REFLECTIONS OF A DEAN: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF PROVIDING IN A RESEARCH INSTITUTION

Paula Allen-Meares, Ph.D., ofMichigan School of Social Work

Many challenges face today's administrators in higher education. The foci of higher education have changed over the years. Monetary issues, politics, legal challenges and decisions, and human nature continue to affect the , both public and private, and thus the way administrators do their jobs. This article examines unique challenges the author faces in her role as Dean, as well as global issues that face higher education administrators on a daily basis.

Several years ago I was asked to multi-disciplinary understanding, and a global contribute a piece to New Directions for focus are all emerging trends that will require Higher Education (Allen-Meares, 1997), administrators to change with the time in order detailing my experiences as a dean at two to meet the challenges presented. research institutions. Reading over the article The administrator's role within higher today, very few aspects of the role have education has taken on an element of a changed. If anything, the role of dean— part creative time management: to whom and what intellectual leader, part administrator, part do we give priority, what has got to give in researcher, part ftindraiser, and part faculty, order to concentrate on the largest issues, and part mentee— has become more who is being shortchanged if we make one complicated, with emphasis added to utilizing decision over another? certain management tools, and to the amount of time one allocates to each aspect ofthe Personal Experiences - Observing role shifting according to demands. Not only Changes Over Time have the pressures on public research Some ofthe challenges I face as Dean institutions changed, monetary issues, are unique to my personal situations. My technological progress, politics, legal administrative experience in the position of decisions, and quite simply human nature have Dean started with a 2-ycar period at the continued to evolve and affect higher school of social work in a large, rural, education in profound ways. Midwestem, research school (University A). Many of these changes have had an Currently, I am the senior-most Dean at a impact on the role of faculty in general, as similar university (University B), although this well as how they perceive their roles. For time we are located in a small urban example, faculty traditions such as academic community. As such, I have seen and freedom and the tenure process are being experienced many more changes than my questioned. Many changes stem from the fellow deans. Several Presidents and Provosts change in focus of higher education—not only have come and gone during my tenure at amongst faculty, but also amongst students, University B. Students' requirements fortheir the public, and administrators themselves. professional and research training have Practical skills, the translation of knowledge. changed, as has the way they leam—for

16 REFLECTIONS - SPRING 2006 Reflections of a Dean instance, the availability and infrastructure of their schools' teaching, service, and research information technology (IT), which is new to programs, it also places them in a situation many 20"' century administrators who started that may put their schools in jeopardy if they their careers in a classroom with a blackboard are not successful or state appropriations are and a piece of chalk. Research training, too, further reduced. has changed with the times, requiring faculty The state's contribution to the University's and students alike to embrace multi- budget has been reduced by over $55M, disciplinary perspectives and mixed leaving t(X) few fimdst o support programs or methodologies. units when there are financial shortfalls in a particular college or school. Recently, One Illustration of Change from University B has begun a conversation among University B Deans regarding the taxation policy University B has also changed in structure undergirding the budget model, as well as and response to the state, national, and global greater transparency regarding the economy and global events. A very evident redistribution of centrally controlled funds to example of change is how the University's units. Through it all I have been fortunate that budget model has been altered since I the University's Central Administration has assumed my current position, from a central historically supported and shown interest in University budget to one adapted frx)m RCM, our School and faculty, but many programs responsibility center management, (which and courses at the university and many schools itself has seen several modifications). Tliis of social work throughout the nation have not budget model reflects both a response to the fared as well. Talk of consolidation, merger, decrease in state appropriations and the budget shortfalls, and program elimination nature of the University's largely decentralized continue to circulate throughout higher and highly autonomous schools and units. education around the nation. Deans and Directors are provided ftindingan d guidance, but in the end arc left to manage Functioning as an African-American their school or unit in an entrepreneurial way. Administrator This presents the need to manage our schools Another unique experience that and units in a manner much closer to private, contributes to my perspective as an decentralized universities or to utilize private administrator is being both a woman and an sector skills and approaches. African-American. In a general context, Governing faculty, too, are important African Americans still face barriers in the participants in the RCM model, as they work workplace. Arecent article in/)/v(?r5e/55«e5 closely with administrators to communicate in Higher Education finds Caroline Tumer, priorities and issues that impact their roles author of Diversifying Faculty: A while keeping an eye on available resources. Guidebook for Search Committees stating We as Deans, alongside members of the that "[E]fforts to diversify the faculty continue governing faculty, ultimately determine the fate to be amongst the least successful elements —the success or failure—of our own school. of campus commitments to diversity..." Balancing intellectual leadership with cost (Kayes & Singley, 2005). According to a containment and fund generating activities is recent article in the Christian Science both ftustrating and stimulating. A/ort/7or (Gardner, 2005), economist Sylvia While this budget model places Deans Ann Hewlett and Cornel West and Directors who are go-getters in a completed research that indicated that among tremendous position to grow and support minorities "sterling credentials can be

