Book of

Translation and Historicity of the you from me.”2 The same principle can be applied to the book of Abraham. The Lord did not require The Church of Christ of Latter-day Saints em- Smith to have knowledge of Egyptian. By the gift and braces the book of Abraham as scripture. This book, a power of God, Joseph received knowledge about the life record of the biblical prophet and patriarch Abraham, and teachings of Abraham. recounts how Abraham sought the blessings of the On many particulars, the book of Abraham is con- , rejected the idolatry of his father, covenant- sistent with historical knowledge about the ancient ed with , married Sarai, moved to and world.3 Some of this knowledge, which is discussed lat- , and received knowledge about . The er in this essay, had not yet been discovered or was not book of Abraham largely follows the biblical narrative well known in 1842. But even this evidence of ancient but adds important information regarding Abraham’s origins, substantial though it may be, cannot prove the life and teachings. truthfulness of the book of Abraham any more than ar- The book of Abraham was first published in 1842 chaeological evidence can prove the exodus of the Isra- and was canonized as part of the Pearl of Great Price in elites from Egypt or the Resurrection of the Son of God. 1880. The book originated with Egyptian papyri that Jo- The book of Abraham’s status as scripture ultimately seph Smith translated beginning in 1835. Many people rests on faith in the saving truths found within the book saw the papyri, but no eyewitness account of the trans- itself as witnessed by the Holy Ghost. lation survives, making it impossible to reconstruct the process. Only small fragments of the long papyrus The Book of Abraham as Scripture scrolls once in ’s possession exist today. Thousands of years ago, the prophet Nephi learned The relationship between those fragments and the text that one purpose of the was to “estab- we have today is largely a matter of conjecture. lish the truth” of the .4 In a similar way, the book We do know some things about the translation pro- of Abraham supports, expands, and clarifies the biblical cess. The word translation typically assumes an expert account of Abraham’s life. knowledge of multiple languages. Joseph Smith claimed In the biblical account, God covenants with Abra- no expertise in any language. He readily acknowledged ham to “make of thee a great nation.”5 The book of that he was one of the “weak things of the world,” called Abraham provides context for that covenant by show- to speak words sent “from heaven.”1 Speaking of the ing that Abraham was a seeker of “great knowledge” and translation of the Book of Mormon, the Lord said, a “follower of righteousness” who chose the right path “You cannot write that which is sacred save it be given in spite of great hardship. He rejected the wickedness of

1 Book of Abraham

his father’s household and spurned the idols of the sur- ham emerged from a set of unique historical events. In rounding culture, despite the threat of death.6 the summer of 1835, an entrepreneur named In the Bible, God’s covenant with Abraham appears Chandler arrived at Church headquarters in Kirtland, to begin during Abraham’s life. According to the book Ohio, with four and multiple scrolls of papy- of Abraham, the covenant began before the foundation rus.12 Chandler found a ready audience. Due partly to of the earth and was passed down through , Noah, the exploits of the French emperor Napoleon, the antiq- and other prophets.7 Abraham thus takes his place in uities unearthed in the catacombs of Egypt had created a a long line of prophets and patriarchs whose mission fascination across the Western world.13 Chandler capi- is to preserve and extend God’s covenant on earth. The talized on this interest by touring with ancient Egyptian heart of this covenant is the priesthood, through which artifacts and charging visitors a fee to see them. “the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal” are con- These artifacts had been uncovered by Antonio Leb- veyed.8 olo, a former cavalryman in the Italian army. Lebolo, The book of Abraham clarifies several teachings that who oversaw some of the excavations for the consul are obscure in the Bible. Life did not begin at birth, as is general of France, pulled 11 mummies from a tomb commonly believed. Prior to coming to earth, individu- not far from the ancient city of Thebes. Lebolo shipped als existed as spirits. In a vision, Abraham saw that one the artifacts to , and after his death, they ended up of the spirits was “like unto God.”9 This divine being, in New York. At some point the mummies and scrolls Jesus Christ, led other spirits in organizing the earth out came into Chandler’s possession.14 of “materials” or preexisting matter, not ex nihilo or out By the time the collection arrived in Kirtland, all but of nothing, as many Christians later came to believe.10 four mummies and several papyrus scrolls had already Abraham further learned that mortal life was crucial to been sold. A group of Latter-day Saints in Kirtland pur- the plan of happiness God would provide for His chil- chased the remaining artifacts for the Church. After Jo- dren: “We will prove them herewith,” God stated, “to see seph Smith examined the papyri and commenced “the if they will do all things whatsoever the Lord their God translation of some of the characters or hieroglyphics,” shall command them,” adding a promise to add glory his history recounts, “much to our joy [we] found that forever upon the faithful.11 Nowhere in the Bible is the one of the rolls contained the writings of Abraham.”15 purpose and potential of earth life stated so clearly as in Translation and the Book of Abraham the book of Abraham. Joseph Smith worked on the translation of the book Origin of the Book of Abraham of Abraham during the summer and fall of 1835, by The powerful truths found in the book of Abra- which time he completed at least the first chapter and

2 Book of Abraham

part of the second chapter.16 His journal next speaks lized ancient documents in his possession. Other times, of translating the papyri in the spring of 1842, after the his translations were not based on any known physical Saints had relocated to Nauvoo, Illinois. All five chapters records. Joseph’s translation of portions of the Bible, for of the book of Abraham, along with three illustrations example, included of original text, harmo- (now known as facsimiles 1, 2, and 3), were published nization of contradictions within the Bible itself, and in the , the Church’s newspaper in inspired commentary.19 Nauvoo, between March and May 1842.17 Some evidence suggests that Joseph studied the The book of Abraham was the last of Joseph Smith’s characters on the Egyptian papyri and attempted to translation efforts. In these inspired translations, Joseph learn the . His history reports that, Smith did not claim to know the ancient languages of in July 1835, he was “continually engaged in translating the records he was translating. Much like the Book of an alphabet to the Book of Abraham, and arrangeing a Mormon, Joseph’s translation of the book of Abraham grammar of the Egyptian language as practiced by the was recorded in the language of the King James Bible. ancients.”20 This “grammar,” as it was called, consisted This was the idiom of scripture familiar to early Lat- of columns of hieroglyphic characters followed by En- ter-day Saints, and its use was consistent with the Lord’s glish translations recorded in a large notebook by Jo- pattern of revealing His truths “after the manner of their seph’s scribe, William W. Phelps. Another manuscript, [His servants’] language, that they might come to un- written by Joseph Smith and , has Egyp- derstanding.”18 tian characters followed by explanations.21 Joseph’s translations took a variety of forms. Some of The relationship of these documents to the book of his translations, like that of the Book of Mormon, uti- Abraham is not fully understood. Neither the rules nor

