31/7/2017 Datasheet report for turcica ( leaf blight)

Crop Protection Compendium

Datasheet report for (maize leaf blight)

Pictures

Picture Title Caption Copyright Ascospores and ascomata J.M. Waller/CABI BioScience

Ascospores R.A. Shoemaker

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name Setosphaeria turcica (Luttr.) K. J. Leonard & Suggs [teleomorph] (Luttr.) K. J. Leonard & Suggs

Preferred Common Name maize leaf blight

Other Scientific Names Bipolaris turcica (Pass.) Shoemaker [anamorph] (Pass.) Shoemaker Drechslera turcica (Pass.) Subram. & B. L. Jain [anamorph] (Pass.) Subram. & B. L. Jain turcicum (Pass.) K. J. Leonard & Suggs [anamorph] (Pass.) K. J. Leonard & Suggs Helminthosporium inconspicuum Cooke & Ellis [anamorph] Cooke & Ellis Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. [anamorph] Pass. Keissleriella turcica (Luttr.) Arx [teleomorph] (Luttr.) Arx Luttriella turcica (Pass.) Khokhr. [anamorph] (Pass.) Khokhr. Trichometasphaeria turcica Luttr. [teleomorph] Luttr.

International Common Names English: leaf blight: maize; leaf blight: Sorghum spp.; northern corn leaf blight; northern: maize leaf blight Spanish: niebla del maíz; tizon de las hojas: maiz French: brûlure des feuilles du maïs; brûlure du mais; brûlure helminthosporienne du mais; helminthosporiose du mais; suie du mais

Local Common Names Germany: Blattduerre: Mais; Streifenkrankheit: Mais

EPPO code SETOTU (Setosphaeria turcica)

http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 1/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight)

Taxonomic Tree

Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Fungi Phylum: Subphylum: Pezizomycotina Class: Subclass: Order: Family: : Setosphaeria Species: Setosphaeria turcica

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The identity of the is clear and uncomplicated. It was described first as Helminthosporium turcicum by Passerini. It was segregated from the lignicolous Helminthosporiums as Bipolaris turcica because of the grass host, the ellipsoidal shape and bipolar germination of the conidia and the mode of conidiophore proliferation. It was transferred to Drechslera in a wholesale transfer of the graminicolous species that ignored the distinctions between Drechslera and Bipolaris. In a further refinement of the generic concepts, it was satisfactorily placed in Exserohilum alongside other species with a strongly protruding scar on the conidia. Four years later, the generic name Luttrellia was proposed also based on Helminthosporium turcicum, the same type species as for Exserohilum. Consequently, Lutrellia is an obligate generic synonym that has not been taken up by authors. Luttrellia Shearer (27 June 1978) is a later homonym (Sivanesan, 1987). Many of the reports were made under the anamorph names. The preferred name for the anamorph is Exserohilum turcicum.

The teleomorph was described by Luttrell (1958) as Trichometasphaeria turcica. It was transferred to Keissleriella but does not belong there because the anamorph of Keissleriella is Dendrophoma (Luttrell, 1964). It is satisfactorily placed in Setosphaeria with other similar ascomycetes that have anamorphs in Exserohilum. The preferred name for the teleomorph (and the entire fungus) is Setosphaeria turcica.

The most closely allied species is Setosphaeria monoceras. The ascospores are very similar in both species. The conidia of S. monoceras may be slightly narrower and longer than those of S. turcica. However, evidence from similarity of host range and a common toxin, monocerin, indicate that S. monoceras may be a synonym of S. turcica. This will not affect the name for the organism causing northern leaf blight of maize because the epithet 'turcica' has priority over 'monoceras'.

The ascomycete teleomorph is reported from artificial cultures after mating two compatible strains but, apparently, not reported from nature. The conidial isolates from nature include numerous strains that do not cross. In successful crosses, the ascospore complements in asci are often less than eight. These two features indicate that it is not a completely interbreeding biological species (Luttrell, 1958).

Description

Ascomata are globose to ellipsoidal, 350-725 x 345-500 µm, black, beaked, setose on the upper part and beak. Setae are rigid, thick-walled, septate, dark brown, up to 150 x 4-6 µm. Pseudoparaphyses are filiform, septate, branched, anastomosing and hyaline. Asci are bitunicate, thick-walled when young, cylindric-clavate, short http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 2/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) pedicellate, 1- to 8-spored, 175-250 x 24-31 µm. Ascospores are fusoid, straight or slightly curved, mostly 3- septate, constricted at the septa, 40-78 x 12-18 µm, with a thin, hyaline, mucilaginous sheath that extends from both ends of spores after release.

