The Enabling State: Collaborating for Success

www.fco.gov.uk The Enabling State: Contents Collaborating for Success

Report for the FCO into The views expressed in this publication are those Collaboration and Partnership of the individual contributors and should not Summary 4 be read or interpreted as statements of Her Majesty’s Government (HMG) or Foreign and Lucian J. Hudson Commonwealth Office (FCO) policy. Nothing Special Assignment, FCO (July-October 2008) Acknowledgements 9 contained herein should be considered as giving (Report updated at Ministry of Justice, June rise to any legitimate expectation that HMG or 2009, after Whitehall consultation) FCO will take any action or adopt a particular Introduction 12 position. Copyright 2009 by Lucian J. Hudson. All rights reserved. Chapter 1: Understanding collaboration 23 For further inquires, contact: (Appendix Thomas-Killman Conflict Mode Instrument) [email protected]

Designed by: Rod Crowhurst, Chapter 2: Effective collaboration 49 Foreign and Commonwealth Office Part 1 An approach to building collaboration 50 Crowd image supplied by Getty Images Part 2 Steps to take, and model to develop relationships 68 The text in this publication (excluding the Royal Arms or departmental logos) may be reproduced Part 3 Common challenges 92 free of charge in any format or medium providing it is reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. The material must Chapter 3: Collaboration and its impact on organizations 114 be acknowledged as Crown copyright and the (Appendix Collaborative Partnerships Model) title and author of the source document specified. Chapter 4: Social collaboration: how it can work 140 Where we have identified any third party copyright material you will need to obtain permission from the copyright holders Chapter 5: Collaboration and its implementation 175 concerned.

Any enquiries relating to the copyright in this Notes/References/Bibliography 217 document should be addressed to the Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI), Information Policy Team, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 4DU or Appendix: Compendium of Case Studies 235 e-mail: [email protected] Appendix: Survey 257

Available online at: www.fco.gov.uk/pdpublication Appendix: Risk and Regulation 260

Appendix: Naked Generations 267

Appendix: Group Relations 279

3 Summary

This report is both a The big prize is better performance Anger and dissatisfaction with comprehensive account of and better governance: making savings institutions must at some point give through synergies, and involving the way to a more honest relationship what makes for effective people most affected to feel part of the and a shared sense of renewal. If collaboration and partnership decision-making process, owning the governments are to reconnect with between and within changes rather having them imposed. their citizens, they must focus both If regulation is ultimately about how on what their policies are designed organizations, and a systems connect, and become to achieve and how those policies are contribution to the debate self-supporting, this report argues implemented. This means effective about how at a time of that no changes in regulation will engagement with the issues and with pressure on resources, work unless we have also taken others. into account the human side of governments, business and collaboration. Whatever policies are An enabling state collaborates for NGOs can do better for less. in place, the tough challenges that we success. Efficiency, effectiveness and Collaboration is a simple idea, face - climate change, fighting diseases engagement are inextricably linked. such AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria - Working to a common end which no yet it is often much more require institutions and citizens to work one person or organization can achieve difficult in practice. together. alone, collaboration requires advanced leadership and team-working skills and Policy-makers need a framework in a change of attitude. We need to get which independence, interdependence much better at building collaboration and dependence all co-exist, and have a and making partnerships work. The part to play, or we risk tackling only part growing global role of the East only of the problem, and ignoring how the serves to remind many in the West how rest of the system responds, and acts much many Asian cultures are built on on its own. A holistic approach is not the importance of relationships and the just about seeing how a whole system value put on trust and reciprocity. functions, but also about how each of its parts interacts, and generates new Collaboration does not offer magic problems and solutions, and how solutions and is often tough-going. But one system interacts with another. if done for the right reasons and in the Organizations now have to respond right way, it can open up possibilities to that reality rather than work on their and deliver breakthroughs which own. The thinking and case examples traditional means of planning and in this report plug the gap between control cannot produce. the rhetoric of closer collaboration and what it takes to make it real. Collaboration begets collaboration. There is a proverb used in reconciliation efforts in Rwanda: “to go fast, walk alone; to go far, walk together”. In an

4 5 interconnected world, it gives us more 2. Collaboration works. But it can work to tackle them do not exist but partnerships and successfully implement choice in how we tackle apparently so much better if we treat it explicitly because the political will and public strategy. Spelt out are the approaches, intractable challenges because it tries to as a resource in which we invest time engagement are not there to make steps and techniques, particularly the tap more of the ideas, aspirations and and energy and if we deal with the the changes. Markets and hierarchies relationship model and combining trust concerns that are critical to successful complexities of working in have their place but we need also to and task. delivery. In so doing, it builds legitimacy collaboration. Our investment in create and support collaborative and commitment, and generates collaboration should carry a return working on issues that bring Key to success is value-focused options. Whether the initiative begins for all those who contribute to it. sectors, organizations and citizens collaboration, and understanding what at the top or on the front line, It has costs, including opportunity together. Leadership is not enough; value means to different people. collaboration makes it possible to costs, but thinking strategically collaboration of all involved is also When tensions are transformed into weave together different contributions. about collaboration makes better needed. Collaboration helps us to opportunities, what makes collaboration Power comes through effective use of resources in both the short explore issues of power and explore difficult is made easier and therefore interaction rather than from who and long term. Collaboration allows differing agendas and intended more possible. This involves being firm operates which lever. The secret of us to handle complex, fast-changing outcomes. about some things (such as ends) yet effective leadership is to use one’s and emergent situations in which flexible about others (such as means). strengths while not crowding out the we can build intentions with limited Report structure strengths of other people and to create knowledge, respond to unintended Leaders have a crucial responsibility the conditions in which responsibility consequences and implement Chapter 1: to develop meaningful conversations. and credit are shared. learning as it happens. Understanding collaboration The hallmark of an “appreciative conversation” is that people listen Key Conclusions 3. Collaboration changes the game. Defines what collaboration is and the without judgment, not seeking It can produce possibilities that part it plays for governments, business consensus or compromise but sharing 1. Collaboration is both prevalent and cannot be delivered by conflict and and NGOs. the sole purpose of continuing the pervasive. It is becoming increasingly negotiation. But we need to exploit conversation in order to sustain important as organizations work with what is changing and dynamic in Successful collaboration integrates relationships of mutual respect. others to build together what they situations rather than impose our common purpose, participation, cannot achieve alone. The quality of own assumptions if we are to tap resources, teamwork and group Chapter 3: collaboration and partnerships varies the potential of others’ contributions. dynamics. It works with difference Collaboration and its impact on greatly, whether in the private, public Collaboration can be with a narrow (it is something less than complete organizations or non-profit sector. We are missing group or a wider network or sets of integration or unification) and opportunities all the time. We networks. It can be scaled to fit the commonality (there is some shared Analyses what collaboration means use collaboration as part of nature of the challenge that needs goal which is the focus of for decision-making, group dynamics implementation when we could to be tackled. collaboration). and organizational development. also use it more strategically and With QinetiQ and others, develops involve others in the very definition 4. Collaboration changes how people Chapter 2: a collaborative partnership model to of the problem we seek to solve. and societies develop. Most social Effective collaboration support organizations through the cycle We use the term “partnership” as or organizational problems do not of steady state, crisis, and recovery. exhortation rather than working lend themselves easily to solutions, Sets out what it takes to build effective though what precisely effective not because the technical means collaboration, establish collaborative An organization that is fit-for-purpose partnership means. should not have to reorganise itself

6 7 Acknowledgements

when it is hit by a crisis. Today’s adjuncts to governments. Corporate This report for the FCO draws on my experience in media, BBC and ITV; a short organizations are expected to have social responsibility is a means for spell in the City and with a dotcom; and in four Whitehall departments including enough agility and resilience to respond companies to connect better with their the Foreign Office. It is also inspired by experience of leading a media-industry to shocks. The extent to which an stakeholders and customers as well as charity, The Rory Peck Trust, and serving as Chairman of the Tavistock Institute organization collaborates with others their own employees. NGOs can play a of Human Relations. My work with diplomats and their teams included visits over depends partly on whether the crucial role in delivering on social goals, more than two years to 25 posts worldwide. I spent time with Shell International, environment in which it operates is particularly in development — but they Lloyds TSB, QinetiQ, European Commission, NATO, Geneva-based international steady or turbulent. need to build capability for the challeng- organizations particularly the Global Fund to Fight AID, Tuberculosis and Malaria, es that lie ahead. NGOs are an essential and Futerra Sustainability Communications. I visited Mexico and four countries in Collaboration gives organizations an social investment. the New Europe — Poland, Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria — to explore states advantage in dealing with emerging that are wrestling with the growth of civil society, and tested my approach to or actual crises over organizations that Chapter 5: collaborative strategy at the annual reunions of Polish and Romanian diplomats. do not collaborate. It can be seen as a Collaboration and its I worked with a FCO outreach programme that included discussions with Muslim temporary organization and transitional implementation communities and their representatives in Manchester. space in which to foster innovation and learning, essential for long-term sur- Promotes ways to improve our use I discussed these issues with other communication directors at a cross-sector vival. of collaboration and develop round-table of the International Public Relations Association; with health collaborative behaviour – particularly professionals at the international symposium on influenza epidemic preparedness, Chapter 4: to bring on high-performing teams and and security experts at George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies. Social collaboration: how it can to engage better with the citizen. The Simon Lewis, then at Vodafone, gave me a very useful business perspective on work final chapter demonstrates the link the scope and limits of stakeholder engagement. As a visiting researcher at the between increasing uncertainty about British Library, I had first-rate support: access to the management literature on Sets out what makes for effective social solutions to problems and the increasing organizations as well as literature from related disciplines. I explored topics with collaboration, showing how govern- requirement for collaborative resolution. leading academics: Peter Allen (complexity science), Chris Huxham (collaboration), ments, business, NGOs and wider civil Technologically, we have never been so Alan Murray (corporate social responsibility), Keith Grint (leadership), Nicholas Cull society can together make a difference. able to connect. What holds us back is (public diplomacy) and Philip Giddings (international relations). More than 120 not the technology but the culture and organizations, including 20 governments, helped me to think through what is Governments can put value as behaviour that go with collaboration. meant by collaboration and how it works. More than 250 colleagues, external and much on being architects and builders The final chapter shows us how to think internal, have been involved in reflecting on the practice, testing suggestions for (shaping the conditions in which more analytically about developing improving how collaboration is used and how partnerships are sustained. Colleagues collaboration happens and delivering collaborative relationships and to from 14 Whitehall departments contributed ideas, particularly at the Office for their part in it) as on being leaders evaluate the impact of their decisions. Criminal Justice Reform, Ministry of Justice, Home Office, DFID, Communities and (taking the primary responsibility for It provides strong current examples of Local Government, Business, Innovation and Skills, Department of Health and the securing results). Governments can collaborative leadership across sectors. Treasury. I am grateful for the many contributions from the FCO’s Chevening alumni, embrace their role as interested enablers one of the best networks that a researcher can tap. All have collaborated in the – interested in achieving an outcome, Organizations can help empower. But production of this report, though the line of argument and any views expressed yet open to what it takes to achieve what makes the difference is individual are my own. that result. They need to treat others initiative and enterprise, and creating increasingly as equals rather than the conditions for mutual respect and trust.

8 9 I received the invaluable support of a core virtual team: Mannie Sher, Lorraine Dodd, I drew much inspiration for this report from visits to posts, and onversations with Dave Marsay and other colleagues at QinetiQ, Alex Allan, Cabinet Office, Roger ambassadors and their teams, particularly Giles Paxman (Mexico City), Dominic Miles, Tony Byrne, Michael Schluter and John Ashcroft of the Relationships Asquith (Cairo), John Hawkins (then in Dubai), Michael Arthur (Berlin), Richard Stagg Foundation, Professor Sue Richards, National School of Government, Su Maddock, (Delhi), Peter Westmacott (Paris), Nick Baird (Ankara), Robin Barnett (Bucharest), Director, Whitehall Innovation Hub, Mils Hills and Jas Marrha of Analytic Red, Helena Ric Todd (Warsaw) and Greg Dorey (Budapest). Before she started as Ambassador Memory, Kashmir Birk, Professor Peter Allen and Jean Boulton at Cranfield School to Moscow, Anne Pringle provided a valuable perspective. Sir John Sawers, Simon of Management, George Eykyn, Andrew Campbell, Danny Rich, David Ferrers, Fraser, Sue Owen, John Ashton, Keith Luck and Martin Donnelly also helped shape Christopher Lomas, Steve Wells, Mikes Jones, Jeff Miles, Lawrie Siteman, David my initial thinking. A conference last year with American Heads of Mission was Rowling, Bev Ashton, Scott Gronmark, May Seitanidi, and Rod Crowhurst from particularly rich in insight. I took part in four highly stimulating conferences hosted FCO Communication Directorate. by Wilton Park which provided an excellent platform to explore ideas with other specialists. Deserving special mention are Sir Peter Ricketts and his private office, Professor Gillian Stamp, Alan Anstead, Joshua Rozenberg, Julian Norris, Sally Halper, British The British Academy of Management and British Library, funded by the ESRC, gave Library, and my wife, Margaret Prythergch, Cabinet Office. I tested approaches me a platform to use my work to develop policy on corporate social responsibility; with 30 high-profile leaders in collaboration. They were our ambassadors in Kabul, and Cranfield School of Management and LSE, also supported by ESRC, allowed me Baghdad, Geneva and Dar es Salaam, Sir Sherard Cowper-Coles, Christopher to bring out the connections between collaboration and the expanding area of Prentice, Peter Gooderham, and Philip Parham; General Sir Rupert Smith; General complexity science. Tim Cross; Bill Yates, International Alert; Sir Michael Lyons, Chairman, BBC Trust; Lord Triesman, Chairman, The Football Association; Sir David Omand, a former Appendices include references and bibliography, case studies and examples drawn top civil servant whom I advised when he was Chair of the Permanent Secretaries’ from FCO and other organizations, and a survey of experience of collaboration and Risk Group; James Thompson, US State Department; Sir Robert Worcester; John partnership in different countries conducted with the invaluable assistance of Cridland, Deputy Director-General, Confederation of British Industry; Mark Booz & Co. Schofield, Partner, Pricewaterhouse Coopers; Mary Jo Jacobi; Lord Michael Hastings; Professor Brian Collins, Chief Scientific Adviser, Department for Transport, BIS and DECC; David Behan, Director-General for Social Care, Department of Health; Dr. Bobby John, Global Health Associates; Christoph Benn, Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; Matthias Stiefel, a leading advocate for international peace building; Janis Kong, former Chairman of Heathrow Airport; Baroness Rabbi Julia Neuberger who advises the Prime Minister on the Third Sector; Stephen Winningham, Managing Director, Financial Institutions, Lloyds TSB; Fiona Hammond, a leading contracts lawyer; Jean-Francois Bureau, NATO’s top official for public diplomacy; Solitaire Townsend, Chief Executive, Futerra Sustainability Communications; Olga Edridge, former Director, Joint Ventures, BBC Worldwide; Alex Plant, Chief Executive, Cambridgeshire Horizons; and Stanley Fink, known as the “godfather” of UK hedge funds and a leader in the trading market for companies focused on green technologies.

10 11 Introduction

A character called Eric, A time for collaboration a postman, is having a bad Collaboration is an idea right for its time. This report shows how. It brings together time in his life. At a moment current thinking and practice on what makes for effective collaboration and of despair, he wishes that partnerships, especially between governments, business and civil society. I wrote he could call on his football it when on special assignment for FCO between July and October 2008 and have recently refreshed it after working with 14 Whitehall departments and other hero, Eric Cantona, for advice. interested organizations. Magically,Cantona appears and they become friends. Eric asks It draws on the experience of more than 120 organizations and 250 contacts, Cantona which goal was his quoting from a range of sources across the world. It is a living document, aimed at helping people to think through for themselves what makes for effective favourite when he played for collaboration. Manchester United. Cantona replies, “It was not a goal, but The benefits of collaboration a pass.” The postman thinks of Collaboration brings benefits when we invest the time and thought to make it work. the unconventional pass to I show that this investment can be made worthwhile by providing methods and Denis Irwin, who scored the techniques to achieve success in collaboration. The benefits are significant. goal. But he asks, “What if he Collaborative endeavours had missed?” Cantona briefly • exploit synergy pauses, and says, “You have to • reduce duplication trust your team mates - always. • produce interaction.

If not, we are lost”. This generates results that would not have been achieved if people had worked on their own. One big barrier that holds people back from fully exploiting “Looking for Eric” (film on current release) opportunities to collaborate is the investment of time, energy and resources often required to make collaboration work. This report shows how we can be more resourceful in using collaboration and partnerships.

Creating a culture of collaboration is the main focus of Local Government Yorkshire and Humber. The Regional Improvement and Efficiency Partnership supports self- directing networks as its fundamental approach to driving improvement across boundaries. One such network is a self-initiated network of Drainage Engineers and others who are concerned with innovative responses to flooding and water management. The scale and nature of the floods in 2007 required a completely different response and so a Learning Alliance has been formed which will enable experience to be shared and will inform policy across the region.

12 13 The personal networks of the Drainage Engineers include Rotterdam in the If we accept the limits to making reliable predictions, collaboration has to pay Netherlands and provide new sources of innovation and practice. The creativity attention not only to the strategy and planning stage but also to reviewing and passion of those involved is driving the development of new approaches and implementation. While a project is still progress, we should check what is responses to the Pitt Review. Their experience and understanding is informing policy working better than we thought as well as focus on what is less successful. There and strategy directly. is less separation than we assume between planning and implementation, where implementation itself may illuminate other options or produce unintended Carole Hassan, Chief Executive, Local Government Yorkshire and Humber, says, consequences of actions which had not been considered. “Working on real issues that impact on people’s lives brings an energy to the work and makes the policy and development process dynamic and based on real Complexity thinking stresses the need for collaborative evaluation – where outcomes experience. Connecting the political directly to those delivering and engaging may be complex and matters of opinion as well as fact. It focuses on learning as them together in developing policy and working on delivery issues creates a opposed to planning, experimenting as opposed to optimising and on a portfolio different policy process, more immediate and connecting of the whole system. approach rather than too great an emphasis on efficiency. Engaged leaders from across the region are creating a culture of collaboration based on trust and working on issues.” Such collaborative approaches will also need a live focus on issues of power and values and intentions. Adam Smith, when expounding the notion of “the invisible I draw on empirical research which indicates that the more teams are connected and hand of the market”, warns us that unequal or unexpressed power issues can the more they generate together, the more they achieve higher performance. distort the outcomes we desire. We must be alert to what our collaboration is for. Complexity thinking emphasises that what is there will play itself out. We are very good at spotting competition but less good at understanding the Collaboration is influenced as much by what is not expressed as well as what is; underlying collaboration that makes competition work. When a taxi driver exploits and choosing to disconnect or control will still play its part in the process, whether an opportunity to get past another driver in heavy traffic, such behaviour at one we intend it or not. The work of the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations is critical level is competitive if not aggressive. But, to avoid an accident, that taxi driver has to better understanding group dynamics and what is hidden, implicit and explicit in to make a calculation about how the traffic normally flows and to assume that other group behaviour. Without such awareness we cannot tap the full potential of drivers behave consistently. organizations, working on their own or with others. Working with Peter Allen and Jean Boulton at the Cranfield School of Management, and Mannie Sher at the Why collaborate? Tavistock Institute, I have developed a cross-disciplinary collaboration to use new tools of policy analysis. Complexity science emphasises that the world is connected, whether or not one chooses to make something of the connection. We can either choose to enhance Collaboration and diversity that connection or to work against it. This does not imply seeking consensus, trying to link everything to everything. It suggests working with the patterns and Complexity thinking, in line with Darwin’s work on evolution, puts value on the relationships as they emerge whilst keeping open the propensity to re-form and critical importance of diversity — a necessary ingredient for adaptability and explore new links where there are none. learning. To be effective, collaboration needs to support difference and not seek harmony at the expense of critical tension. It also needs to value difference of skill Complexity science also emphasises that the future is often unknowable, hard to and perspective. predict, subject sometimes to fast and radical change. Essentially complex and uncontrollable, collaborative approaches can often help to share knowledge, to One’s own actions can increase or decrease the likelihood that others will behave tease out the best judgments in the face of incomplete information and to weave cooperatively. Critically, they depend on individual choices that are informed by how intentions in a fashion that is engaged emotionally as well as cognitively. others are able and willing to cooperate. Whether or not one assumes self-interest

14 15 or altruism in others, collaborative behaviour over time makes it more possible to We tend to concentrate on describing objects (trains, cars) rather than interactions depend on others to achieve one’s one objectives. The Relationships Foundation (journeys, congestion, flooding). Traditional policy development is based on the provides a model for assessing and developing effective relationships notion that the past is a good predictor of the future, that outputs can be specified from an appropriate model containing clear and measurable data. This Newtonian Dr Bobby John, a leader in the global health sector, has used collaborative strategy view of the world is helpful in situations where the context is stable, where one to build coalitions to tackle malaria. He compares two types of partnership, “One policy is little affected by others, where little is likely to emerge that is unexpected is like joining two planks of wood: fitting two inanimate objects and ensuring they and surprising. stick together. The other, more creative and fruitful, is like watching a team sky- diving: you can’t predetermine the ultimate shape in a turbulent or dynamic setting However, as the world becomes more complex, interconnected, fast-changing and and have to count on how individuals act on their own initiative to work together.” uncertain, the Newtonian, mechanical worldview is misleading and runs the risk of making policy decisions which are not only quantitatively inaccurate but miss whole Collaboration makes more of others’ strengths and makes allowances for their substantive qualities and characteristics. Complexity science positions Newtonian weaknesses, striking the right balance between telling people what to do and thinking as a special case and brings to the fore the emergent, interconnected and empowering them to use their own initiative. It relies on treating others as equals unexpected developments in the context which policy makers need to consider. and builds more honest and supportive relationships that can only increase one’s own performance. Collaboration by itself cannot shift the balance of power but Dealing with the downturn, and preparing for an upturn it can mitigate its excesses and create opportunities for changing the balance of power. Collaboration takes the vague term “engagement” and gives it teeth: what The report is a mix of concept, practice and experience. It supports government, do we want to achieve together as a result of our engagement? business and civil society in achieving their objectives by creating the conditions in which we can trust one another more to achieve our collective goals. Its real value Effective collaboration requires both an engagement with the issues and an will be in how it is applied to specific challenges during the economic downturn and engagement with others. This is based on understanding the other’s needs, how it helps us to make the most of the upturn. interests and values, whether or not there is agreement. When the future is particularly uncertain, collaboration builds endeavours that are agile and resilient When that upturn happens, we will find that, in many cases, “recovery” is not the because they encourage people to shape their challenging environment together. right word. We will not want to go back to where we were but will need to look I develop a model that supports organizations through looming and actual crisis, afresh at what we have to do. This could mean closer alignment of perspectives and putting them in a better position to survive a crisis provided they invest in learning interests, leading to common purpose. and use it as an engine for change. The state becomes more, rather than less, important because it is more of a This report is aimed mainly at organizations but one of its underlying messages is strategic enabler, as well as a provider. But governments have to trust business and better engagement with citizens on their own terms, particularly by governments. civil society more because they bring expertise, credibility and resources that Human, political and social rights are not only important in their own right but governments do not have. essential for achieving open, transparent, accountable and responsive government. Governments cannot achieve social change on their own. Lifestyles and behaviours Business, particularly banking and finance, needs a broader concept of the bottom have to change, not just by enforcing compliance but giving people a stake in living line, one that not only takes into account profit but impacts on communities and their lives differently. environment (the sustainable development agenda) and makes best use of resources long-term (the resource productivity agenda, which encourages better choices from By making the links explicit between engagement, collaboration and complexity start to completion of product and service provision). But government needs to work science, this report gives governments an opportunity to do policy differently. effectively with business of every size and understand the differences.

