Women's Migration from Post-Soviet Moldova

CEU eTD Collection Women’s Migration from Post-Soviet Moldova: Performing Moldova: Post-Soviet from Migration Women’s In partial fulfillment for the degree of Master of Arts in Gender Studies in Gender of Arts ofMaster degree forthe In partialfulfillment Transnational Motherhood Transnational Department ofGenderStudies Supervisor: Dr.habil.Supervisor: Andrea Peto Central European University Central Budapest, Hungary Cristina Onica Submitted to 2008 By CEU eTD Collection relationships, includingrelationships, affection and care. human of performances such overthe as the space, debates in post-Soviet the globalization of my hiddenaspects In context, research reflects a broader motherhood. for performing challenging andbuilding post-communistthe communication order transnational gender assites abandoning.”find I in that these consistalternative negotiating techniques citizenships, of performing which motherhood, helps justify them discourses the against of “child- of level, shift normative social they the certain andfindalternativedo constructions ways order On and practical the “children-heroes.” “sufferingmothers,” on“mothers-heroes,” narratives They motherhood.” so by of parentingdo “good employing discourse the findinstead of adjustredefining, try to tothe hegemonic ways to social of“good perceptions migrants, women that contend I in Italy, done I have fieldwork the on Based “motherhood.” redefine practices, their transnational women, through migrant idea the that mostly has reflected topic, this to dedicated scholarship feminist The performances. transnational its and motherhood women justifications migrants’ and meaning constructions such around debatable topics as Moldovan on concentrating am I research, my for method history oral the Using scholars. by The topic of transnational motherhood in the post-Soviet context has been rarely studied rarely been has context post-Soviet in the motherhood transnational of topic The Abstract i , ” which entails ” which CEU eTD Collection me elaborate this thesis. Finally, I address my Iaddress Finally, this thesis. me elaborate havehelped duringCEU, classes whosechallenging discussions at Gender Department Studies the from faculty the and my colleagues to grateful also am I my research. for useful interviews Moldovanmothers, methe migrant whokindly andhelped theirstories mearrangeoffered other Ithank my for research. sources relevant me some suggesting in assistance deHaan’s Francisca Professor appreciate also I thesis. this elaborating for ideas my shape me helped have comments advicevaluable and thesis. Her of this writing process the during especially academic yearand this tough year.this tough countless andbeingtimes me, therefor as asto mywell family,for supporting me throughout Many thanks to Dr. habil. Andrea Acknowledgements Peto for her support offered to me during the entire warmest ii thanks to Serkanthanks to Yolacan for helping me CEU eTD Collection Reference List...... 59 Glossary of Terms...... 58 ...... 55 Appendix Conclusion...... 53 Chapter 4 - “Crawling” Mothers Building an Alternative ...... 26 Gender Order Chapter 3 - Migrant Mothers Negotiating Citizenship in ...... 19 a Globalized World Chapter 2 - Contextualizing Globalization Effects in Moldova and Italy...... 15 Chapter 1 - Methodological Concerns: From a Linear to an Integrative Approach...... 4 ...... 1 Introduction 4.2 Transnational Mothers ...... 31 – ‘Crawling Heroes’ 4.1 Gender Order in the Post-Communist ...... 27 Households 3.1 Transnational mothers ...... 21 as ‘global agents’ 1.2 Oral history: Let Women Tell Their Stories...... 11 1.1 Theoretical Frameworks: Migration through ...... 4 the Feminist Lens 4.2.2 From 4.2.2 Heroes Mothers to Deskillingthrough and Transnational Communication...... 40 4.2.1 The Gender Dilemma...... 32 4.1.2 The Post-Communist Household ...... 28 Relations 4.1.1 Incorporating Gender into ...... 27 Migration Studies 4.2.2.2 Creating Virtual Spaces through Transnational Communication...... 49 4.2.2.1 Employment Stories...... 41 Table of Contents of Table iii CEU eTD Collection Laliotou, 2007;SassenLaliotou, & Zimmerman,2000; Bose, 2006;Waylen, Litt widely 2004) complained certainaround andcategories motivations have their (Keough,2006). beenoften ignored theyconstruct meanings the experiences, women’s gender-blind,thus has been often process May, for 2005; howeverReport, Central UNFPA, March, 2007), the Red Cross 2007; Europe, remittances (Cr perspective of human trafficking, exploitation of Moldovan skilled labor force, and the role of issuein hasbeen context, (Keough, theMoldovan discussed 2006).Migration, mostly from the of the thegenderaspect on thatwould concentrate region in post-Soviet this performed research scholarly little been has there abroad, population of flows the massive the around media national by inthe tension the created society. Despite Moldovan persistentthe gender constructions interviews I have done with womenmigrants in Italy. 1 people remained inpeople country the remained Moldova. The discourse of “bad motherhood,” applied to women migrants, is not rare among the abroad inmigrate for supportsearch opportunities to leavinghouseholds,their their in children As reflected inKeough’s (2006) interviewswith people from southernvillages and towns in Moldova,and in the In fact,feminist scholars (Keough,2006; Lutz, 2007; Passerini,& Lyon, Capussotti, This news comment reflects the general public opinion on Moldovan mothers onMoldovan who reflects opinion This newscommentpublic general the October,2007). Moldova, to Mission (IOM fathers without than effect a worse has mothers without education the and children their leave women cases of majority the In […] minors. being brought upwithout bothof their parentsdoubled and constituted of1/3 the them earn moneyto During abroad. the last years the numberofwho children, are About 177thousand Moldovan children suffer fact from thattheirthe parents leave In one of its information bulletins, the IOM Mission to Moldova has commented: ă ciun, 2006; Cuc & Ruggiero, 2005; ILO Moldova, November, 2007;IOM 2005; & Ruggiero, ILO ciun,Cuc 2006; 1 and the national mass media, and is shaped by the patriarchal the by is shaped and media, mass national the and Introduction 1 CEU eTD Collection besides being them envisioning presentby physically considers also their children, mothers’ find Moldovan women domestic workers, I contend that women migrants, instead of redefining, try to Schammah-Gesser &Kemp,Based 2003). on fieldworkthe Ihave done in interviewingItaly, 2000; 2000;Hondagneu-Sotelo, 2001;2005;Raijman, 2003;Lan, Parrenas, Hochschild, (Anderson, ‘motherhood’ redefine practices, their transnational through migrantwomen, that most thehas idea yet ofit topic, reflected this to delicate has been dedicated scholarship feminist motherhood motherhood. socially around topics, My suchason study debated transnational concentrates and women migrants’ women processes, migrants’ Iam constructionsspecial meaningsattention to of paying own justificationswomen from thisfactors have that relationshousehold peculiartothisflows of region, influencedthemassive region related to otherhelps scrutinizingimpacts gendered the of post-communistthe transition andperiod changing the to partsthe waysof novel.Europe. Iarguethatit is importantinclude to in it studies on globalization migration,and asit they Focusingperform onit. the Somegender189). (p. discussion” (genderstudies) academic aspectsand public of issue an (yet) not is phenomenon the Europe, continental of countries many of these “in that writes (2007) Lutz context. American North the on have marketconcentrated global important gap in the literature is related to the fact that and issue inthe carework of labor of gendereddivision mainstream the studies.the Another most feminist studies on women and the include emotionalimplications as hidden processes, genderedof aspects the to such andthese massive migration of on about mainstreamworks the nature globalization andthe gender-blind the processes flows they foster. They argue that it is important to make sense of the alternative In the light of these heated debates, my focus on the post-Soviet context appears to beappears to context post-Sovietmy the debates, focus on of heated In thelightthese ways to adjust (which, hegemonic waysto ofmotherhood tothe social perceptions 2 CEU eTD Collection performances of human relationships, including affection andincluding affection care. ofhuman relationships, performances the directly influence processes global how shows paper present the way, this In 19). (p. Zimmerman et al. “involves (2006), moreconsiderably than labor markets and economic factors” motherhood. migrantsperform their women transnational virtual spaces where atcreating serves phone calls) (including various andbuild mothers.” theirimage“good as suggestthattransnational Ialso communication give relationship the to with helptheirdiscourses and what justify children their them practices meaningssupporttheirlook atwhatbreadwinning models Finally, children. these I women to households andarguethatwomen migrants, to adjustneoliberaltrying to new propose principles, within thepost-Soviet genderorder the on I include discussion Furthermore, the context. laborhouseholds withinisboth the countriesinof andwhat valueofthefemalelabor the this and Moldovan in contexts terms of how global restructuring the gendered affects division of also Italian the compare I motherhood. of migration performances the and to related and actions policies post-Soviet affect the household and rationales Moldovan migrants’ women decisions motherhood. households and building transnational communication foras sites performing cross-border as the techniques, such countering the discourse “bad of motherhood.” They so by do employingvarious adjusting their sameat the andcommunication) practices, while time, through support, affection, This complex discussion reflects hidden aspects of globalization, which, according to I startby thewaysdiscussing inwhich globalization processes and the restructuring caring citizenship negotiation practices, such as sending remittances, packages, text messages, and text packages, sending remittances, such as practices, , constructing an alternative gender order for their order gender alternative an , constructing 3 CEU eTD Collection identities and affects their motherhood; is howof definition motherhood perceived culturally and women’s constructs transnationalism how of theexplanation enables framework parenting. This mothersmigrantmeanings constructdiscursively theiraround performances of transnational and “experiences” the explaining allows also It women. for limitations and opportunities structures that create that structures work, while womenprefer more Italy, “where ethnic-Romanians find wageshigh and a similar language”. elderly also and childcare, care householdwork). (performing workers domestic for demand increasing an is there because cent), per (64 women are Italy 2 of my research. The 1.1 Theoretical Frameworks: Migration through the Feminist Lens model ‘western’ economy,of market viewed all from lens.a gender-sensitive historical framework, the complex contemporary processes, such as globalization, the spread of a approach aspects within family theMoldovan and negotiationsthe andof power meanings. An and hierarchy explainthegendered relations becausethese within countries, the post-communist must2005), beexplaineda comprehensive through study on naturethe of householdthe relations (Hess, survival” of with “feminization the literature in feminist the associated Female migration, mass migration of these women, the post-communist context needs to be analyzed and explained. toItalymigrate for work. Chapter 1 - Methodological Concerns: From a Linear to an Integrative an to a Linear From Concerns: - Methodological 1 Chapter According to IOM Report (May, 2007) and ILO Report (November, 2007), most transnational migrants who prefer There are a few theoretical frameworks that help conceptualize the aspects andconcepts aspects the helpconceptualize that frameworks fewThere area theoretical The present research on transnational motherhood focuses on Moldovan women who women Moldovan on focuses motherhood transnational on research present The isthusindispensable for asuccessfulstudy migration, women’s iton as the considers push andpull feminist post-structuralist framework post-structuralist feminist 2 In order to understand Inorderto foster thelimitations the and opportunitiesthat According to L.J. Keough(2006), most Moldavianmengo to Russia to factors in the female migration context,i.e. factors that create Approach 4 willbe useful in questioning the integrative CEU eTD Collection each other while interacting, changing each other, altering and building new sites. For further explanation look for look N. Lykke explanation (2005) further For sites. new building and altering other, each changing interacting, while other each categorizations. constructed 4 these from derive that inequalities and differences cultural me highlight helps 3 becomes it migration, of context the in parenting perform they how and women migrant when analyzing Indeed, account. into be taken need to my in thecase of research) mothers Scott (1999) becausethese thereis categories, no fixed itone is identity; fluidin andspace.time Thus,as mentions, citizenship) ontheintra-action gender order, depends motherhood, meanings (such as parallel narratives that construct a certain narrative (ofclass, white, with a higher education,transnational from Moldova). from class, white,alsomy but Moldova), asexperiences female,middle a (young, researcher middle divorced, married or mothers, women, ofstudy (migrant of experiences subjects the the only not mind in keep to important is It conducted. have I study the of context in the researcher issueimportant withinisfeminist the framework,my post-structuralist to related position a as them challenge notions1999; 1999;Phizacklea, prevailing and (Cheng, DeLaet, pointthe of view of their complexity).making By experiencesvisible, webreak silence about from analyzed been not have experiences their because ‘unseen,’ previously were that (subjects essentialisingcategories and without discourses normative the by visible challenging subjects making allows it because important is framework feminist post-structuralist The meanings. influence this construction and create factors individually, internalized what contested or and perceive the cultural andhow inthey “West” the are perceived Europe” from women “Eastern the way migrant framework of the “West”influence the etc. location, geographical education, sexuality, race, gender, likeclass, Categories as opposed to the “East”. I prefer to use the term ‘intra-action’ rather than ‘inter-action’ in order to emphasize that the categories influence categories the that emphasize to order in ‘inter-action’ than rather ‘intra-action’ term the use to prefer I I am aware f the fact that using such categories as ‘East’ and ‘West’ is simplistic and essentialising; however, it I also find useful . intersectionality as an important analytical tool for my research. for tool analytical important an as 5 3 The construction of 1998). Another1998). 4 of all CEU eTD Collection important to scrutinize how the how scrutinize to important theory p. 28).The spaces for 1998, themselves” (Phizacklea, of individuals “carveout control Phizacklea, of migration andhow itisindividuals, tomake asagents, for possible ‘choices’ (Harzig, 2001; the as such ‘choices.’ their influence andcircumstances strategies what thought, intersectionality helps explaining migrants’ migration women relatedto decisions ways of conducting acomplex social ofmigrationanalysis Inthisand motherhood. track of several contexts within which these account into taking sametime the women at andopportunities, influence their options that structures find themselves. Moreover, it challenges social of various and demands face,constraints women disparities economical and social explain traditional intersectionality auseful Indeed, ignored. and investigate critical provides and analytical to tool and misinterpreted, areveiled, ofentire then experiences groups the apart, categories these take scholars, or researches if we, as that further argue The authors 1.). p. forthcoming, Zambrana, alonginequalities occur suchparadigms gender, class,nationality, as sexuality, & ability (Dill benefits. These social and occupation, housing, inincome, education, wealth, disparities researches oninequality andAccording on oppression. to inequality them,and oppression cause in tool ananalytical as intersectionality introduce needthe to for whichcontends article, in Dill importanceand Zambrana’s is intersectionality andits offered on A account deeper subjects, their class, their status as migrants, the “whiteness” of their skin, their ethnic origin, etc. such of as factors, studied gender the the several intertwining of account the into view,of taking examines the interconnections between migrants, the networks they create in order to inorder create they networks the migrants, between interconnections the examines Furthermore, Ifind useful apply to migration several theories from a feminist perspective, rational choicetheory 1998)). Iwill furtheruse the identities (it is (it however gender-blind,it explains economical the reasons of these women are constructed from from womena complex areconstructed of these point structuration theorystructuration 6 to explain how ‘disadvantaged’ network CEU eTD Collection are situated on the macro-level. As Harzig (2001) argues, the meso-level proves to be meso-level the to proves argues, As (2001) on Harzig macro-level. the are situated systems migration of theory the and theory network the finally, and meso-level, the to belongs theory structuration the analysis, of micro-level the to belong economics new and choice rational on emerge: theories following structures the inanalytical realms, Situating theories these 2005). andOishi, life of as the 1999; women (Cheng, marital stages the such factors status account into itfails intaking however, Ithasadvantages, certain purposes. specific what what basisandwith concepts. The theory explains howhouseholds decide whichof members willmigrate, their on anddecision-making factors themeaningsfamily the member vis-à-vis construct certain relations within households and societies, therefore the “traditional” gender division oflabor, the examininghouseholdstrategies” (Oishi, p. 9).Household 2005, strategies reflect thepower gender-blind(Oishi, 2005; being of be accused also can it however ties’; transnational and ‘national keep and survive performances of motherhood. The motherhood. of performances therefore, and strategies migration of constructions migrants women influence networks, includinggendered andtransnational their factors resources, certain investigating ways the opportunities atthedestination”p. 17).In (ibid., frameworkthe myof ithelpsresearch, increased and fewerconstraints “comparatively leading to migration, maps” of “mental construct them helps which migrants, potential other for information as serve movers of experiences how personal systems theory 16). Migration also explains paradigm implies” 2001,p. (Harzig, direction, “being partof a larger andmore complex structural relationships than push-pull the one in morethan movers multiple as areperceived wherepeople butas complex ones, linear, politically Introduced by (ibid.). studies, thisgender theory considers migrantmovementsas not and culturally historically, networks these contextualizes previousthe ones, compared to Rudolph & 1998).The Rudolph Hillmann, new new economics theory 7 , “incorporates a micro-level context by theory of migration systems theory of , as CEU eTD Collection globalization markedbypost-Fordistprocesses of modes production and the emergence of al.,2007) argue that et Passerini Zimmerman al.,2006; Sharpe,2001; Waylen,et 2004; 2007; 2005; Parrenas,Keough, Lutz, Sassen, 2006; 2001; Hess, Hill2006; Maher,2003; 2005; feminist 2006; scholars (Akalin, Enloe, 2007; migration. Several genderedpatterns of generated have patterns and production in capitalist changestrade how in tounderstand order perspective, feminist from a processes is toconsider mythese it framework of important the research, Waylen,In (Sassen,and 2004). theconstruct processes 2000; inorder regulate to local structures and racial inequalities, help explaininghow genderedactors/subjects interactwith global and restructuring explaincertain andto how processes, global givelegitimacy processes sexual to 2000,p.15-17).(Scholte, Theinclude feminist to attempt “people” instudying global deterritorialization and westernization universalization, liberalization, internationalization, has Globalization as have global been the defined generated. generally processes reforming 2006). Various scholars have debated overthe2006). Various definitions scholars have of debated “post-welfare,”“post-socialist,” “third “first world”, world,” and“postcolonial” (Keough, into haveof division led tothe states that asIMF), referred Fund (further Monetary International states, nationalistic formersocialist of linkeddemocratization interestof with processes been the 1990s. This has wars for independence, interestlandscapes have the late1980sandthebeginning during international gained of the and the introductionglobalization processes entail. “Globalization” of processes andSAPs theirimpacts on local and global from the individualpart one, implies lookingof at the andpolitical picture. larger socio-economic andthe motivations specifically important for scrutinizing thefemale migration becausepatterns, it links individual Analyzing the broader social, political and economic frames and linking them to the to them linking and frames economic and political social, broader the Analyzing theories on globalization theories on 8 globalization and the neoliberal discourses neoliberal andthe and what meanings andwhat CEU eTD Collection women’s legal, social and economic status, reconceptualizing carework as a political act, andso asapolitical reconceptualizingact, carework legal,women’s status, and economic social contexts, transnational within reconceptualizing citizenship to related range topics broad of landscapes (Enloe, 2006;Hill2003; Lutz, Maher, 2007; Sharpe, 2001). women migrants in sustainingboth developedthe and the developing economic countries’ hasby literature onmigration discussedthe role sent feminist of and globalization remittances country’s nationalnotwomen’s labor onlyfor serves support for households, theiras but own also their sending economy, familiesways supportingincluded). andtheir(migration themselves of Migrant perspectives as wellbe “creative”), when women (due tohigh economical instability)look for alternative (informal) as that to circumstances political and economical by certain are constrained women because creativity,” of the receiving (Iwouldcouldbe Hess of“forced called“the as suggests callitage women’s (2005) creativity,” one. theA exploitationsignificant of women. In thegreat deal contextnot only on the capital and information, amountof but alsothe on the participation,post-socialist recruitment and ofnon-acknowledgedit, in etal.globalization AsZimmerman role sense. this (2006)put a depends countries, the post 1990s period The iscontemporary era marked by andmigrations, women yetplay transnational a significant, whose identitiespublic inare configured relationshipmore than to (p.229). one nation-state” and borders, international across interconnections constant and multiple on depend lives daily outthat“transmigrantspoints transmigration whose areimmigrants, (Hess, Hess(2005) 2005). name ithasbeen preferredby certain migration toit (Zimmerman scholars or - et al., 2006), feminization of transnational labor. have lead andtransnational gradual spaces openedupnew tothe rhetoric spacesthat Feminist scholarship on global restructuring andfemale transmigration encompasses a global mass lies in people’s to Indeed, one of restructuring human basic the reactions 9 CEU eTD Collection anxiety about a gendered social order and how these anxieties are expressed and contested by contested expressed and are andhowtheseanxieties a gendered order social anxiety about “mobile mothers” from mothers”“mobile from G limited tothestudy of virginity the and issue. sexuality looks in Keough (2006) her study on is motherhood transnational of performances women’s immigrant Mexican of analysis (1997) nations”(Raijman Hondagneu-Soteloeconomically prosperous 2003,p.195). Avila’set al., and muchglobal migration, to resources, tied and state in laborpractices both developing and very “are carework and motherhood both that agree all they however scholars, these by angles speaking peoples.”(Keough, 2006). 5 ones. transnational the including contexts, certain fitting and changing are motherhood This helpsdefinition understanding the reasons and the waysin whichthe performances of andthemarket. national communities family, the resources: main social of nature three changing as a between relationship women through and their offspring, interaction constructed the andthe am I “motherhood” Agreeing of 196). approaching thought, track this with and (p. experiences” mothers andnatural “shareauniversal values set of presupposes that “motherhood” that view on essentialising contest the to ones firstthe were feministresearchers US the point that out (2003) cross-border emotionalRaijman 2003; et al., Zimmerman et al.,2006), scrutinizing the way mothersmigrant construct ties with their 2000;Hondagneu-Sotelo,(Anderson, 2003;Lan, Parrenas, 2001; Hochschild, 2000; children, through motherhood transnational on haveconcentrated works feminist Several freedom. political such practicessubjective motives behind migrants’ anddecisions theirsearch for personal,economic or as care. Raijman emotional of underpinnings mobility”al., 2007, p.3),in (Passerini the et tounderstand the order et al. and “cultural the as dimensions such including of importance the on stress studies these All on. Autonomous region in Moldova. “The Gagauz are a predominantly rural population of Orthodox Christian Turkic- Christian of Orthodox population rural predominantly a are Gagauz “The Moldova. in region Autonomous The phenomenon of phenomenon The ăJă transnational motherhood uzia, 5 at “how narratives about the mobility of mothers reveal 10 has been approached from different from approached been has CEU eTD Collection between me, the researcher, with certain experiences and backgrounds, and the women andI women the backgrounds, and experiences with certain me, researcher, between the methods research interpersonal(motherhood, familynetworks, andrelations responsibilities); Ifind 1.2 Oral history: Let Women Tell Their Stories methods. of these intersection the through analyzed is motherhood transnational research, my of confines the within Thus, households. through the citizenships,trans-border constructing virtual spites for the performances of transnational motherhood such methods, discourses by as negotiating with “bad certain counter adapting motherhood,” of communication,should mothering ways the be prescribe that performed.communities their of norms social to adjust to and try region this buildingfrom migrants female that Incontend I context. theirpost-Soviet in the not least at motherhood, of forms questan alternative for alternative howeverIam new socialthe convinced and “redefine” migrants women not order, construct that gender ways of and perceptions concepts traditional of subversion certain the lead to practices transnational of orderperformances, for challengeno indoubt that is likeParrenas, thiswhich thesis. There I would to 2001), their these womenamong feminist scholars 2000;Hondagneu-SoteloKeough, (Anderson, &Avila, 1997; 2006; also is view “mothering.” ashared This “redefine”reconceptualize and women migrant roles their go on explaining shifts, “motherhood” transnationalthrough meanings that the practices, of as and views conventional employment that and aremotherhood mutually They exclusive” (p. 146). traditional conceptions mother-child dailyof bonds nurtured within thehome andconventional subverts openly motherhood “transnational that stating point, important an Israel in migrants includewomenmigrant female Raijman Latinathemselves.” study et al. intheir (2003) on Given the fact that my research focuses on constructions of meanings and of beliefs onconstructions my focuses Given factthat the research suitable. As suitable. mentions,Denzin (2003) is it important toquestion biasedlink the 11 qualitative CEU eTD Collection method: mybasicmethod: discuss informants their referred friends and two willing to acquaintances to sampling snowball the used have I informants, other with in touch get To sources. trusted 6 takingmanaging careof old and people chores andcooking).(cleaning the workingor All experience. areemployed as in of them domestic workers households,Italian nothavehighereducation do two jobs other inMoldova, hadwhite-collar and university degrees therefore the class of these capital, can provide this that connections and relatives or capital, starting acertain needs migrant women matters migrating middle the class,as to belong all are divorced. They two are widowed andother two in this sense. Seven of these in (see five opportunities theAppendix). Table mothers,married,the of They them are all are women have women, agedbetween 50,whohave toItaly 20 and in for migrated search employment into present. the andtransmuted are in past arerooted the networks howinter-personal asresearchers, experiences own our through aretranslated of others “experiences” how the inexplaining methods useful case studies are mothers). Reinharz (1992)also thatthe contends feminist in-depthhistory, interviews, oral and hegemonic classes (in the case of my research, non-hegemonic classes would be the transnational non- of motivations and intentions the studying for possibilities new up open histories oral out, depthof the their andfeelings. own thoughts As FontanaPortelli (1998) and &Frey (2003) point in heard,penetrating making voices beextremely helpful women’s appearsto feminist scholars, The “experiences.” of examine varieties the in to order my research, into texts multivoiced and emotionality, verisimilitude, include to important it find andexperiences. I ofmy backgrounds with interview,research, asgenderedtheir subjects own Upon the request of my informants, the names of the cities are changed. are cities ofthe names the informants, ofmy request the Upon Formy fieldwork, Ihave chosen two Italian cities: Bologna and Turin, All in all, Ihave nineconducted in-depth, semi-structuredinterviews with Moldovan 12 oral history method , defended mostly by 6 where I have two CEU eTD Collection and historical backgrounds. The fact that I have higher education has placed me unequal in has placed an higher education Ihave backgrounds. factthat historical The and a certainlanguage, becauseweshare sex, cultural me same the position inaprivileged extent, to Iam ofmyjustfact that backgrounds. The like a Moldovan puts subjects woman, research, the cultural and social familial, own my by extent a certain to affected been have women) migrant histories of havinganalyzedtheoral (after have I produced andinterpretations results the that words. purposes of my research, informing them later see theycouldthat my interpretation of their the for interviews the use to permission their obtained have I location. and names their changed Ihaveinterviews,informants. to record voices and askedtheirthe permission during their Ihave in mind the importance of I keptfieldwork, toorchallengeDuringmy adjust and categories. certain beliefs entire cultural following to chosen have ethical they strategies the regarding motivations and considerations,expectations their families, and children their with such relationships transnational around as construct the they meanings the rightmotherhood, to privacy of my of views their towomen and migrants’ regarding related performances emotions perspectives, actions and how they contest or support dominant discourses. Basically, the questions were analysis of method the used have I transcriptions, the of analysis my In English. to Romanian from have beentranslated appealing parts most andthe later transcribed have been interviews All fieldnotes Ihave voice recorder. the and withmigrants, a digital conducted used women the interviews plans. For andfuture their successes, totheirissues expectations, work, related migrants’ partin to informal wheremigrants, personal problems and related Itook discussions Moldovan with dinners several attended also have I practices. transnational their about me with Relating to investigate to migrantwomen’s the motivationspositions, behind their and thoughts my position asaresearcher to that of my interviewees, I am factam mythe I aware of interviewees, of to that 13 narrative CEU eTD Collection contexts). in certain mylackof inferiorexperiences in(due to position has an me placed interviewed, or Ihave women tothe relate me to find ways helped either which -an advantage, cases other on an and obstacle itconstituted cases, In some my is age. my of research outcome the influenced me othercountries. in or andtheirown studyingchildren thathas Moldova Another factor between find similarities they could especially when of my informants, trust some of therefore and helped has sympathy cases,me myposition Inas aresearcher Moldova. gain certain case when their migrants and may have workers domestic feelings caused frustration inof them,especiallyin the presentrelations betweenmeandthesubjects ofmy as (un- documented)study. social status Their or labor in power unequal creates immediately Italy that circumstance is of aresearcher, that in project) role this (and does position my however interviewed, have I women the like just woman, not class middle a am reflectI that fact the to relates advantages the of One analysis. further my in me helped has theirscholarship educationfeminist relevant reading However, children. their and mothers between these relationship the and social to related subtleties of the some me from understanding may have prevented fact that married, status orbeing in mothering I havenoexperience that factthe to is related found I obstacle Another in up andDue tothisbit beginning.to open feltthe circumstance, they reluctanta speakfrankly at position with some of the women I have talked to, as not all of them have a university degree. 