REFLECTIONS - SPRING 2006 17 Reflections of a Dean overshadowed by personal and cultural traits. African-American administrator I have found Everything from comrows, ethnic jewelry, that, due to my race, often there are additional animated hand gestures, and certain manicures pressures to be open, understanding, and can leave colleagues thinking, "You're supportive, regardless ofthe propriety ofthe different." request. It seems as if universities and private companies alike are trying to diversify, but Functioning as a Female Administrator are findingthei r own barriers in their efforts Similar to the expectation of greater to hire, retain, and promote African Americans understanding when racial issues may be (and other minorities). If a university is involved, my gender has also been brought successftil in doing so, as Hewlett points out, into difficult situations within tlie school. I have societal norms and stereotypes can get in the been told that, after all, T am the Dean of a way, with the result that fewer people with School of Social Work, whose very principles those sterling credentials are moving into roles call for consideration of minority populations. of leadership, regardless of their qualifications I have also been told that as a consequence and ability. of my gender I am expected Xo take on the I have always been a fervent advocate role of nurturer. Contrast this to male for building inclusive academic communities, administrators who are assumedio be neutral. which include all persons and all groups. In While I strive to create an open and my personal experience, there are people welcoming environment within the School, and within the University who are doing the same, conflict may include racial or gender issues, and who are truly colorblind and see me as this culture is rooted firmly in the ethos of Dean, Professor, and Paula, but there are also social work, rather than in my personal some who see my race as a liability. There identity. are also those both inside and outside ofthe As I mentioned in the New Directions University who findm y position to indicate piece, there are still hurdles for women to the success or failure of affirmative action, overcome when they have eamed a position regardless of my management experience, of leadership. An article in The Economist accomplishments, and my intellectual capacity. (July, 2005) states that women make up This is an especially interesting experience almost half of America's workforce, and yet to have at the University that defended the account for less than 8% of its top managers. most recent affirmative action cases in front The fact is that there are still many more men ofthe United States Supreme Court. 1 have in positions of leadership, both within and had the opportunity, as both an African outside ofthe academic world (although I American and a social work researcher, to should note here that this is not the recent speak out on the results of Grutter v. case in Social Work education. A quick Bollinger, et.al. (see Allen-Meares, 2003), statistical analysis ofthe 2005 Deans and and have also been expected to do so. I have Directors of MSW Programs yielded 82 had to walk a thin line in many matters that male and 105 female administrators, involve race, such as a recent instance of ethnic compared to 66 male and 57 female intimidation, to which the School of Social administrators in 1998). Work's administration was accused of being In the Economist article, Booz Allen too slow to respond. Understandably, it is very Hamilton, a consulting firm that provides much apart of any administrator's job to walk statistics on American executives, reported this fineline-—tha t is, to remain thoughtful and that women comprised 0.7% of departing constmctive in one's actions. However, as an executives in 1998, and 0.7% in 2004. "In