16 17 Governments and business are ready to work with NGOs even more; but, in return, Collaboration: higher performance based on difference NGOs need to be even more business-focused and to demonstrate that they can give the best return on investment in areas where they better understand public Collaboration is not about cosy consensus or messy compromise. It is about needs. The best NGOs already do this. The question is whether the Third Sector can achieving the highest common denominator and it can be uncomfortable. If use the economic downturn to show that non-profit organizations can collaborate collaborations are to produce real value which would not be possible without and make better use of resources to deliver public policy outcomes. different parties working together, what’s needed is not only accepting but also appreciating that working with difference is critical for success. Difference can be Collaboration is more than advanced negotiation tolerated, accepted, appreciated and even celebrated. Competition of ideas is healthy, provided that competition is not a proxy for building or defending egos. My model is based on a spectrum ranging from conflict at one end to collaboration Effective collaboration means not only accepting that individuals and even at the other, with negotiation in between. Conflict essentially assumes that for one organizations have egos but also going beyond egos and focusing on the party to win another has to lose. Negotiation varies from combative (win-lose) to benefits that collaboration brings. collaborative (win-win) but essentially assumes that any interaction is about managing trade-offs — even if, with advanced negotiation technique, deals are High performance rises above compromise. It is not just the product of making the reached that preserve relationships. Collaboration takes advanced negotiation best choices but, crucially, avoiding the need to make unnecessary choices in the technique a step further and challenges the ground rules on which conflict and first place. The task is not to decide between competing objectives but to bring negotiation are based. Collaboration is about facing challenges with a generosity them together into effective performance on many fronts at the same time. For of spirit that invests in the potential of others. It adopts the maxim “If we could instance, sports teams stand a greater chance of winning the championship if work together, then we would stand to benefit more than if we were to compete players focus as much on improving their skills as they do on winning today’s game. or work apart.” One of my main arguments is that effective collaboration is based not on dissolving Collaboration is about assertion and cooperation. One without the other weakens differences but on making them work. A culture of transparency and candour is the any collaborative endeavour. Conflict when dealt with constructively is healthy and grit in the oyster that produces the pearl. Performance-driven organizations need productive. both focus and inclusiveness. I challenge those who exclusively promote method and planning at the expense of spontaneity and those who believe that it is enough There are times when collaboration is wrong or inappropriate: sometimes we have to be present in the moment and go with the flow. Neither, on its own, achieves to win a conflict outright, avoid it altogether or settle for a compromise. But let us long-term collaboration. Creativity has to be reconciled with collective discipline. not rush to such judgments. In collaboration, roles and boundaries are themselves potentially re-negotiated — which can produce insecurity and anxiety that also need to be worked through. Collaboration and negotiation are distinct. Collaboration involves not just identifying and securing interests but creating a transitional space for different Charting a course for collaborative entrepreneurs people to interact and generate something innovative — and even sometimes to change the rules of the game. Roles and boundaries are themselves potentially We can follow the entrepreneur’s example and be creative and resourceful in re-negotiated. Organizations and institutions lose sight why they were created in spotting and transforming opportunities. What entrepreneurs also do is question the the first place. We should not make the same mistake with collaborations and ground-rules. Inspired by work done by the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, partnerships: their temporary nature is an advantage. Participants in a collaborative I would urge people to treat organizational boundaries not as walls but as a space endeavour must both represent their sponsoring organizations and make the to re-negotiate. My work is a manifesto for “collaborative entrepreneurs”, whether collaborative endeavour work in its own right. This is the big prize that exists at they operate in the private, public or non-profit sectors or in the spaces between. every level of an organization or society and we need to recognise its power and Michael Schluter of the Relationships Foundation, the think tank for a better encourage people to use it.

18 19 connected society, has done much to understand relationships as a way of Collaboration and innovation supporting democracy and the market economy. My work is aimed at developing a cadre of people at all levels of an organization who create opportunities to make Collaboration provides the transitional space for innovation to flourish. It requires collaboration work, who invest the time and energy to work through the inevitable of leaders and teams that they take an imaginative leap, taking into account other tensions that arise between people with different personal styles, interests and perspectives and allowing something new or different to emerge that could not be agendas, and yet who keep focused, inclusive and tenacious at extracting value achieved if they worked alone. from our collaborative endeavours. It is a test of interdependence and independence; and the challenge of innovation Leaders and organizations benefit from making more explicit the scope and limits of particularly draws this out. Innovation is about bringing ideas to market. However collaboration and from becoming even more strategic about using collaboration and interesting the idea, the market has to be receptive. A good metaphor is a heart building partnerships. Involving others should be thought about much earlier in any transplant. The operation cannot be judged successful until one is sure that the decision-making process. Even in a crisis, one should make time to consider other body’s immune system has accepted the new heart. The even bigger challenge perspectives. If problems are defined from a variety of perspectives, the likelihood is is effectively a collaborative one, bringing “old” and “new” together and that more options will be generated and better solutions found. understanding that changes have to be absorbed by the host body. The new and the old have to work together. The best way to plan for uncertainty is to increase one’s options. Collaboration creates additional possibilities whether the problem is “tame” (that is, open to a Collaboration delivers innovation by understanding what brings about successful solution) or “wicked” (not easily lending itself to a solution). But collaborations will integration. We need to achieve innovation not only in services but in systems and not generate possibilities unless the group can function as a group rather than as a organizations. Collaboration provides the surest means to make a radical vehicle for the blind implementation of one set of interests. transformation that carries thebroadest support and will be properly owned and implemented. Laws, regulations, codes of practice, structures, systems and processes Much is said about the value of leadership but not much is done to develop do not themselves deliver the judgment and initiative that we need to unleash to collaborative leadership. We do not want strong leaders whose strengths crowd make changes work. My collaborative strategy gives everybody a framework in out other people’s strengths but strong, collaborative leaders who bring out the which to rise to a common challenge and play a unique role. There is a certain leadership potential of others. If we want people at every level to take responsibility, perspective that one can only get from being at a distance, and seeing why there is we need to encourage them to use their judgment and discretion to make the best such a gap. In making collaboration work, one of the most difficult personal decisions. If power is to be effectively devolved, authority and responsibility must challenges is to try to step outside the system as a way of stepping back into it. We follow it. never really step out, and it is being so close and not far enough that is particularly challenging. The challenges are not just intellectual ones, but emotional and inter- Su Maddock, Director, The Whitehall Innovation Hub, says that collaboration is relational ones. a valuable but “under the radar” skill in government. The network form or organization has become accepted in the post-production age as an alternative to Peter Senge and others last year published a far-reaching book,”The Necessary the closed, highly-structured organizations. Maddock highlights that networking Revolution: How Individuals and Organizations are Working Together to Create a and collaboration have slightly different reference points, “Collaboration is between Sustainable World.” It explores what it sees as already emerging: a world in which people, whereas a network is an organizational form”. Networks tend to have a corporations are forming partnerships with environmental and social justice business focus, and emphasise the “win-win” relationship between agreed goals, organizations to ensure better stewardship of the earth and better livelihoods in not necessarily challenging existing practice or imply the need for systemic change. the developing world.

20 21 Chapter 1: Understanding collaboration Senge says, “It is almost tautological that fundamental innovation rarely comes In this chapter: from the mainstream. Dominant incumbents in industries rarely pioneer radical new technologies or products. New social movements do not come from those in the centres of power. The same will hold true for much of the leadership required • What is collaboration? to create a regenerative society Look to the periphery, to people and places where commitment to the status quo is low and where hearts and minds are most open • What forms can it take? to the new.” (p364).

His book was written just before the credit-crunch and the worsening economic • The nature of recession, but is now even more relevant. The aim of my report is make the kind of collaboration arguments that Senge deploys urgent and important to the mainstream, so that the mainstream can lift its sights to want to innovate, and take certain risks so that it not only addresses the short-term, but builds for the long-term. • Drivers for collaboration

• Collaboration with governments, business and NGOs

• Chapter summary

22 23 What is collaboration? collaborate with my exact replica. There themselves — particularly in an collaboration between executives has to be a difference between us on international context. of relevant agencies to create the Collaboration involves individuals and which we decide to focus and overcome organisational context for operational organizations working together rather — or at least work through.” Not surprisingly, collaboration can collaboration in the delivery of services. than going it alone. Although one can involve many complex, inter-acting This has to be complemened by associate collaboration with big set- One theme running through this report collaborative endeavours. Meades and technical collaboration, in this case piece public endeavours that draw on is that working with difference is Schluter explore this with emerging within public health networks where the combined strengths of a range of essential to making collaboration work. public health networks where different technical expertise distributed amongst organizations, the phenomenon of interactions at strategic, executive, a range of professions and organisations collaboration is just as likely to be small Meades and Schluter (2005) say that operational and technical levels can be can be brought together for the benefit or unnoticed — often deliberately so. collaboration implies both difference discerned. Collaboration is required to of a number of organisations. An It can involve multiple parties working (it is something less than complete ensure strategic coherence of goals and individual may be involved in on multiple issues at multiple levels — integration or unification) and priorities. Such coherence needs relationships at more than one level. but it can just as easily be focused on a commonality (there is some shared single issue with just two players. goal or activity which is the focus of Figure 1.1: A taxonomy of collaboration collaboration). “Collaboration is also (Source: Meades & Schluter, The Case of Inter-Professional Collaboration in Health and Social Care, 2005) Aspects of The simplest definitions are often the about relationships – working together best. Since agreement on meaning is and not just alongside. It implies more Aspects of Examples of their expression itself collaborative, I asked 50 than activities which overlap or interact collaboration contributors what they meant by “ in some way and would normally collaboration”, “partnership”, and include some conscious interaction Goal Functional or transformational “collaborative partnership”. The most between the parties to achieve a uncontested definition was the shortest: common goal. However, an individual’s collaboration is two or more parties actions may be interpreted by others Level Strategic, Executive, Operational, Technical working together. as part of a broader collaborative endeavour whether or not the Process Co-operation, Co-ordination, Exchange, Sharing Beyond this definition, collaboration individual sees his or her contribution becomes more contentious. It is not in this light.” (Meades and Schluter, necessarily about shared values, shared 2005, pp 16-20). Structure Networks, Teams, Pathways, Partnerships, Area based initiatives, Merged goals or even the same interests. There organisations is something in common, but that Meades and Schluter distinguish the Power and Participation, Empowerment, Co-option and control, Infiltration and “something” is not the same across all functional and transformative purposes Influence subversion collaborations. Collaboration includes of collaboration, showing that thinking and planning as well as action. collaboration is a rational strategy to Proximity In time and/or space And, invariably, collaboration is not just achieve certain goals. The process about working together but working of collaboration may change the Duration Temporary task focused or longer term strategy through a problem or challenge. One participants, empowering individuals management consultant with a and communities and strengthening civil background in psychology said: “I can’t society. These development goals may Complexity Bi-polar or multi-polar be an important policy objective in

24 25 Collaboration, partnership: words In countries that retain deep memories Do we need to use the term that help, words that hinder of collaboration with totalitarian collaboration at all? Two recent Any breach of the agreement would regimes, the term is best avoided examples of working with the media have denied the media the story The terms collaboration, partnership, unless carefully qualified. When I met show the phenomenon of collaboration they had wanted because the Prince cooperation, alliance and coalition can government and civil society colleagues at work — though the term was not would not have been able to carry all be used to describe the phenomenon in France and Poland, we acknowledged widely used. out his duties if his deployment had we are discussing. It involves different the negative historical connotations that been made public at the time. The parties coming together to use their “collaboration” carried. Although in story did leak, but only after four combined strengths to secure their own some other parts of the world it is still At the recent WTO negotiations, months. During that period, as interests; or the interests of somebody a derogatory term (“collaborating with some governments informally many as 4000 journalists were party or something else; or both. The terms the enemy”), it now generally has a worked with the media to share to the private understanding. can either be a barrier to understanding positive meaning. information about progress and or a lever to ensure joint working. setbacks, policies and tactics. Were Bob Satchwell of the Society of Some of my respondents question the governments and media partners? Editors, an organization that Sir Bob Reid, Chairman of ICE Europe, wisdom of labelling their activities in Both would rightly reject that represents 450 regional and local distinguishes between collaboration this way because of the baggage description. Were they newspapers, told BBC Radio 4 that and co-operation. “In my experience, associated with the term. But nobody collaborating? Up to a point; but the media had misgivings and the co-operation leaves the owner of the had any difficulty with the concept of what they did together was enough planning took time, “But at the end initiative with leadership. Progress working together and co-operating to to make the collaboration we had superb access. The public depends on how easy it is to get people achieve results. worthwhile. It was aimed at saw the Prince in a way they hadn’t to help — and that is not always easy,” exchanging information, which seen before.” Jon Williams, editor he says. Looking back at the World Summit each could use for its own ends: of BBC World News, adds: “For on Sustainable Development in 2002, the media to improve their reporting media organizations to accept the “Collaboration starts from the point itself a milestone in creating and analysis, the governments to arrangement, the Ministry of of joint ownership. The difficulty here partnerships between state and non- check on what other governments Defence had to make a compelling is deciding what you actually own. state actors, one British government were saying or not saying. case. This was to protect the safety This becomes more complicated official responsible for setting up not just of one soldier, but a whole when money inputs are concerned. environment partnerships with civil The agreement between the group of soldiers.” This will be as relevant to government society now wonders whether the term Ministry of Defence and media departments as it is to industry.” “partnership” has become unhelpfully organizations not to disclose Prince loaded. “Partnership implies we want Harry’s presence in Afghanistan was What forms can it take? Collaborations can be understood as to hug one another, or should do. This a successful collaboration that relatively neutral descriptions or as can get in the way of dispassionately produced benefits all round — There can be a spectrum of establishing a norm. In management aligning interests and then taking the though some journalists questioned collaboration, from specific time-bound research, the term is broadly neutral. next step of exploring whether a deal is whether a deal should have been alliances to longer-term genuine Management researchers explore even possible. The presumption done. Broadcast, national print and partnerships. The nature and form of collaboration as something similar to, of partnership can be totally counter- local print media covered different collaboration are also affected by the yet different from, negotiation. productive, even if that’s precisely where aspects of the story over three or number and type of organisations one wants to end up.” four days. involved, including business, NGO,

26 27 government) Cropper at al (2008b) co-ordinated with those of the rest of driven up as they learn what makes the also be manoeuvred or forced into suggest that the relationship has three the team. successful bidders effective. As business collaboration. Organizations receiving dimensions: grows, Toyota develops a network of funding might want to collaborate — At a strategic level, the activities of a suppliers that have a share in its growth. or be required to do so — as a • content (flows of information and single team may be de-conflicted from condition of their support. resources), the rest of the operation yet must also What these two examples share is a mix be synchronised with the effort of other of the strategic and operational. Given Collaborations may be voluntary or • governance mechanisms (such as the teams. This can be summed up as: “Let that a concern for many organizations imposed by other participants — degree of trust, contracts and other them just get on with it; they know is turning strategy into delivery — one though some of my respondents argue controls); and what they have to do.” needs a good strategy, but great that imposed collaboration is not implementation — collaboration needs collaboration at all. Whether the • structure (the diversity of relationships The experience of optimising returns to be a more explicit part of delivering collaboration is coerced or voluntary, within a collaboration; the intensity from supply-chains also highlights objectives. it is important to qualify the degree of and clustering of them). the value of collaboration. Toyota choice and scope for discretion. understood early on the need for The nature of collaboration Collaboration is about finding or Collaboration can be very public. But it wider collaboration with its suppliers. creating common ground. If we want may also take place in private between In an example he uses on the Collaboration inherently involves more effective collaboration, we have to two institutions sharing similar goals negotiating programme at Said Business than one person or group working with suspend our assumptions. I explore this though different profiles. One partner School, Professor Leonard Greenhalgh another person or group, usually but further in the next chapter. may not wish to be seen as active on shows that, in creating the field for rival not always having the same interest or the issue but may still hold the key to suppliers to compete for its business, stake in the outcome. Governments One of the big dangers that contacts and information. Toyota deliberately doesn’t choose a work with other governments often in collaborations face is inertia. In single supplier but gives business to the the hope that there will be common Chapter 2, we shall look at what gives The experience of the armed forces two best companies. ground, though they do not always start collaborations focus and momentum provides an insight into two levels of from that position. — and what causes them to get stuck, collaboration, operational and strategic. The better of the two gets the majority sidetracked, hijacked or polarised. of business, but the runner-up also In their book Managing to Collaborate, Soldiers are trained to understand rules benefits. It’s in the interests of each Chris Huxham and Siv Vangen develop Collaborations are not a substitute for of engagement and apply that under- company to work closely with Toyota the concept of collaborative advantage, effective leadership. They happen standing to the needs of a particular and also to improve their performance which refers in a broad sense to because somebody wants them; a situation. Members of a unit may have in relation to the other company. Price “achieving something that could not group sets them up and makes them different roles and yet need to perform matters, but so do other factors. have been achieved by any one of the work; others provide support; and as a member of a team. To the extent organizations acting alone”. people supposedly benefit. For any that a particular member of the unit Because any deal with Toyota takes into given collaboration, one can identify focuses on the task in hand, that task account its implementation, it’s in the Collaboration is more durable when sponsors, participants, supporters and is de-conflicted from the rest of the Toyota and its suppliers need to work the will to collaborate is persistent beneficiaries. Programmes and projects operation. But it is likely that, even though all the key issues that affect enough. It’s not always a choice. In are collaborations. But collaboration can when focusing on a particular task, performance and service. Over time, international institutions, a country involve more than just programme and the individual’s activities will have to be standards of other suppliers are also can choose to collaborate and can project management.

28 29 What grounds collaborations Hammond suggests that contracts Collaborations have this in common A tough deal at the beginning of the should be structured to share risk and with sophisticated negotiations: while process — “If you put X in, we’ll put Y Collaborations are a means to an end. enable solutions — so that they are being clear about goals and what can in” — might have set a minimum but They have a purpose, preferably a focus not used competitively and defensively and cannot be conceded, they create could not have secured a maximum. on a specific aim — a common cause when things go wrong. space and time for gathering Only the shared endeavour to build which the collaboration is designed information about interests. At the commitment and momentum inspired to achieve because of the combined But however important the focus same time, those involved are building parties to give more. involvement of multiple parties. General is on purpose, collaboration also relationships, exploring options for Sir Rupert Smith, who led the UN depends on making relationships work. possible agreement and achieving Harnessing potential Protection Force in Sarajevo and other Resorting to the letter of a contract agreement with the confidence that complex collaborations, argues that can only achieve so much. Far more it can be implemented. What gives collaboration its focus and what he calls the “common end” — important is the spirit in which an momentum is when it goes beyond though important enough to hold the agreement is reached with partners, Harriet Harman, when minister at the superficial interests and taps the collaboration together — need not be contractors, suppliers, one’s own team, Department for Constitutional Affairs, potential value that a venture can bring. very complicated. other teams and with employees. commissioned a pilot campaign to Trust is what makes this possible. Despite good intentions, many boost electoral registration in London Professor Gillian Stamp of BIOSS thinks Respondents differed as to whether contracts, mergers, acquisitions and ahead of forthcoming local elections. of trust not as a “warm fluffy” but as collaboration is grounded in agreement political collaborations fail because The collaboration involved her own conscious regulation of one person’s or in relationship. The further east insufficient focus is given to department (now the Ministry of dependence on another. Stamp uses one travels, the less that collaboration implementation. Justice), the Mayor’s office, the a tripod of “tasking, trusting and involves working with a specific contract Greater London Assembly, the London tending” as a way of thinking about and the more it becomes a matter of Collaboration is more than boroughs, Operation Black Vote and the conditions for people to thrive. developing a relationship over time. negotiation the Electoral Commission. Its objective Islam specifically forbids “unfair was to increase the number of This approach can be used to look at advantage” in commerce; and this has Collaborations are not usually one-off registrations by reaching black and any relationship or set of relationships. an important effect on contracts. settlements. Collaboration is an Asian youths in new ways. Tasking involves clarity of intention and integration of common purpose, limits (for instance, of resource, time, Fiona Hammond, a leading contracts participation, resources,teamwork and The combined resources of those quality) within which discretion can be lawyer with twenty years of experience group dynamics — dealing at its most involved in the collaboration were exercised. Trusting means entrusting of the construction industry, distinguish- complex with multiple issues, multiple critical to its success. Her department’s people with purpose and letting them es between the collaboration and the parties and at multiple levels. They are financial contribution was ultimately use their judgment to use it. Tending relationship that underpins it. dynamic, responding to emerging matched five-fold — not through is “the working that keeps things changes over time. At their best, they agreement at the outset but through working”, the mindfulness that keeps “The two should not be confused,” she become more effective in response to interest and commitment inspired by an eye on the interweaving of purpose, says. “What matters in a collaboration is change. This means not only tolerating the process of collaboration. people and processes through time. what contributes to achieving an end or but embracing complexity, uncertainty In short, tending is the vigilant trust objective. What contributes is effective; and ambiguity. The framework of the campaign gave that actively manages risk. Vigilance what doesn’t is ineffective.” each partner opportunities to contribute is about having an eye for threat and more of their own ideas, skills and time. opportunity.

30 31 Trust becomes not just a prerequisite “rank on one’s shoulder or down one’s fulfilment in work are intimately linked responses should not be confused. for the effective conduct of business arm” can achieve. (Fox, 1974). A contract is an example (Galinksy et al. 2008) That said, but a way of creating confidence in of prescribed trust. As an individual experienced collaborators and overcoming barriers. According to After four years’ research into the progresses from simple to more complex negotiators I spoke to said that Stephen Winningham, managing private and public sectors and contact tasks, decisions are required from him demonstrating empathy can prove director of the financial institutions with 33 million respondents, David or her. These decisions require judgment decisive when it prepares the ground department at Lloyds Banking Group, MacLeod and Chris Brady show in their — and therefore discretionary space. for a breakthrough that would not be what gives his bank a competitive edge book The Extra Mile that people who Collaborations expose organizations achieved just by deploying rational is its value as a trusted adviser, tailoring are engaged often go beyond the call and those who work in them to greater argument. solutions to a particular client’s require- of duty to increase quality, improve degrees of complexity and discretion. ments. This means having to understand customer service or cut costs. They bring Stamp distinguishes between cognitive the client’s needs complex needs and fresh ideas, and infuse their teams with Elliott Jaques’s work on organizations empathy (understanding the other’s building a relationship with that client their own energy and commitment. (for example Jaques,1990) identified situation and their reaction to it) and over time. MacLeod and Brady argue: “You need different levels of responsibility for compassionate empathy (not only un- people both engaged and aligned… dealing with tasks, depending on their derstanding, but also taking account of, “Every context is specific, whatever And you need to make sure that complexity. The lowest level involves the the other’s situation and their reaction). you’ve learnt in previous situations,” everyone knows that engagement performance of a specific task; the he says. The clients need to know that matters, to them and to the level above requires supervision of a Because collaboration has a high you’re trying really hard to understand organization. Above all, the various combination of tasks; and at the level element of uncertainty to it, in my them and do the best for them. This foundations and pillars come down to above that there is oversight of a whole view it is prudent to increase one’s means concentrating on the relationship one overriding principle: mutual trust.” process. On this model, the higher levels options and show both cognitive and as a means to driving the business.” require judgment to manage a set of compassionate empathy. To engage Trust plays a pivotal role in the processes and to decide how they effectively requires both engagement If an organization wants to be worthy establishing and nurturing of networks. might be improved. Collaboration and with the issues and engagement of trust externally, it has to trust and be Whatever vision, strategy, processes innovation inherently involve handling with others. To be authentic, that trusted internally. Organizations that and reporting-lines are in place, it higher levels of complexity. engagement must be based on trying are too focused on developing their top is networks that get business done. to connect with the other’s needs, leadership miss a wider collaboration, Diplomats know the value of developing Empathy and understanding the interests and values. But connection tapping the potential for discretion and networks as a source of information, other’s perspective does not imply agreement. initiative in their ranks. Implementation perspective and opinion — and as a is done not only by the middle ranks but way of identifying whom best to in- Collaborative behaviour, though highly Huxham and Vangen (2005) develop led from the middle, through direct lines fluence. Bob Metcalfe developed the desirable, is not essential to the success a model (Figure 1.2 below) to of reporting and interaction with other formula that the value of a network is of collaboration. To achieve results, demonstrate that one needs to act in networks. One senior diplomat says: equal to the square of its membership. a venture must focus on securing its the spirit of collaboration (embracing, “We need to put more value on A ten-person network is worth 100 but objectives. Feelings of collaboration or empowering, involving, mobilising) and the middle and the front-line of a 20-person network is valued at 400. partnership may hinder this effort. with collaborative thuggery (by making organizations.” Even organizations Alan Fox distinguishes between It is far more important to understand things happen through manipulating with strict and disciplined hierarchies prescribed and discretionary trust someone else’s perspective than it is the collaborative agenda and playing realise that there is only so much that to show that effectiveness and to show empathy for it — and the two the politics). They go as far as to say

32 33 that “successful leadership seems to Collaboration can be used to support giving way on assertion (see Appendix: Drivers for collaboration imply the ability to operate from both different leadership strategies, with the Thomas-Killman model). In principle, perspectives and to continually switch nature of the problem determining the assertion and cooperation can go hand Collaboration has become more between them, often carrying out both type of leadership style required. What’s in hand if there is a commitment to important because of four driving types of leadership in the same act”. needed are the patience and persistence face issues and deal with them. This forces: This model reflects accurately the to engage; to manage the tensions and challenges organizations that equate tension in collaboration between dynamics; to explore the options; and collaboration with consensus. If • globalisation achieving a result and keeping the to secure real commitment. constructively managed, confrontation • changing environments group together. But my own approach can reduce conflict. • changing boundaries to collaboration will show that the Collaboration can nevertheless • strategy tension can be turned into an be understood through the lens of In chapters 2 and 5, the approach opportunity to drive performance and conflict management and resolution. developed — strategic pragmatism — ensure the fullest participation, where Competitive behaviour gives rises takes these insights into account and Globalisation every party has a stake in making the to assertion without cooperation; makes the dynamics work through endeavour a success. compromise requires cooperation while effective leadership, developing trust Globalisation produces complexity and and embracing risk. uncertainty, challenging boundaries that may be economic, political or cultural. We can see the possibility of tackling

Figure 1.2: The essence of leadership for From the spirit of collaboration … collaborative advantage The MANIPULATING THE COLLABORATIVE AGENDA (Source: EMBRACING EMPOWERING INVOLVING MOBILIZING essence of Vangen & Huxham. making things happen Enacting Leadership embracing empowering embracing mobilizing leadership for Collaborative the “right” members the “right” members to Advantage. British kind of to enable kind of make things enactment for Journal of members participation members collaborative Management, PLAYING THE POLITICS 2003, 14 (1) p.S74. Republished in advantage making things happen Huxham & Vangen (2005)) … towards collaborative thuggery.