3 Book of Abraham

the translations in the grammar book correspond to those recognized by Egyptologists today. Whatever the role of the grammar book, it appears that Joseph Smith began translating portions of the book of Abraham al- most immediately after the purchase of the papyri.22 Phelps apparently viewed Joseph Smith as uniquely capable of understanding the Egyptian characters: “As no one could translate these writings,” he told his wife, “they were presented to President Smith. He soon knew what they were.”23 The Papyri After the Latter-day Saints left Nauvoo, the Egyp- tian artifacts remained behind. Joseph Smith’s family sold the papyri and the mummies in 1856. The papyri were divided up and sold to various parties; historians believe that most were destroyed in the Great Chica- go Fire of 1871. Ten papyrus fragments once in Joseph Smith’s possession ended up in the Metropolitan Mu- seum of Art in New York City.24 In 1967, the museum transferred these fragments to the Church, which sub- sequently published them in the Church’s magazine, the .25 The discovery of the papyrus fragments renewed de- bate about Joseph Smith’s translation. The fragments in- cluded one vignette, or illustration, that appears in the book of Abraham as facsimile 1. Long before the frag- ments were published by the Church, some Egyptolo- gists had said that Joseph Smith’s explanations of the various elements of these facsimiles did not match their identified the papyrus fragments as parts of standard own interpretations of these drawings. Joseph Smith funerary texts that were deposited with mummified had published the facsimiles as freestanding drawings, bodies. These fragments date to between the third cen- cut off from the hieroglyphs or characters that tury B.C.E. and the first century C.E., long after Abra- originally surrounded the vignettes. The discovery of ham lived. the fragments meant that readers could now see the hi- Of course, the fragments do not have to be as old eroglyphs and characters immediately surrounding the as Abraham for the book of Abraham and its illustra- vignette that became facsimile 1.26 tions to be authentic. Ancient records are often trans- None of the characters on the papyrus fragments mitted as copies or as copies of copies. The record of mentioned Abraham’s name or any of the events record- Abraham could have been edited or redacted by later ed in the book of Abraham. Mormon and non-Mormon writers much as the Book of Mormon prophet-histori- Egyptologists agree that the characters on the frag- ans Mormon and Moroni revised the writings of earlier ments do not match the translation given in the book of peoples.28 Moreover, documents initially composed for Abraham, though there is not unanimity, even among one context can be repackaged for another context or non-Mormon scholars, about the proper interpretation purpose.29 Illustrations once connected with Abraham of the vignettes on these fragments.27 Scholars have could have either drifted or been dislodged from their

4 Book of Abraham original context and reinterpreted hundreds of years the physical artifacts provided an occasion for medita- later in terms of burial practices in a later period of tion, reflection, and revelation. They catalyzed a process Egyptian history. The opposite could also be true: illus- whereby God gave to Joseph Smith a revelation about trations with no clear connection to Abraham anciently the life of Abraham, even if that revelation did not di- could, by revelation, shed light on the life and teachings rectly correlate to the characters on the papyri.34 of this prophetic figure. The Book of Abraham and the Ancient World Some have assumed that the hieroglyphs adjacent to and surrounding facsimile 1 must be a source for the A careful study of the book of Abraham provides a text of the book of Abraham. But this claim rests on the better measure of the book’s merits than any hypothesis assumption that a vignette and its adjacent text must be that treats the text as a conventional translation. Evi- associated in meaning. In fact, it was not uncommon dence suggests that elements of the book of Abraham for ancient Egyptian vignettes to be placed some dis- fit comfortably in the ancient world and supports the tance from their associated commentary.30 claim that the book of Abraham is an authentic record. Neither the Lord nor Joseph Smith explained the The book of Abraham speaks disapprovingly of process of translation of the book of Abraham, but human sacrifice offered on an altar in . Some some insight can be gained from the Lord’s instructions victims were placed on the altar as sacrifices because to Joseph regarding translation. In April 1829, Joseph they rejected the idols worshipped by their leaders.35 received a revelation for Oliver Cowdery that taught Recent scholarship has found instances of such punish- that both intellectual work and revelation were essential ment dating to Abraham’s time. People who challenged to translating sacred records. It was necessary to “study the standing religious order, either in Egypt or in the it out in your mind” and then seek spiritual confirma- regions over which it had influence (such as Canaan), tion. Records indicate that Joseph and others studied could and did suffer execution for their offenses.36 The the papyri and that close observers also believed that conflict over the religion of Pharaoh, as described in the translation came by revelation. As John Whitmer Abraham 1:11–12, is an example of punishment now observed, “Joseph the Seer saw these Record[s] and by known to have been meted out during the Abrahamic the revelation of Jesus Christ could translate these re- era. cords.”31 The book of Abraham contains other details that It is likely futile to assess Joseph’s ability to translate are consistent with modern discoveries about the an- papyri when we now have only a fraction of the papyri cient world. The book speaks of “the plain of Olishem,” he had in his possession. Eyewitnesses spoke of “a long a name not mentioned in the Bible. An ancient inscrip- roll” or multiple “rolls” of papyrus.32 Since only frag- tion, not discovered and translated until the 20th centu- ments survive, it is likely that much of the papyri acces- ry, mentions a town called “Ulisum,” located in north- sible to Joseph when he translated the book of Abraham western Syria.37 Further, Abraham 3:22–23 is written is not among these fragments. The loss of a significant in a poetic structure more characteristic of Near East- portion of the papyri means the relationship of the pa- ern languages than early American writing style.38 pyri to the published text cannot be settled conclusively Joseph Smith’s explanations of the facsimiles of the by reference to the papyri. book of Abraham contain additional earmarks of the Alternatively, Joseph’s study of the papyri may have ancient world. Facsimile 1 and Abraham 1:17 mention led to a revelation about key events and teachings in the the idolatrous god Elkenah. This deity is not mentioned life of Abraham, much as he had earlier received a rev- in the Bible, yet modern scholars have identified it as elation about the life of Moses while studying the Bible. being among the gods worshipped by ancient Mesopo- This view assumes a broader definition of the words tamians.39 Joseph Smith represented the four figures in translator and translation.33 According to this view, figure 6 of facsimile 2 as “this earth in its four quarters.” Joseph’s translation was not a literal rendering of the A similar interpretation has been argued by scholars papyri as a conventional translation would be. Rather, who study identical figures in other ancient Egyptian