Conidiophores are single or in small groups, simple, cylindrical, olive-brown, pale towards the apex, geniculate, up to 300 x 8-10 µm. Conidia are ellipsoidal to obclavate, straight to slightly curved, pale to olive-brown, smooth, 4-9- distoseptate, 50-144 x 18-33 µm with a distinct protuberant scar 2-3 x 2-3 µm. Chlamydospores may form in some cells of conidia in nature (Luttrell, 1958; Sivanesan, 1987).

Distribution

The distribution of S. turcica is world-wide (CMI, 1988).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Country Distribution Last Origin First Invasive References Notes Reported Reported ASIA Afghanistan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Bangladesh Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Bhutan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Brunei Darussalam Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Cambodia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 China Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Anhui Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Fujian Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Gansu Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Guangdong Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Guangxi Present CABI/EPPO, 2008; Wu et al., 1893 -Guizhou Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Hainan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Hebei Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Heilongjiang Present Zhang & Lai, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Henan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Hong Kong Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Hubei Present CABI/EPPO, 2008; Zhu et al., 1995 -Hunan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Jiangsu Present Xie et al., 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Jiangxi Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Jilin Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Liaoning Present Wu et al., 1983; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Nei Menggu Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Shaanxi Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 3/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) Country Distribution Last Origin First Invasive References Notes Reported Reported -Shandong Present Zhou, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Shanxi Present Liu, 1983; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Sichuan Present Hu, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Tibet Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Yunnan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Zhejiang Present Wu et al., 1983; CABI/EPPO, 2008 Georgia (Republic Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 of) India Widespread CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Andhra Pradesh Present Singh et al., 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Arunachal Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Pradesh -Bihar Present Sharma & Mishra, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Delhi Present Harlapur et al., 2007 -Gujarat Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Haryana Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Himachal Pradesh Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Jammu and Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Kashmir -Karnataka Present Gowda et al., 1995; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Madhya Pradesh Present CABI/EPPO, 2008; Barde, 1988 -Maharashtra Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Meghalaya Present Mahajan et al., 1995; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Nagaland Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Rajasthan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Tamil Nadu Present Veerraju & Prasad, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Uttar Pradesh Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Uttarakhand Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -West Bengal Present Kaiser & Chowdhuri, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2008 Indonesia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Java Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Iran Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Iraq Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Israel Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Japan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Hokkaido Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Kazakhstan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Korea, Republic of Present Seo et al., 1996; CABI/EPPO, 2008 Laos Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Lebanon Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Malaysia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Peninsular Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Malaysia -Sabah Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Myanmar Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Nepal Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 4/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) Country Distribution Last Origin First Invasive References Notes Reported Reported Oman Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Pakistan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Philippines Present Tangonan & Sorongon, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2008 Saudi Arabia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Taiwan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Thailand Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Turkey Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Vietnam Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Yemen Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 AFRICA Angola Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Benin Present UK CAB International, 1988 Botswana Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Burkina Faso Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Burundi Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Cameroon Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Central African Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Republic Chad Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Congo Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Congo Democratic Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Republic Egypt Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Eritrea Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Ethiopia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Gabon Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Gambia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Ghana Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Guinea Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Kenya Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Libya Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Madagascar Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Malawi Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Mali Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Mauritius Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Morocco Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Niger Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Nigeria Present Fajemisin et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2008 Réunion Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Rwanda Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Senegal Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Sierra Leone Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 South Africa Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Sudan Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Swaziland Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Tanzania Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Togo Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Uganda Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Zambia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Zimbabwe Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 NORTH AMERICA http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 5/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) Country Distribution Last Origin First Invasive References Notes Reported Reported Bermuda Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Canada Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Manitoba Present Ginns, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Ontario Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Quebec Present Ginns, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2008 Mexico Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 USA Widespread CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Arkansas Present Arun Kumar, 1988 -California Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Delaware Present Pedersen & Brandenburg, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Florida Present CABI/EPPO, 2008; Pieczarka, 1908 -Georgia Present Duncan et al., 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Hawaii Present Bergquist, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Illinois Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Indiana Present Turner & Johnson, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Iowa Present Jones et al., 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Louisiana Present Sloane et al., 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Maryland Present Mace, 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Montana Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Nebraska Present Calub et al., 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -New Hampshire Present Long et al., 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -New Jersey Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -New York Present Smith & Gracen, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -North Carolina Present Leonard et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Ohio Present Pratt et al., 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Pennsylvania Present Johnson, 1989; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -South Carolina Present Smith & Kinsey, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -South Dakota Present Draper & Deneke, 2005 -Texas Present Krausz et al., 1993; Collins et al., 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Virginia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -West Virginia Present Pedersen & Brandenburg, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2008 CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN Antigua and Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Barbuda Costa Rica Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Cuba Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Dominican Present UK CAB International, 1988 Republic El Salvador Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 6/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) Country Distribution Last Origin First Invasive References Notes Reported Reported Guadeloupe Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Guatemala Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Haiti Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Honduras Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Jamaica Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Nicaragua Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Panama Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Puerto Rico Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Trinidad and Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Tobago SOUTH AMERICA Argentina Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Bolivia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Brazil Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Goias Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Mato Grosso Present UK CAB International, 1988 -Mato Grosso do Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Sul -Minas Gerais Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Parana Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Rio Grande do Sul Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Sao Paulo Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Colombia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Ecuador Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 French Guiana Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Guyana Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Peru Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Suriname Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Uruguay Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Venezuela Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 EUROPE Austria Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Bosnia- Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Hercegovina Bulgaria Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Croatia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Czech Republic Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Czechoslovakia Present UK CAB International, 1988 (former) France Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Germany Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Hungary Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Italy Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Poland Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Portugal Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Romania Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Russian Federation Present CABI/EPPO, 2008; Martyniyuk, 2003 -Russian Far East Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Southern Russia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Western Siberia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Slovenia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Spain Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 7/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) Country Distribution Last Origin First Invasive References Notes Reported Reported Switzerland Present Sivanesan, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2008 UK Present Cook, 1973 Ukraine Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Yugoslavia (former) Present UK CAB International, 1988 OCEANIA Australia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Australian Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Northern Territory -New South Wales Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Queensland Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Tasmania Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Victoria Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 -Western Australia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Fiji Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 French Polynesia Present Sivanesan, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2008 New Caledonia Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 New Zealand Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Papua New Guinea Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Tonga Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Wallis and Futuna Present CABI/EPPO, 2008 Islands

