the visibility of ecological problems ranging from toxic wastes, beach contamination, the Exxon Valdez oil spill, ozone destruction [...].”76 The organizations, which I have described above, are so called lobbying organizations, whose main attempt is to influence government’s decisions. There are also organizations, which are non-lobbying. “Their activities include conducting research, litigation, education programs, grassroots organizing, land purchase and maintenance programs, and even direct action on behalf of environmental goals.77 The major organizations are: Greenpeace, Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, Earth First!, Land & Wildlife Preservation Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, Rainforest Action Network, Rainforest Alliance, Conservation International, Citizen’s Clearinghouse for Hazardous Waste, National Toxic Campaign, League of Conservation Voters, Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund, Earth Island Institute.78 These organizations are more radical
74 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 14.
75 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 15.
76 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 15.
77 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 16.
78 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 18.
29 in their actions than lobbying organizations. During the first Earth Day era, the non- lobbying organizations also experienced radical growth in membership. To sum up “this diversity of organizations is perhaps the environmental movement’s greatest political strength.”79
5.2.1 SIERRA CLUB One of the first environmental organizations in the United States was Sierra Club, which was established in May 28, 1892 in San Francisco, California. As I pointed out above, the organization was founded by preservationist John Muir, who became Club’s first president. The inspiration for name of the organization comes from Sierra Nevada Mountains, which John Muir admired and liked to hike. The other two big organizations were the National Audubon Society and the National Wildlife Federation. “These organizations have played a critical role in the development and evolution of the environmental movement.”80 Those organizations employs several members - “full-time lobbyists, lawyers, and scientists.”81 The environmental organizations play important role, “although such national organizations do not define the entirety of the environmental movement, they are clearly the most visible and often the most influential actors in environmental policy debates.”82 A crucial turning point for Sierra Club was, when John Muir took Theodore Roosevelt to Yosemite in 1903, which led to the establishment of the Yosemite National Park. On the other hand, Hetch Hetchy canyon could not be protected from flooding, which was considered as a great loss of the Sierra Club and John Muir. The main purpose of Sierra Club is to protect land in the United States. “The Club values involve a combination of conservationist and preservationist views, but the
79 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 19.
80 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 11.
81 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 12.
82 Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig, American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992) 12.
30 definite emphasis is on preservation.”83 At the beginning the Club promoted adventure and tourism in the wilderness, because they were convinced that people were more willing to protect something they have seen. Therefore, the expeditions to Yosemite were established. They also stressed education about the monuments, forests, parks to encourage people to protect them. “As a national organization, the club is concerned with all aspects of the environment - overpopulation, air pollution, water use, land classification and management, etc.”84 The organization’s mission is: “To explore, enjoy, and protect the wild places of the earth; to practice and promote the responsible use of the earth's ecosystems and resources; to educate and enlist humanity to protect and restore the quality of the natural and human environment; and to use all lawful means to carry out these objectives.”85 The main reason why is the club so popular is that “members join the Sierra Club to be a part of the nation's oldest and largest grassroots environmental group. The organization's 1.3 million supporters have networks of connections across state and local chapters and considerable lobbying power in Congress.”86 The members are also attracted by adventurous trips to nature, which they are encouraged to experience, it includes camping, backpacking, biking, rafting and so on. Members of the club can also join local chapters, all around the country, so that they can help environment in their area. Recent activities of the club are protecting the untouched wilderness from exploration of new oil sources, especially in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The club also lobbied to protect the Everglades and Biscayne Bay National Parks from constructing an airport near the parks. In 2006, the Sierra Club prevented the Bush Administration from allowing commercial logging in Giant Sequoia National
83 Roy E. Lotz, et al., “The Organization consequences Of Competing Ideologies: Conservationist And Weekenders In The Sierra Club.” Annals Of Regional Science 9.1 (1975) 14. Web. 21 March 2013.
84 Roy E. Lotz, et al., “The Organization consequences Of Competing Ideologies: Conservationist And Weekenders In The Sierra Club.” Annals Of Regional Science 9.1 (1975) 14. Web. 21 March 2013.
85 “Main Page for Sierra Club Policies.” Sierra Club. n.p., n.d. Web. 20 March 2013.