34 35 common challenges and exploring • the multiplicity of 24-hour media (see the seminal paper written Programme (UNEP) developed a finance common opportunities; yet we are channels, highlighting issues and by Fred Emery and Eric Trist in 1965). initiative which made a slow start in the also more aware of how deep the crises as they develop 1990s but which has gathered enomous differences are. These we might choose However little one can do to shape momentum since 2000. It succeeded to ignore, overcome or accept and even • the complexity of needs, wants, the bigger environment on one’s own, in creating funds for responsible appreciate. Collaboration can be both expectations that state and non-state collaborations provide an incentive to investment by tapping a sizeable share a symptom of complexity and a way of actors respond to shape one’s immediate environment — of global equity markets. working though difference. effectively creating a mini-ecosystem. As • the greater importance attached by collaborations create a space in which Under a UN umbrella, it brought Uncertainty may make us more vigilant many governments and businesses boundaries are temporarily crossed, together banking and financial about whom we choose to trust or do to the more discerning and opportunities emerge to tap the greater institutions under principles of business with. But this vigilance also demanding consumer, and potential of participants in different responsible investment. But the obliges us to look as much for the organizations and to shape initiative needed to be run by the opportunity as for the threat. And • the speed at which information, and environments. financial institutions themselves. The because we cannot control even most therefore decisions, may travel. GS Sustain framework, which was of the consequences, we have no Changing boundaries developed partly in response to UNEP’s option but to work with others. In What accounts for the dynamic finance initiative, is now being used to stable environments, we can occupy character of how organizations interact Collaboration builders know how analyse the performance of over 500 ground, compete for it, reach is their relationship with a changing easily boundaries between organizations clients worldwide on environmental, accommodation with our competitors environment. can be put to one side, putting at risk social and governance factors as well or destroy them. With the growth of both the collaboration and the as performance and value. globalisation, the world is changing at The environment that organizations organizations that it is designed such a pace that it is more likely that we now inhabit is turbulent: the very to serve. One of the dangers is that Strategy will have to work together. If the focus ground on which they operate is in teams of collaborators may identify of organizations becomes what happens motion. In these environments, more with the collaboration than with Strategic planning is increasingly when they interact, collaboration will individual organizations cannot be the organizations that they represent. common among most organizations effectively become their centre of expected to adapt successfully through This may be a particular problem for the researched for this report. Having gravity. their own direct actions. But they find parent organization if people receive a strategy gives the leadership of a solution: the emergence of values that more affirmation from the collaboration organizations choices, rationale and Changing environments have overriding significance for all. than from their parent organization of support to make changes. Organizations their skills, their judgment, their have no option but to be more strategic There are other factors that make the Common values provide a coherent creativity or of themselves. in the face of greater competition, environment more conducive to framework in which to operate. The giving staff freedom to act within an collaboration. simplest value that all can accept is But managing boundaries also agreed strategy. McDonalds told me having an interest in an outcome; and, presents opportunities for innovation that it attributes its continuing global • connectivity, particularly the new with it, the notion of advancing that and growth. A small example shows success to the scope it gives its local ways in which the internet enables us interest. One shared interest might be how collaboration can give birth to branches to operate effectively in their to work together to introduce some steadiness in an something potentially greater than immediate environment within an otherwise turbulent environment itself. The United Nations Environment overall framework.

36 37 PricewaterhouseCoopers ensures that its threats will be missed and short-term Government and business But one government official believes businesses in each country function as actions will prove unsustainable or even that business should still take more national entities, consciously developing counter-productive. But, even in steady In the UK, the relationship between account of the costs of not pursuing its leadership so that it is better able to environments, collaboration gives government and business is particularly low-carbon alternatives. connect with the local environment. government and business a way to useful. This relationship exists between tackle larger-scale challenges. government as whole and The climate change agenda highlights The principle of having a strategy is representative bodies such as the CBI as the link made between collaboration becoming more established. The bigger Shell International says it wants to well as between individual departments and the difficulty of the challenge. It challenge is being strategic and turning increase its strategic relationship with and business leaders. is precisely when it is most difficult to strategy into effective delivery. civil society because it has to manage find a way through a problem that both the technical risk of oil and gas In the UK, BIS (Department for Business, collaboration becomes most necessary. Some business managers in the oil and exploitation and the non-technical risk Innovation and Skills) and the Treasury gas sectors and in pharmaceuticals told of ensuring that it operates with the have very close contact with business. Government and NGOs me that they were more strategic than support of local communities. Both However, other departments also work government in some ways because they International Alert and Living Earth on shared challenges. For example, Respondents say that governments and had to plan many years ahead. They Foundation confirmed to me that Shell the Department for Energy and Climate NGOs are thinking increasingly about also challenged the notion that there had moved a long way, from dealing Change and the FCO are working the quality of their interaction. But was a choice between competition and initially with some NGOs on an ad with business to assess the scope for this has yet to translate into systematic collaboration, “Depending on the hoc and often reactive basis to a more innovation, linking the climate change evaluation that would be useful to both opportunity, you have to do both. You strategic relationship. “In the 1990s, agenda to building a high-growth, parties. If governments are not careful, can often collaborate with another they tended to get in touch with us only low-carbon global economy. they risk going from sporadic contact company on one project and compete when they got into trouble,” said one to a scatter-gun approach which with it on another. Having to do both civil society leader. “Now, Shell says it A senior figure at the CBI says the issue promises much but delivers little, either keeps you focused yet open to doing is in the company’s interest to get an of climate change demonstrates how to governments or to civil society. things differently.” independent but informed perspective receptive business can be to the political of whether a particular plan will work.” leadership given by government. “But Many government officials and some With a more strategic mind-set, if government is genuine about greater NGOs remain sceptical of the type of collaboration is seen as crucial to Collaboration between collaboration with business on climate random engagement that governments achieve goals, either in steady or governments, business and NGOs change,” he says, “then it needs to do sometimes conduct, more geared at turbulent environments. Because so its bit to deliver on planning and other positioning government as open and few environments now are seen to be All governments researched for this policies that create the conditions that engaged than at involving third-parties steady, some time and resource is put report say they are witnessing more allow business to take longer term in policy design and implementation. aside to plan for different scenarios and interaction between state and non-state decisions to develop a low-carbon If broader engagement strategies this quickly prompts organizations to actors, although they have different economy.” are pursued, they have to build on think not just of their competitors but policies for engaging with business successful engagement on single of potential collaborators. Behaving and civil society. Chapter 4 focuses To obtain first-mover advantage, issue topics. Chapter 5 includes strategically in turbulent times is on relations between governments, companies are now competing some pioneering work by the British essential. Without the wider business and NGOs, exploring the scope in working out how to make money government, operating with civil society perspective, opportunities and for greater collaboration. by developing a low-carbon economy. in policy areas as varied as pensions and

38 39 criminal justice. A crucial test for many need be.” Other NGO leaders I spoke If governments are increasingly drawing recipe for misunderstanding their NGOs is engagement on policy design to were even more concerned about on NGOs to deliver services on the front interests and the value that they can and implementation while managing the problem of mobility and turnover of line, officials must still listen properly bring to a relationship, whether it takes their own expectations of the influence government staff. Public sector bodies to NGOs when drawing up their plans. the form of collaboration, partnership or that they can exercise. might have very good policy or human Otherwise, there is a risk that strategy something else. Regardless of whether resources reasons for moving staff, will be divorced from experience. Ipsos- NGOs are large or small, global or local, NGOs want an honest relationship with but this imposes costs on other MORI’s research in 2004 with NGOs, they have at least one of five possible government. Talk of collaboration and organizations. One smaller NGO said members of the public and experts in roles partnership can sometimes mislead and that when their public sector contact corporate social responsibility found may therefore be counter-productive. moved, the project effectively ended, that 86% of the 21 NGOs who took • Advocacy: pursuit and promotion of Tom Porteous of Human Rights Watch “We would think again about ever part had close working relationships policy objectives says that he regards the British working with that organization. We with companies. A similar percentage government as an ally on rule of law had invested heavily in the relationship. felt that companies and NGOs should • Delivery of services: complementing but a target on human rights. He There seemed to be no adequate work towards more co-operative or substituting for government or recognises that the FCO understands handover or policy continuity when relationships in future. In 2005, when other public services how to engage with NGOs on human the new person took over.” the survey was repeated, researchers rights but believes more could be done found that 90% of NGOs were aiming • Enabling solutions, working with to address his concerns. “Human Rights Government, business and NGOs to work with more companies “in the government or business Watch, unlike many other NGOs, could next year or two” (Ipsos-MORI never be partners with government,” he Both governments and business (2005) p3). • Improving governance, the rule of says. “We need to be independent, and recognise the need to engage more law or transparency to be seen to be.” effectively with civil society. But a senior Companies have various motives director in a multinational company for collaborating with NGOs and • Harnessing existing or new markets in NGOs say that if there is greater contact articulates a recurring concern. “It’s government. An important one is countries where NGO credibility helps with government, people need to be one thing involving NGOs in some of the hope that companies will learn from business achieve local support. persuaded of the benefits. Some NGOs our activities: that’s healthy and useful. their NGO and government partners also express frustration that building But if it’s about commercial risk, the and apply that learning to benefit their If there is a single common longer-term relationships is often made company pays — and therefore there business as well as the partnership denominator, it is the NGO’s ability more difficult because of the size of are real limits to how closely NGOs can overall. (See, for instance, Journal of to make a tangible difference government and turnover of officials. be involved. We shouldn’t set false Management Studies special issue on on a specific issue. Even though “It’s in our interest to deepen a expectations. That’s bound to inter-organizational knowledge transfer, governments, business and NGOs commitment to an issue on both sides,” disappoint.” June 2008). all identify their respective roles in one says. “If a key civil servant moves serving citizens, they each acknowledge on, particularly when there’s no Government officials make a similar Changing role of NGOs that citizens’ needs and concerns are adequate handover, you have to start point, although they regard NGOs as a more important influence on their from scratch. This can be a tactical there to inform policy decisions rather The NGO role is not identical in every organizations. Collaboration with advantage, but over time it means the than to dictate them. One conflict- country and in every sector. Failure to others is a better way of meeting relationship is more superficial than it prevention NGO sees problems in this. see NGOs in their different roles is a citizens’ expectations. When effective,

40 41 collaboration involving local depending on one’s point of view, either Greater collaboration and the multiple stakeholders and the benefits communities can close the both the competed with the legislature or development agenda for the population. Britain’s ambassador democratic and the delivery deficit. complemented it: see Hudson and in Kabul, Sir Sherard Cowper-Coles, Anstead (2008). Ashraf Haidari, political counsellor at says that strategic communications are The issue most frequently raised by the Afghan embassy in Washington, integral in the counter-insurgency governments and business is how The example of CTS Mexico shows that says there is a challenge of collaboration campaign. “Collaboration is essential, representative NGOs are and how much a NGO can fulfil a combination of roles. at every level. As well as arguing for both within the UK team in Kabul and they can find solutions to the issues they Working with the Mexican government more resources to establish effective Lashkar Gah but also in and with champion. and the city authorities to design new government and security throughout London,” he says. In his view, there sustainable bus services, CTS’s aim is Afghanistan, he singles out the need for also needs to be collaboration between Le Grenelle de l’Environnement, to develop low-cost, accessible and greater strategic coordination among the UK team and others such as the President Sarkozy’s comprehensive environmentally friendly city transport more than 70 countries, international Afghan government, the UN public initiative to involve civil society on as a cheaper alternative to underground organizations, and NGOs. “Of all the affairs team and the ISAF spokesmen. sustainable development policies, tries trains. Asked what makes her technical assistance, which accounts after years of disagreement to turn the organization different from a pure for a quarter of all aid, only one-tenth A key test will be how the achievement of working with 330 consultancy, its director, Adriana Lobo, is coordinated among donors or with collaboration among all the stakeholder representatives — NGOs, says: “I have a social mission, and I use the government,” he says. “Nor is there international organizations working local authorities, trade unions and my technical expertise to achieve that sufficient collaboration on project work with the Afghan government and local employers’ association — into a specific mission.” CTS Mexico is part of a — which inevitably leads to duplication communities can show Afghan citizens legislative programme. French network of similarly focused NGOs in or incoherence of activities that reconstruction projects are environment and development NGOs India, Turkey, Brazil, and soon Andino. by different donors.” sustainable. Simon Anholt, an were sceptical at first about how much independent vice-chairman of the would be achieved by such a process. The role of NGOs is evolving. NGOs Haidari also makes the links between FCO Public Diplomacy Board, visited But a combination of political themselves recognise that thinking collaboration on delivery and engaging Afghanistan last year and makes the commitment (the initiative was driven more strategically about collaboration Afghan citizens effectively. “Although a point that what is needed are deeds by the Ecology super-ministry) and and partnership clarifies their role in buzz-word of the aid community, local rather than words. “Small power sophisticated programme management adding value, raising finance and ownership of the rebuilding process — generators were issued to villages and has enabled France to complete its managing the expectations of its with Afghans in the driver’s seat — is were regularly attacked by the Taleban. first phase. This has given French NGOs stakeholders. One leading figure in a mostly absent. That is because most of Then the local people were charged for greater confidence that they can be development NGO says that it is time the aid resources bypass the Afghan the generators. We found that, now more involved in the design and for a greater realism in the relationship people and our government and goes they had responsibility for them, the implementation of future policies. between “northern” and “southern” to donor-related non-profit and private generators didn’t have to be replaced Interestingly for the democratic process, NGOs. “Let’s not pretend it’s some cosy sector institutions.” because they fought off the Taleban.” the Grenelle — a term borrowed from partnership of equals when some of the clashes of 1968 — was problematic the time it’s effectively a commercial Strategic communications provide On the global development agenda, for some French parliamentarians. They relationship between a client and a a critical means for making the links the US Government has entered into had to come to terms with a form of provider. It’s none the worse for that. between what is invested in public-private partnerships (PPPs) for democratic engagement which, NGOs are also businesses.” Afghanistan, the commitment of reasons that include project

42 43 sustainability, market development This is happening when the current US and the fact that private bodies bring administration has more than doubled its Chapter summary resources that government can neither foreign assistance budget from $9.9bn to afford to purchase nor acquire through $21bn (OECD/DAC statistics). But even as • Having clear and mutually understood aims is critical. But being realistic other means. A sound rationale for foreign assistance grows, about what can be achieved, and considering the interests of each party, is PPPs in international development is it has been quickly over taken by private just as important. that private sector bodies are now on -sector investments, remittances from the ground in developing countries and immigrants in the US and donations • Collaborations are not usually one-off settlements. Collaboration is an their businesses are employing people, from foundations and NGOs. The UK integration of common purpose, participation, resources, teamwork and sourcing commodities and selling in has seen similar private-sector group dynamics — dealing at its most complex with multiple issues, these markets. As James Thompson, investments that are now at least multiple parties and at multiple levels. They are dynamic, responding to regional director at the US State equal to development spending. emerging changes over time. At their best, they become more effective in Department, explains, “the private response to change. This means not only tolerating but embracing sector is being looked to as the ultimate We have no option but to get better at complexity, uncertainty and ambiguity. answer to development challenges that collaboration. foreign assistance cannot meet alone. • To engage effectively requires both engagement with the issues and But this is not to say that development There has been much written on the engagement with others aid is not needed: only that we need why we need to create partnerships, to think about how to use our devel- rather less on how to do so and much • Collaboration between business, NGOs and government is an increasingly opment assistance to spur economic less on governance and implementation. common solution to complex challenges. When effective, it provides the growth and to do so in coordination Groups such as AccountAbility and the basis for closing both the democratic and delivery deficits. with the private sector.” International Business Leaders Forum are giving significant thought to these For many developed countries, working areas. But more needs to be written by in partnerships is crucial to foreign practitioners. assistance goals and to maintaining those countries’ interests. The Hudson Institute’s work shows an increasing amount of private-sector investment in developing countries. In 1969, 70% of resource-flows from the US to developing countries came from the ODA and 30% from private sources. Data from 2005 show that private capital makes up more than 80% of flows to developing countries (USAID (2008)).

44 45 Appendix 1: The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)

This model helps you identify which style one tends towards when conflict arises. 5. Compromising is moderate in both assertiveness and cooperativeness. The objective is to find some expedient, mutually acceptable solution that By understanding your instinctive style, and recognising how and when you may partially satisfies both parties. It falls intermediate between competing and need to change it, you may be better able to adopt an approach that meets the accommodating. Compromising gives up more than competing but less than situation, resolves the problem, respects people’s legitimate interests, and mends accommodating. Likewise, it addresses an issue more directly than avoiding, damaged working relationships. but does not explore it in as much depth as collaborating. In some situations, compromising might mean splitting the difference between the two positions, Assertiveness and co-operation are the two basic dimensions of behaviour that exchanging concessions, or seeking a quick middle-ground solution. define five different modes for responding to conflict situations: Each of us is capable of using all five conflict-handling modes. But some people use some modes better than others and, therefore tend to rely on those modes more 5 modes for handling conflict heavily - whether because of temperament or practice. Conflict behaviour is therefore a result of both an individual’s personal predispositions and the 1. Competing is assertive and unco-operative - an individual pursues his own requirements of the situation. The Instrument is designed to measure this mix concerns at the other person’s expense. This is a power-oriented mode in which of conflict-handling modes. you use whatever power seems appropriate to win your own position - your ability to argue, your rank, or economic sanctions. Competing means “standing In today’s interdependent world, problems are interdependent too. As Hauss up for your rights,” defending a position which you believe is correct, or simply suggests, it is nearly always more pragmatic to act co-operatively. trying to win.

2. Accommodating is unassertive and co-operative - the complete opposite of competing. When accommodating, the individual neglects his own concerns to satisfy the concerns of the other person; there is an element of self-sacrifice in this mode. Accommodating might take the form of selfless generosity or charity, obeying another person’s order when you would prefer not to, or yielding to another’s point of view.

3. Avoiding is unassertive and unco-operative - the person neither pursues his own concerns nor those of the other individual. Thus he does not deal with the conflict. Avoiding might take the form of diplomatically sidestepping an issue, postponing an issue until a better time, or simply withdrawing from a threatening situation.

4. Collaborating is both assertive and co-operative - the complete opposite of avoiding. Collaborating involves an attempt to work with others to find some solution that fully satisfies their concerns. It means digging into an issue to pinpoint the underlying needs and wants of the two individuals. Collaborating between two persons might take the form of exploring a disagreement to learn from each other’s insights or trying to find a creative solution to an interpersonal problem.

46 47 Chapter 2: Effective collaboration

In this chapter: A rabbi is shown the difference between heaven and hell. He’s taken to hell first. He sees sad, angry and frustrated people sitting around a pot of delicious-smelling hot soup. Nobody is eating. He asks why. “The spoons are too long,” he is told. “When • Approach to collaboration people try to use them, they miss the pot or drop the spoon.” The rabbi is then building: value-focused shown heaven. Everybody is talking, laughing — and drinking soup. It’s the same collaboration pot and the spoons are the same too. But here the people are using the spoons to help one another drink the soup.

• Drivers for success: Rabbinic tale. 15 steps to take This chapter provides a framework for work show objective judgment at critical designing and running collaboration, stages. As one experienced practitioner • Common challenges: reflecting on the experience of puts it, “extra doses of realism and leadership, trust, risk and practitioners. Whatever their scale, imagination are needed”, especially complexity complexity or circumstances, in relating the bigger picture of what collaborations share certain dynamics. the collaboration can achieve to the The more these are understood, the particular interests of all those who are • Chapter summary better these collaborations can be part of it. handled. Although respondents think that collaborations and partnerships are The skill is to combine the broad view increasingly common and can quote with the specific. Part 1 therefore successful examples, their experience suggests an approach to drive and expectations are mixed. But the collaboration building; part 2 sets out breadth and depth of experience is rich the specific steps to take; and part 3 enough to provide a basis for improving tackles the most common challenges. performance and participation, the two essential ingredients for success in collaboration.

Studies of optimists and pessimists (Seligman, 1991 and Wiseman, 2003) indicate that optimists achieve more than pessimists because they set themselves goals and overcome setbacks better. But pessimists tend to be more accurate. It is important to successful collaborations that the very people who are keenest to make them

48 49 Part 1: An approach to collaboration building

Collaborations make particular demands in collaboration emerge, evolve and not think and a combination of brain on leadership, especially in balancing change over time (Hibbert and Huxham, professional identities, without cells produces thought, collaboration is and reconciling different interests. Since 2006). In referring to “tensions”, Beech unacceptable or illegal blurring of an emerging property of what we do collaborations are designed to fill gaps and Huxham mean that good practice powers and interests, and without together. The challenge is to turn an that organizations do not resolve advice can pull in different directions. loss of accountability.” emerging property of human interaction adequately on their own, they require My report refers more widely to the — something we do for better or worse political and social skills to drive a vision inevitable tensions that arise when (Ekblom, 2004). as a result of trial and error — into a and respond to the needs of others. people work together. form of energy for making a difference.

Collaboration and partnership are Case for optimism Collaboration is the technology for “Collaboration, by its very nature, related concepts, as this definition by the knowledge economy. It gathers means that traditional means of Paul Ekblom makes clear: information to produce fresh choices, control — market and hierarchy — “If we combine our efforts with by creating fission – drawing out cannot be used to manage other people’s efforts, we can different perspectives and interests. relations among participating “Partnership is an institutional make our resources go further and But it also produces fusion – drawing organizations. Instead, it depends arrangement that shades into achieve more impact.” in the parties to agree on the problem on the ongoing negotiation of a philosophy. It is a way of Steven Fisher, Deputy Head of Mission, and then to agree and act on the relationships by individuals who enhancing performance in the British Embassy, Budapest solution. It pulls together people, are both participants in the delivery of a common goal, by resources and process in pursuit of a collaboration and, at the same the taking of joint responsibility “Whether you are a manager in common end, joining up organizations time, accountable to and and the pooling of resources by the public or in the private sector, and making them connect with their representative of the diverse different agents, whether these collaboration taps a source of value stakeholders and citizens. Because it organizations and communities are public or private, collective or that includes, but goes so much holds out the promise of creating value involved in, and affected by, it.” individual. The added value from further than, price: the value of where value did not exist before, it can (Hardy and Grant, 2005. such a collaborative approach what people can accomplish expand the size of the cake and bring Quoted in: usually stems from an enhanced together if they really apply about agreement on the highest ability to tackle problems whose themselves and if organizations common denominator. It galvanises Lotia and Hardy (2008) pp. 366-367) solutions span the division of support and develop them”. governments and multinational labour, and/or centre on a companies both to get business done particular locality. The agents in Verna Stewart, Strategic Relationship and — by building legitimacy and public Lotia and Hardy (2008) argue that partnership may bring with them Director, Strategic Development Solutions, support — to ensure that the risks and Lloyds TSB. collaboration is social to the extent conflicting or competing interests, benefits involve those who are most that it requires the negotiation of and different perspectives, affected. It encourages NGOs and relationships and tensions (Beech and ideologies and cultures – so in others in civil society — think-tanks, Governments, business, NGOs, and Huxham, 2003); political in that it democratic and legally-regulated institutes, business schools, universities citizens all miss opportunities that involves individuals playing a dual role contexts they seek to act together — to see themselves as part of the collaboration can provide if handled as members of both collaboration and without loss of their separate solution rather than as critics or well. Just as a single brain cell does organization; and dynamic in that roles

50 51 bystanders. As a catalyst, it brings influence to support a negotiation or to gaining acceptance, links with other, Investment (UKTI) and Visit Britain, about changes in disparate undermine it. apparently more pressing, agendas — which actively promote business and organizations to achieve focus such as rising household bills and tourism. Their efforts are part of a wider and momentum. This requires diplomats and their teams energy security — become the collaboration with British government to acquire new skills of public diplomacy route into focusing on developing a and business. The dozen or so UKTI Vision for diplomacy and strategic communication. The best high-growth, low-carbon economy. local contacts whom I met in the course already know this, and do it. One British The British embassy’s work with Poland of my research have skills and attitudes For diplomats, collaboration ambassador says: “More time is now on tackling climate change initially that mirror those of the sector. These complements and reinforces the spent dealing with a range of focused on the rising cost of household people are enterprising, knowledgeable achievement of negotiation. Effective stakeholders than in dealing with energy bills and wider concerns about and prolific at networking. negotiations turn not just on a deal the host government. The bilateral energy security. The economic down being done but on the expectation relationship will always be important turn makes it essential that the links One can collaborate to enhance further that it will be successfully implemented. but, to be effective, you have to work between climate change and other collaboration or to strengthen This also means that agreements have with many different people on many agendas are articulated. competition. Promoting UK trade and to be supported more widely by key fronts.” They must be increasingly at investment involves both collaboration stakeholders and citizens. What was tuned to enable meaningful dialogue Where other countries are making the and competition. Collaboration and true for diplomacy under the reign of with multiple stakeholders and citizens running, Britain’s role may be as an competition strategies need to be Louis XIV of France is as true today: with different backgrounds, needs and effective partner, helping to shape the flexible enough to take advantage of “The great secret of negotiation is to aspirations. climate so that real progress is made what the other element brings. One UK bring out prominently the common over time. Take, for instance, Turkey’s Trade & Investment contact in India says advantage to both parties of any Judging by the feedback received for plan to join the European Union. how effective a British ministerial visit proposal; and so to link these this report from British embassies and Turkey’s potential is worth developing was precisely because the then minister, advantages that they may appear other diplomatic services, Britain is seen because of its strategic geopolitical, Lord (Digby) Jones, was candid about equally balanced to both parties.” as effective in the way it balances a cultural and economic importance. And where other countries had a competitive (de Callieres, 1983, p.110; first range of public diplomatic activity. On Britain’s public diplomacy reflects this. advantage. For this reason, the minister published in 1716). some issues — climate change, for was persuasive about what British example — it is explicitly upfront; and On other issues, Britain sees itself as companies could offer. This drew a But what has changed is that the not just in the 20 or so countries where a supportive team-player. In Geneva, better response than a narrowly theatre of diplomacy has expanded the most difference needs to made to Britain is one of many players working competitive hard-sell. because of the multiplicity of reach a deal in Copenhagen in for human rights, and workers’ stakeholders, the growth of the media December 2009. rights. Its role is to support better The value to the FCO of the BBC World and the rapid communication of implementation across the world Service and the British Council is that information, privately and publicly. One British ambassadors make the issue while having a voice in the reform their credibility, legitimacy and seasoned international negotiator says: a priority. However; they implement of international institutions. effectiveness are based on genuine “It’s a negotiation on an even wider the priority within the political and independence — even though they scale, with a larger number of players economic circumstances of the country Britain’s impact overseas is partly receive government funding and must with stakes in a decision.” And those involved. In many countries where the determined by the work of account for their spending. with stakes tend also to have power and need to tackle climate change is still organizations such as UK Trade &