Risk of Introduction

RISK CRITERIA CATEGORY

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE High DISTRIBUTION Worldwide SEEDBORNE INCIDENCE Low SEED TRANSMITTED Not recorded SEED TREATMENT Yes

OVERALL RISK Low

Hosts/Species Affected

The main hosts are species and cultivars of maize and sorghum; some disease on Pennisetum glaucum is also reported. Records on other hosts are occasional but these hosts may represent reservoirs of inoculum. Records on Echinochloa, Panicum, Paspalum, Pennisetum and Urochloa [tribe Paniceae] are on hosts distinct from Zea [tribe Tripsaceae] and Sorghum [tribe Andropogoneae]. Many host details and confirmations of identifications are found in Sivanesan (1987). The record on Echinochloa brings into question the distinction of S. monoceras, which is very similar to S. turcica.

Host plants

Plant name Family Context http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 8/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass) Poaceae Wild host Panicum miliaceum (millet) Poaceae Wild host Panicum repens (torpedo grass) Poaceae Wild host Paspalum conjugatum (sour paspalum) Poaceae Wild host Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) Poaceae Other Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass) Poaceae Wild host Sorghum Poaceae Wild host Sorghum almum (Columbusgrass) Poaceae Wild host Sorghum bicolor (sorghum) Poaceae Main Sorghum halepense (Johnson grass) Poaceae Wild host Sorghum sudanense (Sudan grass) Poaceae Wild host Urochloa panicoides (liverseed grass) Poaceae Wild host Zea mays (maize) Poaceae Main Zea mays subsp. mays (sweetcorn) Poaceae Main Zea mays subsp. mexicana (teosinte) Poaceae Wild host Zea perennis Poaceae Wild host

Growth Stages

Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

Initially small, water-soaked spots appear on leaves, then elliptical brown areas develop until nearly as wide as the leaf. In the final stages, lesions are straw-coloured to grey, coalescing and killing large parts of the leaves. The margin is tan on maize and red-purple on sorghum depending on the variety. Infection on maize may include tassels, ears, crowns and seedlings (Sherbakoff and Mayer, 1937; Cox and Wolf, 1955). Symptoms on resistant cultivars are reduced to small chlorotic or necrotic spots. Northern leaf blight of maize and sorghum forms larger and fewer lesions than Cochliobolus heterostrophus (Ellis and Holliday, 1971), mostly on the leaves but also on the stalks of sorghum.