86 Sarah Dowdey, “How the Sierra Club Works.” HowStuffWorks Science. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 March 2013.
31 Monument. In 2008, they blocked a wolf killing initiative in Idaho, Montana and Wyoming.87 Today, the club consists of more than 1.4 million members, which are organized into state and regional chapters throughout the US and Canada. Sierra Club also publishes books, calendars, SIERRA magazine, and Currents, an activist newsletter.88
6. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
“Thank God men cannot fly, and lay waste the sky as well as the earth.” - Henry David Thoreau
The modern environmental movement is mainly concerned with pollution. It was due to industrial areas, which were spread in the US cities. There were problems with garbage waste, water and air pollution, exposure to toxic waste. The main purpose of environmental organizations was to reduce use of toxic materials, which caused diseases and cancer. The aim was to improve human health and living conditions. I agree with a statement made by Michael R. Greenberg, when he wrote, “contemporary environmental problems range from problems inside the home to problems on the global scale.”89
6.1 OIL SPILL
However, in this chapter, I focus on oil spill, because it affects not only environment by damaging nature by drilling and causing death of animals, but it also affects human health. Oil spills cause a long time effects on almost every aspect of life
87 “Sierra Club Home Page.” Sierra Club Home Page: Explore, Enjoy and Protect the Planet. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 March 2013.
88 “Sierra Club Home Page.” Sierra Club Home Page: Explore, Enjoy and Protect the Planet. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 March 2013.
89 Michael R. Greenberg, “Contemporary Environmental and Occupational Health Issues: More Breadth and Depth.” American Journal of Public Health (NP: 2007) 396. Web. 1 March 2013.
32 near the area of the spill. It is one of the environmental issues, which are hard to fight against due to dependence on this particular resource. First of all, let me clarify few terms connected with oil industry. Oil Spill is defined as “discrete event in which oil is discharged through neglect, by accident, or with intent over a relatively short time.”90 The definition excludes regular leaks in small amounts over a long period of time. The definition of Oil itself, “a petroleum-derived substance as defined in MARPOL Annex I, and does not include BTEX (benzene, xylene, ethylene, and toluene), or liquefied natural or petroleum gas.”91 Another term connected with the topic are “Facilities, include oil terminals, storage tanks, refineries, industrial facilities, utilities, and other stationary sources with the exception of pipelines.”92 It is argued that “many of the energy-related environmental problems arise from fossil fuels production [...] and use. Oil and gas consumption is the major component of fossil fuel consumed in most industrialized economies.”93 While the massive oil spill accidence receive most of the attention, small regular leaks are not recognized at all, but both cause damage to environment. Major oil spills have occurred off the coast of Mexico, in the North Pacific, and in Alaska, but also in Russia and in Middle East.
6.1.2 EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL The accident happened on March 24, 1989, when the tanker Exxon Valdez, “fully loaded with fifty-three million gallons of crude oil”94 run into Bligh Reef, spilling the amount of oil from 8 out of 11 cargo tanks in the area of Prince William Sound, Alaska. The northernmost place is a pristine environment that is home to many species of bird,
90 Dagmar Schmidt Etkin, “Oil Spill Trends in the United States and Worldwide.” Environmental Research Consulting (NP: 2001) 1291. Web. 22 March 2013.
91 Dagmar Schmidt Etkin, “Oil Spill Trends in the United States and Worldwide.” Environmental Research Consulting (NP: 2001) 1291. Web. 22 March 2013.
92 Dagmar Schmidt Etkin, “Oil Spill Trends in the United States and Worldwide.” Environmental Research Consulting (NP: 2001) 1291. Web. 22 March 2013.
93 Williams O. Olatubi, “Estimation And Forecast Of Oil Spill Accidents In U.S. Waters Using Transfer Function Approach.” Journal Of Environmental Systems 30.1 (NP: 2003) 73-89. Web. 22 March 2013.
94 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 38.