18 REFLECTIONS - SPRING 2006 Reflections of a Dean between, the figure fluctuated. But the firm (Loden, 2003). In contrast, women of color says that one thing is clear: the number is 'very ofren describe the barriers they face in making low and not getting higher. '" The article offers the same joumey through the ranks as the several reasons why this may be true, concrete ceiling—^the obstruction is not only including women's lack of access to informal seemingly impenetrable; women of color can't networks, lack of strong mentorship or role- even see what the next level of leadership or models, and a continuing skepticism about opportunity would bring. women's ability to lead. Although there is a movement afoot that My personal experience has proven this recognizes the importance of mentoring and to be a rather accurate assessment of our nurturing women and minorities in academia, situation. Thirty years after the feminist the relative lack of these populations in movement hit its stride, women must still deal leadership positions, especially those such as with issues of how to balance a home life and President or , means that mentoring a professional career as a professor or at the administrative level often still involves a administrator, and the repercussions ofthe greater number of male-to-female choices they have made. During my career I mentorships or majority-to-minority have been privy to conversations and mentorships. condemnations regarding my choice to be a I have been fortunate in receiving advice frill-time academic and administrator, rather and counsel from several male and several than at home with my family. On the other majority mentois in higher education who have hand, I rarely hear about the fact that I served as Provost, , and President, typically stay connected to the office when and who have shared with me their knowledge visiting family members. I believe that in the and insight into academia, administration, larger picture neither situation truly prevents management, and life. The key to facilitating a talented, skilled, and educated woman from transfer of their insight to other female leaders making choices that benefit both her family or leaders of color, is my own ability to and her institution. Balance is the key. effectively lead and transfer the lessons I have leamed to the next generation. For example, I am fortunate that I have been able to pass on lessons I have leamed by offering guidance and support as a participant in the National Association of Deans and Directors of Schools of Social Work mentoring program for newly appointed deans.

Mentoring the Next Generation of Common Experiences: The Nature of Leaders the University is Shifting Educational The role of mentorship in academia is a Relevance gray area in the life of women administrators, It is not surprising to see that large societal and especially those who are women of color. trends also greatly affect the experiences of Although definitive sources may vary, Marilyn university and college administration. On a Loden, a business consultant, is given credit parallel scale to the factors of race and gender, for coining the phrase glass ceiling as an the mission or vision of an institution itself effective way to describe barriers in the affects one's ability to administer programs. process of women rising through the ranks of There is a shifting paradigm in the leadership in a male-dominated society regarding what matters within its walls.

REFLECTiONS - SPRiNG 2006 19 Refiections of a Dean

Whereas years ago the focus of higher less concrete, such as specialized coursework education was less practical and more for continuing education students, targeted theoretical, today's parents and students are coursework for professionals in need of demanding relevance, especially from great brush-up, or a curriculum in response to public research universities. On every level Americans who are less and less likely to retire ^ local, state, national, and especially global from the same company, or even in the same — those who support the public research field in which they started their first job. universities want to know how their investment of tax dollars pays off for the world Scarcity of Funding Dollars Requires outside of the ivory tower. It is no longer Additional Planning/Different Thinking acceptable to state that our students are Adding more pressure to our response learning liberal arts for the sake of leaming. to this shifr are the ever-changing frmdingan d According to Judy D. Olian, Dean of the finance models. I mentioned before how as Smeal College of Business at Penn State, in the senior-most Dean at University BI have an article in the Chronicle of Higher Education witnessed changes in our specific budget (Mangan, 2003), "We need to show that the model. More generally, all colleges and education our students have received is very universities have felt the effect of the most relevant...They need to know that our recent national recession, the withdrawal or graduates can meet their needs on Monday redirection of state appropriations, and the moming—not 12 months from now." The impact from major national tragedies which state wants an educated workforce, the nation funnel monies to specific causes and away wants MB As with experience, and the world from education. But none has felt the impact wants research that can cure disease, assist more than the public university. While tax in eradicating poverty, or ftirtherou r response revenues are down, state needs are up, and to global tragedies. health care costs are rising,educationa l focus has been placed on K-12 education, and Students of the Future Require a administrators are caught in the middle, Different Experience required to support both the mandatory The university is able to, and does, responsibility to educate students in the best provide every one of these practical possible way, and faculty research that can requirements. But at what cost, and how, as inform and advance the world. In the an administrator does one balance them? In meantime, dorms are in need of upgrading to a Fall, 2005 article for the Social Work facilitate new technology, buildings require Education Reporter (AUen-Meares, 2005), maintenance and upkeep, and employee I pointed out that the basic tripartite mission health care costs are soaring. of the university - teaching, research, and In response, many detractors call for the service - is not likely to change. This is the university to act like a business instead of a foundation upon which we have built our leaming institution that promotes freedom of system of higher education. However, there thought and unparalleled independence to is tension between the need for the generation explore ideas and concepts. Calls for of information and the very real demands of rightsizing and cuts in unpopular programs the public and the marketplace- the have been heard around the nation, placing a opportunity that exits by creating product large burden on administrators, and an even rather than knowledge. Products may include larger burden on students who have to go the tangibles, such as cancer-fighting drugs, without the courses they need to fulfill their transferable technology products, or those