List of Symptoms/Signs

Sign Life Stages Type Leaves abnormal colours necrotic areas Roots reduced root system Whole plant damping off

Biology and Ecology

Air-borne conidia are discharged in diurnal periods with a forenoon max (Meredith, 1965,1966). Germination (on leaves) is bipolar with one germ tube arising from the apex and one near the distinctly protruberant scar (Luttrell, 1964). There is a 2-layered sheath on the germ tube (Evans et al., 1982). The optimum temperature for germination is 25°C (Levy and Cohen, 1983) and light quality affects germ tubes (Benedict and Palmerley, 1979). Dew for 5 http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 9/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) hours is essential for lesion formation: the infection components can be considered as; germination after 1 hour; appressorium formation after 3 hours; infection peg after 4 hours (Levy and Cohen, 1983).

An intracellular vesicle forms at the end of the infection hypha and stout colonization hyphae penetrate adjacent cells (Knox-Davies, 1974). Hyphae reach the vascular strands in 2-3 days on susceptible cultivars but not until 4-5 days on resistant cultivars after which the hyphae die (Liu and Liu, 1986). Conspicuous lesion development correlates with conidium discharge 7 days before (Berger, 1973). Conidia are produced more abundantly on the upper leaf surface (6820 conidia/cm²; Shenoi and Ramalingam, 1983) than the lower surface (3880 conidia/cm²).

Temperatures above 28°C inhibit hilum formation (and conidiation) (Honda and Aragaki, 1978). Conidia are forcibly discharged, influenced by rapidly falling RH and exposure to sunlight, and by windspeeds exceeding 3m/s or passively discharged by rain (Leach et al., 1977a). When night temperatures are low (10°C) conidia convert cells into chlamydospores (Leach et al., 1977b). Late season infection after anthesis may correlate with the stimulatory effect of pollen on germination of conidia (Meenakshi and Ramalingam, 1979). Mycelium and conidia survive 2 years in debris but free conidia are of little value in overwintering (Shang, 1980). Survival of conidia in soil decreases rapidly from 80% after 3 weeks to merely 10% after 12 weeks (Shree and Luke, 1983). The fungus survives in plant debris with chlamydospores (Fullerton and Fletcher, 1974).

The ascomycete teleomorph is reported from artificial cultures after mating two compatible strains but has not been reported from nature. Conidial isolates from nature include numerous strains that do not cross. Ascospore complements in asci are often less than eight. These features indicate that it is not a completely interbreeding biological species.

Fundamentals of Disease Mechanism

Toxins, phytoalexins, various enzymes and isoenzymes have been studied. Toxins involved are monocerin (Robeson and Strobel, 1982; Mori and Takaishi, 1989; Cuq et al., 1993), Ht- or phytotoxin (Yoka and Albertini, 1975; Wang and Xue, 1982; Petiprez et al., 1984; Bacha et al., 1994; Bashan et al., 1995; Deng et al., 1995; Bashan et al., 1996) and phytoalexin (Higgins, 1972; Calub et al., 1973; Ingham and Millar, 1973; Manibhushanrao and Zuber, 1978; Obi, 1979; Obi et al., 1980a, 1980b;); named medicarpin (Higgins, 1972) or sativin (Ingham and Millar, 1973). Enzymes studied include: beta-1,3-gluconase related to maize susceptibility (Jondle et al., 1989; Shimoni et al., 1992); exopolygalaturonase, polygalcturonate transeliminase, pectinmethylesterase, protopectinase from infected sorghum (Natsvlishvili, 1972, 1973); cellulase (Choudhary, 1990); xylanase (Degefu et al., 1995). Isoenzymes (Bentolila et al., 1991; Simcox et al., 1993; Soares et al., 1993; Bach and Kimati, 1995).

Notes on Natural Enemies

Three phyllosphere fungi (Chaetomium globosum, Cochliobolus lunatus and Gibberella fujikuroi) inhibited conidium germination and leaf infection (Shree and Hareesha, 1988). A transmissible extracellular agent from Pseudomonas sp. caused disease of S. turcica (Lindberg 1983). Trichoderma harzianum and T. viride were the most active in vitro antagonists followed by verrucaria (Mikala-Doukaga et al., 1978).

Seedborne Aspects

Incidence

S. turcica is seedborne in sorghum (D'Ercole and Nipoti, 1977; Shree, 1984; Vitti et al., 1993). Vitti et al. (1993) detected an incidence of 29% in sorghum seed. The pathogen occurs on the sorghum seed surface but not in the http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 10/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) embryo (Wu, 1983). Although two reports suggest that the pathogen is seedborne on maize (Valleau, 1935; Kumar et al., 1977a), others claim that it does not cause ear infection (Ullstrup, 1954; Palti, 1960).