33 fish and mammals, especially sea otters. “It was America’s most disastrous oil spill. It was not an accident; it was certain to have happened in the course of time.”95 It is one of the worst human-caused environmental disasters in history and also the most publicized and studied. Ironically, before the oil spill took place, the conservationist were worried about the impacts of a large oil spills. Just hours before disaster, the residents of Valdez gathered at Oil Action Committee to discuss possible oil spill impact on their community. Dr. Riki Ott was invited to speak at the committee, she was worried that it is only a matter of when no if the major spill occur. “When, not if, “The Big One” does occur and much or all of the income from a fishing season is lost, compensation for processors, support industries, and local communities will be difficult if not impossible to obtain...”96 The loaded tanker departed from tanker terminal in Valdez and headed for Long Beach California. The vessel did not take the usual sail lane, but in order to avoid icebergs travelled outside of the traffic lane. Shortly after midnight, “Captain Joe Hazelwood radioed the Coast Guard in Valdez to report:”97 “We’ve fetched up hard aground north of Goose Island, off Bligh Reef. And, uh - evidently, we’re leaking some oil and we’re going to be here for awhile.” Whom to blame for this environmental disaster? According to experts and media, the pilot of the vessel violated the U.S. Coastguard regulations and Exxon Shipping Company policy. First of all, he did not accompany the vessel to Bligh Reef. Secondly, the Captain of the vessel should not left the bridge and go to his cabin. The ship was left under the command of the third mate, who was not qualified to perform the job. It was generally known that Exxon did not pay much attention to the maintenance of the vessels. On the board there was not enough qualified crew. “The Safety Board considers the reduced manning practices of the Exxon Shipping Company generally incautious
95 Victor B. Sheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991) 193.
96 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 38.
97 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 41.
34 and without apparent justification from the standpoint of safety.”98 As a result International Maritime Organization established Marine pollution prevention rules. The environmental tragedy was a result of “bad seamanship, bad management and bad luck.”99 The oil covered vast areas and spread to the Kenai Peninsula, Kodiak Archipelago and Alaska Peninsula. Exxon hired over eleven thousands workers for cleanup process, which was the biggest cleanup effort attempted in the United States. The main focus was on affected wildlife, seabirds and otters, but almost no attention was paid to cleanup workers. They mostly suffered from respiratory diseases, several injuries were reported, not to mention toxic vapor exposure. Many workers were not trained to perform the job, many of them were volunteers consisting of fishermen. The Alyeska Pipeline Service Company was notified immediately after the spill to help with stabilizing of the vessel, but “Alyeska’s cleanup barge, a central piece of its response plan, had been laid up for repairs with its boom and equipment offloaded.”100 The process of cleaning up was very difficult, and the officials were not sure which methods they should include to avoid further harming of the environment. There were discussions over the usage of dispersants, which are used to disperse the large amounts of oil into water. Dr. Ott explains the danger of dispersants in her book, “dispersants force the oil down into the water column, where it is toxic to fish [...] could harm the herring that are just coming back to spawn.”101 The Alyeska president George Nelson comments on the situation, “[Dispersants are] the only real hope we’ve got. There’s no way on God’s green earth we can pick up 240, 000 barrels [of oil].”102 Unfortunately, the area was hit by storm in evening of March 26. “The storm whipped oil and seawater into a mousse, a sticky custard-like emulsion
98 Stephen Haycox, "“Fetched Up”: Unlearned Lessons From The Exxon Valdez." Journal Of American History 99.1 (2012) 222. Web. 16 March 2013.
99 Stephen Haycox, "“Fetched Up”: Unlearned Lessons From The Exxon Valdez." Journal Of American History 99.1 (2012) 220. Web. 16 March 2013.
100 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 44.
101 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 43.
102 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 44.
35 impervious to burning and dispersants.”103 The situation was even worse as the workers started manually cleanup the shore. They used hot water, which caused damage of microbiological population on the rocks along the beach. The consequences were catastrophic in almost every sphere of life in the area. Many of affected animals were relocated with injuries and many of them had died. “Within a month, hundreds of sea otters had died. Seafowl by the tens of thousands, landing on shimmering surfaces, were doomed to death.”104 The local fishermen were losing their jobs, because of “the commercial fishery suffered losses caused by actual damage to salmon, herring, and other food fishes and by public fear of buying catch that might be oiltainted.105 However, Exxon provided cleanup job opportunities for people in the area. Most of the remaining households got income from cleanup activities. Native inhabitants of Alaska claimed that the spill damaged their traditions by destroying of resources of livelihood. Local tourism also suffered huge losses due to the spill. The residents suffered from “spill trauma - not to be ignored or denied, but to be dealt with.”106 Riki Ott also mentions in her book Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill that people were more violent at home, especially men towards their wives, there were also suicides reported. Several studies proved negative health impacts on health of people exposed to vapors. To conclude, people were losing money and could not get a job in the area as the most businesses went out. The process of recovery still continues, even today we can find bearings of oil on the beaches of Prince William Sound. Exxon was finned $150 million, which is considered the largest fine ever given for an environmental crime.