14 CEU eTD Collection both that of FDI and development assistance.” development and ofFDI that both exceed of remittances value the diaspora a large with Moldova as such In countries growth. economic generating remittances migrants send home.” ILO Moldova (November, 2007): „Remittances have a significant potential for 7 is anincreasing there migrants in because reveal that64percentof are women, Moldovan Italy andgrowth help (November, crisis. stabilize ILOReports The 2007)and IOM(May, the 2007) economical country’s for the support animportant flowsconstitute transnational women’s managing flows abroad, even illegal ones, becoming not in interest. illegal state’s not becoming the even ones, abroad, flows managing labor, migrant on heavily depends state Moldovan the of development The labor. migrant the remittances” (Bloch, November,Keough, 2006;ILOMoldova, benefiting 2007; 2006) from thus “capturing buildof a system to state Moldovan haveadvised organizations development development. Various to supportingmigration as aroute employmentandservices to social constantly loaning andbeing it indebted, hastoshiftits policy priorities from providing in policies a way that state Moldovan affect policies restructuring howglobal economic recounts becomemanyfor Moldovan receiving migrants, the especially Keough country (2006) women. providerlaborforce ofmigrant to Newthe in nineteenth World the century, and today ithas countries. globalization processes on the gender order and of divisionimpacts the of labor withininvestigating the households allows contexts of theseItalian and Moldovan both of analysis comparative country makesfor migrants, and women Moldovawhat apopular country. sending The IOM Report (May,“Around 2007): one third of grossthe domestic product of Moldova constituted is by Chapter 2 - Contextualizing Globalization Effects in Moldova and Italy and Moldova in Effects Globalization 2 -Contextualizing Chapter Both Moldova and Italy have long histories of migration: Italy has been the main the been has Italy migration: of histories long have Italy and Moldova Both This chapter explains the reasons why Italy has become such a popular destination 15 7 In this context, this In CEU eTD Collection household labor, hashousehold labor, played a crucial in role generating femalemass flows from post-Sovietthe options described above. This phenomenon, based on based phenomenon, This above. described options convenient, and thereforechildren,forfor or elders example), they or performcan hire aperson Mostto work. care most often, the labor ofalwaysinstitutionnot areenough isthere thataddress apublic it (however guaranteed places to migrant women is preferredelderly, home and childcare:to they can allpay a large sum of money theto a private institution, other they can households from these post-welfare states,Italy included, have several whenoptions itcomes to in but not onlyin Thus, strong aswell. genderedimpact sending states, receiving ones the the becomes hada have strategies market neoliberal evidentthat It women’s (p.188). problem” attached toUkraine (today, Chernivtsi the oblast andBudjak). Moldovawas again attached to the SovietUnion asa result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and parts of wereit attached tothe Tsarist Empire in1812. After dissolutionthe (1917-1918), itjoined Romania again.1940, In however Russian remains the second widely spoken language in this region.8 Moldova was a part of Romania fact that many states now discuss the female the (2007)notesthat“allinhas work domain, reflecting a remained all, care 2007). Lutz womenspecifically familiesto (Akalin, within 2007; Degiuli, 2007; Lutz, al.,Passerini 2007; et backfamilies, placingintopublic careassistance, thus care work responsibility of the andmore in deficit such Italy, creates as states, inpost-welfare social services off age contend,cutting inDue aglobalized various scholars188). to thisfemale transnationalism studying situation, as and gainful employment has never carework between relation asymmetrical the “theof re-evaluation outthat (2007)points Lutz been on the assistance. agendathis offer to required increasingly are of women migrant the and growing is EU Italy, as such or national state policies” (p. easier. assimilation makes which languages, Romanian and Italian indemand workers domestic for country between this and becausetherearelanguage similarities Today, the official language of the Republic is Moldovan (an official designation for otherwise Romanian), Degiuli need(2007) writes the that for eldercare assistancein societies,post-industrial compatibility 16 of gainful employment and family work as work family and employment gainful of historical genderassumptions 8 on CEU eTD Collection p. 193. 9 high the careinstitutions limitedof orthe spaceinthe publiccosts haveledin private ones), due to institutionalize native elders, of to women thereluctance charge sphere; domestic of the traditional households,namely arein gender persisting women expectations within Italian that service; in health public Italian the families; shortages Italian within reduction caretakers of market labor the enteringnative women of growing process of the because withinnative families, lack(growingcaretakers of less no important are that in lives. with Thisservices atsome factor, combination others would stageof requiretheir care per centof Italian population isyears over60 old, whichmeans 14.7million around that people Shealso today,progressivelyprovides 20 (p.193). population” informationon factthat the older a respond policiesto to state provides “inadequate also rate,” growth negative “longstanding increasingly in needmigrant of labor. women’s She argues that Italy, along with having a workers in Italy offers an interesting account the reasons why Italian middle class households are femaledomestic on migrant migrant work Degiuli’s women. inmostwho(2007) cases are arework handed overtothe “marginalized sections of population”the (Degiuli,p. 193), 2007, andcare work domestic conditions, In these men andwomen. native between labor domestic income,bringhigh howeverstable doesnotorganization in participation this of andthe changes homes is something not unusual.Women have access paid to jobs and benefit byamore orless division of domestic labor, and that the presence neoliberal rationales. to toadjust order of migrant domestic and countriescare Italy.to Ingender terms, both the sending and theworkers receiving states need female laborin within In 2006,46.7 percent of Italian womenwere participating in the labor market (ISTAT, 2007). InF.Degiuli (2007), Capussotti al.in argue Capussotti in et (2007) that predominate Italy traditional the gender relations 17 9 ; low birth rate, also resulting in the CEU eTD Collection women are welcome to fill the position the native women once filled in sphere. fill women domestic to nativeonce the the women are welcome position the migrant conditions, Inthese assistants. home eldercare for a growing demand years to recent 18 CEU eTD Collection level, these women try to adjust to the socially prescribed norms of mothering without redefining (such as the “cult of domesticity” being femalemigrants’ practices are shifted of through hegemonic social the order constructions (Raijman et al.,certain Despite agreeing that al.,2003). 2001; Raijman et Keough, Parrenas, Avila, 2006; 1997; 2003, p. 154)), I argue that,women’smigrant ofmotherhood (Anderson,reconceptualizations 2000;Hondagneu-Sotelo& on a rhetorical conditions intra-action this that conclude order social the on impacts its and migration female Most of on works the market. the and communities national between family, the intra-action the remittances they send to their families. totheir send they remittances facilities, have in andthe such carework the that through they incountries deficit provide security economic and social for the forces pivotal become thus mothers Working states. sending the and receiving the both of economies the support also women these labor, transnational as abroad households,theirmaids, work housekeepers, personal assistants.their Through care women experience it. include Thelatter mothers, migrantin who to supportorder financially of thousands and phenomenon new a is not living of way transnational the today, that out point 1997; Lan,2003; 2001;Raijman 2003;Parrenas, 2001;Zimmerman Sharpe, 2006) et al.,et al., scholars feminist Numerous it. to meanings attached andthevarious motherhood issue the transnational of debate arena of Chapter 3 - Migrant Mothers Negotiating Citizenship in a Globalized in Citizenship Negotiating Mothers 3 -Migrant Chapter The feminist outlook on global restructuring and women’s mass migration brings into the into brings migration mass women’s and restructuring global on outlook feminist The As it has been previously suggested, the concept of theconcept suggested, As itpreviously has been “Who would“Who havethought I’dend up living this kind of life…I was borninMoldova, thenI (Anderson, 2000; (Anderson, 2000; Hochschild, Hondagneu-Sotelo& Avila, struggled to gain Romanian citizenship and now I’m in Italy…” (Aliona) World 19 transnational motherhood includes CEU eTD Collection countries) or other documents that ease their life easetheir conditions. that documents other or countries) citizenships receiving other (most often permits one),(in residence Italy Romanian the or inspaces, helplegalizethat networks buildingcertain their certain stay gaining them countries, strategic These consistmovementsgeographical arrangements. of planning carefully throughout 1994 andin migrantsinto entire are space,poverty, political instability), dragged the post-Soviet in in Russia economical crisis following Union, the of Soviet collapse the (the circumstances inventiveness,Thus, is through which bycertain conditioned economical and political migrants’ methods of sophisticated toneoliberal in adjustment aglobalizeddiscourses world. “bad motherhood.” on discourses against as self-justification serves also the through affection and care motherly perform migrants female theircompensate proves,As offspring. chapter inorderto this ‘non-traditional’ this distance, their children, yet, for counter mothers theperception parenting.not of asprimary caretakers they border Thus, do their transnational of alternativeperforming practices trans- include theirthem. adapting techniques However, lifestyles do not allow them to be physically present by border carework), employ strategic carework), border through their transnational (which include trans-migration,migrantpractices networks, trans- (ibid.,p. 123).Deriving from these I conceptions, contend that migrant women from Moldova, status; itis of amatter belonging,including by recognition members other of community”the matter justisformalof legal a “[it] not defining in citizenship: less count to rigid approach the I also 109). (p. citizens” individuals as denial) of (or legitimates recognition the that structure lawbeing alegal and andthrough “it created it and rights defines policy,creates responsibilities, For the purposes useGlenn’s thepurposes For of definition I chapter, this (2002) of citizenship negotiations 20 . By mean . By I these techniques, citizenship negotiation formal citizenshipformal , which : CEU eTD Collection actors in lives.actors their own households. consider“agency” Those who defend discourse female as the migrants engaged countries’ affluent the of demands the by conditioned rather but “voluntary,” not are migrate work asexploitative,migrant devaluingwomen’s thus arguethat women. They to decisions employ Thosewho female consider 2001). “victim” (such asSharpe,agents the discourse as (such processes restructuring global the of as“victims” migrants women conceptualize who ones the camps: Rudolph & Hillmann (1998) define and andfamily support tocitizenshiprelated motherhood. performances of their arrangements, to the question of 3.1 Transnational mothers as‘global agents’ negotiations. arrangefacilitates andhelpsthem find their their that to citizenship ways calculations Passerini, 2007 womencapital social migrantsgain networks, Thus,a certain through ; p.59). (ascited in outlook” lifeand one’s of conditions in the changes facilitate they place, where a new to after the relocation important become relationships whereas other move, decision to the are created prior tomigration (2007) notes “[r]elationshipshave animpacton that that Laliotou dictates networks) theirmovements, linking the physical subjective ofmobility.and aspects 2007; Lutz, Passerini,longhave out 2007) pointed thethat social migrants capital of (i.e. ‘links’”‘ties’ or (as cited inKoser& Lutz (eds.),1998, p.65).Feminist 2007; scholars (Laliotou, and events [that] are conceptualized as nodes or actors in the network which are related through Transnational networks The discussion on women migrants and the citizenship negotiation they they engage inrelates migrants negotiation women The and the citizenship discussion on agency Sassen, 2006, and Chang, 2000), and the ones who define them as global . Regarding this issue, feminist scholars are divided into two basic two into divided are scholars feminist issue, this Regarding . play a crucial role in women migrants’ calculations and decisions and calculations migrants’ in women role acrucial play networks, 21 in the context of migration, as “[p]eople, objects migration, as of in context the CEU eTD Collection compelled themselves see to women Moldovan take conditions, these from onResulting countries. thein other or role of the breadwinner,is itthat hardmen for (especially with aging) tofind a job well-paid beanywhere, itin Moldova the searcher of separation,options their partners refused to support their children, women who are still married complain the after in that complain orderwomen divorced The households. the tokeeping and children survive.their raising households. Veryfew interviewed women enjoy of of the male support the their partners in withinhousekeeper own preserve their role the the of to andmothering, whilework continuing insupport of state the theirfindraising were compelledcombine they children, newways to to 1990s,lacking afterhow system the thecollapseafter the social women support the of recount methodssophisticated in toadjustorder post-communist tothese conditions. Theinterviewed formeanssearch of earning money,mothers transnational come are to constrained up with invisa restrictions) to space(due geographical the movefreely throughout to and male partners) (after 1990s),being the unable support to families their (in many cases neither they, northeir situation political and economical a difficult in themselves Finding agency. women’s migrant wanderings, the steps to be followed by the members of their family, especially their children.transnational their carefully plan they neighbors), kin, family, employers, (friends, networks transnational movesdeficit. and very often, affluent countries’those Migranthouseholds are alsobased on a different kind of crisis, and namely on ofthe care the of demands the theirthen crisis, poverty the by fostered is children.countries developing from women of women Making are use massmigration If the players.” names“well-informed global them, asSharpe(2001) or agents, of agentstheir transnational in as far as they build plans and calculate their own As my fieldwork shows, the citizenship negotiation is the most evident example of as migrants women Moldovan position to inclined am I debates, these of light the In 22 CEU eTD Collection came illegally and later, in three years, with the help of her Italian employers, has succeeded in in succeeded years, with help andlater, has the her of camethree employers, Italian illegally about his children’s concern any show not did husband the divorce, the After children. her with Moldova to back welfare, therefore Rina married. andhasmovedpart of Having her husband, she whereUkraine, worked she divorced has decided to migrate Italy for in 7years. Born she Moldova, has livedduring most ofher yearsyouth in western the to Italy to work.planningbe the moves followedto bytheirchildren mother and relatives. Rina, of works in two, She first they can arrange bettertheir affairs. Planning negotiations alsoentails for transnational mothers gaining residence permit)becomes importantgoal an for undocumented women, through which in (by status Italy Legalizing their migrantsin for women general. of matter serious concern a becomes passport the how narrative in her emphasizes also She passport). Romanian the “resourceful,”becausemore plan she managed betterto her citizenship(by negotiation gaining beside her. Shepositionsmothers, migrant herselfagainst perceiving undocumented as herself toraise move spaceandbecause sheflexibility herson “legally” to can“choose” throughout Appendix): helpfor networks’ support to the within legalize them theirstatus (see theTablein Italy yetsearching are still two in undocumented, other and Italy permit legal residence have obtained 1990s. Three ofmy interviewees gained have Romanian citizenship theafter 1990s,four of them becameoneof basicNegotiatingcitizenships with the for them meansof survival the after Owning two citizenships serves as a comfort for Aliona, both because it offers her offers it because both Aliona,for asacomfort serves citizenships two Owning (Aliona) regrets. no Ihave Italy…and in am I now and citizenship Romanian gain to struggled I then Moldova, here, help them obtain thefamily for whomresidence they work, or Moldovan relatives, who permit.already have a legal status Forthree until years somebodyme helps legalize them theirstay. Usually, or Italian two an it for wait wasjobs, for easier look and Italy to illegally … come who I was women, Moldovan born in What do you think? That they will stay illegal forever? [smiles] Most of our 23 CEU eTD Collection that former partof Romania), andspeak Romanianthe language fluently. and was given to Ukraine by War), the Soviets.World Second the Migrant (before women Romania to from belonged once thatof Ukraine regionpart stillwestern The call language. it Bucovina native their as (the original name ofRomanian speak also region that in people because youth, among place apopular was Ukraine Western university. 