Pathogen Transmission

There is no evidence that S. turcica is transmitted by seed. Markov (1966) showed that artificially-inoculated maize did not result in pathogen transmission to seedlings.

Seed Treatment

Thiram reduced sorghum seedling infection by 27% (Vitti et al., 1993). Mancozeb and zineb effectively improved maize seed germination.

Khedekar et al. (2010) found that the application of carboxin 200 FF (2 ml/kg of seeds) and with Trichoderma harzianum (6 g/kg of seeds) were both effective seed treatments for reducing maize leaf blight, particularly when coupled with 2 sprays of 0.25% mancozeb at 40 and 50 days after sowing.

Neem seed extract at 0.2% (V/V) and the fungicides carbendazim and mancozeb at 50 to 1000 ppm have been shown to reduce the incidence of leaf blight caused by S. turcica when applied as a seed treatment. The treatments were more effective when coupled with the spraying of plants with the same substances (Bunker and Mathur, 2008).

Leaf blight in sorghum was effectively controlled by treating seeds with fludioxonil+metalaxyl-M, colourless fludioxonil+metalaxyl-M and thiram (Pinto 2004).

Seed Health Tests

Blotter Tests (Vitti et al., 1993)

Incubate seeds on a moist blotter with a 12 h light/dark cycle.

Plant Trade

Plant parts liable to carry the pest in Pest Borne Borne Visibility of pest or symptoms trade/transport stages internally externally Flowers, Inflorescences, Cones, Calyx hyphae; Yes Yes Pest or symptoms usually visible to spores the naked eye Leaves hyphae; Yes Yes Pest or symptoms usually visible to spores the naked eye Stems (above ground), Shoots, Trunks, hyphae; Yes Yes Pest or symptoms usually visible to Branches spores the naked eye True seeds (inc. grain) hyphae; Yes Yes Pest or symptoms usually invisible spores Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport Bark Bulbs, Tubers, Corms, Rhizomes Fruits (inc. pods) Growing medium accompanying plants Roots Seedlings, Micropropagated plants Wood

http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 11/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight)

Impact

This is a widespread common leaf disease of maize and sorghum and occasionally millet that appears to be one of the major leaf diseases. Good estimates of losses are not available. On susceptible sorghum infected early (before anthesis), grain yield losses of up to 50% occur (Frederiksen, 1986). On maize, the maximum grain loss was: 46 % (Gowda et al., 1992); 78-98% in 1983-85 (Kachapur and Hegde, 1988); 35% (Bair et al., 1990); 24% (Sharma and Mishra, 1988); and 18% (Perkins and Pedersen, 1987). On maize, fodder loss was 35-60% in 1983-85 (Kachapur and Hegde, 1988). On sorghum, fresh weight loss was 44% and dry weight loss 38% (Lee et al., 1986).

Diagnosis

Tests for genetic compatability are made with heterothallic 'a' or 'A' strains on propylene-oxide sterilized fragments of barley partly immersed in Sach's agar plates at 25°C for 3 weeks (Luttrell 1958). In tests, the majority of strains are incompatible with both testers. For example, Keller and Bergstrom, (1990) found 6 group 'a',1 'A', and 21 incompatible with either; Adipala et al., 1993, found 36 group 'a', 8 'A', and 145 incompatible.

Formae speciales restricted to certain hosts have been proposed as the result of indications of host specialization and from inoculation experiments. Isolates restricted to sorghum are referred to f.sp. sorghi (Berquist and Masias, 1974; Hamid and Aragaki, 1975). Isolates restricted to Zea are referred to f.sp. zeae (Berquist and Masias, 1974 ). Isolates attacking both Zea and sorghum are referred to f.sp. complexa (Hamid and Aragaki, 1975 ). Another interpretation for isolates that infect both Zea and sorghum is that such strains are heterokaryons (Berquist and Masias, 1974). See also Bach and Kimati (1995).

Races are identified by reactions to panels of known genetic lines. So far, races 1, 2, 2N, 23, 23N, 3, 4 are reported. Leonard et al. (1989) proposed the adoption of the race numbering system 0, 1, 2, used with Phytophthora infestans but this has not yet been widely adopted and most of the reports on S. turcica use the 1, 2, 3, system. The authors outlined the conditions for race identification.