52 53 The World Service and the British engagement using the web. For the Networks emphasise the importance of the local Council create a space in which others web to be useful, it needs both to connection. In many multinational can enter into dialogue, whether they engage citizens on their own terms It is useful to see collaboration as companies, however, communication support British foreign policy or not. and to draw on those outside working with degrees of separation, and marketing decisions may be taken The pioneering work done by the British government who can best help design either between collaboration partners at the centre to achieve economies of Council in Canada to give young and implement a particular policy. and their supporting networks or scale, standardisation and impact. children a better understanding of between this universe and the wider climate change could not have been Collaborative strategy about web world. This takes into account how Social network analysis (SNA) theory done as effectively by a government development shows that we do not power and influence are differently shows that just because people are department. need to make a stark choice between distributed in today’s organizations. connected they don’t necessarily deliver internal and external collaboration. Understanding the organizational chart the same value to each other. Equally The FCO’s partnerships with these Some ideas may be developed as needs to be matched with a knowledge important are the ties that each “node” two organizations, as well as its “open-sourced innovation”, inviting of networks and their contribution to in a network brings and what gets engagement with former holders of its any contributions. An example is Tim making things happen. Not surprisingly, communicated in one part of a network Marshall and Chevening scholarships, Kruger’s website www.cquestrate.com. some of my respondents emphasised rather than another. So while it makes serve to acknowledge that others can Others may involve in “closed the role of networks rather than intuitive sense to exploit one’s strong help achieve social policy goals because innovation” — such as an organization hierarchies as the basis of social and ties, such an approach has limits if one of their perspective and experience of first tapping the ideas of its own economic organization. They speak of is trying to harness wider interest. The the world. The FCO’s engagement employees — or in “semi-open the shift in big organizations from the recommended approach is to tap weak with a range of think-tanks and policy innovation”. An example of the latter centre to supporting the front-line. ties because these will ultimately bring institutes — IISS, RUSI, Chatham House is the report you are reading now, Collaboration builders need to work more value than one’s limited network — is not a substitute for its own written in consultation with a number with a mix of organizational designs of strong ties (PFC Energy Consulting thinking but a way of broadening of contacts, external and internal. — some hierarchical, others based on for Shell, unpublished report). It means debate. The test now is to use the I involved more than 250 contacts teams or networks. we need to engage with weak ties so internet much more ambitiously in across private, public and non-profit that they can then connect with their building wider engagement on policy sectors in a private discussion before Putting a value on networks does not stronger ones. But SNA theory falls design and delivery. giving the report a wider internal make an appreciation of hierarchy any short when it comes to clarifying circulation in Whitehall. It was more less important. A single company can what conditions would produce ties Diplomacy online effective developing the arguments operate different degrees of of different strengths. Diplomats act first in a smaller group than to go centralisation and decentralisation as “channels” along which social Much is made of the potential of the public right from the outset. Software depending on how it organises its infrastructure can naturally form. internet to connect different groups programmes provided, for instance, functions. Business strategies can be That then facilitates and encourages of people. But its full potential will not by Ning, allow social networks to a combination of the global and local, interactions – hence “networks”. be reached unless the connection is grow at their own pace with a degree taking into account regional and local meaningful. It is one thing to design of confidence that discussions can be opportunities. Local connections are This has important implications for and deliver the technology; quite limited to a chosen membership. This critical, as well as global and regional governments, policy-makers and anyone another to use it imaginatively and kind of protocol is invaluable in building ones. In Chapter 1, we saw that who depends on networks to yield extra productively. Collaboration gives us the trust and confidence in newer forms McDonalds operates a policy of value. Ideas do not always speak for conceptual framework to plan better of technology. “freedom within a framework” to themselves. Policies have to developed,

54 55 not just presented, to connect in the organization has to work effectively different ways with their target with host governments and local were invited to talk to the local Case for caution audiences. The “target audience” communities, now and in the future. school board. From these early is, in a sense, an outmoded concept But Shell has also taken a policy discussions they created an “You have to be tough-minded and because the people whose engagement decision to pay as much attention to exchange programme for teachers, have enough sensitivity to make one wants will be communicating in what it calls “non-technical” risk as a programme that was seen by its collaboration work. It’s not just their own way. The skill is to join their it does to technical risk. It has also participants as very helpful. people who have egos; conversation or facilitate one that brought in specialist advice in what it organizations have egos too.” they will want to join. This presents calls “social performance”. Shell sees Although its primary role was to a particular challenge for the new public that what ultimately matters is the provide financial support, Shell was Diplomat at one of the NATO missions, diplomacy, as we shall see in Chapter 5. extent to which international oil given the opportunity to listen to Brussels. companies are trusted as business feedback from the programme and Vision for business partners — not just by host use it to inform the company’s own governments, but by local communities strategies. For Shell and LEF, success Collaboration is a bitter-sweet Business, too, needs to change. Some who stand to lose the most from the is the perception by the participants experience for many, however of the world’s biggest multinationals disruptive effects of exploration and of the contribution the work is necessary or desirable it is. In assessing need a more strategic notion of production. making towards the development the scope and limits of collaboration, collaboration to survive and thrive. of social capital. In the words of what most of my 200 respondents felt Interviews with 20 managers at Shell A strategic relationship between Royal Roger Hammond, Director of LEF, was as important as what they International and some of their Dutch Shell and the UK-registered “It is not a Shell programme nor is specifically achieved. stakeholders showed the company to charity Living Earth Foundation (LEF) it an LEF programme: it is locally be highly strategic, both in its corporate demonstrates the importance of owned.” Although this report helped policy and in its choice of staff to drive working in partnership to encourage organizations, teams and individuals partnerships and collaborations more sustainable development. to understand their achievements systematically. Learning points: and reflect on what they would have done differently, little time is spent It is not just what Shell does to achieve In 2006, members of the Living • Shell would say that “locally owned” assessing the scope and limits of a its aim, but how it does it: the company Earth Foundation made a visit means that local people feel that the particular collaboration. It gets uses techniques aimed at enabling a to the North Slope of Alaska. programme is theirs rather than managed but rarely thought about. better quality of dialogue to emerge. It They faced suspicion from local Shell’s or LEF’s: they are involved and, Recurring challenges — complexity, separates the task of bringing different leaders, who asked if they were indeed, in the driving seat. ambiguity, uncertainty and difference parties to the table from the next phase environmental campaigners — — are mentioned, but not tackled of framing problems, exploring options “enviros”. LEF member explained • “Social capital” can include capacity systematically or structurally. We tend and agreeing solutions. It has learnt the nature of their work and building, social networks and to live with these challenges rather than from experience about not engaging recounted some of their strengthening the fabric of society. work through them. stakeholders early enough and its 20-30 experiences in the field of In general, it is also locally owned. year time-horizons oblige Shell to think education. This provided a platform Even if a Shell or LEF is involved Far from this being a “soft” and plan long. The politics of energy on which trust could be built. LEF initially, social capital is something management issue, it is a hard, exploitation and production mean that that local people drive. leadership one. It makes all the

56 57 difference to whether collaboration expects; it may not be ready to manage from government, business and civil • polarised (momentum is cancelled out actually happens, adds real value, the boundaries of what is acceptable society — if they fail to address what as the collaboration tears itself apart); secures and advances other interests in a collaborative venture. Sometimes reduces their potential for or and, critically, inspires others to spot the very ambiguity is what makes the effective collaboration. and exploit opportunities for further collaboration possible. But failure to • fragmented (focus and momentum political, commercial and social address the ambiguity and find common One example given to me when I visited are dissipated). collaboration. In parts of the world agreement on how to work with it can a number of national missions at NATO where conflict or insurgency persist, often erode any good work done by the was the way in which the rules permit Value-focused collaboration: the key effective collaboration between collaboration. one country to block debate and to success governments, business and civil society therefore decision. One diplomat said will decide whether lives will continue Risk of muddling through wryly: “Even the European Union, for to be lost or whether livelihoods will all its complexity and the need to work Political or business leaders improve. “Muddling through” rather than with 27 member states, can — and usually want something out of making the best use of collaboration often does — put real pressure on some the contribution their organization A spirit of collaboration may be merely risks reducing policy options and of its members if the broad majority makes. It’s one thing establishing espoused rather than practised; and this producing a vicious circle of wants to achieve resolution. what the collaboration wants to will become most obvious when such disappointment, disillusionment and achieve. But you also need to know ventures come under pressure or suffer distrust. It is not only a matter of The experience of practitioners is not that a leader will also have reasons setbacks. This is partly because the way whether collaboration is attractive in dissimilar to watching a rugby match to get involved: enhancing their self-interest is pursued is still largely on principle and difficult in practice but where there is a struggle for possession organization’s reputation, leaving the basis of a zero-sum game and partly also how we “get real” about for large parts of the game. Suddenly a legacy. There’s nothing wrong because, when we do genuinely strive collaboration so that it does not acquire a breakthrough occurs, the line of sight with this and it’s important to work for win-win solutions, we are clumsy at a significance that distorts its real value. is clearly in view and there’s a dash to with it. creating, claiming and delivering value Studies on trust and goodwill (e.g. Fox, victory. Collaborations need focus and Sir Michael Lyons, Chairman, BBC Trust. in a way that feels right to all parties. 1974) reveal the disturbing truth that, momentum; yet it is in their nature to

if trust and goodwill are exercised meet resistance to both. One of the Some of my respondents in other uncritically, collaboration can mask biggest dangers is collaborations get- The key to success in any shared governments say that they can see that under-performance. ting stuck. Huxham and Vangen (2005) endeavour is value-focused there is a greater expectation that speak of “collaborative inertia”. As well collaboration. The focus of any governments, business and NGOs will Parties fail to confront one another’s as stalling, collaborations risk being: collaboration or partnership is the value have to work together more. But that failings or do not want to risk support that it generates and delivers, so that is more because the way we organise for the collaboration, changing • sidetracked (the collaboration has any gains or losses are seen in relation ourselves demands greater collaboration theindicators of success to justify momentum, but loses focus); to what overall is achieved. Success rather than because we are very good continued under-performance. lies in finding or creating synergies, at it. Nothing is more likely to give the • hijacked (it has focus and eliminating duplication and showing nebulous phenomenon of collaboration momentum, but is not carrying that the cost of not collaborating The collaboration-builder enters a world and partnership a worse name. everybody with it); outweighs the cost of collaborating. that draws heavily on partnerships but is International institutions risk losing Cost and value can be seen in strictly often unclear what precisely it wants or public confidence — as well as support

58 59 economic terms; but can be seen more focus in their decision-making. The Baroness Neuberger, who advises the techniques but with the openness that broadly in economic, political and social two variables are the extent to which Prime Minister on the third sector, permits a genuine response. terms. Whatever the basis of evaluation, leaders keep their eyes and ears open argues that value of what an effective that a collaboration has to contribute and the extent to which they keep an collaboration can achieve is not always Some respondents are sceptical about real value is unarguable. Even if open mind. Leaders may choose to obvious until it has been given a chance how much governments can adapt trade-offs and sacrifices are made, concentrate on some things and not to work. “It’s in the interaction and to a true spirit of partnership because the collaboration delivers on what others. But they need to be aware while chemistry that real potential arises,” their relationship with the rest of society otherwise could not have been their eyes are closed. They may want she said. is too inflexible. Collaboration is a achieved. When tensions are to think about a problem in a certain particular challenge for government, transformed into opportunities, what way — but they need to be aware that International Alert’s Bill Yates — who which has traditionally been in a makes collaboration difficult is made they have closed their minds. has made a vocation of trying to bring parent-child relationship with its citizens easier and therefore more possible. peace to war-torn areas — has this rather than one that is adult-to-adult. Value-focused collaboration has both Some private-sector respondents said warning: “What techniques you’ve If government wants to encourage a strategic and pragmatic side. Strategy that procurement in business and learnt, you have to leave them behind a closer engagement with citizens, it on its own will not help navigate the government could lead to systematic and work with the people you’re will have to work hard to convince changing conditions inside and outside distortion of what is thought of as dealing with on their terms.” doubters. It will also have to be patient the collaboration. Pure pragmatism will valuable. Contract specifications and and demonstrate consistency in its give a sense of coping with change; but procurement procedures can mean that Strategic pragmatism balances the need actions. ultimately it results in being swept along value is seen only as price — when what to manage against working with the by the currents. This combination also business or government might find flow. In The Age of Paradox, Charles British government has shown such helps keep some things simple, while valuable is the assurance or innovation Handy argues that this paradox can be innovation in the road safety campaigns not oversimplifying them. that a product, service or relationship “managed” only in the sense of coping developed by the Department for brings. with it — which is what management Transport. What was done to citizens It is a bit like navigating a ship at sea. had always meant until the term was and for them over the years is now Ships can be partly rebuilt at sea, but I tested this requirement — to work purloined to mean planning and increasingly done with them and by not if all the planks are removed at with what emerges rather than what control. them. “For our more recent campaigns,” once. Their basic design sets limits on is predetermined — with a range of says David Murphy the department’s the captain and the crew, however leaders in the field of collaboration. Sir According to Richard Farson in head of marketing, “we involve at the experienced and enterprising they are. Michael Lyons, Chairman of the BBC Management of the Absurd, the earliest stages the very people to whom Whatever has to be managed on the Trust, says: “Too much is made of the psychologist Carl Rogers thought that, any campaign would be addressed. If surface can easily be changed by what is heroic efforts of one leader, because it’s at the point when a therapist thought it’s young people, we get their ideas of below the surface. And conditions may an easier and catchier story to tell. But that he or she could handle a client, what will, or won’t work, for them.” change, often suddenly and radically. if you look at what was achieved over it was the start of an invisible erosion time to make Birmingham the of respect. To be truly effective, the The process that the communication Strategic pragmatism, open minds successful city it has become, it’s a therapist has to respect the client and director and his team follow with and open eyes complex and broad collaboration by be open to whatever might happen. stakeholders now has several stages of many people who’ve all made a Management is the ability to meet each involvement. First, they sound out any Gillian Stamp and Lorraine Dodd are contribution between them.” situation, armed not with a battery of concerns and ideas; secondly, they test developing a model that helps leaders concepts and strategies; and, finally,

60 61 they demonstrate products before they One key message for campaigns that • Ministers showed leadership both in go public. are designed to enlist the support experts who had been sceptical of creating a space in which these issues of partner organizations’ contacts, the government’s intentions wanted could be more openly addressed and Value-focused collaboration networks and audiences is not to more time and money to debate in supporting civil servants and acknowledges that actions speak louder presume responses or to over-rely the issues. Government officials stakeholders to manage the design than words in creating and sustaining on partners’ own assumptions. Such successfully won their trust and and delivery. an atmosphere in which trust and campaigns need to invest enough time commitment to make use of the goodwill prevail. Because collaboration in listening to feedback and acting on available resources and to meet Work with rational assumptions, yet depends on deepening relationships it. Insight into citizens’ preferences and the deadline. This was achieved by understand their limits over time, reciprocity prevails: trust behaviours will not just affect marketing giving the independent board more gradually begets greater trust while but also the design and implementation opportunity to review and improve Roger Miles, King’s Centre for Risk distrust quickly begets mistrust. Over of policy. the design of the debate, by Management at King’s College London, time, people come to share similar persuading ministers to accept argues that the collaboration-builder attitudes to each other. Technique can changes and by managing public needs to take a strategic view of risk. mask attitudes only temporarily. Alan Bishop was until recently expectations. By giving responsibility This goes beyond the many sectional Chief Executive of the UK for the conduct of the public debate interests and specialist definitions of However strong the collaboration is Government’s Central Office to an independent chairman and risk management that are often used among its participants, for many of Information. He recalls the board, the Government could show to justify professional intransigence: “ collaborations — particularly between government decision in 2003 over time that the final decision to A measure of modern leadership quality governments, business and NGOs — to give limited approval to the allow restricted use of GM crops should be a willingness to rely on success turns on being able to motivate commercial exploitation of GM was based on an informed and judgment, in self and others, rather and mobilise a multiplicity of citizens crops. It represented a watershed genuine debate about the than to seek justifications from whose choices and behaviour are in how government engages and arguments as well as a proper risk-metrics.” (Miles, forthcoming). shaped by a range of influences. communicates on a most complex review of the scientific and and contentious issue that cuts economic evidence. Much modern policy-making retains But even acknowledging the need to across departments. Defra — the a weakness which perhaps reflects engage can reflect a narrowness of environment, food and rural affairs a lingering reluctance to abandon a perspective. It is a top-down view of department — developed and Learning points: comforting notion that command- game-changing collaboration, attractive implemented a strategy over and-control is the natural mode of to the conventional policy-making 12 months that enabled the • As well as the formal public debate, government, with government cast in mind-set: “If only we can work out government to give GM crops the there were many other dialogues the role of parent and citizens as what a rational solution might look like, go-ahead. This involved conducting that tested not only the government’s children. That weakness is a belief that we can produce a solution and find reviews of the science and the reasons but its motivations. While the a policy acts directly in the way that ways in which it can be implemented”. economics and holding a public government wanted to be robust it alters behaviour in the targeted The pure logic of the argument drives debate that was government- about the timetable and funds groups — a mindset described by Miles an optimism that might or might not funded but at arm’s length. The available, it had to show flexibility on as “Newtonian optimism”. The term have traction with others whose process came close to collapse other issues to ensure an effective comes from Newton’s third law of decisions may be driven even more because NGOs and environment collaboration. motion, which says that an action by apparently irrational choices. produces an equal and opposite reaction.

62 63 In a forthcoming study of rule-bending rights — such as the right not to be Suspend assumptions while trigger for what they want to say. This behaviours among bankers, Miles criminalised for failing to carry identity explaining them stifles the potential of conversation identifies the real-life difficulties which papers, or eating beef on the bone or before it has begun. have followed regulatory assumptions selling market vegetables by imperial that rational structures will evoke units of weight. Secondly, when “Conversation is a meeting of For collaboration to work, it requires rational responses. This study reflects policymakers have convinced themselves minds with different memories and what Gillian Stamp describes as a wider change of opinion in the that regulated groups will comply with habits. When minds meet, they suspending one’s assumptions while academic community, rejecting former a new intervention, they may have don’t just exchange facts: they explaining them to the other. In part assumptions that humans make rational ignored the possibility of “gaming” transform them, reshape them, 3 of this chapter, I describe methods decisions in the face of complex risk responses which carry a perverse draw different implications from and techniques that can be learnt and information. A growing body of rationale of their own. them, engage in new trains of applied to increase the chances of a research now points to intuition, thought. Conversation doesn’t just meaningful conversation among parties emotional response or simply mood From among many possible examples reshuffle the cards, it creates new who cannot immediately see what they at the time as having a greater impact of gaming reported in the media, we cards.” have in common or how they could on decisions than rational argument. might select: work together. As one analyst has put it: “Fear is more (Zeldin, 1998, p.14) persuasive than logic” (De Becker, • ASBOs worn as a badge of pride by 1997, p76). aspiring career-criminals; Bill Yates played a pivotal role in Rational assumptions are prey to brokering peace efforts in conflict- These findings add to understandings • hospitals re-registering in-patients criticism both by experts in cognition torn Burundi in the late 1990s. gained through Nobel-prizewinning purely to meet throughput targets; and by populist rule-bending. If applying He says: “You need to leave any work on cognitive heuristics. These are a rational-optimistic model, one cannot preconceptions behind, and really ways in which human decisions are • diversity targets achieved by adding in presume understanding — let alone try to understand the situation and influenced by mental “weightings” and employees’ grandparents’ ethnicity; agreement — on anything that might the people you’re dealing with. As “short-cuts” that are numerous and turn out to be viewed differently by a mediator, you need to make may often be misleading — such as • police arresting children as a way to each of the parties and the people that yourself as invisible as the situation how recently we last heard about the boost crime clear-up rates; and they represent or can influence. requires — to be a fly on the wall problem and whether we thought we or even a fly off the wall.” knew anything about it already. • local authorities blowing their annual What makes for effective conversation is Collaboration requires us to be (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). budgets in the closing weeks of the when all sides are prepared to listen to present to the situation and financial year in order to become one another, are genuinely interested maintain a commitment. Yates adds: Two particular human behaviours will eligible for more money next year. and are open to the possibility that they “At one point I thought I would tend to frustrate the efforts of might be surprised or learn something have to listen to seven million rational-school policymakers. An new. But this does not mean that personal histories about the Burundi intervention which evokes a strong people have to change their minds and conflict. But that’s the price one emotion-led response can rapidly find agree. So often in conversation, people has to pay to build the right itself mobilising public anger or ridicule do not listen to what the other has to relationship over time and achieve of government. Typically, this may say but use what they hear as the any kind of breakthrough.” concern a perceived denial of citizens’

64 65 Learning points: If one observes the editorial meeting Five minutes before transmission, an of a television news programme team official from the Japanese government • The team or collaboration-builder in the start of a shift, a good test for an briefed the media that, although the first two examples saw that effective collaboration is the extent everybody was relieved that the crisis creative solutions cannot be assumed to which the quietest voice finds was over, there were some concerns but need to find expression. Effective expression, is listened to and is about the risks that had been taken. intervention consists in identifying the acted on. The example shows the value of the barriers and levers, and clearing the “Lieutenant Columbo” touch in path for others to make their journey At BBC World news, in 1996, after collaborations, asking one more (Covey, 1989). a hostage crisis had ended swiftly at question that might provide a better the Japanese embassy in Peru, the way of going forward. • A leader can make a significant story the day-shift inherited from the difference by setting the strategic night team seemed to have no new Studies of the decision-making “ceiling” — the point at which issues angles to report. But the team process in the Challenger space or angles can be discussed — high producing the lunchtime programme disaster highlight the organizational or low. explored other possibilities at their and institutional pressures to reach 6.00 am meeting. One new member consensus and closure. The decision of the team, not herself an expert at to launch the next day was the managing hostage crises, asked what product of a decision-making process might have gone wrong. She was involving key personnel who were all interrupted by another, more given the opportunity to express their established, member of the team views of the relative merits of either who said the authorities had followed going ahead with the launch or text-book procedures and it had been delaying it. The engineers had serious a very effective operation. The concerns but ultimately agreed that it programme editor nevertheless was a “management” decision and encouraged her to develop the idea not just an engineering one. They and line up an expert for when the therefore consented to the fatal programme went on air at noon. launch.

66 67 Part 2: Drivers for success and steps to take

To produce value, collaboration • Experiment, evolve and improve. would be disclosed that might intangible value of any collaboration must be anchored in both reality Collaborators must adapt. The undermine that ultimate goal. as well as more tangible elements. and possibility. It is about managing collaborative world is not about One needs to work out the dividend — what can be planned and responding winning an argument but working Focus on a strategic aim helps the political, economic, social — that appropriately to what emerges. A range together to do what is right. collaboration builder to draw on collaborative activity will bring. of respondents across governments and commitment by establishing the limits civil society were asked what this means We are not seeking a recipe for of the potential collaboration. Chris Pioneers of sustainable development for leadership. In pulling together their perfection, but can be better at playing Huxham’s work shows how goals can speak of a triple bottom-line: economic, responses, I have drawn up some key our role in a collaborative endeavour. be explicit, assumed or hidden — and environment and social. We can see drivers to guide collaboration. We can achieve more by being firm on still produce results. something akin to this when businesses some points and flexible on others. In seek ever-higher aims in the field of To be effective, collaboration builders this section, I identify 15 steps needed Why have a collaboration? Whether corporate social responsibility (CSR). need to: to implement any collaborative strategy, to set up a partnership in the first place This is about business performance as and provide a model for developing is often the most difficult question of well as public relations. If there is a gap • See collaboration as part of a bigger effective relationships. In part 3 of this all. Collaborations run risks that are between rhetoric and reality there is picture. The collaboration must be chapter, I discuss the main challenges of similar to those of organizations. One spin. And spin is counter-productive. aligned with a strategy to deliver the collaboration: leadership, trust, risk and consultant who advises charities told best possible outcome. Collaboration complexity. an organization assessing its purpose Negotiations need not be about price. can be at the heart of plan and it can and role: “Remember that the Nor have they always been. Saving also complement and reinforce other 1. Clarify the purpose Companies Act requires you to do money is always a driver in the public plans. It has a beginning, middle and some good for others, not to pursue sector. Saving and making money are end. What purpose does the collaboration your own good. You don’t have an drivers in the private sector. But money serve? The FCO faced two hostage automatic right to exist.” need not be the only driver. It is possible • Achieve results with broad-based crises in 2007: five British diplomats to look at higher costs in terms of other support. Collaborators must combine went missing in Ethiopia and 15 Royal What has to be decided is whether costs or missed opportunities. effectiveness with legitimacy. This Navy personnel were captured by Iran. the collaboration will add value and, is particularly important if the In managing these challenges, the even if it does, whether it is worth the This is very pertinent to businesses that collaboration cannot deliver changes government was helped by having a investment. Collaborations and are seeking to move from to a low- by itself and relies on the combined simple strategic aim: to ensure the safe partnerships can set back a cause carbon economy. Companies that can effort of others. and early return of those held. This if expectations are set too high and fail drive growth, increase revenues and was understood and communicated to materialise. reduce costs — while becoming more • Keep up the momentum and secure internally and externally — both at the sustainable — will become more meaningful involvement from most emergency committee, COBRA, and 2. Aim high attractive to other business partners partners. Collaboration builders must in all the supporting operations across and the wider public. The tough manage complexity, uncertainty and government. The single-minded Value-focused collaboration does not economic climate gives companies an ambiguity, and invest time in the pursuit of an agreed strategic aim sets compromise on achieving a win-win opportunity to reap the political and human side of common endeavours. the conditions for working effectively outcome. Even more ambitiously, it economic advantages of a longer-term At the same time, they must accept with a high level of media interest. It may aim for the highest common commitment to reducing carbon trade-offs to achieve a common end. was understood that no information denominator. That might include the emissions.