103 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 45.
104 Victor B. Sheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991) 194.
105 Victor B. Sheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991) 194.
106 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 170.
36 6.1.2.1 Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA) The Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989 led to passing the act on August 18, 1990. Cordova District Fishermen United (CDFU) sent their representatives to Washington D.C. to point out wrong doings which occurred during the process of the cleanup and offer their own solutions not the one which are forced on them by officials.107 There was legislation needed to improve safety concerning transportation of oil. In April, Riki Ott and Michelle Hahn O’Leary went to Washington D.C. to take a stand. “[Riki Ott] I spoke to politicians with a headful of figures and a fistful of documents.”108 Michelle states “I felt like I was speaking for the environment, for the birds, the herring, the whales. That is what drove me. Somebody had to speak for those critters.”109 They contributed to framing of the legislation concerning oil spills. Finally, the act was signed into law by George H. W. Bush. “With OPA, the United States has the strictest tanker regulations. Improved safety standards, contingency planning, exercise programs, and other measures have helped reduce U.S. spillage.”110 The oil companies are also held liable for major oil spills. The act was created in order to prevent oil spills and to provide better response in case of occurrence of another “The Big One.”
107 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 48.
108 Riki Ott, Not One Drop: Betrayal and Courage in the Wake of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008) 48.
109 Stan Jones, The spill: personal stories from the Exxon Valdez disaster (Kenmore, WA: Epicenter Press, 2009) 160.
110 Dagmar Schmidt Etkin, “Oil Spill Trends in the United States and Worldwide.” Environmental Research Consulting (NP: 2001) 1299. Web. 22 March 2013.
37 7. CONCLUSION
The aim of the bachelor thesis was to outline general overview of modern environmental movement in the United States during the period from 1970s to 1990s. It was the time, when the movement was on its peak and the environment was one of the main’s public concerns. The thesis describes main events that are crucial for the emergence of the modern movement. One of the events is the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) and the other is a celebration of the first Earth Day. Moreover, The paper introduces positive results of the events and deals with further development of the movement. In the first part of the body of the work is dealt with history of environmentalism and there are introduced two movements which preceded modern movement. The roots of environmentalism are traced back to the transcendental literature of nineteenth century. Writers introduced theme of wilderness and people could learn about it from their works. It was purely American theme, which was introduced by James Fenimore Cooper and others. Important publication of that time was Walden written by Henry David Thoreau, who spent two years in woods, where he lived in harmony with nature. He is one of the first authors who addressed environmental issues. The periods, which preceded modern environmental movement, are known as preservation and conservation. Both of the eras played important role in environmental history and its further development. The preservationist’s main figure was John Muir, who became very influential person for other generations of environmentalists. He pointed out the importance of connecting humans with nature and emphasized experiencing the nature. On the other hand there was Gifford Pinchot, who represented conservationists and his main focus was on forestry and on wise managing of resources. As he was one of the first educated in the field of forestry, he was appointed as a first chief of United States Forest Service. He travelled across the country educating owners of the land on how to manage the use of their grounds properly. Gifford Pinchot opposed to preservation and he proved his disapproval with preservationists in battle over the Hetch Hetchy valley with John Muir, who was against its flooding.