A disease severity key (Fullerton, 1982) and Area Under Disease Progress Curve (Leath and Pedersen, 1986) have been proposed.

Detection and Inspection

The disease lesions are unusually large and may be nearly as wide as the leaf and cause death of the distal tissue. Lesions caused by the somewhat similar Cochliobolus heterostrophus tend to be smaller with a more localized effect on the leaf.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

The species of Setosphaeria with anamorphs in Exserohilum are well differentiated and illustrated by Sivanesan (1987). S. turcica is very similar to S. monoceras which may prove to be synonymous. Other somewhat similar maize pathogens (for example, Cochliobolus heterostrophus and Cochliobolus carbonum) can be differentiated using the work by Sivanesan (1987). Distinctions from Cochliobolus heterostrophus (anamorph Bipolaris maydis) are well illustrated in Luttrell (1964).

Prevention and Control http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 12/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight) Cultural Control and Sanitary Methods

Tillage methods that promote decomposition of crop debris reduce initial inoculum. Rotation with non-grass crops and elimination of weedy grass hosts are recommended (Frederiksen, 1986). On maize, early sidedressing of N reduced disease (Singh and Sharma, 1974; Sharma and Mishra, 1988) but N has also been shown to increase susceptibility (Pelmus et al., 1986). On sorghum, increased N increased disease (Lee et al., 1986). On maize, additional P and K increased resistance (Pelmus et al., 1986). Increased zinc reduced disease and improved maize grain yield from 6.7 to 7.8 t/hectare (Auila et al., 1977). See Kumar et al. (1977b) for influence of 12 microelements in vitro.

Mixed planting with soyabean reduced maize infection by 6-25% over 4 years (Natsvlishvili, 1972, 1973), perhaps by cross-protection (See Chamberlain, 1972). Mixing resistant sorghum with a susceptible cultivar increased yield of the susceptible cultivar by 0.55% for each 1% increase of resistant plants (Sifuentes-Barrera and Frederiksen, 1994). Plant density was found to be a factor in disease control (Li and Liu, 1994).

Host-plant Resistance

The major thrust of disease control has been through breeding resistant cultivars. The literature is very extensive. The emergence of new races is a constant threat. For a review see Leonard et al. (1993).

Biological Control

Bacillus subtilis applied at inoculation provided the best control (Reis et al., 1994). A controlled light regime in glasshouse or growth chambers is suggested as a control method (Cohen et al., 1978).

As a mycoherbicide of Sorghum halepense, a weed in some areas, the fungus had some effect in biocontrol but did not kill seedlings and was less effective than chemical herbicides (Chiang et al., 1989).

Chemical Control

Numerous reports exist on the effectiveness of fungicides in reducing disease symptoms. Those that improved yield are: chlorothalonil (Issa, 1983); zineb (Gangadharan et al., 1976); mancozeb, unizeb and ziram (Kumar et al., 1976); maneb (Alagianagalingam et al., 1969); mancozeb (Sharma and Mishra, 1988); and propiconazole (Rahman et al., 1993). Materials effective postinoculation are: mycostatin, zineb, mancozeb, mancozeb+dinocap, ziram and aureofungin (Arjunan et al., 1976). Among antibiotics, bacillomycin S was more active than nystatin (Berger, 1972,1973).

Waxes and plastic polymers applied as leaf protectants were assessed (Ziv and Frederiksen, 1983).

Early Warning Systems

Early warning methods involve trapping of conidia. Fungicide application must take place immediately after spore shower; applications 24 hours after peak discharge are ineffective (Berger, 1973). Post-flowering spore showers were responsible for increased lesions on sorghum (Shenoi and Ramalingam, 1983) but not on maize (Berger, 1973). A simple Grimpa trap is recommended (Bleicher and Balmer, 1993). Correlation with weather information is given (Leach et al., 1977b; Palmerley and Benedict, 1977).

Field Monitoring/Economic Threshold Levels http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 13/21 31/7/2017 Datasheet report for Setosphaeria turcica (maize leaf blight)

Measurement of Area Under Disease Progress Curve is used to monitor disease progress (Leath and Pedersen, 1984; Pratt et al., 1993; Takan et al., 1994; Dingerdissen et al., 1996,). The method was compared with other monitoring methods (Leath and Pedersen, 1986). Strict reliance on lesion area ignores the loss from photosynthate that moves into lesions (Levy and Leonard, 1990).

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Date of report: 31 July, 2017

http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheetreport?dsid=49783 21/21