68 69 Aiming high in collaboration means commitment to a deal that lasts. Olga 4. Evaluate success raising one’s sights. Collaborations are Edridge, who led the BBC’s successful being more difficult and costly similar to negotiations in establishing joint venture with Discovery from 1998 than was foreseen or simply fail. The FCO, in its public diplomacy work, interests and creating value. Simple and 2004, refers to this as making sure Throughout the BBC-Discovery has attached importance to developing negotiations will make assumptions that there is always plenty of meat on venture, Olga Edridge was acutely ways of evaluating success. Academic of interest and potential value, the bone. “Never cut to the bone,” aware that as many as 70% of research done on evaluating success concentrating on what it takes for she says. “Give yourself and partners commercial joint ventures fail in collaboration is in its infancy but each party to settle. More complex enough to chew on as the partnership within two to three years. Each provides some useful pointers. Huxham negotiations will go beneath the progresses.” party needs to work at what it and Hibbert (2007) suggest that five surface of stated interests or assumed might gain through association elements can be broadly established: value in trying to discover the real The third step is to see whether there with the other. This requires interests at stake or the other interests is any value or interest, not already thorough preparation, and • Substantive: that could be taken into account to on the table, that can yield a latent commitment from the top. achieving some level of output and allow a deal to take shape. In this sense, dividend and enhance the original showing one has done so. Social collaborations are no different. More proposal. Economists call this Edridge acknowledges that the goals can be big or small. Success time spent on establishing real interests addressing the externalities. stakes for both BBC and Discovery can be relative, either to that gives the collaboration better insight. were so high that, right from the collaboration or to doing something Increased participation by those who start, they were anxious to avoid else. 3. Strive for commonality of interest contribute ideas and resources will drive the mistakes that are so commonly the value of collaboration. Ensuring that made. “We had to ensure that that • Process: Experienced negotiators see that partners contribute as equals, whatever it was a relationship of equals and it is often said that process does not negotiations can scrape through with their specific assets, helps both achieve therefore had to work at what each matter. But on some key aspects — neither side going below its bottom line the best deal and to secure a longer- side might bring to the table,” she for example, ensuring enough of the or cutting across red lines. Sometimes term commitment. The advantage of says. “Discovery would provide the right kind of involvement — it is the most that can be achieved is not dominating any partnership carries the investment; the BBC would provide critical. losing rather than winning. But all the drawback of losing what the other the brand, give Discovery first refusal best negotiations aspire to what might want to contribute if treated on on buying its programmes and offer • Emerging milestones: economists call the Pareto optimum — more equal terms. This requires both co-production opportunities.” whatever normal milestones the point of agreement that favours parties to give up some power in return are established for programme each side equally, maximising gains and for an increased contribution and being management purposes, practitioners minimising losses. creative about how contributions can be Learning point: acknowledge milestones that arise enhanced. along the way. These can make a Identifying the Pareto optimum is the • Successful business deals involve lasting impression: for example: first step. The second is to expand the longer-term thinking, being creative “That report was a real milestone. size of the cake so that there is even Most commercial mergers and about tapping the potential of a deal Because we produced it, we can more benefit for each side. Exploring acquisitions, strategic alliances and and putting value on relationships. move on.” the full potential of the deal at the joint ventures — all examples of outset has strategic advantages: it collaborations — either end up ensures continued interest and

70 71 • Recognition: prove that what it commits to doing all its staff — up to 100,000 in number. Collaborators understand the wider whatever is achieved, success is in its corporate social responsibility Anything less would risk further criticism politics and political imperatives as well amplified by others giving programmes is matched by the core of the company and the defence as the organizational politics. They recognition. Examples include of the business. The banking and sector in which it plays a leading role. appreciate others both as members of invitations to follow up work, awards finance sector in particular, he says, BAE Systems says that by adopting a group and as individuals with their and enquiries by others who want to has failed to show that all its business all 23 of Woolf’s recommendations it own agendas. What are the political know something was achieved. plans are costed and implemented with wants to show that it can be recognised objectives of the players? What are the corporate social responsibility in mind. both as a high-performing company and power relations between them? What • Pride: as a global leader in standards of are the alignments or deals that could when collaboration has been Stanley Fink, one of Britain’s private- business conduct. It will bring in an bring them together? successful, individuals claim success, equity leaders, used his time leading external auditor to review progress in feel confident talking about it and the Man Group to show how business the implementation of An enterprise called e3g has done even shout about it. can be innovative about reducing a three-year programme. some pioneering work on difficult carbon emissions. Fink says that collaborative endeavours, such as Interestingly, Huxham and Hibbert when he started reading about tackling 6. Understand the different contexts climate change. It uses an approach studied examples of “anti-success”. climate change, he quickly saw that in which collaboration operates that requires investing time in aligning Even though it is possible to identify business could encourage investment interests before focusing on the success, some of those involved raise all in clean technologies rather than risk Collaborations require their own blend political choice that is needed to bring sorts of caveats. In my view, exploring being taxed. Collaboration on drawing of leadership and team skills, both to about any possible agreement. what success involves can motivate and up policies for the business sector can take advantage of an opportunity for serve as a reality-check. If others are not often come about as means to pre-empt collaboration and to make it work. As one diplomat says, “all attempts seeing the same reality, issues can be undesirable government decisions and General Sir Rupert Smith, who has led to bring about difficult outcomes need dealt with. reassure the public. Fink recalls: “When major collaborations throughout his to start with politics”. This takes us leaders in the private equity sector met career, says that leadership can choose to the importance of framing and 5. Create value - and demonstrate to agree ways to be more transparent to focus either on the external challenge language. Political parties understand values and regulate themselves better, this to an organization or the internal one. this but, on the whole, governments was the best way to give politicians The organization provides something do not. It needs to be understood if There is a link between creating and the public greater confidence in from which to operate. But there is a collaborative strategies are to work. value and having values. Business is the management of the sector and context outside. The challenge is not The debate on climate change took under increasing pressure to act demonstrate through our actions that only the leadership that one gives one’s a positive turn, from the point of view responsibly in the eyes of its own the sector adds value.” organization but also how one supports of those wanting to galvanise a wider employees, shareholders, customers other leaders who have to operate in spectrum of American opinion, when and the wider public. So part of any In July 2008, BAE Systems decided to contexts outside the collaboration. the evangelical right was seen as a decision is aligning business strategy act comprehensively on Lord Woolf’s potential ally by environmentalists. with values and reputation. Alan Murray, report into the ethical practices 7. Use political intelligence Solitaire Townsend, chief executive of co-author of Corporate Responsibility: underlying the company’s business Futerra Sustainability Communications, A Critical Introduction, says that by implementing a far-reaching A grasp of politics is essential for says that framing the challenge of busness on the whole has yet to programme that will make demands leading or supporting collaboration. tackling climate change as a matter

72 73 of “custodianship of the planet” “Even where partnerships have been Anglo-American, says: “Companies that established the right common ground. formed, open sharing of ideas and It pointed out that voters tended do not transparently communicate their The split between political leadership information can take a long time to get to reward best-performing councils sustainability performance are running and civil servants should not prevent off the ground.” and that NGOs and civil society out of excuses.” (PR Week, 17 October, each side from understanding of the could only gain from a positive 2008). other’s drivers, barriers and levers. When dialogue with local authorities. the relationship works well, there is a Working in Romania has involved There is more work to be done but Worsening economic conditions are creative dynamic between ministers and overcoming suspicion. Things these councils are on the right track not a reason for companies to put civil servants. One former permanent are slowly changing and Britain in many municipalities. CSR on the back burner. According secretary says: “Civil servants have has been involved in some effective to the Ethical Corporation Institute gone from being shock-absorbers of partnerships. Two catalysts for (2007), despite a 10,000% increase ministerial aspiration to gear-boxes. At success are sponsorship at a Learning points: in companies reporting their CSR our best, we offer strategic options, and political level in partnerships performance over the past decade, think ahead about how we can deliver involving central or local • Political sponsorship acts as a catalyst. many are not reporting in an engaging better or more innovatively.” government and external External scrutiny concentrates minds. way. involvement. If ministers or mayors Thinking should happen within the box are seen to back a particular • Patience and persistence are political — as well as outside it — to keep the partnership actively — rather than skills. Both recognize the body politic The German presidency of the EU delivery of objectives relevant and merely to accept it — then officials for what it is, whatever changes need was successful in establishing a salient for our changing society. are immediately more open and to be brought about. long-term framework for tackling frank. Similarly, the involvement climate change. Since then, Britain’s ambassador in Bucharest, of embassies and other external 8. Show long-term commitment progress has been fraught with Robin Barnett, says that in countries like partners also gives an added political and economic challenges. Romania, where civil society is relatively impulse in the initial stages. The more difficult and complex The work now involving the weak, the benefits of partnerships are collaborations need to be approached coordination of eight directorates- less self-evident than one might assume. A good example is the Local like a marathon, with all the focus, general at the Commission in “Transparency has not been a part of Transparency Councils project, a preparation and perseverance that this russels shows that international the central and local government partnership between the Romanian entails. The European Union summit institutions are beginning to close tradition,” he reminds us. “NGOs have government, local authorities, of October 2008 failed to achieve a the democratic deficit by a more been circumspect about engaging too NGOs, civil society and the British breakthrough on dealing with climate ambitious involvement of non-state closely with officials for fear of embassy. The embassy was able to change, but Britain is standing by plans actors and citizens in the delivery of somehow compromising their act as a catalyst for introducing agreed in 2007. The Foreign Secretary, social goals. Claus Sorensen, DG independence.” greater transparency in the David Miliband, insists that Europe hits Communication, says that EU plans workings of local government its 20% target for reduction in carbon for dealing with climate change Barnett says that there have also been by using the power of positive emissions. involve making closer connections concerns about aspects of private-sector UK examples and stressing the with energy security and involvement, given the possible apolitical nature of such activities. On corporate social responsibility, Sir environment. “It’s not just a wider, perception of influence-peddling, Mark Moody-Stuart, Chairman of

74 75 negotiations, what’s agreed at communities of practice. It is but a deeper, collaboration,” he the collaborative challenge of summits and ministerial meetings developed by being taught in explains. “Unless we work more achieving resolution on both will also be determined by what company of those who already know. collaboratively, we won’t achieve climate change, and world trade. negotiators can get agreed with their the impact the EU needs to have to The talks were very widely covered political overseers. All will in turn, be • Phronesis: be globally effective.” and there was much factual negotiating with — and influencing experiential knowledge. Phronesis is reporting about which country the opinions of — their own public. practical wisdom, drawn from social practice. It can be learnt only by Any deal on reducing carbon emissions was taking which position. The • Climate change negotiations will direct “felt” personal experience. which is sustainable — in both the Indian Government’s position was shape how each society collaborates conventional and the green sense — reported to have been tough — to achieve economic growth and • Metis: has to be an intricate web of mutually particularly against the USA — but reduce carbon emissions. So any conjectural knowledge. Metis covers supporting agreements at global, re- without ruling anything out. The investment in negotiation will be the learnt capacity for handling gional, national and local levels. Gov- Indian media took the view that have to matched by an investment complexity that combines flair, ernments need to be seen to deliver for their government was standing up in strategic communication, using wisdom, forethought, subtlety of business and civil society backhome, for developing nations. local, national or global channels to mind, deception, resourcefulness, no matter how dextrous negotiators shape the political climate in which vigilance and opportunism. It can are at summits. Private engagement of India’s Ministry for Foreign Affairs businesses and citizens change provide the ability to anticipate, state and non-state actors needs to be has consciously integrated its behaviour and expectations. modify and influence the shape of interwoven with public diplomacy. public diplomacy activities to events — which can be interpreted support the negotiating strategy 9. Use all four types of knowledge as canny. of the government with domestic The vast majority of issues communication campaigns. Unless Lorraine Dodd and Gillian Stamp drew We tend to be more familiar with were resolved at the WTO talks. we all take into account the my attention to the work of Larry how to impart the first two types of But two of the 20 were unresolved domestic dimension of any Prusak, who explores the four kinds knowledge. Techne and episteme can and led to their collapse in 2008, international negotiation, we miss of knowledge differentiated by the more readily be taught and examined in showing that any collaboration or not only vital information but also classical Greeks (Prusak, 2000): order to appraise the degree and level negotiation is only as strong as its the opportunity to work more of attainment. It is also relatively easy weakest link. India’s role is critical to effectively with the very people • Episteme: to assume measured links through to determining the outcome of both whom we need to persuade. technical/practical skills. Episteme operational outcomes when operational sets of issues. covers abstract generalisations, basis settings are carefully controlled and and essence of sciences; scientific bounded. Phronesis and metis are more The WTO’s Pascal Lamy visited Learning points: laws and principles. It is developed by deeply seated in terms of the learning India shortly after the collapse of practice and repetition. effects and relate more to emotional the talks. The quality of coverage • The pressure on negotiators will intelligence than IQ. Metis is “what in India’s media, one of the most focus them on what they can achieve • Techne: the flair, the knack and the bent of the established and fastest growing in together — a difficult enough teachable knowledge. Techne is successful politician is made of: a form the world, gives us an insight into challenge. But they also operate on technical know-how, being able of knowledge which is at the opposite a bigger stage. In complex to get things done, manuals, end of metaphysics, with no quest of

76 77 ideal but a search for a practical end; an and Roosevelt was to keep their own • when and how to assess its progress The oil and gas industry has produced embodied, incarnate, substantial form people focused on the common end. and to continue to support it or guidance on designing and building of knowledge.” (Baumard, 1994, p.2). Any collaboration carries risk: if one of change it partnerships. IPIECA, the International the parties to the collaboration takes Petroleum Industry Environmental 10. Establish common principles on disproportionately more risk than • whether it should continue in its Conservation Association, was founded the others, it follows that their reward present form when it seems to have in 1974 following the establishment Four questions keep collaboration should be greater. Finally, collaborations achieved what it has set out to do. of the United Nations Environment focused: need to draw on the goodwill of all the Programme. Since then, it has designed parties — not just to get started but When starting up, partners must be practical tips for effective partnerships, 1. What is the outcome that we want also to keep going. Any leader must satisfied that there is enough of an including mapping the different stages to achieve? promote good will. opportunity to be exploited and that of partnership. there is the right dividend for all 2. What is the deal for all parties? As General Smith observes, we love our involved. They will then make a choice I have identified seven of these stages, differences. “When these differences on the basis of: drawing on IPIECA’s emphasis on taking 3. What is the agreed strategy? take away from what the collaboration time to identify the right organizations as a whole needs to achieve, they • confidence that a collaboration can to work with and its suggestion that a 4. What do we all need to do/not to become corrosive, and run down the make a difference; systematic selection process can be used do/to stop doing to achieve success? cracks,” he says. “And in any to help clarify what is required from collaboration, the cracks are always • calculation that the complexity of the each partner. IPIECA also recommends Aligned to these questions are three there.” challenge and the means to over that there should be some early and principles proposed by General Sir come it can be sufficiently managed concrete “win-wins” for the partners Rupert Smith: 11. Decide the timing to deliver a good enough solution; to maintain motivation and momentum and within the partnership. There should 1. Common end A collaboration builder needs to also be time to renegotiate the terms of understand the timing of the • commitment that the collaboration partner engagement if required. 2. Equity of risk and reward collaboration, knowing when best to will be made to work. intervene and to put key strategic When considering the cycle of 3. Goodwill decisions. Key moments in strategic In their article “Ambiguity, complexity collaboration, partners will want to decision-taking are: and dynamics in the membership of balance the need to press ahead with In Smith’s view, collaboration must have collaboration”, Huxham and Vangen the need to ensure that each step has a common end. What united the Allies • whether or not to form a (2000) observe a cyclical relationship been considered by all involved. during the Second World War was their collaboration between the nature of the participating agreed aim: the defeat of the enemy organizations and the focus of the My cycle of collaboration has seven and itsunconditional surrender. Any • when and how best to start it collaboration, with the participants steps: other combination of objectives could defining the focus and the focus not deliver the allied coalition. • choice of partners defining new participants. Each time 1. Identify, assess, and act on the Relationships during the course of a new participant is involved, the focus opportunity to gain political, the war were strained and one role alters slightly and other organizations economic and social dividends. of national leaders such as Churchill become relevant.

78 79 2. Design collaboration, attract and all parties will want to keep under profitability and growth — even many 13. Exploit creative potential select partners. review these questions: big boom years — is less likely to have high a share performance than a firm The emphasis in Chapter 1 was an 3. Convene: gather information and 1. What does the collaboration achieve that reliably meets both objectives of “instrumental” view of collaboration. build relationships. overall? What is in it for each party? positive profitability and real growth Looking at what collaboration was How much does each have to con most of the time. for, I adopted the perspective of 4. Frame challenge and opportunity; tribute? And why does it matter for collaboration as a means to an end, explore options and solutions. all of us that the collaboration is The relevance to managing albeit conditioned by relationships. made to work? collaboration is the emphasis that this But, to make it work in practice, 5. Align interests, focus the choice. puts on tapping the potential value it understanding what collaboration is 2. How do we have impact as a single brings and driving performance while about requires a wider and deeper 6. Establish and require personal and entity and work constructively building participation. Leadership is perspective: seeing collaboration as organizational commitment. through our differences? required to achieve both. Great instrumental, yet also as expressive and performance rises above compromise. reflective. 7. Decide, implement, review and learn. 3. How is one to keep focus and It is not just the product of making the momentum and yet respond to best choices, but avoiding the need to Collaboration can bring out what was 12. Manage the dynamics change? make unnecessary choices in the first not obvious in the confines of a single place. The task is not to arbitrate organization because it is a new and Whatever specific goals a venture has I have drawn on two insights from Dodd between competing objectives but to transitional space. It can help people set itself, effective leadership will mean and Favaro (2007). According to their reconcile them into great performance find a space to step back from their managing three underlying dynamics: research into the 20-year performance on many fronts at the same time. Sports own organization and see what it could of more than a thousand companies, teams stand a greater chance of do differently or better. The aspirations • To create value and distribute enough the central challenge for business winning the championship if players and fears of participants can be reward to all parties contributing to leaders is how to achieve many focus as much on improving their skills expressed with more or less restraint the collaboration. objectives at the same time. as they do on winning today’s game. and with greater or less formality, depending on how the collaboration • To harness productively all the assets, Of all the competing objectives, The case Dodd and Favaro make for chooses to work. Threats and tangible and intangible, that the three pairs stand out: profitability as driving business performance can be opportunities that were dormant or collaboration has its disposal and compared with growth; short-term applied to collaboration: “Organizations just under the surface can be revealed, obtain the right degree of as against long-term; and whole stand a greater chance of meeting their depending on the degree of openness cooperation from each of the parties. contrasted with the parts. many performance objectives, without and candour. Because collaboration can compromise, if they concentrate on take people out of their normal roles or • To deliver on the common end and Central to Dodd and Favaro’s case is strengthening the capabilities that help allow them to test the boundaries, there adapt to any significant changes to the concept of a batting average — knit them all together.” (Dodd and is the potential to reflect and learn. the environment in which the a measure of how often a company Favaro, 2007, p.vii). collaboration operates. is able to achieve two performance The outbreak of foot-and-mouth objectives at the same time in a given disease in 2001 was devastating for For the collaboration to keep its focus year. A key finding is that a company the farming community. But however and direction and adapt appropriately, with years of booms and busts in difficult it was for the UK agriculture

80 81 ministry staff to manage the crisis, one hand, they can be exercises in the finance and so on once something is organizational benefit was the scope display and negotiation of power. This felt. She adds: “Perhaps it is that the exercise in working with the that it gave junior staff to step into is often in the background, rather than leader must feel it for him or herself personalities involved — playing more senior roles. The scale of the work in the spotlight. Collaboration builders before investing the resources of the up to their egos or giving the group to be done to get on top of the disease go beyond set positions, focus on organization.” an unjustified sense of security by meant that government had to make interests and find out what real issues producing an artificial consensus. even more use of the skills at its disposal are beneath the surface. They are So what would make leaders feel the A two-dimensional approach works and give people more responsibility. attuned to the agendas and motives value of effective collaboration? Stamp both on the task and on the of others. Unless this tapping of says that what this involves is: individual contribution of 14. Tap the undercurrents undercurrents is done carefully, issues participants. A three-dimensional can fester and collaborations may stall • Clarity: approach — used by teams who Collaboration has to work at a human or become derailed. When challenges See the world as it is and not as one are more comfortable working level to give of its best. “Stuff emerges” of complexity, uncertainty, ambiguity wants it to be; together and by convenors keen to and needs to be worked through in real and difference are ignored, they can challenge the quality of a group’s time, outside the comfort zone of each gnaw away at the effectiveness of the • Humility: deliberations — is to take a step of the players. These problems cannot group. Acknowledge that one does not back during the course of the be resolved by offloading them on to know what to do; and meetings and ask searching some of the parties or by going out- Success turns on probing beneath questions of the group. How much side the collaboration. Normal coping the formal organization to discover the • Openness: progress are we making here? Are strategies — fight or flight, waiting to informal structures beneath, as well Be receptive to possibilities and to we getting the main issues onto the be rescued — invariably do not address as the informal networks and loose involving others. table and working at them? Whom the issues. groupings that coalesce around haven’t we heard from? What established loyalties and mutual haven’t we heard? When trust is high, the challenge should concerns. One of the smallest units of be manageable. Every party understands collaboration at work is the team Groups in full flow, made up of one another’s contribution and there Much activity in groups is performative: meeting. If it is approached individuals who are self-aware, will is a sense of making progress towards it is a form of performance acted out consciously as a collaboration, all know this instinctively. But a more achieving the goal. Everything flows. for the benefit of participants and those those taking part can think about structured approach, albeit with a Collaborations feel creative and thought to be observing them. When what the meeting is designed to light touch, may be needed. meaningful, with real business being we talk about a “show of force”, achieve, what business it needs done. Leaders in the group rise to the a “punishment beating” or “token to discuss and how each person’s challenge, as do their teams. Initiatives compliance”, we are acknowledging contribution is a good use of Learning point: are taken at every level, supported and that these are all performative activities. everybody’s time. That can take the reinforced by the collaboration as a collaboration forward. • How much thought, preparation whole. Gillian Stamp uses the word “felt” to and follow-up go into the conduct qualify other terms: felt accountability, A one-dimensional approach will of meetings at any level? As well as Collaborations are invariably more than felt leadership, felt strategy. In her treat team meanings either as “getting through the agenda”, and the interests that the parties purport experience, people are readier to a production line or as a false “ensuring that we hear from A, B, to represent. As well as the business in commit resources of attention, time, and C”, how much is made of the

82 83 occasion to bring about the sharing 15. Tap the talent it has to show the value of its of insight and to work with any programmes that promote face-to- investment in people and must manage emerging thinking produced by the face dialogue about foreign policy: Organizations tend to work with one expectations if it is not to disappoint. meeting? “Bringing Foreign Policy Home” or more of three theories of managing and an outreach programme people. Though quite sharply Theory z doesn’t make any Counter-intuitive as it might seem, involving visits to 20 cities. The differentiated, these can co-exist to presumptions: it believes every collaborations produce better results format tends to be open and fluid different degrees. I shall call these moment creates new challenges and if confrontation is encouraged and so that FCO ministers and officials theories x, y and z, grounding them new opportunities and that people consensus is genuine rather than can hear what matters to people loosely ground them in the templates reinvent themselves in the moment. Like passive. According to Hause (1999), and be held to account for policies established in Plato’s Republic, Aristotle’s Theory y, it sees talent as dynamic. But it confrontations actually prevent conflict. in areas where there are big writings and more recently in doesn’t focus on any person’s particular The skill is in making the confrontation differences of opinion. A team postmodernist writers such Gilles potential. It creates opportunities for happen constructively and letting parties from the FCO took part in a “Living Deleuze (Deleuze and Guattari, 2004). people to show what they are capable feel that they will not be disadvantaged Islam” event in 2008. of. It talks about getting people out of by voicing different and sometimes Theory x takes a broadly static view of their “comfort zones”. It’s exciting and contrarian perspectives, especially the talent at its disposal, organises it innovative but high risk — and there- under the pressure to make a decision Learning points: according to skills and experience and fore of mixed appeal. Most hierarchies or to work within constraints. The team filters the talent so that it puts the right are comfortable with a bigger mix of as a whole — and not just the person • If the FCO is to counter pegs into the right holes. Where there x and, depending on how much they who is convening the group — has radicalisation, it must work in are more pegs than holes, it creates want to experiment or to compete for a leadership role in shaping and contexts that are difficult. It must competition by developing the right new talent, a smaller mix of y and z. maintaining the conditions for listen; it must be ready to be people for the right jobs and by Collaboration, by its nature, might work ensuring an effective collaboration. challenged and it must put the producing a human-resource equivalent with organizations that are themselves challenge back. Open disagreement of Darwin’s survival of the fittest. It talks hierarchies. But to go forward it should A sense of unfairness and resentment is healthy, particularly if all sides can about “managing” people. It is have a broader appreciation of breeds when a collaboration does not confront the issues and understand attractive because it gives shape to managing and developing talent, appreciate the contribution of each where others are coming from and managing talent. It plans and organises; particularly if it needs to empower party. Equity of risk and reward is why something is important. Long it has winners and losers, but at least people at different levels to take important, but only if a sense of “fair overdue, these are genuine attempts people know where they stand. more initiative and responsibility. enough” prevails. What also breeds to engage on the issues that matter resentment is a collaboration that to communities, particularly young Theory takes a more dynamic view: The themes of alignment and disproportionately benefits some and people. everybody has potential, and an engagement developed by MacLeod not others. organization’s role is to draw it out and and Barrie in The Extra Mile — which • The group I saw in Manchester develop it. With Theory x, one has to I mentioned in Chapter 1 — confront wanted to know whether this was prove that one has potential. Theory collaboration builders with a challenge The FCO is ahead of the game in the start of effective engagement and y assumes it and tries to bring it out. that is even more pressing for them getting out and talking to whether we would build on what we It talks about “developing” people. In than it is for leaders of individual communities in Britain. It has two had learned and involve others. principle it is very attractive: in practice, organizations: how to draw on the