38 Third chapter explains the term environmentalism and compares its values with conventional values, which differs significantly from each other. Environmental and conventional values are viewed differently from the point of nature as such, human nature, science and technology, production and economics and also politics. To put it simply, nature of environmentalist differs from nature of non-environmentalist, both have different preferences and expectations in their lives, same approach is applied in other aspects that I have listed above. In the following section, the work deals with the beginning of the modern environmental movement, which emerged between 1960s and 1970s. First, I have described situation after the publication of Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel Carson, the work served as a wake up call for many people, who were since then more aware of their environment. The book is one of the key publications, pointing out the destruction of the environment and human health by using dangerous chemicals, such as DDT. The chemical was finally banned in 1973. Another notable event, which played important role in the beginning of the movement was the first celebration of Earth Day, the event took place in Wisconsin on April 22, 1970. Since then, Earth Day is celebrated every year on the same date all around the world. The celebration serves as a reminder for people to be aware of current environmental issues. The results of the previous activities are discussed in the following part of the thesis. I have introduced significant legislation, which was passed during the years from 1970s to 1990s and contributed to the improvement of environment. President Nixon established Environmental Protection Agency, which is considered to be a milestone in environmental legislation. There was also increase in membership in current environmental organizations, which I have described in the same section. The raise of membership was caused by increased interest in environmental issues. What is more, new organizations were established, some of them were more radical than others. The radical organizations adopted direct action, which lacked in non-radical organizations that were significant by lobbying. The radical organizations were also called non-lobbying. The organizations are governmental or non-governmental. The governmental are created under the government and the non-governmental are established outside the government.
39 I have chosen the Sierra Club for detailed analysis as it is one of the first organizations established in the United States. The Club was established by John Muir and his supporters in 1892 and its motto is to “Explore, Enjoy and Protect the Planet.” The club organizes trips to nature and educates about current environmental issues. Further, the work discuss environmental issues, which significantly changed the surrounding environment towards the worse. I have presented Exxon Valdez oil spill, which took place in March 24, 1989, as one of the most disastrous environmental catastrophes, which affected the pristine environment of Prince William Sound and its inhabitants. The process of recovery is lengthy. The affected areas were concerning not only wildlife but also people who lived on fishing and tourism, not to mention health problems. However, the government issued Oil Pollution Act of 1990, which should ensure safe transportation of oil and careful manipulation with it. The modern environmental movement in the United States has evolved significantly in a last few decades. What is more, the movement influenced politics and became part of American society. It gained recognition of public and helped people to understand how to use natural resources without destroying nature. The movement is still active in the United States and it carries the traditions of the previous eras.
40 RESUMÉ