10 work there): cometo being to reluctantjoinher to son (her for preparingdaughter herstarted documents the in obtainedshehas country. permitItaly, aresidence within Having legalizing her this residence work, born in Moldova, and after graduating from university, they were both sent to western Ukraine to were both They Italy. to husband her with together migrated has She moves. future arranging hermotherly her towards offspring. duties hersupport children and offer them higher performing education, whatshe be thus, considers to is which ableto through a she ‘plan’ citizenship Rinatransnational thedivorce, constructs after while the father remained in being Later, Ukraine. by supported their elderdaughter, whowas (in Poland, Turkey, to months) Bulgaria, in three purposes occasionally (once traveled work for studyRomania the moved mother beginning(at the 1990s), the of Before children the to to andRomania moved the children study to university. school high (Galati) to later at at and where they studied at a Russian school. Later, the entire family gained the Romanian citizenship, This often happened in Soviet times: young people were sent in various Soviet regions after they graduated from graduated they after regions Soviet various in sent were people young times: Soviet in happened often This 10 where theymarried and livedfor along Their period. children inwere born Ukraine, Elena constructs through Elena through hernarrativeconstructs household’s anentire active in participation Being asingle woman, with two children,having no support from the part of her husband emphasis] [my Union. European the of territory onthe possible is family] the [of this why integrity That’s difficult. is it but life, honest an lead we work, We country. our and perspectivesthe ourlow, are disappointment. biggest to is the of This reality Italy.not Itwas determined. we But, saw we inMoldovathat do not chances, have At the beginning, I thoughtwe would integrate togethereither in Moldova, orin is this Perhaps program. learning distance long my girl is finally with me inItaly. She also studies atuniversity in Moldova: it isa My hasboy studied at university in Romania, nowhelooks there for ajob, and 24 the realization ofmy initial plan . CEU eTD Collection perception of themselves as primary caretakers for their asprimary children. of perception caretakers themselves hegemonic the preserving nevertheless motherhood, perform to ways alternative find women themselves and legalizingtheir children, strategically statusincertaintheir countries, these ableperform in to motherhood spaces. Arrangingmovementstransnational sophisticated for be to order in in, engage they negotiations citizenship the is agency their of examples interesting in Oneof transnational takingarrangements. theirvarious most the active participation development. global the from isolation total a isfor negotiationindispensable latter for sophisticated not the Thecitizenships. escaping thus of generalwhich the would them be access to global families if development, denied to and their the as EU the of development the perceive they because important, and exciting being as mention EU. The feelingbeing of inthemiddle ofthis isprocess something transnationalmigrant women children, are witnessing the development of such an important global institution and public as the in havefeelingimportant, and to households, their that the whichisequally they, butalso, order one, yet they resort toitnot only for of purpose the surviving andmaterially supporting their possibilitythe develop not to only financially, butalsoculturally: future and abetter offerher children bythedesireto motivated were citizenships struggle with and how Italy work Elenaall comeher efforts to recounts husband decidedtogether. have to to Elena’s words) “responsible enough to take care of her two smaller brothers,” she and her Summing has chapter up,this womenargued that are migrants agents for lives, their own unpleasant an as arranging constant of process the describe often mothers Transnational let to them world,see the the future, culture, tosee how the better European Union a is developing. them give to I wanted moves. constant these and my family around It was hard to plan all this stuff…it consumes a lot of energy. My whole life was built 25 CEU eTD Collection familial responsibilities, which includes motherhood within transnational realms. transnational within motherhood includes which responsibilities, familial performing and perceiving of ways alternative anticipations) and fantasies their on narratives household. this Through migrant understanding genderthe of (in women order, construct support the longer to male isno expected partner) (or The husband evenifthey are old). abroad, several factors, suchproviders for theirhouseholds, they become themainoften only orthe breadwinners (due to as divorce, or becausejust as not themselves inwhich they perceive certain expectations their accounts through women are more likely discloseimage mothers beyond the Transnational communist goes constructions. gendered than men to be employed reveals, this my fieldwork households). as However, two-parent the of of one breadwinners the marketandbecome labor paid the enter encouraged womento (that order communistgender the construct the image of image of the the construct borders. across motherhood construct women these how and upon built households is in crucial order to make sensewhat female of Moldovan migrants’ decisions are transnational within Understanding motherhood. the genderorder the post-communist performances of migrants, dictate the comprisingfamilies of theextended networks, trans-border the and Therefore, certainhousehold calculations. expectations according to mothering,adjust constructed in, to sociallynormsininvolve of to the are order prescribed Chapter 4 - “Crawling” Mothers Building an Alternative Gender Order Gender Alternative an Building Mothers - “Crawling” 4 Chapter In this context, I argue that Moldovan women migrants, though their narratives, their though migrants, women Moldovan that argue I context, this In As it follows from previousthe chapter, citizenshipthe negotiations migrants women heroic mother, heroic which, toacertain extent,is based on a continuity with 26 Who would havethought I’d end up like this?” “And now I ama housekeeper! (Vera) CEU eTD Collection affects low the salaries paid for domesticthe workperformed), (migrant social status women’s is(which value its economical what babysitting), elderly, household, the of the taking care on historical gender assumptions on what the female labor is (primarily in the private domain, migration flows and the foreignGender demand for a 4.1.1 Incorporating Gender into Migration Studies 4.1 Gender Order in thePost-Communist Households sites for performances motherhood of through transnational communication. and the sacrifices that women have to make in terms of their own ambitions, and creating in virtualnarrativesjustifying theprocess discourses deskilling on engagingalso constructing entails country’s labor market. The a for demand country’s labor receiving inthe them for available jobs of kinds the dictates and travel for available visas (2003) explainsforshapesit gender the that conditionswomen’s migration; the defines of range states. In the framework ofpower this relationspaper, the and masculinity I and call femininity of constructions lyingthese social the by isshaped migration Women’s constructionsat the basis ofthe this differentiation in both the sending and the receiving narrative to the on the other, it allowsZimmerman et al., 2006) (causedfemale by social concerns related to changes in the familial order), and migrants toKeough, Avila, 2006; 1997; & (Hondagneu-Sotelo motherhood” “bad on discourses justifythe counter their transnationalgood motherhood practices of asperformances by relationships household constructing of ways alternative tothese accounts adjusting the plays a crucial role in discussions on transnationalism and globalization, dictating globalization, and transnationalism on discussions in role crucial a plays As my fieldwork further Moldovan suggests, women migrants very often inrefer their . This kind of narrative serves a two-fold aim. On the one hand, it helps women mother-hero discourse . As it follows form my interviews, building these specific type specific 27 specific labor (Cheng, 1999;HillMaher, 2003). of women in the receiving states is built is states receiving the in women of gender order. gender Hill Maher Hill CEU eTD Collection women’s domain.families, Patriarchal within didpersistrelations however, Soviet dueto families, tasks,including while thedomestic belongedchildrearing, the still traditionally to beheads of their the to considered werestill Men households. Soviet relations within power patriarchal eliminate not did and relative was independence economical this issue: common one Hill Waylen, Remennick, 2003;Keough, Maher, who basically 1999; agreed upon 2006; 2004), over the years byvarious feminists post-socialism& studying Sever, 2005;Hess, (Einhorn two breadwinners within thenuclear family. This economical independence has been debated market and labor the women of one become to enter the encouraged Soviet discourse question” “woman the that fact in the consisted regime communist the of achievements main the of One spheres and within the family.integration Soviet The gave Moldovan women several privileges. public and political inthe both man her with equal formally “superwoman,” communist the expectations for men and women. and positions way the in a different dictates relations power of these nature gendered of struggle inwhichits members’ interests clash within relations” web the power of The (p. 9). Oishi (2005)considers 4.1.2 The Post-Communist Household Relations can be explained. work to abroad send women their to households thepost-communist need of increasing the lens, labor, andthataffects lives the ofmen inand women agendered way. Through genderedthis gendered on assumptions patriarchal on designed thus are employment of policies International extent). great a to depends economy global and local the actually whom on migrants, unwanted others’, ‘the as women migrant of construction (the visibility and vulnerability) social Women in the Soviet Union,including the Moldovan SSR, experienced the emergence of household “not only [as] a space for collective well-being but also a locus alsoa but well-being for collective only “not [as] aspace 28 CEU eTD Collection wife theirhouseholds ifcould work. Women’s support of them invisibilityone not did the on the nor husband the neither when crisis, of intimes luxury be a would It jobs. their abandoning theirhomes, notreturn to Moldovawomen in did that Icontend the post-Soviet 2005, p.30), manyhousehold, andthemselves supported this home” “return to the times & (Einhorn Sever, the into back pushed were women communism, the of fall the after that claims scholars’ ontwo were compelledjobsor more take tosustain to households. Despitetheir feminist some marketlabor (lack ofjobs and low extremely often salaries, paid with delay (Keough, 2006)) on the situation unstable duetothe who, women’s deskilling, increasing of women), process an independence in experienced massive(both for1991, Moldova unemployment men andfor towards it. on divorce laws of liberalization the to (due andsocieties Soviet in the common been various always has phenomenon social problems), and there has always been a tolerant social climate growing phenomenon of phenomenon growing interesting “infantilization men.” (1999)touches issueregardingupon theof Remennick another the callthisprocess domain Iwould (ibid.). labor) insideand private women’s outside(on the family, keydecision-makers, the while theirhusbands gradually acquired of role the dependents 166). Despite & inKelson p. the official DeLaet, discourse, they were theheads actual the of (cited micro-economy” daily the of conditions unstable and tense under men than better managed womengenerally “reflecting [Soviet] andharsh‘training’, outthatpoints theircontinuous within domain.Remennick (1999) the private realm), gradually gained power considerable they in inmen of legitimized (as tothe households of this participation passivity opposed life the their women’s participation ingrowing paidmarket,labor andthe their responsibilities and active The post-communist period brought economical, political and social crises. After gaining After crises. social and political economical, brought period post-communist The single motherhood 29 during communism. She explains that this that explains She communism. during CEU eTD Collection 13 12 Hess (2005); L. Keough (2006), women’s migration: R.Parrenas S. (2001), P. Sharpe(2001),Hill K. Maher(2003), R.Raijmanet al. (2003), S. 11 media andNGOs common are quite among national the these for violatingwomen, traditional gender expectations. Thediscourses on“bad motherhood” blame also order familial on discourses social the work, to migrate to households communist unusual one. tosupportmigrate the household, option women the migratinglabor purposesisof for an not will concerning who families discuss andtakedecisions whenextended decisions. Therefore, mothers, and breadwinning in women general, capable of supportingfamilies their and taking growing values neo-liberal within thesociety awholefavored haveas the perception single of the and motherhood Single mother. the with traditionally remained families single-parent in Since children still persisted within thepatriarchal gender context, order post-communist the higher of got divorce rate the destinations), paidjobs.As a resultof crisis,the the and mass migration spouses (often of distinctto triple burden women pushed experienced a large numberof migrate in them forto search better decisions on totake domestic beingforced or double The chores, micro-economy. family’s the headsthe households,raise of having their responsibility the primary childrenandto perform be feed able to theirchildren families.and officialmarket labor could beexplainedby fact thatwomen informal on the took jobs to in order Such as IOM Mission to Moldova (October, 2007); Moldova: in divorce on More The process of migrant women’s deskilling is described by various feminist scholars on globalization and It is interesting,howeverIt notice from how,whileencouraging women to post- the http://www.mdi.gov.md/statist_gugs_md_2007/#10 M. K. Zimmerman, et al. (2006), S. Sassen (2006). 