84 85 extra commitment and engagement and regularly refreshes its ideas by want to be rewarded on merit rather Assessing relationships of employees working for both the contact with external speakers. than on other grounds. collaboration and their own Michael Schluter and John Ashcroft organization. In an organization, If greater collaborative working is The original work on Theories X and Y of the Relationships Foundation have there are explicit contracts, systems expected between governments, was developed in 1960 by Douglas provided a practical way of assessing, and processes to reward and business and NGOs, we all have to McGregor, in “The Human Side of developing and managing relationships encourage some behaviours and understand better how we each prefer Enterprise”. McGregor differentiated by acknowledging the preconditions for penalise or discourage others. Multi- to work and how performance is vaued. between two management approaches, effective relationships. Their framework level collaborations rely on participants The understanding has to be in both one directive (Theory X), the other that does not presuppose a particular giving the right kind of added value in directions. NGOs won’t be able to build empowering (Theory Y). The difference model of a ‘good’ relationship – this will the absence of explicit contracts. politically or commercially on the between the two approaches was for vary according to the context, purpose increasing trend by both governments McGregor stark. I have adapted his and preferences of the participants. The “Tapping the talent” is an essential and business to draw on their credibility model, so that it is more neutral framework allows both parties to the ingredient in the model of public and insight if they don’t match the towards Theory X, while retaining the relationship to consider whether they diplomacy explored in Chapter 5. improvements in skill-set in government essence. I have also adapted Theory Z are creating an environment which Governments will not achieve what they and business: for example, programme which was originally developed by makes it easier and more likely for an want if they rely on too narrow a view and project management. William Ouchi, in his 1981 book effective relationship to develop and be of skills and behaviours, either in their “Theory Z: How American management sustained or whether they are creating own employees or in the organizations Both business and NGOs need to can meet the Japanese challenge”. an inhospitable climate for effective whose support they need in delivering understand that working in the public relationships. These preconditions do social change. Watching Futerra sector carries ever-increasing public A model for developing effective not, of course, guarantee an effective Sustainability Communications at work, accountability and visibility, not just by relationships relationship. They are necessary, but not I saw how the organization had to institutions, but their employees. So sufficient, conditions. become even more business-like and working to rules and procedures is The drivers for success involve a number disciplined to cope with its rapid not necessarily the dead hand of of steps to enable collaborative expansion. But it was also clear that bureaucracy but part of giving the relationships to operate more effectively. this was a company that had achieved public confidence that standards are These relationships the shape the nature what many other organizations long being consistently applied. Some of, and response to, the challenges of for: tapping the creativity of every single countries can take for granted how leadership, trust, risk and complexity. member of the team. Its people are much standards in public life are Ways of analysing relationships, highly motivated, creative and mutually expected and presumed. Others know identifying key areas of strength and supportive. The team is a good mix of that this is still a real struggle and that weakness, as well as the factors that very experienced communications already now, and in years to come, influence them, are therefore a vital professionals and less experienced ethical principles and performance will element in improving collaboration. interns integrally involved in the differentiate a country not just in the business. The team mingles in the eyes of foreign investors and tourists course of the day in common areas, but in the eyes of a younger, more over lunch or some other social activity, skilled and mobile generation who will

86 87 Figure 2.1: Relationships Foundation relational proximity model Five domains to another, so enabling us to say that (Source: Taken from ‘Influencing, Assessing and Developing Relationships’ Handout for Cabinet Office these interactions are part of the same Strategy Unit seminar on 3 March 2009. See www.relationshipsfoundation.org) Communication relationship. When we say that relationships are a series of interactions we mean that Time is the currency of relationships. that are in order to bridge there is some contact between the We save, invest, and spend time. It is important Domain of Relational the gaps so we Relational parties. How people communicate, often our scarcest resource. It is time require the can achieve and and Outcomes Relationship Proximity Goals the media they use, and the skills they preconditions experience the that allows relationships to grow, of benefits of these employ are fundamental processes understanding to deepen, and trust to by which one party to a relationship be built. Conversely the lack of time and Communication Directness: Connectioness Clarity and influences another. Intentions, hopes, momentum through interactions is a reducing the completeness of desires, fears, needs, and information major limiting factor. The time dynamic extent to which communication presence is all need to be communicated in order of relationships is shaped by external mediated or to co-ordinate actions and generate factors such as the demands of other filtered desired responses. Without at least the relationships as well as by such internal potential for communication (even factors as commitment and loyalty that Time Continuity: Meaning and Momentum and if only the potentially one way influence time allocation. Managing the belonging growth gap between communication of relative to comatose interactions patient) there is no relationship as Information the two parties become wholly We narrowed our definition of Information/ Multiplexity: Being known Reading disconnected. Wars can be won or relationship to exclude purely Knowledge improving the and mutual situations and lost, businesses thrive or go under, and contingent connections with breadth and understanding responding to quality of needs marriages flourish or break up as result unknowable entities. Part of what information of successful or poor communication. continues from one interaction to Communication is shaped by external another is information. The conduct Power Parity: Mutual Participating and factors (for example the geography of of a relationship is informed by what the fair use of Respect investment the relationship including size and we know, and the accuracy and power design of offices) as well as internal completeness of that knowledge. factors including both openness and Misunderstandings and missed Purpose Commonality: Unity Motivation and Building shared synergy communication skills. opportunities result when too little is purpose known, or when knowledge is false. Time The nature, extent and quality of Defining relationships as a series of information about each party to the interactions introduces the time relationship is shaped by external factors dimension to a relationship. This such as whether there is the opportunity includes both the overall duration of a to meet in different contexts as well as relationship and the way in which some the openness of disclosure and things continue from one interaction discernment.

88 89 Power Present and direct relationships is that they can build on they will treat us. The distribution of The capacity to influence other parties Why does face to face communication previous interactions (though building the various forms of power, and the in a relationship raises the issue of matter? Why are emails sometimes on negative experiences can serve only structures and processes that give rise power and the consequences of the great – but sometimes not? The extent to deepen the bitterness of a feud). to it, combine with the way in which way in which power is used. This has to which either party to a relationship is Trust, understanding and information is people use power and respond to it, particular influence on the levels of physically, intellectually or emotionally carried through from one interaction to to influence the willingness to invest in participation and investment in a rela- present effects what is communicated, the next enabling more to be achieved. and contribute to a relationship. Fear of tionship either because of the rational how it is experienced and what is Time is not wasted, or the scope of being hurt or treated unfairly is a major calculation of fairness of return, or the achieved. The nature and extent of what can be achieved limited, by disincentive. Confidence that there will more emotive response to feelings of presence is influenced by such factors having to start over again. The story of a be a positive return (whether in terms being used, imposed upon or treated as time, place and the medium of relationship is adopted into the narrative of finance, reputation, opportunity, unfairly. There are many forms of power, communication used as well as the of our life. It becomes part of the proc- pleasure, or in any other currency) each of which may be distributed and communication skills employed and ess of how we give meaning to events encourages participation. The instinct used differently by the various parties to the degree of openness. It is this and see our place in the world and in for fairness is deeply hard wired into our a relationship. that enables both the sense of other people or organization’s lives. make-up and a powerful influence on connectedness as well as the relational behaviour. Purpose effectiveness of the communication Multiplex knowledge Purpose is often the reason for being in process. The conduct of any relationship is Alignment for commonality the relationship and informs the desired informed by what we believe we know People are different. Different outcomes of the relationship. Purpose Continuity of the story about the party. We use this knowledge purposes, identities, preferences or may be influenced by demands of and Teams break down if turnover is too to invite their contributions, assess accountabilities all need to be managed obligations to others, as well as being high, but without change there is little their needs and interests, judge their in a relationship. Difference has many the more internally defined product of growth. Most people prefer to see the character or interpret their responses. benefits: the variety is both interesting the things that motivate us. People have same doctor, have the same person The completeness and authenticity of and also more creative. But difference different objectives and priorities in a cut their hair, or repeat business with this knowledge is influenced by varied that is poorly managed with very little relationship: what matters is the degree people who have served them well. It sources of information, or contexts for alignment of purpose – in the sense of alignment of purpose and the extent reduces risks and saves time, while the gaining it, as well as the degrees of of person to task, between persons, to which different purposes can be explicit or implied promise of continuity inquiry and disclosure that describe the or between organizations – leads to accommodated. conveys security and belonging. It’s relationship. Although there are times conflict and friction. In a complex certainly preferable to have confidence when privacy is valued and important, system this process of alignment can Integrating the internal and external that your bank will continue to exist and or when knowledge can be used against be both unstable and challenging, influences that agreements made yesterday will us, the sense of being known is an with actions in one relationship having In order to see how both internal and still be valid tomorrow. important affirmation of our worth as knock-on consequences for others. external influences on relationships well as bringing practical benefits. Yet without successful management come together within these five themes The way in which interactions string of difference any co-operative activity and start to create different outcomes, together to create a relationship that Parity and fairness becomes fraught with risks. And the Relationship Foundation introduces has meaning and momentum can Our sense of self is shaped, in part, by without the contribution of other another set of concepts. be understood in terms of story or how others treat us. Our actions are people, the scope of what we can narrative. A key element of successful influenced by our beliefs about how achieve is severely reduced.

90 91 Part 3: Common challenges – leadership, trust, risk and complexity

Leadership, trust, risk and complexity 1. Leadership to speak of enabling or empowering Where collaborations are bottom-up, are the four challenges most frequently leadership, rather than the more leadership is given to the front-line, or mentioned by the people I have spoken conventional command-and-control edge, of the organization. The role of to. In particular: The good leader is the one that the type of leadership. the centre is not to lead from the front people adore; the wicked leader is (leading the charge) or from behind • How best to lead the one that people despise; the What then is the leadership role of the (moving the pieces on the board) but great leader is the one people say, collaboration itself? Is it there to drive to keep an overview of what is being • To develop trust “We did it ourselves”. others or to support them? Does it call achieved, spotting where more or less the shots or influence? Is it to kick-start investment or intervention may be • To manage risk Lao Tsu (1996) p.9 change or implement it? Is it driven needed and supporting the flow of the from the centre or is it working from the collaboration. Leadership is more about • To tackle issues involving complexity, If you want to raise a man from edge of organisations? Is it altogether timely and proportionate intervention. uncertainty, ambiguity and difference mud and filth, do not think it is a more dispersed leadership? These enough to stay on top and reach questions are explored by Boxer (2008), Three other models of leadership might These strands interconnect, of course, a helping hand down to him. You among others. also be applied to top-down or bottom- and can be woven together into a must go all the way down yourself, up collaboration. In British broadcasting, single tapestry. What helps connect the down into mud and filth. Then take Push or pull? programme production has been strands are two guiding considerations: hold of him with strong hands and Even where collaborations are driven separated for more than 10 years from first, decide whether a fixed or flexible pull him and yourself out into top-down, leadership can become more commissioning, scheduling and approach is needed; and second, try the light. dispersed if everybody is working to a marketing. The channel commissioner to understand others involved in the common end and with a shared strategy specifies what would make a channel collaboration. In the discussion on Martin Buber (2002) p. 31 whose objectives and roles are all clearly attractive to its audiences. Programme- complexity, I suggest a technique that understood. Some coordination is makers, who compete to put up ideas, helps inform this approach. needed to ensure that efforts are are then commissioned to make the Leadership takes many forms. But integrated. Fiona Hammond, a programmes. The commissioner When I visited Manchester in October whatever is right for a particular contracts lawyer, believes that the form exercises artistic and business 2008 as part of a FCO engagement organization will need to be adapted for leadership takes in collaboration is leadership; yet the programme-maker programme with the Muslim a group that is working together on a more of the push-pull variety than, for creates and produces the award- communities, I said that one of the more equal, participative basis. Leaders example, leading a regiment whose winning programme. So both are main tests of collaboration and wider will be working with other leaders; and troops march to the orders they are leaders. Commissioner and programme- engagement was a genuine willingness their teams might work not only with given. Depending on the work to be maker negotiate or collaborate to to work with diversity. In ascending other teams but with people at different done, the heavy lifting might be done ensure that the programme fits the order, I set out the different degrees of levels of another organization. by a leader. This would be an example channel remit and earns its place in interest and commitment: tolerance, If the collaboration extends to involving of “push”. Alternatively, the work might the schedule. The programme team acceptance and appreciation. One the other networks — or citizens who are be done by teams, with the leader is responsible for delivering the right leading city councillors added: “And agents in their own right — the term intervening to support their efforts as product. celebration!” Dealing effectively with “leadership” will have to be qualified needed. We would describe this as diversity has much in common with even more heavily. It might make sense “pull”. Another model — very close to the managing complexity in collaboration. broadcasting model — is procurement

92 93 of products and services. The collaborating partners. Equally, they sector and in public-private what customers want; it is far better to organization that is responsible for can see that everybody needs to show collaboration. know from the customers themselves procurement can become more or less some leadership — to do the thinking what they desire. It is also important to involved in the generation of product and reflection as well as the heavy Many collaborative enterprises are recognize that consumers could change or services. A contract specifies the lifting — while being supported or judged by those who have a need for it, their minds about what they consider requirement and, depending on the supporting others depending on the by those who set it up and run it and valuable not only through the provision variables, account or relationship work required in that cycle of the by those who gain or lose from it. In of abstract information about products management tracks the delivery. collaboration. Creating Public Value, Mark H. Moore but also through experience.” (Moore says the modern public manager is 2003, p66). Modelling collaboration on a military We need to look as much to teamwork balancing his or her own conviction or marketing campaign captures both as leadership to inspire social change of what constitutes public value with Gambling carries negative connotations. the focus required to organise a result and to encourage citizens to reflection and feedback from overseers, But if leadership is about the mingling and the improvisation needed to exploit responsibility for achieving policy goals. clients and citizens. of reality and possibility, it must be opportunities. Not surprisingly, many of The prospect of working in a team about risk-taking. the best marketing campaigns require a that includes not only one’s immediate The more that accountability and leadership that knows when to colleagues or neighbours but a whole legitimacy matter, the more that success The broadcast and procurement models be directive and prescriptive — for town or community is the inspiration or failure in leadership is determined by in commercial terms seem to give the example, applying the core brand con- for campaigns and crisis response. We a combination of what gets done and commissioner or procurer Caesar-like sistently — and when to give scope to know how well this can work when the support generated and received. powers to determine whether a product “letting a thousand flowers bloom” — small groups of people pull together Leaders of collaboration are in a meets its specification. Failure to do for example, encouraging different and their effort is replicated and particularly exposed position when the so either requires changes or carries participating organisations to apply multiplied. But this is a model of collaboration that they lead addresses penalties. But the commissioner or the core brand to connect with their distributed, dispersed leadership, with difficult social issues. In Leadership procurer can argue that theirs is a audiences. each cell knowing the goal and taking Without Easy Answers, Ronald A. delegated or proxy power: they are responsibility for achieving it — both Heifetz poignantly captures this tension. ultimately accountable to viewers and Leadership and teamwork for its own ends and to contribute to “Leadership is a razor’s edge,” he listeners — or shareholders and Most of my respondents see the need a wider effort. Networked-based says, “because one has to oversee a customers — for the decisions that for effective leadership, particularly organisations or collaborations sustained period of social disequilibrium they take on value. in initiating collaboration and taking driven by a multiplicity of different during which people confront the responsibility for its direction, progress contributions — all focused on the contradictions in their lives and Leadership and shared principles and delivery. Leadership can take same end — make a formal split communities and adjust their values Leadership is not just a matter of having different forms and that it can be between leaders and followers almost and behaviour to accommodate new principles, of taking them up and living handed on to different participants at redundant. The “spark” of leadership realities.” (Heifetz,1994, pp-126-128). them out; it is about making them work different points. One metaphor of has to be there at every level. for all involved. This means creating leadership in collaboration that Value is a mix of satisfying what is an environment in which honesty and respondents found appealing was Leadership and value actually wanted and producing directness can be expressed freely. It running a marathon, a sprint and a One test is who decides on the value of something that could be wanted over means making space for creativity, relay — with the baton being handed what is created and where this leaves time. Moore says: “It is all very well for assertion and even aggression, knowing at different points to different leadership, particularly in the public entrepreneurs to have a hunch about how important it is for some people to

94 95 exercise that aggression as a prelude, or than a bigger commitment from another to the other that begins with attention Tasking ensures that each level of work condition, for being understood. Both person. This is very pertinent to how and communicates attentiveness. It is adds value by defining the limits for assertion and generosity of spirit need governments and business get the best demanding because each of us knows judgment. It to be encouraged. from smaller NGOs. But if one person what it is to be ourselves in a way in has committed more than the other in which we know nothing else; and our • shares intention; How does one get the best from people relative terms and taken on more risk, natural inclination is to talk rather than in an environment where commitment that person’s rewards should, on the to listen. • agrees objectives; and has to be earned rather than assumed? whole, be proportionately greater. Persuasion is only part of the answer. “People and things are seen according • agrees a completion time and criteria One wants others to see the benefits Leadership: Gillian Stamp’s to whether or not they serve particular for review. and to make sacrifices for themselves. perspective purposes and not for their own sake. The end-game is not succeeding in Leaders have a crucial responsibility Attentive listening depends on ‘wide Trusting ensures robust decision-making getting them to change their minds — to develop meaningful conversations. attention’ that wants nothing other at each level by though this might be a means to an end Paddy Coyne, who is responsible for than understanding and has no agenda — but for them to conclude: “This is leadership development at Shell, says to change, judge or control the other.” • entrusting people with the purpose right for me, because I think it, I see it, that what leaders do is to “converse”. and the ethos of the organization; I hear it, sense it, want it.” In a collaborative context, this is of the Appreciative conversation requires highest priority. generosity of spirit and discipline to • trusting them to use their judgment If real leadership ultimately comes shape the hard work of listening and to in forwarding the work for which from the people whom collaboration is Drawing on Geoffrey Vickers’s work remain serene whilst hearing views and they are accountable; designed to serve, shouldn’t questions (Vickers, 1965), Gillian Stamp says ideas that could disturb or even distress. about leadership be framed in terms of that the hallmark of an “appreciative That kind of listening is possible only • evaluating and developing individual how we enable others to articulate and conversation” is that people listen when people do all that they can to capabilities; and act on what they want? This is less to without passing judgment and without suspend their desire to judge, to control do with influencing them than inspiring seeking consensus or compromise, the and to change the other person. This • making sure that no one is either them. sole purpose being to continue the “appreciative conversation” of listening overwhelmed or insufficiently conversation to sustain relationships with openness and mutual respect is stretched by the challenges of their Where possible, commitment needs to of mutual respect. Appreciative especially important at the moment work. be as symmetrical as possible between conversations are of the essence where when many world influences and the parties — though one can live with different value systems meet. The events predispose to fragmentation, Tending is the work that keeps things lesser commitment from some partners parties know they have to maintain their polarisation and stalemate. working; the continual mindfulness of if all that is needed is limited support or mutual relationship, even when their purpose, people and process to keep the delivery of some particular service values appear to contradict each other. In Chapter 1, we highlighted Stamp’s them aligned. Tending ensures that: or benefit. The level of commitment is If the relationship loses mutuality, tripod of work as a way of thinking proportionate to what that person can diversity is jeopardized and ideology about leadership. This model is particu- • the work assigned is still relevant to reasonably give. We don’t often takes over. larly useful for collaboration-building, the organization — especially appreciate how a small commitment as it helps manage team dynamics over important in rapidly changing from one person or organization can Stamp adds: “Appreciative conversation time to ensure high levels of circumstances and when culture is actually be more stretching for them depends on listening with an attitude performance and participation. changing;

96 97 • processes and systems are monitored tending keeps that understanding alive o get products designed and made; In times of change, uncertainty and to ensure that resources are being through communication. The outcome and to achieve goals faster than my complexity, people need confidence in used appropriately according to the is a shared, coherent understanding of competitors, then I may just have the their leaders. Such confidence is built current priorities; purpose, so that every detail and right skills needed to pursue a career in on their belief in the person’s integrity decision is an expression of it. any industry offline too – searching for (see Zenger & Folkman, 2002). Others • a sense of purpose and relevance for rare resources, getting to places faster judge this by how consistent the leader the work is communicated so that Developing future leaders and smarter than my competitors, using is in their day-to-day behaviour, how individuals have a context for their In Chapter 5, I set out the ends to which the skills of making rapid decisions with straight and direct the leader is in work, their initiatives and their we could use effective collaboration, imperfect information, convincing giving difficult messages, how much judgment; and making the case that, just as others and ultimately winning!” the leader follows through on declared collaboration needs leadership, commitments and how much they • procedures are agreed beforehand collaboration produces a new type Perspectives: Derek Wood model the behaviours that demonstrate that will be used if there are of leadership. I offer here three “There has been an increased their stated values. Courage, unresolved differences of view. perspectives on developing the leaders understanding of how changes in leader determination and judgment also of the future. Christopher Lomas is an behaviour can impact performance.” play their part. (Rath, 2007). When tasking, trusting and tending enterprising chief executive who left are held in balance, there are three a major bank in the City to set up a The age of leaders as “hero” is When working collaboratively, character outcomes: company focused on advising top waning and there is an increased focus — honesty and integrity — is the business leaders on how better to work on complementarity and working with universal building block, enhanced by Tasking and trusting allow judgment with young generations. Derek Wood a diverse team. skills and flexible responses to others. to be exercised; tasking sets the limits, has been coaching leaders for the trusting encourages each person to use past 25 years. With their colleagues, Senior leaders need to learn to When coaching leaders, a number of their judgment and makes sure each Mark Schofield, partner at collaborate with others who may be themes continually recur: is “in flow” — neither insufficiently PricewaterhouseCoopers and Julia Fell dispersed geographically and from challenged nor overwhelmed by their of Common Purpose have worked in different cultures. Often they have • loneliness of leadership, and need to responsibilities. partnership to bring on future leaders. limited time to make an impact and gain different perspectives need a greater understanding of what Tasking and tending ensure review: Perspectives: Christopher Lomas counts in influencing others — for • importance of influence requiring a tasking prepares for review by “Paul Edwards, Professor of example, the importance of generating great understanding of individual establishing completion times, tending Communication at Stanford University warmth and support in creating a differences prepares for review by keeping systems, commented in an IBM case study positive image in the minds of others. practices and people heading in the that nearly 50% of managers with • need to maintain personal confidence right direction at the right pace. experience in multiplayer online games There is a growing distinction between in times of difficulty said that being a game leader had position and person. Merely being Trusting and tending ensure the improved their real-world leadership designated as a leader does not • value of honest feedback in helping coherence that people need to sustain capabilities. Edwards said, “If I have the guarantee great leadership. In some navigate the difficult path of their belief that the work is important. ability to lead a group online in Second ways this is a very old agenda, bringing leadership. Trusting entrusts people with purposes, Life or Grand Theft Auto; to discover, into sharp focus the character of the conquer and grow virtual economies; leader.