Tato bakalářská práce si klade za cíl přiblížit a shrnout enviromentální situaci ve Spojených státech v rozmezí od roku 1970 do 1990. V uvedeném období bylo hnutí známo jako moderní, jehož začátky se datují již od roku 1962, kdy Rachel Carson vydala knihu Tiché jaro (Silent Spring). Dalším důležitým mezníkem pro jeho vznik bylo uspořádání prvního Dne Země, který se poprvé konal ve Wisconsinu 22. dubna, 1970. Moderní enviromentální hnutí bylo od těchto dvou událostí na výslunní a těšilo se značnému úspěchu jak u široké veřejnosti tak i ve vládě, která se na podněty veřejnosti začala angažovat v podobě vzniku enviromentálních zákonů. Nejprve práce zkoumá situaci, která předcházela modernímu enviromentálnímu hnutí, před jehož začátkem nebyl envromentalismus znám takový, jaký ho známe v dnešní podobě. Jak už je známo z americké literatury, která se dlouho snažila nalézt čistě americké témata, protože už neměla dále zájem stavět na základech britské literatury. Jedním z témat byla právě divočina, která je pro literaturu nevyčerpatelnou inspirací. Můžeme tvrdit, že enviromentalismus má kořeny právě v literatuře 19. století, tedy v transcendentalismu. Spisovatelů, kteří se tématem americké přírody inspirovali, je celá řada. Ve své práci zmiňuji Ralpha Walda Emersona, Jamese Fenimora Coopera a v neposlední řadě Henryho Davida Thoreaua, který strávil dva roky života v lesích blízko Massachusetts, aby unikl z průmyslového Lowellu. Patřil mezi první spisovatele, kteří poukázali na znečištění životního prostředí. V první části práce je tedy popsána ochrana přírody, jejíž hlavním průkopníkem byl John Muir, který se taky mimo jiné zasloužil o zřízení Yellowstoneského národního parku a je považován za zakladatele Sierra klubu. Hlavní myšlenkou Johna Muira, jakožto představitele hnutí, bylo to, aby byla nedotčená příroda představena lidem tím, že ji zažijí a stanou se na chvíli součástí její nedotčené krásy a tím by měli přispět k její ochraně. Tímto jednáním také značně přispěl k rozvoji turismu a aktivit s ním spojené. Další hnutí, které předcházelo, byl konzervatismus. Hlavním představitelem byl Gifford Pinchot, který kladl důraz na důkladné využití a obnovování přírodních zdrojů, zejména pak lesních rezervací. Byl to taky jeden z prvních vzdělanců v oblasti správy lesa a krajiny. Zasloužil se o vzdělávání ostatních vlastníků půdy a učil je, jak ji dále
41 efektivně využívat. Gifford Pinchot nesouhlasil s ochranou přírody tak, jak ji prezentoval John Muir, což dal také patřičně najevo v jejich rozporech. Jedním z klíčových konfliktů bylo vybudování rezervoáru v údolí Hetch Hetchy. Výsledek sporu nedopadl podle představ Johna Muira a jeho přívrženců, kteří přihlíželi zaplavení jimi tolik obdivovaného údolí v Yellowstonu. Avšak událost měla i světlou stránku, spor vedl k tomu, aby už nikdy více nebylo do Národních Parků zasahováno stejným způsobem. Následující část práce je věnována vlastní definici enviromentalismu a jeho hodnot v porovnaní s běžnými hodnotami, které se liší v mnoha aspektech. Envoromentalisté kladou důraz na to, aby mělo jejich konání co nejmenší dopad na životní prostředí. V neposlední řadě se snaží o život co nejvíce v souladu s přírodou, což nemůžeme tvrdit o lidech, kteří svým počínáním přírodu a její zdroje spíše vykořisťují. Jak již bylo nastíněno výše, začátek hnutí se připisuje publikaci Tiché jaro (Silent Spring) a také oslavě prvního Dne Země. Tyto dvě události jsou podrobněji popsány, ale žádné zdoje neuvádějí, co konkrétně inspirovalo ke vzniku hnutí. Oběma událostem je připisována stejná důležitost. Výsledkem bylo, že se lidé začali více zajímat o životní prostředí a jeho ochranu, čímž také vyprovokali vládu k jednání o zákonech, které vedly k ochraně přírody. Tiché jaro (Silent Spring) je kniha, kterou napsala Rachel Carson, jako nesouhlas s používáním chemikálií jako je DDT, které způsobovalo újmu na zdraví nejen živočichů, ale i člověka. Kniha se setkala s bouřlivými reakcemi, ať už byly pozitivní nebo negativní. Jisté však bylo jedno, DDT představovalo hrozbu a jak je nám známo, DDT rezidua se v potravním řetězci objevují dodnes. Teprve až v roce 1973 bylo používání DDT zakázáno. Jak již bylo zmíněno, nesmíme zapomenout na první Den Země, který se poprvé konal 22. dubna 1970 ve Wisconsinu. Oslava byla inspirována studenty, kteří demonstrovali na půdách univerzit proti válečné situaci. Mimo jiné, Gaylorda Nelsona vedla k uspořádání Dne Země i nedávná ekologická katastrofa, která se stala v Santa Barbaře, kde došlo k explozi ropné plošiny. Bylo tedy nutné se k ochraně přírody postavit čelem a začít jednat. Oslavy byly úspěšné a vedly k dalším podstatným krokům, které přispěly k dalšímu vývoji moderního enviromentálního hnutí. V následující části je sepsána legislativa, která byla uzákoněna právě díky většímu zájmu o životní prostředí, což vyplynulo z předchozích událostí. Jeden z největších