5 Book of Abraham

texts.40 Facsimile 1 contains a crocodile deity swim- The truth of the book of Abraham is ultimately found ming in what Joseph Smith called “the firmament over through careful study of its teachings, sincere prayer, our heads.” This interpretation makes sense in light of and the confirmation of the Spirit. scholarship that identifies Egyptian conceptions of Resources heaven with “a heavenly ocean.”41 1. 1:17, 19, 24. The book of Abraham is consistent with various de- 2. Doctrine and Covenants 9:9. tails found in nonbiblical stories about Abraham that 3. See, for example, Daniel C. Peterson, “News from circulated in the ancient world around the time the pa- Antiquity,” Ensign, Jan. 1994, and , “Re- pyri were likely created. In the book of Abraham, God search and Perspectives: Abraham in Ancient Egyp- teaches Abraham about the sun, the moon, and the stars. tian Texts,” Ensign, July 1992. “I show these things unto thee before ye go into Egypt,” 4. 1 Nephi 13:40. See also Mormon 7:8–9. the Lord says, “that ye may declare all these words.”42 5. Genesis 12:2. Ancient texts repeatedly refer to Abraham instructing 6. Abraham 1:1–2, 5–12. the Egyptians in knowledge of the heavens. For exam- 7. Abraham 1:2–3, 19. ple, Eupolemus, who lived under Egyptian rule in the 8. Abraham 2:11. See also Doctrine and Covenants second century B.C.E., wrote that Abraham taught as- 84:19–21. tronomy and other sciences to the Egyptian priests.43 A 9. Abraham 3:24. third-century papyrus from an Egyptian library 10. Abraham 3:24; 4:1, 12, 14–16. connects Abraham with an illustration similar to fac- 11. Abraham 3:25–26. simile 1 in the book of Abraham.44 A later Egyptian 12. Joseph Smith History, 1838–1856, vol. B-1, 596, text, discovered in the 20th century, tells how the Pha- available at josephsmithpapers.org. raoh tried to sacrifice Abraham, only to be foiled when 13. See S. J. Wolfe with Robert Singerman, Mummies Abraham was delivered by an angel. Later, according in Nineteenth Century America: Ancient Egyptians to this text, Abraham taught members of the Pharaoh’s as Artifacts (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009); and court through astronomy.45 All these details are found John T. Irwin, American Hieroglyphics: The Symbol in the book of Abraham. of the Egyptian Hieroglyphics in the American Re- Other details in the book of Abraham are found in naissance (New Haven: Press, 1980). ancient traditions located across the Near East. These 14. The most extensive treatment of Lebolo and his include , Abraham’s father, being an idolator; a excavations, though dated in some particulars, is famine striking Abraham’s homeland; Abraham’s famil- H. Donl Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abra- iarity with Egyptian idols; and Abraham’s being younger ham: Mummies, Manuscripts, and than 75 years old when he left Haran, as the biblical ac- (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1995), 36–85. On count states. Some of these extrabiblical elements were the whereabouts of the mummies after they arrived available in apocryphal books or biblical commentar- in the United States, see Brian L. Smith interview ies in Joseph Smith’s lifetime, but others were confined by Philip R. Webb, “Mystery of the Mummies: An to nonbiblical traditions inaccessible or unknown to Update on the Joseph Smith Collection,” Religious 19th-century Americans.46 Studies Center Newsletter 20, no. 2 (2005): 1–5. Conclusion 15. Joseph Smith History, 1838–1856, vol. B-1, 596, available at josephsmithpapers.org. The veracity and value of the book of Abraham can- 16. Brian M. Hauglid, A Textual History of the Book not be settled by scholarly debate concerning the book’s of Abraham: Manuscripts and Editions (Provo, UT: translation and historicity. The book’s status as scripture , 2010), 6, 84, 110. lies in the eternal truths it teaches and the powerful 17. Joseph Smith, Journal, March 8–9, 1842, avail- spirit it conveys. The book of Abraham imparts pro- able at josephsmithpapers.org; “A Fac-Simile from found truths about the nature of God, His relationship to us as His children, and the purpose of this mortal life. 6 Book of Abraham