98 99 Leadership coaching has advanced our organization a better, and more a strong reputation for developing its 2. Building trust substantially by linking organizational sustainable, corporate citizen.” people and being both forward-looking performance to leader behaviours and and having an external focus. When we Contrary to what most people organisations are increasingly looking Perspectives: Julia Fell, first started to discuss the development believe, trust is not some soft, illusive at the outcomes and shifts in behaviour Common Purpose of a leadership programme for UK part- quality that you either have or you achieved by coaching. “All Common Purpose programmes ners based on PwC’s Global Ulysses — don’t; rather, trust is a pragmatic, are designed to create a collaborative a global leadership development tangible, actionable asset that you can Perspectives: Mark Schofield, environment, to provide the right programme including partners from create – much faster than you probably PricewaterhouseCoopers conditions for authentic dialogue around the world working in mixed think possible. “PwC’s leaders work in complex to be created. One example is a teams on projects in developing environments where they often rely customised programme to develop countries —we knew that there Stephen M.R. Covey (2006) p.2 on their ability to influence as well a diverse group of professionals from was a good “fit” between the two to direct. The Responsible Leadership all sectors involved in regeneration — organisations. It took over 18 months Few dispute the value of trust in Programme (RLP) gets to the heart of ranging from developers, architects to reach the point that both parties creating the possibility of working the challenge of what it means to lead and planners to community leaders — agreed that we would develop together and providing the basis for beyond authority. RLP puts participants for the North West Centre of Excellence, something together. consolidating and growing relationships. into third-sector organisations, into RENEW Northwest. The participants Establishing trust is the cornerstone situations where they have no formal were a group of stakeholders seeking a The condition that has made this work of effective engagement. The issues authority or mandate, and helps them shared outcome, coming together from so well and that has helped us through about trust are: how best to exercise to refine their skills — influencing organisations with different purposes, the inevitable tense times is that there it, what relationship it has with securing beyond their formal authority and agendas and different ways of operat- is genuine confidence in one another’s and advancing interest and what professional expertise with a view to ing; and often in strong organisational expertise and an appetite to learn from consequences result from demonstrating achieving sustainable benefits for the cultures. one another as we each have different trust or a lack of trust. Francis Fukuyama host organization and a broad group skills, competencies and knowledge. It is much better known for The End of of stakeholders across organizational “We do this by both using a set of has always been clear that PwC “owns” History and the Last Man, published in boundaries. Common Purpose conventions and by the Responsible Leadership Programme 1992, than for Trust, a book published encouraging different opinions to be and has the final call in the event of three years later. This made the simple “We do this in part because we believe expressed, understood and discussed disagreement. However, Common yet essential point that free markets that business has a key role to play in in an environment that is challenging Purpose had established credibility in depend on a level of trust in order to helping address the big, and not so big, whilst also safe. The outcome is a more the field of experiential learning and function effectively. The crisis in the interconnected challenges of the 21st effective, inclusive and mutually agreed a unique database of leaders in every financial system also highlights a crisis century and partly to develop the process for the way forward, where aspect of the way society works that is in confidence in what, and whom, we leadership skills within our firm. The conflict is already explored. There is also local, national and international. The trust in operating our financial markets. type of collaborative leadership a significantly improved understanding shared goal that guides the team of development experience that our of the different roles people will play in Common Purpose and PwC designers Collaborations depend on trust and partners get on the RLP will enable bringing about the shared objective. and facilitators is the desire for the goodwill. However intangible it is, one them to work and succeed across participants to have a powerful and can instinctively notice its presence or boundaries and, in so doing, make As one of the leading international transformational experience.” absence. The challenge is to engender it accountancy firms, PwC already had and keep developing it when the

100 101 primary task of the collaboration, Ipsos-MORI, Gallup and other public Collaboration between governments, Having defined the problem one can or the goals of an organization or opinion research organisations business and NGOs opens up this make concrete a specific vision or individual, are at risk. Trust obeys the have given us deep and long-term possibility: together the collaboration choice. Only then, once the other law of reciprocity: over time, what goes perspectives on the relative importance can draw on the different levels of trust understands in all the complexity what round comes around. It is high-risk that citizens in different countries assign that each party brings to the table in it takes to achieve the vision, can one behaviour to breach a level of trust; and to trust. I draw from that research and terms of support and cooperation from determine to do what is necessary. loss of trust is very difficult to restore. my own experience this understanding their networks. This cuts across all ages, all back- of what trust involves: Maister’s focus is what it takes for grounds. As part of leadership development, Shell a “trusted advisor” to build the right • Accepting the accuracy, and International uses David Maister’s trust kind of relationship over time with a Whether the relationship operates at importance, of what one is told equation (Maister, Galford & Green, client. But his insights can be applied to a personal or working level, trust is 2000, pp-69-84): partners in any relationship where trust expressive of the attitude that one • Having the confidence in others to needs to be nurtured over time to yield person takes towards the other and deliver what they say that they will Trust = C (credibility) + R (reliability) + I greater dividends. a form of negotiation. It immediately (intimacy, defined as the ability to relate sends signals as to whether one can • Believing that others, even if they to people one to one) all divided by S At the heart of this process is the work with others and in what respects; might not completely agree with you, (self-orientation: the degree to which notion of a meaningful conversation, and how one is going to work with are on the same side or on the same people put themselves first). which Maister, Stamp and others all them. wavelength. highlight as essential in determining the Credibility, reliability and intimacy can all quality of dialogue and the building of Different perspectives on trust have Effective public engagement turns increase trust, whereas self-orientation trust. Simon Anholt, who advises top emerged in doing this research. The on citizens feeling that all three reduces trust. These four dimensions leaders on how better to promote the range of views is well captured by levels of trust apply in working with are a useful way to assess our own distinctive identity of their country, uses reactions to Jonathan Powell’s analysis governments, business and NGOs. behaviour and that of partners. Are we a process that he calls a “conversazioni” of the government’s negotiations on On this model, one can see that many instilling trust? Do we have integrity in to take leaders away from the hurly- Northern Ireland (Powell, 2008). In a NGOs might be more trusted than our words, actions, emotions and burly of their jobs and talk through review of Powell’s book, Lord Trimble governments as being on the same motives? options. Anholt’s work is discussed said: “He was mistaken in his belief that wavelength, not just in relation to their further in Chapter 5, when we explore the objective is to build trust, which is own supporters but to the wider public To develop trust, Maister identifies the implications for public diplomacy. overrated and frequently misplaced. The — either because government is seen as five stages; engage, listen, frame, issue in politics is, rather, can you do secretive and remote or because it has envision and commit (Maister, Galford Shell deliberately distinguishes two business with the other side?” to balance so many different interests, and Green, 2000, p85). The process, steps in a process — convening and it is not seen as promoting any one described in the table below, usefully framing. Framing explores the problem I put this to a former British Cabinet interest enough. The test for the more starts on engagement: are there issues and possible solutions. But this can be minister, an experienced negotiator, advocacy-driven NGOs is whether, to talk about and are these people started only after a successful convening who said, “What’s the difference? Trust having raised expectations about the worth talking to? But it goes beyond stage where partners have got to know and ability to do business go hand in issues that they champion, they can be engagement and shows that, having more about one another’s interests and hand.” trusted to deliver any change. listened properly, one earns the right to concerns. The term I have seen used be with the other to frame the issues. elsewhere is NICE: Needs, Interests,

102 103 Concerns and Expectations. Experienced tendency to focus on ourselves; the Table 2.1: Trust process negotiators simultaneously gather belief that we’re selling only content; (Adapted from: Maister, Green & Galford (2000) p86). information as they build relationships. the desire for tangibility; and the search A relationship of trust makes this for validation. Part of being effective in process light-touch, transparent and building trust is managing one’s own Trust Process Action taken What the client feels What the advisor gains respectful of boundaries. emotions. Step

Gillian Stamp combines the tripod 3. Managing risk 1. Engage Attention becomes “It may be worth Earns the right to tell (trusting, tasking and tending) with focused talking to this person and hear truths. appreciative conversation to work about…” through what needs to be done, what Chi gioca solo non perde mai — If discretion and scope is given to the one plays alone, one never loses. 2. Listen Ears bigger than mouth; “I am being both Earns the right to other and to attend to the issues that Sicilian proverb. (Quoted in Maister, acknowledge and affirm heard and suggest a problem need to be dealt with. In their paper Green & Galford (2000) p147). understood…” statement or “Ambiguity, complexity and dynamics in definition. the membership of collaboration” (Huxham and Vangen, 2000), Chris If leadership is about the mingling of 3. Frame The root issue is stated “Yes, that is exactly Coalesces issues to Huxham and Siv Vaugen argue that the reality and possibility, it must be about clearly and openly the problem here…” move forward. implication for practitioners and policy risk taking. Not just calculated risks, makers is “nurture, nurture, nurture”. but taking risks in the absence of information; or despite, rather than 4. Envision A vision of an alternative “Could we really Makes the vision “Achieving collaborative advantage for because of, the information available. reality is sketched out accomplish that? That concrete; generates could be a really clarity of objectives. all but the simplest of collaborative tasks Unless this barrier is crossed, risk is interesting outcome” requires major resource investment, domesticated rather than seen for what together with significant managerial skill it is: wild and uncertain. The risks that and patience from each of the individual collaborations run cannot be mitigated 5. Commit Steps are agreed upon; “I agree, I understand Allows problem sense of commitment is what needs to be resolution to begin. participants” (Webb, 1991). by a tick-box exercise in judging risk on renewed done. I’m with you, the basis of past experience alone or let’s do it.” Maister warns that one mistake more by the risks being made somebody commonly made than all the others else’s problem. Contingency planning combined is jumping ahead in the exercises are useful — but not if they trust process to drive action before give false comfort. completing the other steps (Maister, permanent secretaries of Whitehall Communicating risk to the public Green & Galford, 2000, pp139-148). One of the most important departments. This group deepened involved raising awareness of risk and The interesting point for Maister is not developments of British civil service the understanding of risk across all being clear that, though governments the fact that we jump too soon to reform in recent years was the initiative departments to show that it was to be have a pivotal role, responding commitment and action but why we led by Sir David Omand in chairing the managed rather than avoided. It also effectively to risk is a shared do so. The reasons include: the human government’s Risk Group drawn from made the links between risk and r responsibility. esponsibility, internally and externally.

104 105 Transparency and engagement were A situation or decision carries both a scrutiny of leaders’ decisions can landscape of reputation risks, some of essential well before a crisis broke out downside (threat) and an upside suppress creativity in leadership. the largest and most volatile objects to make the public “alert, but not (opportunity). Risk may be individually Unfortunately, risk-aversion can be the are affective — various public anxieties alarmed”. In effect, this approach to shouldered, shared, passed to others or most tempting default option in an which may have no obvious rational risk management in public policy terms disengaged from. Collaborations bring era when public scrutiny of officials’ origin. As already noted, the policy assumes that systemic crises have to their own risk – not merely aggregating decisions has never been greater. legacy of the command-and-control be dealt by systematic and methodical the risks which each party brings to the Citizens of the modern “risk society” era is a tendency to patronise; or, in planning and coordinated action — table but producing new risks of their take their own counsel on risk Eric Berne’s famous Games People Play collaboration on a massive scale. own. acceptability and regard it as their analysis, to address the electorate in the The vital element is to continue democratic right to demand that leaders tone of an adult upbraiding a child. acknowledging that there is a limit As research done by Roger Miles and justify a risk decision. Leaders are now to what planning can achieve and to others shows (see Appendix: Risk and challenged, to an unprecedented When confronting reputation keep alive and channel a constructive Regulation), collaboration adds a new extent, to justify their decisions before obstacles erected by affect, the anxiety in organisations and in wider dimension. For example, there will a sceptical public and news media, collaborative partners should consciously society. usually be some form of external whose perspective of hindsight often work to maintain everyone’s capacity orative enterprise and the motive each labels any less-than-perfect outcome for empathy with the values and beliefs The media are strategic partners in member has for joining in. External as failure. of those “outside the tent”. This is helping the authorities build a more observers are naturally curious about essential to protect against the onset resilient society. The Media Emergency the extent to which each collaborator It is well documented that modern of group-think – the tendency of expert Forum, founded by Mike Granatt then may be — or at least may seem to be — media amplify public perception of risk. groups to delude themselves that their chaired by myself and Howell James, motivated by the common good or by Small wonder, then, that a views and decisions are invariably right, brings together all the main news self-interest. What individual trade-offs common pragmatic response is risk- without pausing to consider that a lay organisations in British media. Among may be expected for each participant aversion. This results in an arguably outsider might find them irrelevant, other things, it produced a report into who takes a seat at the collaborative greater failure – that of impoverished misguided, alarming or merely the implications for communication table? Clearly, participants will also ambition. ridiculous. Some social enterprises after 9/11, drawing on the collective bring their own understanding of, and fail in this way – as we see when a effort of media organisations, management approach to, risk; and one There are at least two good reasons well-intentioned plan collapses under government and emergency services. might expect this to be a subject for why collaborators should resist the a weight of public ridicule. The media must keep their editorial early discussion by all partners. call of risk-aversion. First, truly strategic independence in holding those in leadership should already have the Secondly, a leader seeking to power to account; yet they need to Risk management, in its modern forms, vision and confidence to challenge engage participants in the public see that they shape the conditions in is a popular structure for balancing socially-amplified risk perceptions, and private sectors should know about which information flows and is enterprise with pragmatism in public presenting relevant facts clearly to anticipating and overcoming biases in interpreted. and private sectors. However, the support decisions based on a balanced the cultures of risk inherent in each elaborate structures devised to report view of relevant risks. This strategy side. However neutral the framework All organisations have to manage risk; and manage risk have tended to does not mean that public for decision-taking, one must avoid and the more strategic ones build risk allow concealment of a perverse “misunderstandings” should be inadvertently prompting colleagues to management early on into their plans. consequence. Strict risk-metric ignored; in the complex virtual play to their latent biases by invoking

106 107 it. According to some observers, public effective meeting taps any concerns yet “letting a thousand flowers bloom.” • a political collaboration has to have servants tend to interpret the concept when all are present, and finds a way It is like navigating a ship, working all its partners committed to the of risk as “hazards to be avoided”, of addressing those concerns without with both external changes (steady same goals and sending the same inferring support for a precautionary leaving anybody exposed or vulnerable. or turbulent waters) and internal ones messages; approach. By contrast, it’s argued that Better to understand and manage the (if rebuilding a ship at sea, one aims the commercial sector regards risk as risk collectively than to ignore it. The to replace the planks without losing • a new brand identity for an primarily as a source of potential profit. chances are that what is risk for one direction or sinking). organization needs a consistent person may well be a risk to another, application of its logo. Collaborations are, then, unusually particularly if it’s not made explicit. The One insight taken from physics is the vulnerable to competitive and reflexive challenge for the chair of the meeting working of entropy. A state of order or And here are some examples of where responses to risk. Their endeavours may and the whole team is to hold the disorder is said to be stable if the overall one might expect high entropy: be perceived, perhaps irrationally, as anxiety that discussing risk produces, appearance is intact. So a very tidy desk failing by disregarding public anxieties, so that the anxiety can be used has low entropy because any slight • a commercial collaboration can by delivering insufficient perceived constructively to focus the group’s adjustment — moving a pen or piece tolerate its different partners using value or by apparently having preferred efforts, and in so doing, build the of paper — is immediately noticed. their resources in their own way as the interests of one partner over group as a mutually supporting team. A messy desk with piles of papers and long as they make an effective another. The terms of any contract books can tolerate more adjustments contribution to the overall result and to collaborate, whether formally or 4. Managing complexity and other and additions without the overall support one another; informally expressed, are therefore of challenges appearance seeming to change: it has core importance. Any understanding high entropy. • a political collaboration can allow its should explicitly support collective The final quarter of challenges, partners to achieve internal buy-in problem-solving if things do go wrong. complexity, uncertainty, ambiguity and The key disruptive moment is when in the way that works best, provided But it should also encourage all the difference can produce a cacophony microscopic disorder affects the any internal issues don’t undermine partners in the collaboration to thrive when not understood or appreciated. macroscopic order; that is, it changes the overall integrity of the on the creative energy that disruptive How then to turn the noise into mu- the overall appearance. collaboration; challenges so often release. Above all, sic? The default is to live with them or the collaborative enterprise should seek ignore them. The better way is to work A similar test can apply to collaboration. • a brand campaign can have a core to anticipate and overcome the risk that with them, and get the best from them. Are there not some issues where one visual identity and key common its efforts will be rejected by a sceptical needs low entropy and others where messages yet allow partners the public. Einstein once said, “Keep it simple — one can tolerate high entropy? flexibility to tailor the brand to reach but not simpler”. Making a collabo- their own audiences, as long as any In relation to this area of risk, Miles ration work is about getting the mix Here are some examples of where one variation enhances the overall applies the pithy phrase current right between planning and adapting; might expect low entropy: campaign. in Hollywood: it’s the “What just controlling and giving discretion; giving happened?” factor, referring to the felt direction (pushing) as well as helping • a commercial collaboration has to The collaboration-builder will therefore experience of participants perplexed by out as others take the lead (pulling); deliver a certain financial return, an want to achieve enough shared what exactly went on at the meeting orchestrating and maintaining increase in revenues, a reduction in understanding and purpose from the that they have just attended. An alignment of interests and efforts; cost or increase in market share; group of what makes for a mutually

108 109 acceptable, informed, stable entropy; To quote The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the • Action-oriented: shape or at least try to its business units. BP is tight on how much variation can be tolerated; Galaxy, “only one thing travels faster to influence the conditions in which corporate reputation, the brand, and, if there is disruption that risks than the speed of light — and that’s collaborations have to operate, lead financial targets and standards of threatening the integrity of the bad news” (p.11). Crucial to any “outside the comfort zone” and behaviour — but loose on much else. collaboration either in relation to the collaboration is agreement on the flow know how to improvise. Most successful centralisation will be task or to the functioning of the group, of relevant information and how one with much concurrent how parties may best intervene to partners support its retrieval and Collaborator’s choices – decentralisation. ensure overall stability. dissemination for the benefit of the including the Collaborator’s Gambit group as a whole. In Gillian Stamp’s Finally, the need to make choices At the root of managing competing One reason why an equally-weighted tripod of tasking, trusting and tending, gives the collaboration-builder the objectives is the idea that managers tough argument between two or more part of effective tending is being given opportunity to shape the conditions and should manage the relationship parties is healthier than one party relevant information and knowledge. direction of any endeavour. What at first between objectives, not the objectives dominating the argument — or a group seems like a choice might on reflection themselves. Dodd and Favaro take the avoiding any argument at all — is that 5. Collaboration builder: the person not necessarily have to be one. The relationship between spouse or partner, the apparent disorder drives up the insight of Dodd and Favaro on achieving child or parent, friend or colleague, overall performance of the group and In summary, the collaboration-builder a batting average over time reminds us “To make compatible the two objectives gets it to better manage what is needs to be strategic about ends and not to get trapped in unnecessary in tension, each objective must ‘look unstable. Confrontation on the right pragmatic about means: trade-offs but to make progress on through the eyes of the other’ and issues at the right times is the grit in seemingly competing objectives. each must ‘act in the interest of both’” the oyster that produces the pearl. • Assertive about the strategic aim and (p170). Applied to a business context, the interests that need to be secured A good example is the choice between this could mean that growth is This approach therefore puts a and advanced: creative at exploring centralisation and decentralisation. managed for profitability and premium on capturing and assessing the range of options for possible Dodd and Favaro quote Lord Browne profitability for growth; today’s signals and exercising judgment at the collaboration and resourceful in of Madingley when he was running BP: performance is managed to increase appropriate level on what reinforces finding common potential value: “When there’s a performance crisis, tomorrow’s performance and vice the focus and momentum of a commercial negotiators can make centralising is the immediate response; versa. “If objectives are managed collaboration and what detracts from for very effective collaboration and when things are going very well, as relationships, they can often be it. It puts responsibility on every level builders because of their ability to uncontrolled decentralisation is the avoided as choices or things to to use its discretion to relate the local discern what’s really important for response. You have to be in the be balanced.” (p170) picture to the big picture and to feel different parties and to re-package middle... If you can pick the things you empowered and supported to give and different combinations of interest. are tight on and what to be loose on, The advice is neither to balance nor expect feedback. and stick with it, that’s the answer.” to prioritise between objectives but to • Attuned to the cultural, (Dodd and Favaro, 2007, p149). prioritise between tensions. Leadership Any collaboration is only as strong as organizational and human teams should debate and carefully pick its weakest link. Chronic difficulties dimensions of any interaction: The authors say that BP goes to great the right lead tension. can fast turn into acute ones because respond appropriately to what lengths to define what the company will collaborations rely on interdependence emerges in and through be tight on and what it will be loose on. I explored with some of my respondents and information being exchanged and collaboration, and It delegates “powers and limitations” the idea of a “collaborator’s gambit” — used to inform ongoing decisions. what it takes to give collaboration an

110 111 advantage in achieving its common aim. knowing that collaborations can Sometimes a bold or original move can invariably lose focus and momentum; Chapter summary break the deadlock, put the enterprise turn tensions into opportunities for back on track or restore more strengthening the collaboration; earn • Collaboration is the technology for the knowledge economy. It gathers productive working relationships. Key and engender trust, taking action information to produce fresh choices, by creating fission — drawing out to an effective intervention is working on what erodes it; push the different perspectives and interests; yet also producing fusion — drawing in with the leadership group to break boundaries of people’s roles, yet the parties first to agree on the problem, then to agree and act on the patterns of behaviour that take the remember what the collaboration is solution. collaboration away from its intended for, and who wants what from it. goal and to take a calculated risk that • Collaboration, by its very nature, means that traditional means of control — action is required. Any intervention is • Direction or Empowering: better market and hierarchy — cannot be used to manage relations among likely to arise from tensions in one of a lead than no lead: no enterprise participating organizations. these four areas: succeeds without the right degree of initiative and risk-taking. But, over • Key to success is strategic pragmatism. When tensions are transformed into • Ambition or Realism: set and time, it is better that initiative and opportunities, what makes collaboration difficult is made easier and therefore maintain the benchmark for what risk-taking are shared, provided it is more possible. This involves being firm about some things (ends, for example) will constitute success; yet respond rewarded and supported. yet flexible about others (such as means). to emerging, unforeseen setback or success. There might be good reasons • Give or Take: collaborative behaviour • Because collaboration is so much about managing something dynamic and why targets are not met; but this is is harder to maintain than evolving, planning and control need be matched with the ability to be present not a reason to lose them or to revise competitive and to respond to fresh challenges and opportunities. them if over time they help the collaboration achieve the best results or defensive behaviour. If the • Leaders have a crucial responsibility to develop meaningful conversations. possible. The next chapter collaboration begins to show signs of The hallmark of an “appreciative conversation” is that people listen without explores the relationship between people turning inward, suspicious or judgment, not seeking consensus or compromise but sharing the sole purpose collaboration and the context in opportunistic, this is a challenge to be of continuing the conversation in order to sustain relationships of mutual which it operates. Whether an tackled constructively at the right time, respect. environment is steady or turbulent in the right way. Part of the gambit is to will determine the shape of the “give to get” if we want to ensure that collaboration. the collaboration taps its potential.

• Strategy or Tactics: raise the strategic ceiling early, in terms of what can be raised and discussed at all levels; decide on some key strategic partnerships, work to plans, yet adapt them because collaborations are dynamic; tackle issues head-on,

112 113 Chapter 3: Collaboration and its impact on organizations In this chapter: Every institution is vulnerable, no matter how great. No matter how much you’ve achieved, no matter how far you’ve gone, no matter how much power you’ve gar- nered, you are vulnerable to decline. There is no law of nature that the most power- • Crisis: applying the ful will inevitably remain at the top. Anyone can fall and most eventually do. collaborative partnerships model Jim Collins, How the Mighty Fall – And Why Some Companies Never Give In (2009) p8.

Collaborations and partnerships are like the Romans in Monty Python’s Life of Brian • Organizational culture asking what did the Romans ever did for us — apart from building aqueducts, giv- ing us roads, producing wine, and the rest. If they do anything good, the organiza- • Organizational design tions that set them up claim all the credit. If they fail, or don’t deliver what you want them to, they are blamed for everybody’s ills.

• Group relations Official in a Geneva-based international organization.

• Chapter summary Anybody who has ever coordinated changing) and the internal challenge a complex collaboration of different (the extent to which a group is stakeholders will instantly know the self-aware). feeling. It seems that the collaboration is at the crossroads of all the problems Collaborations change the way that and unmet demands. Far from being a people relate to one another, and to solution, collaboration becomes part of the environment in which they the problem. The very challenge that operate. The collaboration shapes the the enterprise was meant to address participants and the participants shape seems more distant and even more the collaboration. If a collaboration intractable. The collaboration builder gets stuck, this is because it is not goes from having a sense of freedom adapting to the challenges of the wider and empowerment to feeling trapped environment, not dealing with its own and subject to competing interests. internal tensions or not demonstrating Sometimes collaboration provides so that its response is the best way to much freedom that participants feel tackle the problem. outside their comfort zone and long for their old set ways. This chapter points In chapters 1 and 2, I demonstrated a way through this existential crisis. It that collaboration is increasingly part focuses on both the external challenge of how business is done between (the extent to which the environment organizations and within organizations; in which collaboration takes place is and that thinking strategically can help

114 114 115 organizations to become more effective We think normally of crisis in its acute Applying the collaborative At present, some organizations are not at spotting and exploiting opportunities form: but it is also useful to think of partnerships model choosing to follow this collaborative for collaboration. This chapter takes the crisis in its chronic form. Chronic model. Those that do collaborate have argument a step further, examining crisis can easily turn into acute crisis President John F. Kennedy once a better chance of riding out the storm. the context and environment in which if the underlying challenges are not famously remarked that the word Those that don’t are at the greatest risk collaboration could become the main addressed. According to Jean-Francois “crisis” in Mandarin is made up of two from future turbulence. way in which we shape our efforts. Bureau, an Assistant Secretary-General parts: “danger” and “opportunity”. Formal organizations do not disappear at NATO, an organization that is fit-for- Working with the QinetiQ team at Working through the four zones — they may become even more purpose should not have to reorganise Malvern and others, I have designed important as they deliver their part itself when it is hit by a crisis. Today’s a way in which collaboration can be Zone 1 shows steady and predictable of the bargain in any collaborative organizations are expected to have used as a way of adapting to changing growth; zone 2 still shows growth, but enterprise. But they may need to adapt, enough agility and resilience to respond environments — and, in particular, to an it is more uncertain; zone 3 is the crisis becoming more fit-for-purpose as part to shocks. emerging crisis. point at which a trend must be arrested; of a wider collaboration. and zone 4 shows an organization The extent to which an organization We can see the value of collaboration emerging from a crisis — which may This has implications not just for what collaborates with others depends partly if we draw a graph of a growing crisis return if the necessary action is not work gets done, but how it gets done. If on whether the environment in which plotted against time. It looks something taken. we want organizations with a stronger it operates is steady or turbulent. like the letter N — rising first, then sense of their own needs and priorities Steady environments are based on solid starting to dip, falling and finally A topical example might be the rise — organizations that are better able to foundations. Turbulent environments resuming its climb (see Appendix: of house prices in Britain and US that engage with other stakeholders, with are ones in which the ground keeps Collaborative Partnerships Model v0.3). ended in 2008. There is a ceiling above younger people and with those from shifting. which the economy will not tolerate any different cultures — then we need The graph shows the different further rises — because no economy to look at how our organizations are I shall demonstrate that collaboration environments in which collaboration wants to spend all its money on equipped to respond and adapt. gives organizations an advantage in can occur, moving from steady or housing. But this model works for dealing with emerging or actual turbulent and, ideally, back to steady any other indicator of value. Early I want to examine three areas where crises over organizations that do not again. Zone 1 shows a steady rise. After intervention can shift the trend from collaboration can make an impact on collaborate. That advantage depends approaching a ceiling (zone 2), the its default position. organizations: crisis, culture and on the extent to which those responsible graph falls in zone 3 before recovering organization design. for contingency planning and business in zone 4. In steady times, organisations manage continuity have taken the involvement their environments. When times are 1. Collaboration and crisis of multiple stakeholders into account. As the crisis becomes greater, turbulent, the best they can do is to I shall also show that, in listening to collaboration becomes ever more respond to changes in the environment. Crisis provides a way of rethinking the what its stakeholders tell it, an necessary. By understanding what They must adapt — or fail. purpose and design of an organization. organization can learn and change. stage an organization has reached, its I am defining “crisis” for this purpose leadership teams are better able to plan Let’s begin with zones 1 and 3, where as a situation that is likely to get much and time their responses. the contrast is clearer. worse unless immediate and decisive action is taken.