42 úspěchů je připisován prezidentu Nixonovi, který založil EPA, což je úřad zabývající se monitorováním a ochranou životního prostředí. Zanedlouho po založení EPA se zájem veřejnosti o enviromentalismus ještě značně zvýšil a další zákony o ochraně životního prostředí na sebe nenechaly dlouho čekat. V období od 1970 do 1990 byl moderní enviromentalismus na vrcholu. Stávající organizace, zabývající se propagací a vzděláváním v oblasti ochrany přírody, zaznamenávají nárust členů a v neposlední řadě, dochází k zakladání organizací nových, které jsou zřizovány po vzoru stávajících a nebo se jejich aktivity různí např. v tom, že si osvojují takzvané přímé akce, které jsou více radikální. Organizace se také rozlišují podle toho, jestli vznikly za podpory vlády, tudíž jsou nazývány vládní a nebo vznikly samostatně bez účasti vlády, tedy nevládní. Jedním z nejznámějších a nejstarších je Sierra club, který byl založen v roce 1892 Johnem Muirem. Jak již bylo zmíněno výše, klub se zejména snaží o přiblížení přírody člověku. Aktivity klubu se zaměřují na turistiku a poukazují na aktuální ekologické problémy. Zásahy člověka do životního prostředí měly mnohdy katastrofální dopad, jako například událost, která se stala v roce 1989, kdy došlo ke ztroskotání tankeru Exxon Valdez v zálivu prince Williama na Aljašce. Havárie je považována za jednu z největších ekologických katastrof, která byla zaviněna lidkou neopatrností. Následky havárie jsou znatelné dodnes. Výsledkem celé události bylo mimo jiné i vydání zákona, který klade důraz na prevenci vzniku podobných událostí. Zákon o znečištění olejem byl vydán George H. W. Bushem v roce 1990. Enviromentální hnutí v Americe se během moderní éry rozběhlo kupředu a stále se vyvíjí. Je v neposlední řadě považováno za jedno z nejúspěšnějších sociálních hnutí v USA a upoutalo zájem i ze strany politiků, kteří se zasloužili o vznik zákonů ve prospěch zlepšení životního prostředí. Zájem o ochranu přírody stále roste a jsou utvářeny nové tradice, jež jsou založeny na základech těch předcházejících. Všechno výše uvedené přispívá k vědomí veřejnosti, že přírodní zdroje nejsou nevyčerpatelné a tak bychom se měli naučit jejich šetrnějšímu využívání.
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49 ABBREVIATIONS
CDFU - Cordova District Fishermen United
CERCLA - Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act
CWA - Clean Water Act
CZMA - Coastal Zone Management Act
EPA or USEPA - Environmental Protection Agency
FQPA - Food Quality Protection Act
MARPOL - International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
MMPA - The Marine Mammal Protection Act
NEPA - National Environmental Policy Act
OPA - Oil Pollution Act
RPA - Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974
SDWA - Safe Drinking Water Act
USDA - US Department of Agriculture
WWF-US - World Wildlife Fund
50 ANNOTATION
Author’s first name and surname: Hana Hrozová
Faculty: Philosophical Faculty
Department: Department of English and American Studies
Title of the thesis: Environmental Movement in the United States
Supervisor: Mgr. Jiří Flajšar, PhD.
Number of pages: 52
Number of characters: 97, 746
Number of annexes: 0
Number of works cited: 49
Key words: Environmental movement, United States, Silent Spring, Earth Day, Sierra Club, Exxon Valdez.
The aim of the thesis is to present the modern environmental movement during the years from 1970s until 1990s in the United States. The thesis describes origins of the movement and its beginnings. The work introduces environmental organizations and in detail describes Sierra Club. The last chapter is devoted to environmental issues, namely oil spills and Exxon Valdez.
51 ANOTACE
Jméno a příjmení autora: Hana Hrozová
Název fakulty: Filozofická fakulta
Název katedry: Katedra anglistiky a amerikanistiky
Název bakalářské práce: Enviromentální hnutí ve Spojených státech
Vedoucí práce: Mgr. Jiří Flajšar, PhD.
Počet stran: 52
Počet znaků: 97 746
Počet příloh: 0
Počet titulů použité literatury: 48
Klíčová slova: Enviromentální hnutí, Spojené státy, Tiché jaro, Den Země, Sierra club, Exxon Valdez.
Cílem této bakalářské práce je představit moderní enviromentální hnutí ve Spojených státech během let 1970 až 1990. Práce pojednává o začátcích a vývoji hnutí. V neposlední řadě představuje organizace zabývající se ochranou životního prostředí a detailnější popis je věnován Sierra clubu. Poslední kapitola prezentuje jaké můžou mít dopady lidské zásahy do přírody, zejména ropné katastrofy jako je havárie Exxon Valdez.
52