20 REFLECTIONS - SPRING 2006 Reflections of a Dean majors or the fmancial aid they need to a hot topic itself, especially after the tragedies complete their degrees. of September 11, 2001. For instance, The School has had to make many of who speak out against the those private-sector-type cuts in recent years, American govemment or support Muslim limiting building hours, library hours, and militarism in any form have found themselves having fewer janitorial personnel and services subject to angry and fearful administrators and in our building. We also share ourphysical taxpayers (see http://13I.247.89.140/ space with another large program, limiting our page.cftn?link^article&aid^ 113 for a press ability to expand as our faculty and staff release from University of South Florida's increase, and keep research programs and president regarding the termination of Dr. Sami personnel in house (which has the unfortunate Al-Arian). Crucial questions regarding effect of having to spend additional monies to boundaries and rights are surfacing ft^om rent space). However, these types of cuts are recent incidents (see http:// not always negative. Many systems and www.colorado.edu/EthnicStudies/ procedures have been scrutinized and press_releases/ward_churchil!_013105 .html overhauled, consolidated, or done away with. for the first press release in the ongoing Processes have been put in place to ensure situation at University of Colorado, Boulder greater accountability and tracking. Through involving Ward Churchill). it all, the faculty and stafFremain committed An issue closely related to the current to providing the urgent and core academic debates on academic ft^eedomi s the critical services our students require in order to examination ofthe tenure process. Tenure achieve their goals, even if that means provides faculty members an opportunity to tightening the belt elsewhere. increase their rank, as well as providing an often pennanent university home in which to The Changing Faculty complete their work. Challenges to this As noted previously, changes within the process include: a) questioning the wisdom university processes and culture can have a of creating a situation where faculty no longer great effect on faculty members. The debate have to worry about employment, and could about the future of tenure and promotion, therefore potentially let their work suffer or increasingly tight discretionary fiinds,an d a dwindle, b) the structure of how one censures student body with different needs and faculty with tenure, and c) the equity ofthe requirements all combine to create situations tenure process for women and minority faculty for faculty that simply didn't exist for the members, to name just a few. The tenure previous generation of educators. climate is a particularly hot topic, as reflected Academic freedom, as defmed by the in a recent edition ofthe Chronicle of Higher American Association ofUniversity Professors Education (November 4, 2005), which (AAUP, n.d.), allows professors to research, reported that results from a poll ofUniversity teach, and publish on topics which may prove Presidents indicated that 53% believed that controversial. The institution itself typically the current tenure system should be replaced assumes the role of providing a safe haven by a contract system. It is interesting to note for faculty to do so. Similar to the impetus that the majority of those who favored behind the First Amendment, the goal of scrapping tenure had never been classroom academic freedom is to encourage the teachers, do not themselves have tenure, have exploration and freediscussio n of all subjects, been president for at least 10 years, and tend regardless of their political, religious, or to be from private religious institutions (Fogg, socially determined worth, and has itself been 2005).

REFLECTIGNS - SPRING 2006 21 Reflections of a Dear)