11 Ziarul liber Besides the multiple jobs, women continued to be to continued women jobs, multiple the Besides 12 and the number of single-parent families grew. 30 ( . The Free Newspaper 13 (2008). ) (January, 2007). CEU eTD Collection worker-mother image of the when era, in Stalinist the roots has its space, entire Soviet the throughout Soviet Keough (post-) the context. (2006) points motherhood,” outthatthe“cult popular of Ries notices, my fieldwork and astheresults (1994) with in womenmigrants of Italy reveal, As 47). Communism (p. of collapse the after public discourse” mode of “the become dominant sufferingalso finds thatcomplaining about Russian women has among (Iwould addpost-Soviet) wouldheranythingforthe of dooffspring. The trope aim at justifying their practices, often construct the image of the of image the construct often justifyingpractices, their at aim which of“non-abandoning,” mothers’ discourses Transnational 207). caring”an extension (p. of al.write thatmigrant (2006) mothers “interpret migration their notas an act of abandoningbutas their children in Moldova. in children their ‘abandon’ years, several for abroad working who, mothers on criticism social the against argue 4.2 Transnational Mothers – ‘Crawling Heroes’ children. They often link the image of linkchildren. They often image of the the succeedhouseholdsto heroically infor building their their and supporting asecurefuture being andby able hadtoovercome themselves) they economical crisis the distanceand “painful” justifications related to practicing trans-border motherhood stories in their on suffering include to (dueimportant it to the considered informants My burdens. these all of because children, has to “suffer”a woman havinga job, andwho, householdpaid takingbirth chores careof the (many) giving to (or as one of my image of the informants Soviet with the continuity a certain narratives their through metaphorically expressed it, “to crawl”) The In order to counter the discourses on “bad motherhood “bad on thediscourses counter to In order abandoning was largely promoted, as well as the myth of the of myth the as well as promoted, largely was motif motif is in central debates on good mother 31 crawling good to the suffering/crawling vs. bad motherhood mother-hero crawling , ” suffering woman transnational mothers draw mothers transnational mother-hero mother is not a new one in one a new not is . Zimmerman et . Zimmerman one – . Ries (1994) . Ries the one who one the in order to , depicting , the good the CEU eTD Collection construct their identities as when it comes However, gender differentiation. on view with normative inthe identities accordance gender to describing Throughinspired genderorder. narratives, build bythepost-Soviet they their children’s justifications use often mothers transnational children), their for all of (first families their themselvesfor plans future construct they way the strategies, migration their planned they way the stories, and theirmovements, succeeded inestablishing friendly her with ties children). While theirrecounting life practices,and personally(established with ties various people during she herencountered transnational womenfinancially is(she send able to remittances home, hasresources support herselfto herfamily)and both own, her on succeed migrants to managed has through, her put circumstances life that hardships mostMoldovan often households without any male partner’s help. It is interesting to delveany malehouseholds this help.Itisinteresting into without to contradiction partner’s 4.2.1 The Gender Dilemma representation their employment status and their transnational strategies. (physical) of absence.In Moldovan track this thought, justify migrants women this through womenthat migrants’ “sacrifice” help of discourses mothers’ also children adapt totheir thus situation their legitimizing their (both for practices themselves andfor theirParrenas suggests children). (2005) romanticize mothers transnational lamenting, of discourse this Employing problems. economic their and children) and husband their with relationship the (including andloss” (p.259)in todescribeorder the burdens they experience within their households women(post-Soviet) often involvein their complaints “poetic inventories suffering, sacrifice,of women migrants’ stories often construct the image of a woman, who despite all the all despite who awoman, of image the construct often stories migrants’ women resourceful mothers resourceful 32 , and as women who are able to support their own “Whose abandon is bigger?” (Rina) CEU eTD Collection is a her, being a widow, to decide to move on and migrate for the sake of her two daughters. for itwas howhard recounts Sveta justifications. and accounts mothers’ transnational analyzing primary reason why she feels like she has succeeded in being a “good mother” for both of them of both for mother” “good a being in succeeded has she like feels she why reason primary is the that and mothers, are daughters Sveta’s both motherhood: through one accomplished” “an is ultimately a woman that presumed isit culturally Second, and care. effort more a girl requires raising therefore, one; female a than stronger naturally is being male a that assumed culturally is claimingorder, that girls in needgeneral more protection and care boys:than situation a as singledaughters mother of againtwo bringingjustifications relatedtothe gender potential to build afuture for her family without a male partner. Then, she goes on describing her children “a constructsmother, her as a a satisfiedfather insupporting Herstory herchildren. her“natural she despite hassucceeded that, weakness,” woman, and morally a fitforis survival the household. fight entirenotes less weakand However, she of an proudly to grandmother.” and physically strong enough Being to embody a forwidow, her she finds in herself the woman Sveta’s story reveals a gender order contradiction: at the beginning she points out that she that out shepoints beginning the at contradiction: order a gender reveals story Sveta’s father, asister and a grandmother solved. be can they but of problems, hard. But, step by step I succeeded, I am satisfied with what Ihave.There are lota education, stable economical background…it is very hard. To raise children,two them toraise inaway and offerthat…you good can them Several hegemonic gender assumptions can be traced from this interview excerpt. First, it be interview from excerpt. can traced this hegemonic genderassumptions Several I think I succeeded, because [she starts to cry] they are both mothers now. the first place, in the second a father, in the third a friend, and then all the rest. And take into account that she is more fragile,he ismore vigorous, in general he isweaker. abeing is that different from girl.Anda you And so, I tried to be a mother To give birth a boy…toraiseto a boy…aboyis astrong being,in heis courageous, , fact that, in her words, makes her situation harder, because a woman stereotypically a makesharder, because woman hersituation inherwords, fact that, , for them.” [my emphasis] [my them.” for I havetriedonmy own tobeamother, 33 For awoman it is very . CEU eTD Collection performed. These contradictions derive from the from derive contradictions performed. These are they andhow are roles” what “gender of intheir perceptions contradictions revealing beings. femaleimage materially beings of havingas oriented, (needs,desires) thanmale more “whims” aboy: agirl is to raise than itthat factharder the about talks whereshe account, expectationsidentitiesgender related in isfoundto Nastia’s The constructed same culturally continuity with the hegemonic perceptions of motherhood and proving stereotypes, gobeyond motherhood of hegemonic perceptions continuity the with create both aremixed. They motherhood of her performance to related expresses she feelings the human being (despite her sex): andindependent theirbeings herself asastrong asfragile considers (dueto sex),she daughters her lines:while across perceiving gender story builds hercontradictions daughters, again her to in relation mother a as herself perceives she way the describing herself, on account her the focusof changes When Sveta communism. after fallof the though are put they circumstances level, anda rhetorical on gender attempts, on order) of hegemonicsocial products the perceptions to adjust to the normative social order, and their practices, that result form the Changing the focus of the story from children to parents, transnational mothers begin mothers transnational parents, to children from story the of focus the Changing On a narrativeher level, story to conforms traditional buildinggender constructions, the borrowing from others. I needa girl needs…she hasmany whims…she will want everything when she grows up. to haveI have to work hard for her, especially thatsomething she is a girl. A girl needs… know what and be able to give her what she wants without Another contradiction she builds through her account resides within her self-perception: her within resides account her through builds she contradiction Another it isnatural children,my grandchildren, my mother…my fall tears down involuntarily. Ithink children. I said I am a Leo, but I am also sensitive. Especially when it comes to my begin to leave me. However,I have succeeded in doing enough formy things My astrological sign is Leo, so I am strong…I was strong. I feel that my forces . [my emphasis] . 34 conflict between their beliefs (which are also are (which beliefs their between CEU eTD Collection account. First, Rina explains that both mothers and fathers care (or at least should care) about comes above all andfeelings: thoughts other children her raise to responsibility the because reason, her over prevail not should emotions her factthat sheis of the aware (herItalian employers), others for feelings altruistic Displaying family. her for strategies survival plan to comes it when trait) male isa stereotypically her identity of perception social the with perfectly conforms (which her children it to comes when emotional as a mother); on the other, display“natural”motherhood. to sensitivethe sidewhile performing she chooseshand, she prefers to to put people.” other grow up“good On the see needed to they hersupport offerthe children was to able herself reason as a sensitive it, and believes asshe above lifechoices, right” make “the able to she was because mother,” “strong and emotionalemotions one,their because, male (whichpartners. as Thus,she onputs thethem to be), are onealsoit, able to cope hand,financially it and psychologically sheis even if they claimslack the support of that shemothers, society “sensitive”that besidesbeing(asthe “emotional”post-Soviet expect and would prefers to perceive herself as a Again, several hegemonic gender assumptions can be traced at the beginning of atthebeginning bethis of traced can genderassumptions hegemonic Again, several satisfy me [laughs]. [my emphasis] and the hurt even more.results And so that [children’s pain] was the impulse forme to come here, because you think there that are others onthe other side [the children] family, who are satisfying.suffers, or with a disabled who doesn’t see,so you overcome feeling ofthe pity, you because if you with work oldan person who feel pity. But this pity has a limit,I emotions am everything. satisfied,heart, brain, legs, hands, your with you atthechildren’s think whatwant future, at you togive you haveto them,fight althoughYou cannot have success without fighting it has toleave, the woman and remainshould And at home. I leftafter thedivorce. is hardthe mother and the father,in an equal manner.However, for anyoneabroad…because not onlymothers leave their children. Children dear to are both tomajority of mothers say, and I hope fatherswell…the as oneswho leave It [deciding migrate]to was adifficult step, butletus come whatback to the is she hand, one the on contradiction: order agender on based is also narrative Rina’s to secure a financial basis, because you workin difficultenvironment,a . Nothing comes for free. Moreover, if 35 You havetogoagainst your it isnatural that the man the that CEU eTD Collection irresponsible grown up, who prefers to retract himselfretractirresponsible financial from grownup,whoprefers to caringand responsibilities. her asan former husband She constructs anddivorce. in marriage herexperiences personal about caring about their children in an equal manner, contradicts entirely with her further comments ironical ironical tone: in herself potential the social transgressing of boundaries becomeand a mother:transnational her see husband’sindifferenceto divorceformertheir andherchildren, wasableto towards she successful. Thisideais further developed inher following narratives, where she explains due that to go beyond whatincentives her all use to able isis sex, her sociallydespite who being, strong utterly an as herself accepted:constructs she claims that she doesfor her Rina household, Becomingonly hegemonic the provider challenge genderexpectations. not need a male partner to be which narratives, migrants’ women echo other that points certain contains account further Her households). their support to in order homes their leave to women for “natural” is not it it, of she factthe that isinperformingmotherhood (because,asshe manner puts a“traditional” not However, in the second part of this story, Rina positions herself as a single woman, whois aware abroad. work to in order his homeleave to woman, for a than man, rather a for accepted) socially their common children. Further, she claims with a self-assured tone that it is “natural” (i.e. It is interesting to note the way her previous statement about both mothers and fathers and mothers both about statement previous her way the note to interesting is It help. It is a painful case, regrettable… [my emphasis] reason of our divorce, and now, But from his view of point hehas less hethan This wants. actually was the No, no! He lives very well,he works…satisfied with his life and everything. To my husbandquestion the helpswhether her raisethe children, answers Rina with an changed. have times But country. my own in pleasure with future. children’s my Andbuilding for that hope wasany have thedidn’t I impulse. Financially, worse. I got leftcountry abroad to realize something I would wasrealize an impulse I am happily divorcedwas [laughs].divorcing,of Iintheprocess and probably that for me to leave, and also because I saw that the situation in the of course 36 it makes no sense to resort to his CEU eTD Collection itmakes no sense toresort to his help.” Her anger grows bigger as she goes on telling her story: plans for supporting her financially family. This ideais strengthened byher statement “ and makehercalculations own to maleneed partner a not does she practically, that, discovers arrangements, households’ post-Soviet her with disillusioned who, mother, transnational a as her “mature woman,” who is able and willing tofightfor her needs and dreams. Rina’s story builds opposition between herhusband, whom she perceivesas irresponsible herself,an adult, and a as striking a narrative her through constructs Rina divorce). (the situation household her within transition significant that brought period financial problems, renderedevenharder by changes the post-Soviet the migrate: herinspired to that reasons basic the Rinasummarizes excerpt, In this Now she studies atthe university.’ Where is your [father’s] contribution in this? graduated from high has school, major her economics. was She studied on daughter My a contract. education. high has my son university, from graduated has son seem to find the answer for this question. It is very easy for my husband to say ‘my indifference come from? How can one develop in himself selfishness? I never raised […] How can totallya father indifferent? be Thishurts the most. Everyone was inconclusions.’ We hopedraw the new to generation will be able more responsible. be to have You a responsibility? your be will what crises, of And so I tell them: ‘today we accuse your father, but you, how will you be in times not onlymy children for I am a them. mother,from start should Changes I men. amour in is alsosociety our a friend and a partner.motherwill yousend money,Andyourmother will take care of you!’ The disease weof can talk on any topic.husband] child may call may once, you’,the it.ask ‘how are ‘Your andthat’s [the He obligation. no responsibility, any have not do and country the in remain men. majority The of women here, mothers, are complaining that their husbands core of family?the Whois the unhealthy seedof society?the Itmust be within Whose fault isit andwho haveshould more responsibility? Who represents the neither within the marriage, nor afterdivorce. the Whose is abandon bigger? anything, do don’t who men, our or necessity, mere of out abroad go who women, our cured: be to needs who country, our of problem real the is what thinking child’sfather] doesn’texpenses. even have the responsibility to pay at least from time to time for his know hasthe child to everything,pay for hismeals andhis housing. Andhe [the Thisstudying question only kilometers200 away from A them. father,who inknows that onehis children is Romaniahas when a father,always who stayed in the country with and the children, never visits them, being in them, talk to them, isour this upset relationship,our bond. Butwhat about the situation 6 years me example: I am 3000kilometersabroad, my children, away from Icanhearhe and a lot.never But how does society Andperceive fathers who abandon?bothers Iam children. taking my our personal abandoning for [Moldova] so,country our in blamed often are We itto ispay wortha visit to him. He normal family , was surrounded with love, respect. Where does 37 of course of CEU eTD Collection who becomes the core of her family, and not only the head of her household, but household, her of head the only not and family, her of core the becomes who household. Rina’s account position men of and women within family, distributionthe the of withinresponsibilities the creates the her“fatherhood,” and image“motherhood” on views normative the of challenge and question a openly divorced her woman and a transnational allows split) the after life andthe divorce (the experiences her personal from The angerderiving mother, her asa Her story by herconstructs “resourceful mother” husband as presenting a “badfather.” on gender order. upafierce debate opens marriage she andmothering, to related expectations and experiences own her on arguments her Basing mother.” “good is a she that prove to order in practices, justify her transnational hernarrative to Rina through tries 2007). October, Moldova, life (IOM values” family regarding “unhealthy of among promotion teenagers,criminality the lives itistheirof children, believed thatthis absence the destabilizes social causingorder, high the in years several during absence physical mothers’ transnational to due however, one; literal mothers as in Moldova remaining relatives some and neighbors their media, local the by 14 it up opens hisso, in thecauses questions towards children male indifference and doing the of alsogender values positions. to related It the social forchange pleads aradical within narrative migrateresponsible tosupporttheirfamilies.to as women, who Her opposed resourceful and men seedof society” the as “the unhealthy post-Soviet the perceives she From perspective, this accounts, transnational women’s According to assumptions. gender-related Point that L.J. Keough (2006) also mentions in studyher Moldovanon women migrants to Turkey. Rina’s emotional speech delineates several daring challenges to post-Soviet stereotypical post-Soviet to challenges daring several delineates speech emotional Rina’s emphasis] [my is painful.” It mother! oftheir only And mother? of their for these kids? How can you be glad for their success if it comes from the sacrifice How can you say ‘he does, she has obtained’, where is yourminimal contribution , who abandon in, who abandon their children Sometimes is Moldova. the abandon described not asa 38 14 they they are depicted its only irresponsible head. CEU eTD Collection 15 family thebasis nuclear as a healthy society. of and complete “disadvantaged” fathers, Sveta, who is both Rina’s and Iulia’s close friend, adds that: or “irresponsible” of topic the to conclusion As apromising households. their heads of become women have context, in today, post-Soviet the fact that the agreeupon narratives women’s views, gender-related both andtherefore betweenIulia’s differences and Rina’s experiences within herhousehold. asfiercelythegender order the debate Despite asRinaabout cannot age. their despite and sex due totheir market labor Italian the on are advantaged ingeneral women notdoes have the opportunity supportfinanciallyto his familyasmuch as his wife can: however, who, father,” “responsible a as husband her constructs It account. Iulia’s from derives steps. father’s interview, Rina discussionthe on rolethe of ineducation certain propagating values.gender-related Inher talks about her fear that her children, especially her son, might follow their C. Enloe (2006) also mentions that “overseas jobs are not available for men” (p. 109). (p. men” for available not are jobs “overseas that mentions also (2006) Enloe C. 15 Iulia calls her marriage as a “happy one” and her husband “a good father,” therefore she therefore father,” “a good husband her and “happy asa one” marriage her Iulia calls Sveta’ conclusion isSveta’ conclusion drawn logic same on the pictures gender hegemonic ideal the that strong. too fathers mothers. and The situation has to change, because the pain of separation is will consist of a father, amother, and the children. Children will grow up near their Maybe good times will return in Moldova, when families were united. Families recounts, she as because, husband,” “misfortunate a of image the builds story Iulia’s men. problems woman canwith work inside house, a perform a domestic work. Evenwhen itcomes to because women, for than employed the be to men for harder is It old. is police,husband my a womanYou can me: why ask didn’t man leave?the Itishardermen for to findjobs migrate. now, and would I that decision the stays took we and reunion family a had We back. came he hidden then and years several for Moscow in illegally worked has inside husband My the house. It is hard for A rather distinct view on the male partner’s contribution to the household’s prosperity 39 CEU eTD Collection considerations about what transnational spaces mean for them and for their children. In this In children. their for and them for mean spaces transnational what about considerations deep their accounts mothers suggestthrough Trans-border and expectations. calculations andbeing physically alsoclose to them. involves It amuch spectrum broader of actions, order of their households. Thus, households. of their order imagetraditional negotiating of witha mother citizenships constantly andchallenging gender the traditional Soviet image of image of a Soviet traditional 4.2.2 4.2.2 From Mothers to Heroes through andTransnational Deskilling Communication traditional expectations. gender constructing themselves as resourceful mothers beings, andstrong despite their sexand against perceive the performances of performances the perceive migrants women transnational that reveal fieldwork my of results The aspirations. professional narratives on deskilling the women through process andgo theymake the sacrifices intheir own As itfollows frommy the fieldwork, discourse on oppose theirnon-abandonment, imagegirlsbeings. asweak capricious hand, Ontheother and engageina discourse of women these of a displayjudgmentsneed thatderive more of from to careand hegemonic affection, constructions example,having daughters makes feel them more responsible for their protection, they feel the For children. their concerning expectations certain gender construct migrants women practices, certain withinhouseholdsgender arrangements their andtheirtransnational post-Soviet There are two basic points following from these narratives. On the one hand, based on based hand, one the On narratives. these from following points basic two are There in order to justify their non-traditional practices of mothering. They often good mother heroic mother heroic good motherhood motherhood against that of a , and also extending it (through practices) to the non- the to practices) (through it extending also and , entailsforjust these not women having children, 40 “And I said to myself that I will crawl foraslong as as adjusting (though justifications) to the to justifications) (though adjusting as good motherhood God gives me strength, and do the impossible to givethem a better future…” bad or misfortunatefather is also sustained through (Elena) , thus CEU eTD Collection It is namelytheir which self-justifications, them depicts victims both andas winnersinthe deskilling process. through this contradiction that these women construct their performances of the image the of construct transnational communication and the virtual spaces these, it creates justifying for of ways performing the and motherhood,strategies employment on narratives migrants’ women context, 4.2.2.1 Employment Stories Employment 4.2.2.1 construct themselves as themselves construct support (through theirtheirfamilies),new jobs,areable they transnational migrants to women lose their jobshouseholds. in Through status, whichisviewed shift theemploymentthis both as sacrifice (they that offered own name of inthe their sacrifice is bythem as fact that perceived households, Italian them moral within domestic tasks perform migrants women qualifications, theiraccording professional to satisfactionmarket.beingwork labor ofMoldovan trend Not deskilling foreign to women’s on able the and a certainstatus reflects ageneral newtheir employment out that public administration, education,point teaching, like fields such in social employed been have Italy to migrating before who informants, status) andemployment opportunities incentivesoffer financial jobs Moldovan lack. Several of my successnew these however any), have they (if qualifications professional their reflect not do that limitedyetsatisfaction, financialbenefits. Inreturn, ‘choose’ migrate in they jobsto forsearch moral or comfort them may offer which in Moldova, jobs leave their paths, their career stories, with havemake ‘imposed’ the choice in they field to They the of employment. change their in claim they as begins, children their of sake the for sacrifice mothers’ Transnational As the results of my fieldwork reveal, transnational mothers use a conflicting discourse in resourceful mothers resourceful good mother . “Our future collapsed“Our future with thePerestroika…” . 41 (Rina) CEU eTD Collection sacrifices she had toresort toin tobeorder ableher tosurviveand children: support what and her for meant period transition the what recounts Rina motherhood. transnational after migrating, she perceives herself as a winner (i.e. a herprioritizefutureherHowever,to over whentalking experiences about own. herchildren’s micro-level, herself constructs Rina avictim1990s reforms, postthe as of duetowhichshe had macro- from and at the supporttheir husbandthe Deriving circumstances these children. to refusal of from the resulted problems that andpsychological economic and the transition period the to related hardships the narrative in her links She husband. former in her disappointment 1990s andperiod theevents happenedinthat simultaneously herprivate life,her divorce and post givesto the Rina meanings betweenthe theconnection observe isinteresting to It children. meantitexperience her, for giving because forup her her and dreams entirely sacrificing social status, her ideals failed with the Perestroika.The transition period proved to be a traumatic sacrifices. inthem materializingsupport herchildren, herplansfor herprofessional andpersonaldespite to beautiful dream, afuture. a had We also hurts. it achieved, not is something that when And something. for fought we also because dreams, own my materialize I cannot that me is hurts What Italy], because life conditionswe have now[inMoldova]. And do not I feel sorry I here came [to I have succeeded.myself to a higher Every dedicated level Ihave work. to myself dedicated I have workplaces. afew person changed I had of life. assistance. social the in Everyone I worked hasgraduating, After itsshouldeducation. higher I have owntend toplace prosper, in regardless society. of the […] Rina points out that despite her out achieve duringRinayouth her desirethat to points aspirations and ahigh emphasis] children, andstudies, and who souls, achieve their goals, know how to get whattheyculture, want this out about oftheir care who People is satisfied. are we And pleasant,children. our for regardlessfuture remained, and so, our dreams came on the second place. We do what we can of the fact that the sacrifice is big Our future collapsedwith thePerestroika 42 good mother ), because shehas ), succeeded . Our children’s Our . . [my CEU eTD Collection 17 16 personal life. She worked as Head of Department ata winefactory in Calarasi, her strategy herto build strategy imageher as andindependenta strong family the support to unwillingness husband’s her and divorce her about silence Her burden. name to inhousekeeper” herself.Thelife,her personal situation asin Rina’s case,addedtothe a “just term the choosing by even narrative in her is reflected employment of interms mobility byherdownward cause incentives.distress The these losing from resulted difficulty that psychological the to as opposed her, job offered her Moldovan that satisfaction, moral the professional and personal life.She doesthatby andhighdescribing social the status, therefore constructs in meaningsthe her period asatraumaticexperience of transition the for her both of the family, arrangement that women migrants challenge through their practices. Vera also situation from derives hegemonicthe constructions gender of man the as basicthe breadwinner This men. than less paid get still women workplace, the on responsibilities same the having even from 1990s Moldova. First, themarketis genderthe more gender-biased,because perspective, of 250Euros: around I found out about her divorce from her friends in Italy. in friends her from divorce her about out found I Region in the central part of Moldova. alone! a good life inMoldova,I justneededmy daughter.for money herI can’tleave I had daughter]. [the her help to ways of think to I had there. contract the for pay to My elder daughterwanted to medicine,study andyou knowhow much you have For Vera, the transition period also meant financial instability and problems in her in problems and instability financial meant also period transition the Vera, For Vera’s narrative reflects several important points related to the job market in post the market job tothe related points important several reflects Vera’s narrative up like this? to go Andnow abroad. justhousekeeper!I am a Who would have thought end had I’d of…I think to children have I since but money, this with cope Icould ok: than [nodding my for approval] I liked the job, alot of people knew me. I If lived alone, That isagood especially.salary youfor thatregion…know? Forawoman 43 hero mother : 16 gaining a salary a gaining 17 is CEU eTD Collection communist consequences were forconsequences herandcommunist hersiblings: compelled migrateto in search of jobs. Recounting these facts, she stresses how painful the post- emphasize have of nine four out that children,seven of highereducation. were seven, these Out to important it finds Iulia family, her and her for meant period transition the what highlight with details from her youth, pointing out that she grew up in a family nineof children. In order to provideable to family. in the for story case.is heraccount Iulia’s representative Shebegins this not are reasons, certain to due husbands, whose women, married of narratives the in prevail also divorced women, whodonot enjoy formertheir in partners’ support raising their They children. of these women. duringyouth. their In investing of this track isthought, ineducation by ascrucial perceived most they feeling ofaccomplishment:something that lacked futurefor stability,success, and their guarantee a as education offspring’s their consider mothers transnational that found I education. children’s tofinance migrate their mothers often divorced or reveals,married, fieldwork financial means tooffer her higher children education. AsOishi (2005) incare-takingmoral job whose her of present Italy, depriving her despite offers satisfaction, mother, aloyal image of the Shecreates place. at work the comfort and her career to related husband. Wehave ahappy marriage. Buthe is over 50 years old now, andit is comfort. […] I didn’t come here [Italy] because I was not satisfied with my notwish to do politics. We want to live modesta life and enjoy the minimum the is situation in our country. This This isthe problem of economists, politicians…We abroad. do went and Moldova in jobs their left siblings] [her they why is And this it. prove teachers and doctors of salaries low the and Moldova, in appreciated can’tmy children.