the Book of Abraham” and “A Translation,” Times Office around the same time as the Metropolitan and Seasons, Mar. 1, 1842, 703–6, available at jo- discovery, making 11 fragments in all. sephsmithpapers.org; “The Book of Abraham,” 26. Michael D. Rhodes, “Why Doesn’t the Translation of Times and Seasons, Mar. 15, 1842, 719–22, available the Egyptian Papyri found in 1967 Match the Text of at josephsmithpapers.org; and “A Fac-Simile from the Book of Abraham in the Pearl of Great Price?” the Book of Abraham” and “Explanation of Cut on Ensign, July 1988, 51–53. First Page,” Times and Seasons, May 16, 1842, 783– 27. Kerry Muhlestein, “Egyptian Papyri and the Book of 84. Abraham: A Faithful, Egyptological Point of View,” 18. Doctrine and Covenants 1:24. and Brian M. Hauglid, “Thoughts on the Book of 19. Robert J. Matthews, “A Plainer Translation”: Jo- Abraham,” both in No Weapon Shall Prosper: New seph Smith’s Translation of the Bible: A History and Light on Sensitive Issues, ed. Robert L. Millet (Pro- Commentary (Provo, UT: Universi- vo and Salt Lake City, UT: Religious Studies Cen- ty Press, 1985), 253. In Joseph Smith’s day, the word ter, , and Deseret Book, translate could mean “to interpret; to render into 2011), 217–58. On the lack of unanimity among another language.” The word interpret could mean Egyptologists, see, for example, John Gee, “A Meth- “to explain the meaning of words to a person who od for Studying the Facsimiles,” FARMS Review 19, does not understand them,” or “to explain or un- no. 1 (2007): 348–51; and , The Message fold the meaning of predictions, vision, dreams or of the : An Egyptian Endow- enigmas; to expound and lay open what is concealed ment, 2d. ed. (Provo and Salt Lake City, UT: Deser- from the understanding.” (Noah Webster, An Amer- et Book and Foundation for Ancient Research and ican Dictionary of the English Language [New York: , 2005), 51–53. For translation of S. Converse, 1828], s.v. “Translate,” “Interpret.”) and commentary on the fragments, see Michael D. 20. Joseph Smith History, 1838–1856, vol. B-1, 597, Rhodes, Books of the Dead Belonging to Tschem- available at josephsmithpapers.org. and Neferirnub: A Translation and Commen- 21. Transcriptions and digital images of these - tary (Provo, UT: Maxwell Institute, 2010); Michael scripts, known collectively as the “Kirtland Egyp- D. Rhodes, The Hor Book of Breathings: A Transla- tian Papers,” can be found at “Book of Abraham and tion and Commentary (Provo, UT: Foundation for Egyptian Material,” josephsmithpapers.org. Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 2002); and 22. Joseph Smith History, 1838–1856, vol. B-1, 596, Nibley, Message of the Joseph Smith Papyri, 34–50. available at josephsmithpapers.org. 28. Joseph Smith, or perhaps a colleague, introduced 23. W. W. Phelps to Sally Phelps, July 19–20, 1835, in the published translation by saying that the records Bruce A. Van Orden, “Writing to Zion: The William were “written by his [Abraham’s] own hand, upon W. Phelps Kirtland Letters (1835–1836),” BYU Stud- papyrus.” The phrase can be understood to mean ies 33, no. 3 (1993): 555, available at byustudies.byu. that Abraham is the author and not the literal copy- edu. ist. Hugh Nibley and Michael Rhodes, One Eternal 24. John Gee, A Guide to the Joseph Smith Papyri (Pro- Round (Salt Lake City, UT: Deseret Book, 2010), vo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mor- 20–22; Michael D. Rhodes, “Teaching the Book of mon Studies, 2000), 2. The fragments are known to Abraham Facsimiles,” Religious Educator 4, no. 2 have been part of the papyri owned by the Church (2003): 117–18. because they were mounted on paper with early 29. Kevin L. Barney, “The Facsimiles and Semitic Ad- Mormon records, which conforms to contemporary aptation of Existing Sources,” in John Gee and Brian descriptions of the display of the papyri. M. Hauglid, eds., Astronomy, Papyrus, and Cove- 25. Jay M. Todd, “New Light on Joseph Smith’s Egyptian nant (Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research Papyri,” Improvement Era, Feb. 1968, 40–41. Anoth- and Mormon Studies, 2005), 107–30. er fragment was located in the Church Historian’s 30. Henk Milde, “Vignetten-Forschung,” in Burkhard

7 Book of Abraham

Backes and others, eds., Totenbuch-Forschungen vo, UT: Brigham Young University Religious Stud- (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2006), ies Center, 1989], 119–36; and Nibley, Abraham in 221–31; Holger Kockelmann, Untersuchungen zu Egypt, 84–85, 234–36.) den späten Totenbuch-Handschriften auf Mumien- 36. Kerry Muhlestein, Violence in the Service of Order: binden (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag, The Religious Framework for Sanctioned Killing in 2008), 2:212–14; Valérie Angenot, “Discordance en- (Oxford, U.K.: Archaeopress, 2001), tre texte et image. Deux exemples de l’Ancien et du 37–44, 92–101; Kerry Muhlestein, “Royal Execu- Nouvel Empires,” GöttingerMiszellen 187 (2002): tions: Evidence Bearing on the Subject of Sanc- 11–21. tioned Killing in the Middle Kingdom,” Journal of 31. John Whitmer, History, 1831–ca. 1837, 76, in Kar- the Economic and Social History of the Orient 51, en Lynn Davidson, Richard L. Jensen, and David J. no. 2 (2008): 181–208; Anthony Leahy, “Death by Whittaker, eds., Histories, Volume 2: Assigned His- Fire in Ancient Egypt,” Journal of the Economic torical Writings, 1831–1847, vol. 2 of the Histories and Social History of the Orient 27, no. 2 (1984): series of , edited by Dean 199–206; Harco Willems, “Crime, Cult and Capi- C. Jessee, Ronald K. Esplin, and Richard Lyman tal Punishment (Mo’alla Inscription 8),” Journal of Bushman (Salt Lake City: Church Historian’s Press, Egyptian Archeology 76 (1990): 27–54. 2012), 86. “I have set by his side and penned down 37. Abraham 1:10; John Gee, “Has Olishem Been Dis- the translation of the Egyptian Hieroglyphicks as he covered?” Journal of the Book of Mormon and Oth- claimed to receive it by direct inspiration of Heav- er Restoration Scriptures 22, no. 2 (2013): 104–7, en,” wrote , Joseph Smith’s scribe. available at maxwellinstitute.byu.edu. (Warren Parrish, Feb. 5, 1838, Letter to the editor, 38. Julie M. Smith, “A Note on Chiasmus in Abraham Painesville Republican, Feb. 15, 1838, [3].) 3:22–23,” : A Journal of Mormon Scrip- 32. Hauglid, Textual History of the Book of Abraham, ture 8 (2014): 187–90, available at mormoninterpret- 213–14, 222. er.com; Boyd F. Edwards and W. Farrell Edwards, 33. “Joseph Smith as Translator,” in Richard Lyman “When Are Chiasms Admissible as Evidence?” BYU Bushman, Believing History: Latter-day Saint Es- Studies 49, no. 4 (2010): 131–54, available at byu- says, ed. Reid L. Neilson and Jed Woodworth (New studies.byu.edu. York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 233–47; 39. Kevin L. Barney, “On Elkenah as Canaanite El,” Nibley, Message of the Joseph Smith Papyri, 51–59. Journal of the Book of Mormon and Other Resto- See also footnote 19. ration Scripture 19, no. 1 (2010): 22–35, available 34. By analogy, the Bible seems to have been a frequent at maxwellinstitute.byu.edu; John Gee and Stephen catalyst for Joseph Smith’s revelations about God’s D. Ricks, “Historical Plausibility: The Historicity of dealings with His ancient covenant people. Joseph’s the Book of Abraham as a Case Study,” in Historic- study of the , for example, prompted ity and the Latter-day Saint Scriptures, ed. Paul Y. revelations about the lives and teachings of Adam, Hoskisson (Provo, UT: , , Moses, and Enoch, found today in the book of Brigham Young University, 2001), 75. Moses. 40. Maarten J. Raven, “Egyptian Concepts of the Ori- 35. Abraham 1:8, 10–11. Most scholars today locate entation of the Human Body,” in Proceedings of “Chaldea” (or Ur) in southern Mesopotamia, re- the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists moved from the area of Egyptian influence, but co- (2007), 2:1569–70. gent arguments have been made for a northern lo- 41. Erik Hornung, “Himmelsvorstellungen,” Lexikon cation, within the realm of Egyptian influence. (Paul der Ägyptologie, 7 vols. (Wiesbaden: Harrassowit, Y. Hoskisson, “Where Was Ur of the Chaldees?” in 1977–1989), 2:1216. For these and other examples, H. Donl Peterson and Charles D. Tate Jr., eds., The see Peterson, “News from Antiquity”; Hugh Nibley, Pearl of Great Price: Revelations from God [Pro- An Approach to the Book of Abraham (Salt Lake