One of the most difficult struggles today's set of skills and understanding is an inherent administrators face is the aforementioned challenge. generation gap among their faculty. At this Often issues arise when faculty members, point in time, teaching and scholarly publishing experienced and junior faculty alike, reach, are no longer the only skills necessary. or assume they have reached, a status that Success, merit, and recognition for faculty brings with it privileges beyond those that their members require not only excellence in peers receive. I have been asked for special research and teaching, but also the source and compensation, elevated standing, and special amount of external funding, national/ review processes and considerations because intemational recognition, and an increase in a scholar perceives that he or she has earned the number and quality of products. The fact it. Many times that may be accurate, however, that standards for tenure and promotion vary in order to create the commtinity and culture from one institution to the next (I'm sure we that everyone desires, I must consider what have all heard the question "But is (s)he community norms have been agreed upon, tenurable at University B?), from one as well as the greatest good for the greatest department to another, and are often only number of people with these requests. We vaguely related to a candidate, adds to the are, after all, training the next generation of puzzle for today's new generation of social workers to provide even-handed academics. services to those in need, and to apply fair Additionally, the public expects that assessments and standards in dealing with all faculty will be able to translate research theory populations. to practical application. Providing answers for questions regarding the significance of ones Schools of Social Work: Discipline research or documenting the difference it has Specific Challenges made is crucial. This directly relates back to It is especially difficult to react to these the taxpayer's/supporter's demands that challenges within a school of social work. Our research, teaching, and service have real- faculty, by the very nature of the discipline, world relevance. One notable call for tend to be community-oriented and focused relevance has come from the National on process. As an administrator, I understand Institutes for Health, which have published and appreciate this mindset; it is, in part, what special articles on the translation of research makes our faculty the best at what they do. into policy and practice in several areas of As an administrator, I also appreciate the scholarly research. need to act in a thoughtful, task-oriented Another serious challenge presents itself manner. Whereas research timing and results as administrators respond to the whole faculty, can be fluid, the leadership to whom I report which is, obviously, made of up a wide array work on guidelines and deadlines that are of personalities, desires, temperaments, and sometimes non-negotiable. The need to be work habits. Very thoughtful consideration focused and organized to get tasks completed must be utilized when trying to reach synergy in a timely manner is often met with resistance or consensus among these often very difíerent by those not in this position. groups. Just how to strike the balance between those who entered the academy Creating a Caring Climate While decades ago under a different understanding Emphasizing Education of what constitutes merit, and those who are The fact that we are a school of social recent recruits who bring with them a different work and do not technically offer social woric services adds another dimension to my

22 REFLECTIONS - SPRING 2006 Reflections of a Dean experience. Unlike schools of law, public attention, or resources outside of what we health, or business, some faculty and staff can provide. And although Deans strive to outside ofthe school have formed views that provide the perfect balance that each member schools of social work function as clinics and ofthe school requires, the old adage is tme: it not as academic units on the campus. is simply humanly impossible to be everything Consequently, troubled students are to everyone. occasionally referred to our school for In the effort to be accessible to all, I services for personal problems or academic discovered that I truly missed the day-to-day difficulties. I find that I must delicately tum contact with students. Thus, I have created away those who improperly send those in opportunities and stmctures to reach out and need of assistance our way, while ensuring to stay connected to the student body as a that the University's resources are adequate whole by facilitating Dean-Student fomms, to provide necessary services. meeting with student leadership groups, Related to an earlier discussion regarding mentoring individual students, participating in race and gender, our own faculty and staff dissertation review and oversight, and have indicated that the communal culture of providing the opportunity for students to join social work and social work research should me in ongoing research and publication facilitate an open, cooperafive, collaborafive, endeavors. These activities not only allow me and caring environment. Many have indicated to keep a finger on the pulse ofthe School that they would like to spend more school and enjoy interacting with eager pupils, they time getting to know one another on a give students avenues of access that can personal level, or more time responding to enhance their educational experience. one another's needs, or the opportunity to reach out or be healed by their peers. When Business Weighs Greater than Furthermore, faculty members expect Deans the Pursuit of Knowledge to focus their energies intemally by providing As administrators, what is most often lost intellectual leadership, whereas flindraising in this delicate transferring of attention fi"om requires Deans to focus extemally. The tipping one event to the next is our own ability to point between the two obligations is often pursue what brought us to higher education. I found by trial and error. Facilitating a believe it is important for administrators to collaborative and friendly environment within maintain their intellectual pursuits, their quest the school and facilitating collaborative and for knowledge, and their appetite to keep up friendly relationships outside ofthe school, to date with their profession and the news of are both equally important to a successful the day. It makes us better able to make program. informed decisions, better discuss issues in While I welcome the desire for faculty our fields in context to the world around us, and staff to connect with one another and with and helps us maintain our presence in students, and while I want troubled students academia (and brings the potential for us to to receive the best possible services, there raise our profiles, and, subsequently, that of are often times when my attention and focus our schools). are on budget items, donor relafions, serving I have discussed how the process of on committees and boards both on and off having to decide who gets the next 15 minutes campus, and mentoring students in order to of my time is, some days, a daunting task. keep our school vibrant and alive. These tasks What tends to get put aside as I respond to are often on my mind when 1 hear that people the needs ofthe School is my own research. require a more personal touch, my increased Although I have tried to maintain a publishing