[…] help my from job, pleasure had I interesting, so was it And but problems. speech have who I was compelledI worked as aprimary school teacher,then Iworkedmany for years to leave because I thought that if I didn’t, I the among only not common are employment of in terms self-sacrifice of Stories make she hadto sacrifices through the ofmotherhood herperformances Vera perceives Today, the professional qualifications are not are qualifications professional the Today, 44 with children mentions, and my CEU eTD Collection their household is witnessing: crisis economical the in despite stay Moldova to women who havechosen those of practices the to travel and develop culturally.her Sheopposes understanding her practicesmotherhood of to helpstudy, children future, opportunity the tobuild toofferto them abright them possibility the perception as perception satisfied. The is self-sufficiency feeling of iftheir children’s of only concern beamatter can realization for the sakeof family. entire the status andsocial her career sacrifice international labor market, and her household’s needs and situation, Iulia was the one who had to Italy,more men. opportunities theConsidering than gender-biased the welcomes both women on in expanding is that labor, rapidly of sphere men, domestic the to because compared marketlabor reveals an entire post-communist household’s negotiation: husband’s unsuccessful attempts tofind ajob wouldthat allow himsupport entirethe family, don’t think aboutmyself now. Ithink giveto them everything. Ican’t rest until I as Godgives me strength, and dotheimpossible to give them abetter future. that, my heart broke into pieces. doesn’t have moneythe to pay for their studies.And when herI heard like talk Union is European how the see to developing. culture, the world, the see to future, abetter have to study, I have If a I neighbor,didn’t come to Italy, a woman,I wouldn’t be whoable to toldoffer my herchildren children the possibility that to she Transnational mothers often suggest that their “happiness” and the feelingTransnational their mothers“happiness” suggest that of andtheself- often Iulia is not the first one to point out that Moldovan women are advantaged on the foreign me. for easier was sacrificing…it one the be I should that decided we and reunion family a had we day One andher in marriage” her“happy job Moldova, interesting on her accounts Iulia’s but…we decided I should leave. hard for him to find a job at this age. He has tried in Moscow, many times, good mothers selfless sacrifice selfless . Elena narrates that she has migrated in order to beoffer abletoher to in sheorder migrated has that narrates . Elena motif prevails in their stories as the core reason for their self- And Isaidtomyself Iwill that crawl foraslong 45 […] I CEU eTD Collection children are often depicted by their mothers as bytheir depicted are often children have within succeeded inmaintaining order households the in their parents’ absence. The heroes circumstances. transnational spaces as prerequisites for the performance of motherhood in non-traditional prevailing over her motherly emotions, thus perceiving physical from separation her children and physically close to their inparticipation market, Soviet the labor primary women’s wasstill role thewithin household, children. Elena constructs their image: despite active women’s boundaries Soviet the of hertranscend the makes traditional herself space of perception Elena’s as household. a the of strong development and survival the for one woman,necessary her calculations motherhood: her perception of to relation in her for mean spaces transnational what recounts further She motherhood. distance long if even performing of means a as views she which lifestyle, transnational her legitimize Elena helps heroic discourse of type This herchildren. of sake for the sacrifice cannot not or does good mother, a her, between opposition build astrong also It herchildren. for sacrificing mother selflessly as well, who have had the strength to carry on with the long distance relationship and As follows from my interviews, transnational mothers often construct their children as children their construct often mothers transnational interviews, my from follows As as a painfulyetisa herSpace (betweenher constructed and children) experience, peaceful. lack something, it is very painful. Whereverpeaceful when Iknow ok. are they If nearI see me,them but Iknow they always they are, if I know they are well,For I am me it doesn’t matter if they are near me, I want them to settle. I will be The metaphor of of the The metaphor emphasis] [my difficult… extremely It’s see them settled,I willthinkmyself. then marry, need about to They to job.find a and her neighbor, constructed as a crawling mother in Elena’s account creates a powerful image of a a image of powerful creates account inElena’s good people good 46 bad , irresponsible , well andeducated with “high” moral , or indifferent mother that mother good , CEU eTD Collection granddaughter and her own, both being of the same age: physical makes family,betweenabsence. Working inanItalian she comparison the employer’s hard it was for them to grow up ofmotherhood. practices transnational The discourse of brave children, who could endure the separation for the sake of theirmother’s transnational plan. children her children. Her discourse of the sacrificing mother parents). Comingstandards (which means, as express migrants women it, beinghonest and respectful theirtowards back to Rina’s story, it is interesting to follow how her discourse of the alwaysfamily] [the they and study, to has she says girl] Italian [the She wash. take granddaughterour is also 25, and her mother still tells her to bringwomen her clothes to and shecopeswith how everything! granddaughter, man’s old the over has she advantages to many How teacher. extraordinary an clean such theira big difference! My elder daughter Look: girls, two same isone age,in Italy and in Moldova.another a mother, Same yetage and houses, a sister, a friend, a wife, and to cook them food. The how emphasizing affection and respect, with daughters great her two about Sveta talks Rina not for asatraumaticonly for experience sees post-Sovietthe period herbut also emphasis] [my then. back small were children my And materialize. to plan a see anything I didn’t eternity. an else; last to I seemed didn’tbreak this seeof pity, anyfeeling way this and back. tears, in I only saw a way ahead, a path to follow,from Chisinau to way my Italy. on head I my didn’t in seeimage any other another see image, except I couldn’t my that girls so with crying were their they eyes poor, of thoseunhappymothers And country. your leave to forced are you Therefore, wanted. you where you see yourall ideals fade away,maybe not totally, anyway, but you don’tend up your family, your children. And, itisregrettable point youarrive that at a where ideal, studying school,at a youhave a future planof ahead you,afuture plan for country made my us leave in our homeland, our ideals, becauseChanges every one of us had an necessary. strictly weren’t it if path this chosen have not I would . Narrating on their experiences of the painful split, she constructs yet them as suffering, shesplit, of painful constructs the . Narrating experiences on their children heroes links to the discourse of the , who, with my heart frozen, left my children crying, my children left frozen, heart my with who, , gradually comes into the picture,serving for justification comesinto the gradually as the good unhappy mother people without a father (who died) and in their mother’s their in and died) (who a father without sufferingchildren 47 gradually evolves into the one on the on one the into evolves gradually : The old man’s I wasI one unhappy CEU eTD Collection motherhood). envisionproviders, and donot mothers from away performingtheir children, along distance considermotherhood household asprimary mothers and (thatdonot to related genderorder constructions social traditional the against plan motherhood transnational the of “successfulness” justifying lifestylesufferings aimat andpotentials transnational provides, the the the constraints, certain from resulted sacrifice endlessly to willingness and ability the children, mothers and of character heroic onthe All discourses these supervision. close parental without in foreign country, a younger brothers the careandeducate to take responsibility the herself long time when they were small. creates. communication and the image of as herimageand daughters of the image own her construct her helps narrative, her through makes she opposition The work. for order to praisein girl herItalian the of ownhabits the andcriticizes She prove ones. Moldovan the and that mores household she,Italian as a mother, did not fail when she chose astrong opposition mothering sheconstructs hertransnational between the justify practices, to migrate Elena constructs her elder daughter as a these words, I felt so relieved. am grown-up, I’ll supervise them.’ Can you imagine, she told me AndI that. after do. to have you you feel what do and dad with go You Alex. and of Denis care later theother twokids joinedher there, she told me: ‘Mom,don’t worry, I’ll take myself to go abroadme her dadand togo to work.Italy and When they werefor little Icouldn’t allow a long time. AfterAdelaBut [hereldestdaughter] went tohigh school in Romania, she encouraged after Adela went to Romanian, and then for a parental supervision without leaveherchildren not howshe could recounts Elena Sveta is Sveta proud to be this land, and they [the children] are education childrenof our is[Moldovan] sodifferent! good enough as a mother to raise two heroes heroes , able to cope with the gaps the long distance 48 hero in the homeland. the in , because, despite her young age, she took on […] W e are good heroes daughters.In order to on CEU eTD Collection to Moldova: and mutual respect. Sveta tells me about a box she keeps at home, full of telephone cards to call of long distance motherhood. womenmigrant in their lives, children’s constructing thus alternative sites for performances the of a‘pseudo-presence’ for spaces virtual creates communication transnational that contend of accusations social against themselves defend mothers helps and offspring the and parent the between bond existing still the of a proof as serves calls) phone messages, short (letters, communication transnational context, In this sacrifices. other’s each appreciating of capable are between them, lying distance the long despite beings, who suffering as children their and themselves both expectations and narratives their through construct to mothers prefer Transnational children. their them between and communication distance presence at important eventsimportant of presence at herand grandchildren. children inshe feels her important live. children’s The the telephone helpsherthus feeling of constructs the of image The 4.2.2.2 Creating Virtual Spaces through Transnational Communication can I not my recharge phone? […] have used my entire yetcredit, theyhaven’t finished metelling their stories. How [at the minutes;eurosmyphone] –15-20 linebreaks, 5,6,10 …and I Iunderstand think minutes,‘two just to say hi to hearthem,their voices.’ to And when I look When Iwalk along the Arno,river I ‘God! think I want toheartheir voices.’And I of affection as symbols communication readtrans-border my informants In some cases, As her story proves it, Sveta perceives the cross-border communication as a realm where arealm as communication cross-border the perceives it, Sveta proves As herstory down, and you become happier after youread the messages. [my emphasis] receive messages fromyour children,you read and re-read them when you feel because you mightforget the you things talked over thephone,when you but good mother is also perpetuated through women migrants’ accounts onlong The shorttelephone messages helpus survive 49 “They “They need methere, but Iam here…but I can still give them long distance advice...” bad motherhood ormistrust. I also , (Iulia) CEU eTD Collection her more being aware of their andneeds: problems under control. Rinais thatbeing from convinced away her children for along time hashelped situation. Iulia is convinced she can help herchildren ifeven distancethe between them is big: in the with control being feeling the of alsoconstructs communication long distance performed, motherhood. and employment their of interms both accomplished have they what with satisfaction of feeling the constructing women, thepractices for of fighting on with these as justifications and negotiating.the They serve also messageher phone: short on another reads Sveta and aregrateful, her sufferings proveher understand that daughters sake. Willingto for their done sacrifices the backandappreciate love them theirchildren that mothers asproofs Besides giving advice, performing transnational motherhood alsomotherhood entailsthings Besides givingadvice, performingtransnational keeping distance advice. problems. They needme there, butIam here…butI can give still them long They [the children] tell me about the changes is mothers’ pseudo-presence Besides creatingrealms transnational virtual where that take place, the news, their go to mothers for transnational asamotivation serve calls and phone letters, Messages, emphasis] [my them. for do have souls, and[children] understandand makes meappreciate this happy. […] return.’ your for wait and you love We world. this in lost are we dear, you, Without much. very you miss We land? foreign black the with copying mommy.’ ‘dear been always have me [she for words reads[children’s] Their anothermind. my in support message] ‘Dear mommy,heart. how are you? InHow arethe youThis evening, is our3 messagesor out of 2 whenhundreds Ihave only received my from childrenin are the last 4years. These return.’ in [mothers’]I anything goasking without to unconditionally, sleep, I hear ‘We wantyou tothankeverything for you taught us. You onewho are salvation, lovesthe us these words of gratefulness to read them, and re-read them, to know them by are also perceived creates bymigrant communication The virtual spaces transnational they have a heart and know how to appreciate the things I could I things the appreciate to how know and heart a have they 50 My children They CEU eTD Collection discourses of discourses of the order to fit the neoliberal rationales of the transitiontransnational within the genderin They households, so by order practices. theirchallenging do period. Theyas also employidentities their the contradictoryconstruct migrants women transnational thefinancial for return they support provide. in beingincontrol, feelingof mothers anda cangetaffection wheretrans-border asite also needs whenaffection, support she proves be it. offeringTransnational moral communication to her ownhousehold. As she furthermentions, herchildren pay back with samethe respect and carefor it,perform sheto herisable Through children. towards affection andmotherly of asign as authority herprotection it, she perceives narrative proves asher big.significantly However, is children her and her between distance the that fact the given her, for crucial seems children herself anample image of what is going in on household.her Controllingincluding things, her important role in women migrants’ justifications against the discourses of discourses the against justifications migrants’ in women role important of employment as prerequisites for their successful performances of performances successful their for asprerequisites of employment As it has been argued at the beginning of it,As ithas beginningchapterthe been and of argued at all the proved throughout Talking herchildren with the phone, andover exchanging information, for Rinabuilds understand us. pain, when we arecomplaining other, toeach we haveour children to us.Whenwe support in are sad, we calla parent important how them of aware become they and and psychologically tell and physically grow them. Andis our perhapspoorin children the theirgood like in front of adisplay,try Ipress on buttons and I direct.Maybe I exaggerate, I towant for themwhile being at homemany gotthings out ofmy control. Herelives. it isdifferent. Ifeel is immense.them things, prepare packages,didif see theyItold what them to do. Perhaps I recount It everything. them has give to Iwant and nomy concerns, […]my anxiety, limits. enlarges […]When Our the impressionchildren everything isunder control. When I go thisabroad, distance weWe talk overare the phone all our issues.down, When I am at home, I see them andwhat I have do we do? Besides suffering and the and heroic mother 51 , perceiving make, thesacrificesin they thefield good mothers good motherhood. in order to justify their justify to order in bad parenting Another plays CEU eTD Collection pseudo-presence inpseudo-presence her life. children’s a mothers’ feeling of for the creates virtual realms which communication, transnational the 52 CEU eTD Collection households by becoming the therefore geographical the space and throughout theirplanmovements be able to to their negotiations inorder motheringhas been throughoutmyproved thesis, migrants Moldovan women engage in citizenship practices. justifywhich helps “bad“child-abandoning.”against discourses them Asit andof the parenting” They motherhood, performing alternative waysof andfind order of social the normative constructions also challengeemployment the genderand in of their find terms compromises are able who to “children-heroes,” mothers,” and “suffering physical order or emotionalwithin of thediscourse employing theircomfort. withoutredefining sociallyadjust tothe motherhood prescribed of norms them.so by do They own On the practicalin a dual discourse level, in order to justifythey theirdo practices.shift On certaina rhetoricalmovements. level, trans-border households’ thesetheir and their calculate and womenplan experiences, their on trybasing to and networks transnational using who, world a globalized in agents are They players.” global motherhood. oflong distance concerningtheir performances strategies narratives migrants’ Moldovanwomen Ihaveattention of and rhetorical special to paid thought, global transformation processes and women’s experiences related to these processes. In this track of on in aspects gender hasthe labor women’s My world. a globalized concentrated research and transnationalism, globalization, of meanings the studying for framework empirical novel As the results of my fieldwork in Italy have revealed, Moldovan women migrants engage migrants women Moldovan revealed, have in Italy myfieldwork of results the As “well-informed as migrants female considered have I research, my of framework the In The present paperhas focusedspecifically providing post-Soviet context, on thus a the only good motherhood breadwinners, which allows them to justify their ‘choices.’ By Conclusion 53 , which entails narratives on “mothers-heroes,” on narratives entails which , CEU eTD Collection people, as well as their performances of care and affection in a globalized world. lives institutions of impacts the processes and onsocial directthe global the of restructuring and“bad” motherhood. “irresponsible” lives,of discourses thus arguing in spacesforchildren’s against build a pseudo-presence their constructing transnational communication as non-traditional sites for performing parenting, they In a broader context, this thesis has opened up the possibility for a further discussion further discussion for possibility on has context,this openedupthe a broader In thesis a 54 CEU eTD Collection