8 Book of Abraham

City and Provo, UT: Deseret Book and Foundation From Kirtland, Ohio, to Far West, Missouri: for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 2009), Following the Trail of the 115–78; Nibley and Rhodes, One Eternal Round, Mormon Mummies 236–45; John Gee, “A New Look at the Conception by Ray Huntington and Keith J. Wilson of the Human Being in Ancient Egypt,” in “Being in Ancient Egypt”: Thoughts on Agency, Materiality Ray Huntington and Keith J. Wilson are Associate and Cognition, ed. Rune Nyord and Annette Kjølby Professors of Ancient Scripture at BYU. (Oxford, U.K.: Archaeopress, 2009), 6–7, 12–13. The story detailing the discovery of the Egyptian 42. Abraham 3:2–15. mummies in , together with the papyri 43. Excerpts from Eupolemus, in John A. Tvedtnes, Bri- scrolls, their subsequent purchase by the Latter-day Saints an M. Hauglid, and John Gee, eds., Traditions about in Kirtland, Ohio, in 1835, and Joseph Smith’s translation the Early Life of Abraham: Studies in the Book of of the papyrus scroll containing the writings of Abraham, Abraham, ed. John Gee, vol. 1 (Provo, UT: Foun- is a fascinating and important narrative. However, the dation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, focus of this paper will be to outline briefly the history of 2001), 8–9. For other references to Abraham teach- the four Egyptian mummies during the Kirtland and Mis- ing astronomy, see, for example, Tvedtnes, Hauglid, souri periods of the history of The Church of Jesus Christ and Gee, Traditions about the Early Life of Abra- of Latter-day Saints. ham, 7, 35–43. 44. Excerpts from P. Leiden I 384 (PGM XII), in The Kirtland Period Tvedtnes, Hauglid, and Gee, Traditions about the During the decades of 1820 and 1830, a number of Early Life of Abraham, 501–2, 523. Egyptian mummies were shipped to the United States 45. John Gee, “An Egyptian View of Abraham,” in An- for commercial display. Michael Chandler, an Irish im- drew C. Skinner, D. Morgan Davis, and Carl Grif- migrant, purportedly acquired eleven mummies from fin, eds., Bountiful Harvest: Essays in Honor of S. his Italian relative, . By 1833, Chan- Kent Brown (Provo, UT: Maxwell Institute, 2011), dler was moving from one city to the next, displaying 137–56. his mummies in commercial exhibits. Newspaper ads 46. See E. Douglas Clark, review of Michael E. Stone, indicate that his venues included in April Armenian Apocrypha Relating to Abraham (2012), 1833, Baltimore in July/August 1833, and Harrisburg in BYU Studies Quarterly 53:2 (2014): 173-79; in September 1833. Eventually, Mr. Chandler settled in Tvedtnes, Hauglid, and Gee, Traditions about the Stow, Ohio—not far from the Mormon settlement of Early Life of Abraham; Hugh Nibley, Abraham in Kirtland. Here he resumed his traveling exhibit, mak- Egypt, 2nd ed. (Salt Lake City and Provo, UT: De- ing stops in Cleveland and vicinity during the spring of seret Book and Foundation for Ancient Research 1835. As of that date, his collection had dwindled from and Mormon Studies, 2000), 1–73. Some of these ex- eleven to only four mummies, and he openly offered to trabiblical elements were available to Joseph Smith sell them along with the ancient papyri.1 through the books of Jasher and Josephus. Joseph During Chandler’s travels, he was informed of Jo- Smith was aware of these books, but it is unknown seph Smith’s translation work with the Book of Mor- whether he utilized them. mon. When Chandler arrived in Kirtland, he specif- The Church acknowledges the contribution of ically invited Joseph to come and view the collection. scholars to the historical content presented in this arti- After examining the artifacts, Joseph asked if he could cle; their work is used with permission. purchase only the papyri, but Chandler denied that Originally published July 2014. request. The price for the mummies and papyri was a considerable sum of $2,400.2 Nevertheless, a group of *********** members and nonmembers emerged and purchased