REFLECTIONS - SPRING 2006 23 Reflections of a Dean agenda, I know that often my results would and giving time to one may necessarily meaning be available sooner, my articles much more taking time away from another. plentiful, and my focus greater if only there Finally, I am accountable to myself I have were more than one of me. shared a few ofthe challenges I face by virtue of being an African-American, a woman, and Conclusion a veteran dean. Each adds another layer to So the question remains: At what point the roles I have played, or have been asked and in what time does one balance each need to play in the larger scope of dean. It is this of this excellent group of people, researchers, last accountability that so often gets lost in and programs? This narrative outlines only the shuffle of a dean's balancing act. At the some ofthe important questions and issues end of the day budgets can be balanced, with which I deal with on a daily basis as a faculty needs are discussed and decided, Dean. It is truly a developmental process. students are learning with leaders in the field, There are leaming curves and stumbling and the state has the opportunity to retain blocks, mistakes and missteps, and moments social workers trained to provide service to of "Why?" that come with each trial, each its citizens. But at the end ofthe day if I cannot crisis, or each hurtftil implication. But there say that I have tried my best, exceeded my are those moments when a student stops me own expectations, and acted on behalf of the in the hallway to thank me for something that greater good, it is then I will define myself as seemed insignificant at the time, or I receive a beleaguered. Until such time I am balancing card with a special note indicating that I have those things that need to be balanced, fighting greatly affected someone's life. There are the the good fight, and enjoying the overall emails that are sent to celebrate a faculty experience as it happens. member's research success, publication, or appointment. There are the momings when a References press release detailing the accomplishments • Allen-Meares, P. (2005, Fall). The role of of a student or faculty member is published social work education in the academy. Social and congratulations pour in. What becomes Work Education Reporter. most clear is that each individual moment should be met with its own reaction, response, • Allen-Meares, P. (2003, November 5). and consequent action. LOCAL COMMENT: Don't rely only on When all is said and done, serving as a Head Start. Detroit Free Press. 9-A. Dean in a large, public research institution means being many things to many people. On •Allen-Meares, P. (1997). Serving as dean: a macro level, I am accountable to the people A public university perspective. In M. J. ofthe State in which the University is located, Austin, F. L. Aheam, and R. A. English (Eds.), who require that our School create unique The Professional School Dean: Meeting the leaming opportunities for excellent faculty and Leadership Challenges: New Directions students, that 1 budget my funding for Higher Education, No. 98, (pp. 83-88). appropriately, with care and foresight, and San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. educate the students who attend this university in the best and most responsible way I can. On a micro level, I am accountable to central administration, faculty, students and staff, whose needs are not always in sync. I am also respotisible to both donors and students.

24 REFLECTiONS - SPRING 2006 Reflections of a Dean

• American Association of University • Kayes, P.E., and Singley, Y. (November, Professors (n.d.). J940 Statement of 2005). Diverse Issues in Higher Education. Principles on Academic Freedom and Retrieved November 30,2005 from http:// Tenure with 1970 Interpretive Comments. www.diverseeducation.com/artman/publish/ Retrieved November 16,2005 from http:// article_5084.shtml www.aaup.org/statements/Redbook/ 1940stat.htm • Loden Associates (2003): Diversity Management Consulting. Retrieved • The conundrum of the glass ceiling, (July November 28, 2005 from http:// 21, 2005). The Economist. Retrieved www. loden.com/staff.html. October 31, 2005 from http:// www.economist.com/opinion/ • Mangan, K.S. (2003, April 25). The new displaystory.cfm?story_id^I 97626 M.B.A.: business-school professors shift programs to emphasize relevance and ' Fogg. P- (2005, November 4). Presidents flexibilit)'. Retrieved Nov 16,2005 fromhttp: / favor scrapping tenure. The Chronicle of /www.smeal.psu.edu/news/innews/aprO3/ Higher Education, Volume LIl, Number 11 ^ mbaiitml A31.

• Gardner, M. (2005, October 31 ). Is 'white' Paula AUen-Meares, Ph.D., is Dean and the only color of success? The Christian Norma Radin Collegiate Professor of Social Science Monitor. Retrieved Nov 1, 2005 Work and Professor of Education at the from http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1031/ University of Michigan - School of Social pI3s01-wmgn.html Work. Comments regarding this article can be sent to: [email protected].

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