ISSUES RELATED TO MIGRATION Table

Reasons for migrating Legal status in Networks (Friends, FUTURE PLANS data/family; professional qualifications; issuesrelated tomigration (2008) Italy members of family who migrated) reflectingthe interviews withMoldovan women migrantsinItaly: personal Economical legal Brother, husband, IN ITALY friends.

Economical, children’s illegal Friends IN ITALY education (TEMPORARILY), THEN IN MOLDOVA Economical, children’s Legal Mother, sister, brother, UNDECIDED, YET IN education husband ITALY (TEMPORARILY),

THEN IN MOLDOVA Appendix

55 Economical illegal Sister BRING HER GIRL TO ITALY, THEN COME BACK TO MOLDOVA

Economical Legal Two sisters IN ITALY (TEMPORARILY), THEN IN MOLDOVA

Economical, personal Legal Friends IN ITALY (the divorce)

Economical, children’s Legal Friends IN ITALY education (TEMPORARILY), THEN IN MOLDOVA Economical, children’s Legal Husband UNDECIDED education

Economical, children’s Legal Husband UNDECIDED education CEU eTD Collection

Personal data/ Family Professional qualifications

Number of children, their age and sex Educational Previous employment Citizenships/Residence background permits

1, male (around 5 years old) Higher education Statistical centre Romanian, Moldovan

2, a girl (19 years old), a boy (teenager) Higher education Head of Department at a Moldovan wine factory

1, girl (10 years old) Secondary school Unemployed, housewife Moldovan Residence in graduate Italy

56 2, a boy (university graduate), a girl (high school graduate) Higher education Primary school teacher, Moldovan specialist working with children with speech deficiency 1, a girl (10 months) Secondary school Unemployed, housewife Moldovan Residence in graduate Italy

2, ,a boy (25 years old) and a girl (22 years old) Higher education Social assistant Moldovan , Ukrainian, Residence in Italy

2 girls (one is 26, the other 23 years old) Higher education University teacher of Moldovan Residence in French language Italy

3, two boys (both 22years old), a girl (26 years old) Higher education Educator in the Romanian, Ukrainian, kindergarten (disclaimed Moldovan)

1, girl (23 years old) Higher education Unknown Romanian, Ukrainian, (disclaimed Moldovan) CEU eTD Collection

Name of the Age Marital status interviewee

1. Aliona 26 Married

2. Vera 45 Divorced

3. Irina 30 Married

57 4. Iulia 50 Married

5. Nastia 20 Widowed

6. Rina 45 Divorced

7. Sveta 48 Widowed

8. Elena 45 Married

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