9 Book of Abraham the Egyptian antiquities. With papyri in hand, Joseph Smith recorded: “Soon after . . . the Saints at Kirtland purchased the mummies and papyrus, . . . and with W. W. Phelps and Oliver Cowdrey as scribes, I commenced the translation of some of the characters or hieroglyph- ics, and much to our joy found that one of the rolls con- tained the writings of Abraham, another the writings of Joseph of Egypt.”3 Although Joseph Smith may have initially kept the mummies at his residence in Kirtland, by mid-October of 1835, they had been moved to the home of Freder- ick G. Williams. The movement of the mummies to the Williams’ home is substantiated by several statements made by the Prophet: Saturday, October 24: Mr. Goodrich and wife called to see the ancient [Egyptian] records, and also Dr. Fred- erick G. Williams to see the mummies.4 Thursday, October 29: Returned to our writing room, went to Dr. Williams’ after my large journal; made some observations to my scribe concerning the plan of the city, which is to be built up hereafter on this The mummies and papyri were at one time stored ground consecrated for a Stake of Zion. in the upper rooms of the While at the doctor’s, Bishop Edward Partridge as well as several other locations in Kirtland. came in company with President Phelps. I was much rejoiced to see him. We examined the mummies, re- $2,400 needed to purchase the mummies and papyri turned home, and my scribe commenced writing in my from Michael Chandler in July 1835.8 It was probably journal.5 Coe’s intention to exhibit the antiquities at Johnson’s Inn Tuesday, November 17: Exhibited the alphabet of so he could recover some of the $800 he had loaned for the ancient records, to Mr. Holmes, and some others. the purchase of the mummies and papyri. The fact that Went with him to Frederick G. Williams’, to see the the mummies were to be exhibited at an inn, a rest stop mummies.6 for travelers and strangers, clearly prompted the Proph- Apparently, the mummies may have been kept at the et to counsel Coe to manage the mummies and papyri residence of Frederick G. Williams from October 1835 with “prudence and care.”9 Little, if any, information is to mid-February 1836—at which time they were deliv- known about Coe’s venture to exhibit the mummies at ered to , a member of the first high council John Johnson’s Inn. How long the mummies remained of the Church in Kirtland (see D&C 102:3). Regarding in Joseph Coe’s possession remains a mystery. What is this event, Joseph Smith stated: known, however, is that both the mummies and the pa- Elder Coe called to make some arrangements about pyri were moved to the upper floor of the Kirtland Tem- the Egyptian mummies and records. He proposes to ple sometime prior to or following its dedication on 26 hire a room at John Johnson’s Inn, and exhibit them March 1836. This fact is affirmed by a statement in the there from day to day, at certain hours, that some ben- History of the Church on 2 November 1837 as well as in efit may be derived from them. I complied with his re- a journal entry by Wilford Woodruff, who viewed both quest, and only observed that they must be managed the mummies and papyri during a visit to the temple: with prudence and care, especially the manuscripts.7 Thursday, November 2, 1837: The Church in Kirt- Joseph Coe had earlier contributed $800 of the land voted to sanction the appointment of Brother

10 Book of Abraham

Phineas Richards and Reuben Hedlock, by the Presi- wanted, but he must wait his turn—as the brother on dency, to transact business for the Church in procuring the west took the floor and commenced first to speak, means to translate and print the records taken from the he must not be interrupted. A fearful scene ensued—the Catacombs of Egypt, then in the Temple.10 apostate speaker becoming so clamorous that Father Elder Smoot and myself visited each appartment of Smith called for the police to take that man out of the the House accompanied by Elder Parrish & I must con- house, when Parrish, John Boynton, and others, drew fess the scenery is indisscribable. When I entered the their pistols and bowie-knives, and rushed down from threshhold of the house & Passed into the lower room the stand into the congregation; John Boynton saying their was great solemnity if not awe immediately over- he would blow out the brains of the first man who dared whelmed me. I felt indeed as if my footsteps were in to lay hands on him. Many in the congregation, espe- the Temple of the Lord. After walking into the Pulpets cially women and children, were terribly frightened— erected for the Priesthoods & viewing the curtains all some tried to escape from the confusion by jumping out bespeaking that grandure, solemnity & order that noth- of the windows. Amid screams and shrieks, the police- ing short of wisdom from God could invent. We then men, in ejecting the belligerents, knocked down a stove- visited the upper rooms & there viewed four Egyptian pipe, which fell helter-skelter among the people; but, Mumies & also the Book of Abram written by his own although bowie-knives and pistols were wrested from hand & not ownly the hieroglyphicks but also many fig- their owners, and thrown hither and thither to prevent ures that this precious treasure contains are calculated disastrous results, no one was hurt, and after a short, but to make a lasting impression upon the mind which is terrible scene to be enacted in a temple of God, order not to be erased.11 was restored, and the services of the day proceeded as It also appears that as early as December 1835, Jo- usual.13 seph Smith had planned to use a room in the temple as As a result of the apostates’ hatred and opposition to both a repository for the mummies/papyri and a place Joseph and other key leaders of the Church, Joseph was for translation. In his journal on Thursday, 31 Decem- forced to leave Kirtland on the night of 12 January 1838. ber, Joseph observed: “In the after noon I attended at the Following his departure, the apostates sought to seize Chapel to give directions concerning the upper rooms, control of properties belonging to the Prophet or the and more especially the west room which I intend ocu- Church. Regarding these events, said: pying, for a translating room, which will be prepared Their first movement was to sue Joseph for debt, and, this week.”12 with this pretense, seize upon every piece of property The Kirtland Temple would have been an ideal lo- belonging to any of the family. Joseph then had in his cation to translate the ancient texts as well as store the possession four Egyptian mummies, with some ancient mummies and papyri together. However, neither the records that accompanied them. These the mob swore temple nor Kirtland itself would remain places of tran- they would take, and then burn every one of them. Ac- quility and peace. By the summer of 1837, just three cordingly, they obtained an execution upon them for an or four months following the dedication of the Kirt- unjust debt of fifty dollars; but, by various stratagems, land Temple, the seeds of apostasy were sown among we succeeded in keeping them out of their hands.14 a significant number of Church members. The temple One of the strategies referred to by Lucy Smith in- itself was scene to several heated debates between those volved hiding the mummies and papyri in the homes of faithful to Joseph and those who opposed him. Eliza R. Latter-day Saints still living in the Kirtland area. One Snow described one such event: such home was that of William Huntington. Oliver B. Soon after the usual opening services, one of the Huntington, a son of William, recorded the following: brethren on the west stand arose, and just after he This same Fall of 1837 the Kirtland Bank broke and commenced to speak, one on the east interrupted him. with it Kirtland broke and the Devil broke out among Father Smith, presiding, called for order—he told the the members of the Church. Many of the leading Elders apostate brother that he should have all the time he apostatized and turned against the Prophet seeking to

11 Book of Abraham take his life, but God warned him to rise up by night Ohio.17 A wagon was hired to transport the artifacts, and depart for Missouri which he did and as fast as pos- and Father Smith commenced a lengthy stay with the sible all the faithful followed, and those who could not Woolleys that winter of 1837–38. His absence prompt- go but were forced to stay another winter were hunted, ed his wife Lucy Mack to send son William to locate harrassed, robed and mobed by apostates and among him.18 After rejoining the family, they began their slow that number I was one although at the same time my journey to Missouri, arriving at Far West during July house was a hiding place for old father Joseph Smith his 1838. sons Carlos and Samuel and many others. In my house The Missouri Period the mummies and Egyptian Records were hid to keep them from sworn destruction by apostates.15 What became of the mummies and the ancient writ- It appears that while the mummies were in the Hun- ings during the Missouri period becomes somewhat tington home, they were stored for a time under the bed obscured. One pioneer writer omits the entire Missouri of Zina Diantha, a daughter of William Huntington. episode, claiming that the mummies went directly from The following is descriptive of Zina’s bedtime routine the Kirtland area to Nauvoo.19 However, a handful of with the four mummies stored under her bed: others document that the mummies passed through Candle in hand, Zina opened the door of her dark Missouri during 1838. bedroom. In the dim light, she could see the four black Samuel Woolley is perhaps the most forthright Mis- shapes protruding from under the big, hand-carved souri source. He records in his diary that he transported wooden bed. They were sarcophagi, each containing the mummies and papyri from Kirtland (or Rochester, the mummified body of an ancient Egyptian—enough Ohio) to Far West.20 His statement seems plausible, to frighten the sleep out of any teenage youngster. even though no other accounts confirm his claim. Two But Zina was not to be frightened by a few mum- additional facts do raise significant questions about mies, Egyptian or otherwise. She set her candlestick Woolley’s statement. First, the Woolley brothers did not down on the chest of drawers, matter-of-factly dressed officially join the Church until 1840 in Nauvoo. With for bed and went to sleep wondering if the permanent the recognized financial value of these artifacts, would sleepers beneath her had been nobles or kings or just they have been entrusted to newcomers with no for- ordinary folk like herself.16 mal Church commitments? And second, the pattern of With the collapse of the Mormon community at guardianship during this period points consistently to Kirtland, those who remained loyal to this nascent faith Joseph Smith Sr. and Lucy Mack Smith as being over- either left town or went into hiding. This hurried de- seers of the mummies. Joseph’s parents are the last to parture necessitated leaving the mummies and papyri have the artifacts during the Kirtland era, and they are secretly hidden at William Huntington’s home in New the first to be mentioned with them as the Nauvoo peri- Portage, Ohio, which was about twenty miles south of od commences. Why then would they have not retained Kirkland. In the absence of the Prophet Joseph, it ap- them during the Missouri period? pears that his parents were entrusted with the care of On the other hand, perhaps the Woolley claim can the Egyptian artifacts. be reconciled with these loyalty and guardianship is- During this same time, a pair of brothers, Edwin sues. What if Father Smith journeyed to Missouri in and Samuel Woolley, became interested in Mormon- tandem with the Woolley brothers? None of the extant ism. Edwin had heard the missionaries preach and felt pioneer journals make reference to such a joint effort, compelled to meet the Mormon Prophet. Edwin arrived but it does have some circumstantial support. For in- too late at Kirtland, but he did manage to locate Joseph stance, Edwin Woolley did have the means to hire a Smith Sr. at the Huntington home. wagon and transport the mummies from New Portage Edwin convinced Father Smith, according to Ed- to Rochester just after the trouble began—why not then win’s brother Samuel, “to bring the mummies and the from Rochester to Far West? Also, either Joseph Sr. was Record of Abraham” with him to his home in Rochester, quite comfortable with the Woolleys or he liked their

12 Book of Abraham cooking because Lucy Mack had to summon him to re- The winter passed in quietness and the turn home during the winter of 1838. Both of these facts were on their good behavior. Old Daddy Smith and point toward a mutual trust and relationship between his aged wife, Joe Smith’s father and mother, rented the the Smiths and the Woolleys, even though the journals house or part of it, situated on the northeast corner of remain silent on any joint venture. Sixth and Hampshire Streets, and set up a sort of muse- The first account of the mummies in Missouri comes um of curiosities, consisting mainly of several mummies from an anti-Mormon writer, a William Swartzell. He from Egypt. The old lady charged ten cents admittance wrote on 24 May 1838 from Richmond’s landing, “This and acted as exhibitor, explaining who and what each is the place where the Mormons land their goods for object really was. I am now unable to accurately give transportation across the country. I saw there Joseph the substance of these explanations by the old lady, but Smith’s box of mummys.” Two months later, he ob- in substance they amounted to an assertion that one or served that they were gathering logs for a house where more of the mummies was one of the Pharaohs or kings Joseph would translate the “hieroglyphics of the Egyp- of Egypt, and there belonged to him some hieroglyphics tian mummies.”21 Even though he was bent on criticiz- or writings upon papyrus, which she said in some way ing Mormonism, he does record the first sighting of the proved the truth of Mormonism or something tending box of mummies. in that direction. The show did not seem to pay and did The only other mention of the Egyptian artifacts in not run long here.24 Missouri comes from , who visited Far West Note the reference to both the mummies and the hi- sometime during the summer of 1838. He recalls seeing eroglyphics/ papyrus. If the artifacts had been previous- the papyri in ’s store and then, with the help ly separated for security purposes, at least they had been of Vincent Knight, carrying them in boxes to Joseph’s reunited by the time of the Quincy/ Nauvoo period. office. There they found Joseph with a number of the Conclusion brethren. Joseph was delighted to receive the records; and then, as a group, they read from the book of Abra- This analysis reviews, as far as current sources per- ham for the space of two hours.22 This account is espe- mit, the route of the Egyptian artifacts from Kirtland cially significant because of a sympathetic record keeper to Missouri and then to Nauvoo. Of interest to who actually saw the papyri. this study has been the Missouri period. Even though When these previous two references are excluded, the source material is scant, evidence exists that the se- no other mention is made of the artifacts in Missou- nior Smith family was overseeing the artifacts. The fam- ri. On one occasion, the Prophet did preach using the ily appears to have accepted support from the Woolley book of Abraham to explain some of “the mysteries of brothers in the Kirtland/Far West transition. It also the kingdom of God; such as the history of the planets, stands to reason that the mummies and the papyri were Abraham’s writings upon the planetary systems, etc.”23 separated at times during the short-lived Missouri so- This entry verifies that notwithstanding their where- journ. What was anticipated as a time to resume the abouts, the writings of Abraham were not forgotten Abrahamic translations became instead a brief stopover even during the brief Missouri period. with relentless opposition. Even though the Egyptian The notorious “Order of Extermination” on 27 Octo- artifacts made their way to Missouri, it was a discrete ber 1838 sounded the exodus for the Saints once again. journey with a short stay. It would be in Nauvoo where Shortly thereafter, Joseph Jr. relocated his family to the the sun would shine again upon the mummies and their border town of Quincy, Illinois. He remained behind in papyri. Missouri and was imprisoned in the Liberty Jail during Notes the winter of 1838–39. The mummies and papyri were 1. Cleveland Daily Advertiser, 26 March 1835, cited in once again entrusted to Joseph Sr. and Lucy, as attested H. Donl Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abra- by Henry Ashbury, a non-Mormon writer in the Quin- ham: Mummies, Manuscripts, and Mormonism cy area. He described the scene rather derogatorily:

13 Book of Abraham

(Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1995), 6. 19. William I. Appleby Autobiography, Church Ar- 2. Jay M. Todd, “Egyptian Papyri Rediscovered,” Im- chives, as cited in Peterson, The Story of the Book provement Era, January 1968, 16. of Abraham, 140. 3. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus 20. James R. Clark, “Joseph Smith and the Lebolo Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 Egyptian Papyri,” BYU Studies 8, no. 2 (winter vols., 2nd ed. (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1964), 1968): 200. 2:236. Hereafter cited as HC. 21. William Swartzell, Mormonism Exposed: Being a 4. Ibid., 2:291. Journal of a Residence in Missouri (Perkin, Ohio: 5. Ibid., 2:293. William Swartzell, 1840), 9, 25. 6. Ibid., 2:316. 22. Duane O. Call, “Anson Call and His Contributions 7. Ibid., 2:396. toward Latter-day Saint Colonization” (master’s 8. H. Donl Peterson, “The Mormon Mummies and thesis, Brigham Young University, 1956), 32–33. Papryi in Ohio,” Regional Studies in Latter-day 23. HC, 3:27. Saint Church History, ed. Milton V. Backman Jr. 24. Henry Asbury, “Reminiscences of Quincy, Illinois, (Provo, Utah: Department of Church History and 1882,” in Jay Todd, The Saga of the Book of Abra- Doctrine, Brigham Young University, 1990), 128. ham (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1968), 208. 9. HC, 2:396. *********** 10. Ibid., 2:520–21. 11. Dean C. Jessee, “The Kirtland Diary of Wilford What Happened to the Mummies and Papyri Joseph Woodruff,” BYU Studies 12, no. 4 (summer 1972): Smith Purchased That Led to the Book of Abraham 371 (terminal punctuation inserted; original spell- Brigham Young University historian Dr. John Gee, ing and capitalization retained). sheds interesting light on some of the biggest mysteries 12. Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Papers of Joseph Smith associated with the Book of Abraham and its transla- (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1992), 2:124 (ter- tion. minal punctuation inserted; original spelling and Having studied the topic for over 30 years, he shares capitalization retained). intriguing details of Joseph Smith’s purchase of the pa- 13. Eliza R. Snow, “Biography of Lorenzo Snow,” as pyri that the Book of Abraham was translated from quoted in B. H. Roberts, A Comprehensive History as well as the Church’s acquisition of fragments of the of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, same papyri in the late 1960s. 6 vols. (Salt Lake City: , 1930), 1:406. An interesting part of the history of these papyri 14. Lucy Mack Smith, History of Joseph Smith by His and the mummies acquired with them is that “Joseph Mother, Lucy Mack Smith (Salt Lake City: Book- [Smith] gave them to his mom and let her show them craft, 1958), 247. to people for 25 cents,” Dr. Gee shares. He continues, “It 15. Oliver B. Huntington, History of Oliver Boardman was a way of providing her with an income” after Joseph Huntington, type- script, LDS Archives, 13. Smith Sr. passed away. 16. “Prominent Mormon Women,” Deseret News and Shortly after Lucy Mack Smith died, Salt Lake Telegram, Church Section, 30 November sold the mummies and papyri, in part because Dr. Gee 1963, 16. is convinced she was “sick of having dead bodies laying 17. Samuel A. Woolley Autobiography, Church Ar- around the house.” chives, as cited in H. Donl Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham: Mummies, Manuscripts, and Source: http://www.ldsliving.com/Podcast-What- Mormonism (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1995), Happened-to-the-Mummies-and-Papyri-Joseph- 139–40. Smith-Purchased-That-Led-to-the-Book-of-Abra- 18. Smith, History of Joseph Smith by His Mother, ham/s/84174 217–18.

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