116 117 Zone 1: a steady environment prevailing mood should be: “Things of challenge from this changing options in the future. Once the are going well but we can always do environment should make each immediate challenge of a crisis has been In zone 1, the environment is steady. better.” organization realise that it cannot grasped, there are usually opportunities The organization may need to compete manage on its own. — not just to reflect on what went in order to increase its market share Zone 3: a turbulent environment wrong and how it could have dealt with and generate revenue. But it can also At this point, collaboration becomes differently but also to look ahead and collaborate to become more efficient In zone 3, the environment is turbulent. essential — whether it is driven by explore ways of regaining an advantage. or to cope better with demand from No matter how efficient or effective visionary leadership or by sheer the market. In making their strategic the organization was in zone 1, it now necessity. It maximises the prospect of Organizations are faced with a choices, organizations must decide how faces challenges from the area in which different actors using their combined choice between resuming old habits much they wish to invest in innovation it operates. There is a limit to what can strength to respond positively to and operating differently. If they and collaboration. The greatest success be done by improving productivity or changes in the environment, even if collaborated to survive, it is likely will result from taking the longer view. cutting costs. The very nature of the they cannot manage them directly. that the relationships they developed organization is vulnerable to further Looking back on my own experience, during the crisis will be the basis for In this steady environment, disruption. The dominant sense is: I cannot think of a crisis in which an future activity. collaborations are generally “Things are going wrong, and unless organization or group of organizations complementary to the main focus of decisive action is taken they will get had not benefited from creating and Zones 2 and 4: not so steady? an organization. They become more worse.” cultivating a broader network of necessary as the scale of the challenge stakeholders in advance. The Zones 2 and 4 are both apparently increases. This, typically, is an organization in crisis. effectiveness of an organization is steady environments. But there are The crisis may be acute, demanding largely determined by the quality of crucial differences. In zone 2, the A good example is the aerospace and immediate attention. Or it may be the relationships that it maintains and dominant sense is: “Things look good, defence sector. Here, collaboration is chronic — less obvious, although all the develops over time. but it doesn’t feel good.” In zone 4, the essential in financing, designing and signs of deterioration are present. In my sense is: “It looks as if everything is back implementing a programme. The sector experience, a vigilant, agile and resilient Crisis and the opportunity of to normal, but can we count on that?” is innovative because this is the only organization is one that is attentive collaboration way to provide governments long-term to the signals — assessing them and We see a sense of uncertainty in both with the capability that they might taking timely and proportionate action, A turbulent environment also provides zones that can increase awareness of need. The sector’s immediate either on its own or working with others opportunity. To survive, an organization both threat and opportunity, making environment is steady because it relies in related areas. If the environment is must adapt. But if it can become more collaboration an even more important on long-term investment and high- contributing significantly to this malaise, effective than it has been, it may also option than it was in zone 1. The graph technology development. the chances are other organizations are thrive. Collaboration gives it a way of provides for a range of options for also vulnerable. achieving what would not otherwise be organizations emerging from zone 3, But, in a steady environment, long-term possible. depending on the choices they took investment and significant innovation With this increased and widening along the path from zone 2. are sometimes seen optional for the vulnerability, organizations can become In that way, collaboration can becomes sector as a whole. There is innovation even more competitive, gaining an engine of change. Innovation For policy-makers and managers, the and growth, but only at product level marginal, yet crucial, advantage over becomes a greater priority. By investing challenge is to respond early enough to and in particular companies. The others. But the scale and complexity now, organizations can increase their signs that things are deteriorating,

118 119 mitigating the crisis by taking joint The consultancy immerses participants action with others. By collaborating, also in developing options for can still learn lessons from in exercises that require them to make their joint action will have greater recovery. decisions taken at the time. In major decisions. Those who can impact. Taking the right decisions ahead 2004, a major contingency- perform well are more likely to be of a trend will give organizations an Defra, the new department planning exercise was carried out resilient in a crisis. What’s required is advantage over those that do not act. created in June 2001, adopted an over two days to check that the an ethos of collaboration, across ambitious programme to widen recommendations of the inquiries boundaries and up through a hierarchy. its stakeholder base, based on had been implemented. A further To succeed, participants must rise above Foot-and-Mouth Disease, 2001 a commitment to values of outbreak of the disease in 2007 was normal ways of operating and embrace openness, engagement and quickly contained, demonstrating methods that are different or radical. The foot-and-mouth epidemic of customer focus. All this happened how far Defra — and the network 2001 was Britain’s biggest single before the inquiries into the crisis of organizations it worked with — Analytic Red has built its approach civil-contingency crisis since the reported in 2002. On the graph, had come. around the concept of networks. Second World War. Looking back, this takes us further into zone 3. Although networks are often highly one can see how the changing effective at providing the commodities environment presented Success in eradicating the disease Crisis, Collaboration and Decision- and infrastructure that companies need, organizations with opportunities gave increased momentum to Making they are inherently prone to problems for collaboration. The crisis engulfed recoery work that had started that spread with great speed. Stability not just the former Ministry of during the crisis. In the spring of When a crisis involves a number of may be illusory and undermined by Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 2002, Defra and the Department organizations and networks, it may lead minuscule change. (MAFF), but most of the for Culture, Media and Sport led to wider turbulence in the system. That government; not only farmers, but 70 organizations in a campaign to poses particular problems for individual In building the resilience of public and the rest of the rural community. The persuade people to visit the organizations. private sector organizations, Mahrra more these bodies were caught up countryside. The aim of the and Hills develop what others describe in the crisis, the more their campaign was to boost tourism Analytic Red is a specialist consultancy as mere “business continuity” by stakeholders needed to act in and business. But its collaborative with a distinctive approach to examining risk across an enterprise. concert (see zone 3). The nature meant that government collaboration. The founding partners They highlight the need for both staff consequences for so many different and a wide range of NGOs that – Jasvinder Mahrra and Dr Mils Hills — and structures to be collaborative. parts of the rural economy meant were committed to opening up the were previously the government’s only Individuals must work in a way that that a more coordinated and countryside could rebuild dedicated business-continuity testing does not expose others to unnecessary collaborative approach became relationships that would support unit in the Cabinet Office risk; the strategic machine must sense necessary. other initiatives. By this point, we and respond to unanticipated risks, had reached zone 4. They use highly participative exercises, both from within and without the After the initial crisis broke, MAFF either to explore what would happen organization. began to widen its range of internal Such was the severity of the crisis if an event occurred or to learn lessons and external stakeholders — not and its damage to the from a real incident. Exercises like these Research by Analytic Red has just when handling the crisis, but government’s reputation that we require much preparation and careful characterised the characteristics of crisis management on the day. conditions.

120 121 Figure 3.1: Characteristics of crisis conditions Collaborative processes are essential, working is effective, both in day-to-day both in anticipating consequences — business challenges and, in particular, which require the re-focusing of when problems arise. organizational strategies — and responding to events. Not all Collaboration across the decision- Normal Business Crisis Conditions Consequences Solution organizations are prepared to invest in cycle Most events An event that hasn’t Shock and surprise Agile organizations propagating, rehearsing and embedding scheduled and been scheduled or of expected risk strive to seamlessly the collaborative ethos in advance of a Under crisis conditions, priority decisions prepared for prepared for occurs, occurring or move into alternative with access to or the event prepared emergence of state of operating crisis. However, collaboration is neither must be taken quickly. To ensure that appropriate power for has actually unexpected event Managing the a commodity that can be acquired the right decisions are taken in the right happened. A feeling transfer from the nor a resource that can be activated order, structural (“hard”) systems and of powerlessness in tempo of normal the face of events and business life to that only when needed. Commitments are staff (“soft”) systems must be capable actions of others of handling needed to ensure that collaborative of sustainability and extension. disruption: need to know what aspects of normal business Figure 3.2: Five fundamentals decision-making process life are disposable / (Source: Analytic Red) and for how long

Majority of actions Immediate If start conditions are Ensure immediate allow some time response required or imperfect, this may response capability Common Needs for consideration it will be too late to degrade subsequent fully briefed on first of response even make a difference response actions under pressure Information- Assessment of Decision- Action and Communication Generally High volume and A blizzard of decisions Intercept and direct Gathering the situation Making Monitoring predictable velocity of decisions requiring attention can decisions to the and manageable required disorientate or defeat appropriate level of volume and velocity the organization’s exercised of decisions strategic response organizational Acquisition and Development of Timely, Execution and Key information response processing of a comprehensive proportionate tracking of to internal and information SitRep and sustainable decisions and external Strategic Strategic level risks Distraction from the Clear thresholds decisions their effects stakeholders decision-makers being caught in detail big issues; flight to between Strategic- keep strategic focus of operational engagement with Operational and response comforting detail. Tactical roles and responsibility Each of the five elements of the Can the strategic, operational and decision-making cycle is enabled and tactical levels of administration Clear where Breadth and depth Levels of authority and Exception distinction between of crisis means that responsibility can be reporting to strategic supported by hard and soft systems and collaborate at and between their levels? strategic, distinction between compromised. Legal level of issues for technologies. operational and levels can be blurred liabilities may accrue resolution.Principle Do the organization’s structure and tactical levels lies to those un-involved in of subsidiarity and the actual decision mission command Key questions asked are: working practices ensure that decisions to resolve issues at which need senior management’s the lowest possible Can people and information-gathering consideration/sign-off escalate? level. systems rise to the challenge of a crisis?

122 123 Can the senior level effectively act and organization’s ability to maintain organization must be alert to early Enabling decision-taking through communicate its intentions? confidence in its reputation, integrity warnings both of threats and collaborative exploration and powers of command and control. opportunities, actively probing for Are there barely-acknowledged These events have reinforced the view undesirable behaviour or uncontrolled Scenario-planning techniques can be dependencies on vulnerable key staff that “understanding the dynamics of risks. Similarly, those responsible for used to explore options for dealing with and technologies and are planning the control points within [...] networks policy and strategy should learn from potentially uncontrollable risks. Figure assumptions flaky? will be increasingly important for the people with whom they collaborate. 3.3 shows a model which, if used companies that wish to anticipate, correctly, can prepare an organization Collaboration and decision-quality if not influence, external change” We can sum up the qualities required of for disruptive events and offer options (PFC, 2007, p.3). an organization in this context: to address them: High-quality decisions can come about only from collaborative practices, that According to Mahrra and Hills, the • Personal mastery. The discipline This model shows how support for are valued, that have been in place for disruption to world financial markets which continually clarifies our collaborative decision-taking can some time and that run horizontally and underscored the fact that institutions personal vision and allows the be enhanced and losses limited by vertically through an organization. and others had collaborated in the capacity to grow and see reality exploring the courses of action exchange and investment of products objectively. available. These options are generated For example, an organization that whose risk had not been rigorously through the use of scenario thinking. wanted to service its key client under assessed. The liabilities resulting from • Mental models. They represent our Some are taken forward when the most demanding circumstances — these products were re-bundled and view of the world, the way we see triggered. Others may be piloted to from an underground car-park sold on by brokers who marketed our organization, our market and our see whether they deserve additional immediately following an attack on them as reliable risks. An analogy is competitors. investment. its HQ building — knew that its senior the freelance journalist, or “stringer”, management team was already a who places a good but unreliable story • Shared vision. The building of Taking into account the “five tightly-knit and effective decision- in the local press. National media commitment of all stakeholders. undamentals” model (Figure 3.2), making body; that it had the experience organizations want to believe stories decision-makers must absorb new to function under these circumstances; like these are true and so give them • Team-learning. The ability to engage information and decide whether their and that it would have access to key much wider coverage without sufficient in dialogue with other members and existing options need to be halted, information from dedicated staff fact-checking. develop a collective intelligence modified or swapped. Since information supported by a combination of both which is greater than the sum of is always incomplete and inconsistent, new and resilient technology — in this Networks enable information to spread individual members. the challenge to management is to case digital communications and with great speed. The challenge for ensure that the “least worst” options traditional flip-charts. governments and organizations is to • Systems thinking. This is the discipline are in play at any one time. Scenario ensure that this information is reliable. that links all the others. It is the ability planning can be used to improve the Finance, complexity and Collaboration and openness to look beyond personalities and confidence of decision-takers so that collaboration events and understand the underlying they can anticipate consequences and For collaboration to add maximum value patterns and structures that shape know when and where to turn for The recent turmoil in world financial to an organization, it must become the organization as a whole. help. The ability to plan ahead and markets illustrates how a successful integral to the way in which all business (Adapted from Senge, 1990). sustain effort is crucial to maintaining outcome to a crisis often depends on an functions operate. For example, the collaborative or competitive advantage.

124 125 Figure 3.3: Decision-taking through collaborative exploration model 2. Collaboration and organization culture (Source: Analytic Red)

To “manage change” is wishful thinking, implying as it does that one not only knows where to go and how to get there, but can persuade everyone else to travel there. To “cultivate change” is something different, suggesting an Scenario-planning attitude of growth, of channelling rather than controlling, of learning not Y T I V I T C A T N E M E G A N A M E L I G A • inherent and new options instruction. A changing organization is one that uses differences to grow better, • desired and undesirable consequences that treats politics as a bonus and people as individuals who are rightly different and usefully different.

Charles Handy (1999) p.292 Possible Option Portfolio Maintain, Extend Potential 1 2 3 4 4 6 Option Portfolio pro-active flexibility and Two of the strongest arguments that conflict with common-sense switching options I have read in favour of greater presumptions of competitive or collaboration are the impact that it collaborative behaviour in any sector — has on knowledge creation, transfer or private, public or non-profit. Selected Option Portfolio sharing in organizations (Huxham and Hibbert, 2008) and on creativity in Huxham and Hibbert (2008) identify a multicultural environments (Lung et spectrum of attitudes:

Pilot Activities Implement al, 2008). • Selfish acquisition of knowledge Knowledge creation and transfer from a partner, exclusively for an Learning among partners contributes organization’s own use, thus A B to the stability or otherwise of exploiting the partner. collaborations, and also allows partners to use that learning in their • Sharing knowledge with specific • Known • Unknown own organizations. If the collaboration partners, in a relatively controlled Information Early I&W Bol involves organizations mingling their way, thus exchanging with them. Positives / Negatives New Stop people and processes, then learning Modify comes about as partners get to know • Sharing knowledge in an open way Any known trigger/Decision Points Commit how each other works; as they with a range of partners, and negotiate the ways in which they exploring innovative solutions to work together; and as they adapt. problems collaboratively.

Attitudes to learning in collaboration are • Sidelining any consideration of unlikely to be entirely selfish, sharing or learning, formally excluding it from sidelined. These motivations sometimes the collaborative agenda.

126 127 Table 3.4: Basic attitudes – generic characterisations helps us to manipulate a third party, Opening one’s mind to foreign cultures (Source: Huxham and Hibbert (2008) p. 511) we give to you”. The unilateral sharing and actively thinking about differences stance can sound, in theory, like giving. between home culture and foreign But without careful thought, it might culture can boost the creative benefits Basic attitudes reveal that the value of what is given is of multicultural experience. But those imprecise. benefits are weakened by time Sidelining Knowledge outflow and acquisition are passively not considered. pressures, the need for firm answers Creativity and multicultural and a preference for order over Learning from or with partners is not something we think about. experience ambiguity.

Selfish Unidirectional knowledge outflow from a partner and acquisition only Relevant to collaborative working In chapter 5, I develop my argument by the attitude-holder are actively preferred. between organizations drawn from about effective engagement. Diplo- different cultures is recent scholarship mats have long understood that what We take from you without giving to you. on how multicultural experience is foreign can be exotic or an object of enhances creativity. In April 2008, analysis; but nothing is more powerful Sharing — Bi-or multi-directional knowledge outflow and acquisition are actively Angela Ka-yee Leung of Singapore in building a relationship than treating exchanging appreciated as sources of value in their own right. Management University and her the other person with respect. This

We take from you and we give to you; you take from us and give to us. co-authors produced the first article to approach sustains any engagement, demonstrate empirically that exposure whether or not one has much in to multiple cultures can itself enhance common with the other side. Sharing — Bi-or multi-directional knowledge outflow and acquisition are actively creativity (Leung et al, 2008). They exploring preferred as necessary vectors in supporting the possible creation of new valuable knowledge. found that the range of multicultural Collaboration as a temporary experiences is related to both creative organization and transitional space We take from you and we give to you; you take from us and give to us – performance (insight learning, remote and we learn together to create knowledge association, and idea generation) and Collaborative partnerships are not, by creativity-supporting cognitive processes themselves, a solution to organizational (retrieval of unconventional knowledge, challenges. But, if thought about recruitment of ideas from unfamiliar strategically, they can be used to throw cultures to expand on ideas). Their light on an organization’s potential for Huxham and Hibbert argue that giving department wants to hold some concept of culture includes ethnic growth and change. Collaboration can is far from simple if collaboration is knowledge back, uncertain what diversity, but they also define culture be seen as a temporary organization, going to work for all involved. advantage is gained from putting it in as a set of loosely organised ideas and with the limits that this entails. If it the collaborative domain. But there are practices generated by a network of becomes too fixed, it challenges the A starving stance that restricts also instrumental and unilateral sharing interconnected individuals. What organizations that have given it scope knowledge is not untypical, for stances. The instrumental stance can makes the biggest difference is deep to operate or perpetuates its own instance, if a business is understandably often carry a degree of selfishness: immersion in another culture, rather existence at the expense of the purpose concerned about giving away its “we give to you to get back for us”. than travel. for which it was set up. If it is not intellectual property, or if a government And it can be manipulative: “When it designed as an organization, it loses

128 129 direction, authority and accountability. Planning and control need therefore seen us at work. How we compare with of the inner (single) loop and changes The challenge is to be aware of both to be carefully balanced against other organizations? What do we do them if either they have an adverse risks and to navigate between the adaptation, improvising and well? What could we do differently? impact on the environment or if they extremes. spontaneity. Project-management How can we be even more effective are not reacting appropriately to skills can be usefully applied, giving working together?” changes in that environment. In the A collaborative partnership also collaborations a beginning, middle financial example, the second loop occupies a transitional space in which and end. The benefits of effective Change programmes have the would be a regulatory body that has business is done between parties who collaboration are produced as much opportunity to achieve even greater the power to change the controls of delegate their powers to others. It can by what emerges as by what is agreed impact if they address issues of the inner loop, based upon its provide a space in which experiment at the outset. When we look at organizational design and the balance perception of the global economy. can take place if expectations are establishing value, it is important to between hierarchy, team-based and Pumping money into the inner loop managed and risk-taking is supported. take into account the intangible assets network-based collaboration. Which to stabilise the situation without As Samuel Beckett wrote, “Try again. that collaborations bring. of these models best suits what the changing the regulatory mechanisms Fail again. Fail better.” In these organization needs to be? Effective is not double-loop learning: there is conditions, effective collaborations Collaboration builders will be more collaboration can provide a way of no outer (double) loop. will drive internal performance as well successful if they treat collaboration as asking these more difficult questions improve external partnerships. if it were a technology to be invested by focusing on the insights that In this example both single and in and managed. The corporate world collaborative activity produces for double loops are collaborative in nature. The work of the psychoanalyst Donald already well understands that much individuals and organizations. Without The outer, regulatory loop requires Winnicott is particularly instructive of the value of a company lies in its directly challenging the status quo, the world governments and national for collaborative effort in a climate of intangible assets, its brand and it has in its gift to change how financial institutions to agree on creativity and experiment. For Winnicott reputation. We now know that most of organizations engage. appropriate controls. The inner loop (1992), play is the opposite of coercion, the cost of a mobile phone goes to pay requires the traders and bankers to not of work. Play is crucial to a child’s for intellectual property and software Anthony Alston draws a distinction collaborate, both to work within the development. He argues that the applications, not for manufacturing the between single loop and double loop controls applied to them and to self- development of independence depends phone itself. Collaboration with partners learning. For single loop learning, the generate agreed controls - the more not on the continuation of the infant’s and suppliers lies at the heart of the metrics used to control the process autonomy that traders and bankers are experience of omnipotence but on a deals that make a commercial are fixed and are not affected by the given, the greater the emphasis on continuation of the capacity for proposition viable. environment in which the process sits. the second of these inner-loop creativity. This involves an individual in In the current financial crisis, this could collaborations. spontaneous action, in play, which takes Collaboration can hasten the be seen as the traders and bankers place in what he calls the “potential transformation of an organization into being allowed to regulate themselves — 3. Collaboration and organization space” between the individual self and a learning organization by making it setting controls that suit the way they design the environment. In these conditions, more attuned to feedback and more want to work without any consideration playing leads to a mature capacity for prepared to reflect on how it can do of their impact on the global economy. In The Necessary Revolution, Peter participation in and contribution to the things differently or better. Whether at Senge and his co-authors argue that world. a one-to-one level, or as a group, an The second loop in the double-loop current organizational structures have organization can ask another, “You’ve learning concept monitors the controls evolved in response to the imperatives

130 131 of the past and will need to change manufacturers of syringes — and care, the quality of care delivered to Companies make pronouncements of to support new visions, strategies and therefore one for governments and patients and the engagement of strategic intent to become, “partner of goals. When strategy and design are public health authorities — is the patients, carers and the public is one choice with NHS customers” and yet aligned with the current business pressure on manufacturers to operate such factor. There is a growing challenge their customer-facing teams environment, performance can be more efficiently, producing on a realisation that no one organization has to meet traditional operational sales exceptional. When the external business “just-in-time” basis rather than on the the skills, knowledge or resources to or market share targets. A more environment changes, strategy and basis of what crisis planning might develop a solution alone. The economics innovative approach might be to organization design no longer fit. require (a “just–in-case” basis). The of the healthcare sector points clearly align account managers’ incentive Often a new strategy is formulated collaborative nature of effective too increasing scarcity of resources for programmes with the NHS customers’; but the organization design has not contingency planning across different both public and private sector players. for example in diabetes care, the changed and the company lacks the organizations and sectors allows these At the same time, there is active average HbA1c (blood sugar) levels core capacity to implement the new issues to be addressed, but only if governmental encouragement for NHS across a local population. strategy. The main question for leaders strategic decisions are taken to invest organizations to collaborate. is: what new organisational design is in this process. At the local level, and often under the required and how is it to be achieved? Most major pharmaceutical companies radar, companies and Primary Care The National Health Service and have adopted account management Trusts (PCTs) – or more accurately An organization’s agility and resilience Britain’s growing health sector provide as a conduit to develop longer term individuals within both organizations – can be improved if it thinks more a strong example of the challenge - relationships with NHS customers. It form a relationship on the back strategically about collaboration. In and opportunity - collaboration is often through these roles that the of which they work together often general, recent advances in what is presents. “Evolution, not revolution” companies offer and provide skills, informally at first, to jointly identify known as complexity science tell us is how Steve Wells, a consultant who capabilities, expertise and funding to an issue and design a solution. that organizations that are too lean specialises in the health sector, complement those available to local These partnerships work because and too well organised for one describes the current situation with NHS organization in order to implement of the motivation of the individuals environment will fail under another. regard to collaboration between the health initiatives designed to bring concerned and not necessarily because Professor Peter Allen, of the Complex pharmaceutical industry and NHS. better, more effective and efficient of an institutionalised perspective on Systems Research Centre at Cranfield “My research has suggested that while outcomes to patients. An increasingly collaboration; effective internal support School of Management, says: “The there is increasing rhetoric about important element to the discussions and performance management. difficulty then is to build organizations private and public sector collaboration through the initial contracting process and capabilities that are sufficiently in health, there is still a long way to go is the system wide benefit of drug Conducting some work with members effective in the short term, but which before both sides fully embrace a truly intervention; e.g. effective drug therapy of the Futures Analysts Network – still retain the capacity to adapt and collaborative business model,” he says. now to prevent acute admission to a network of futures practitioners transform themselves in the longer hospital later. facilitated by the Foresight directorate’s term.” There are a number of factors Horizon Scanning Centre – Steve Wells converging to establish a positive Despite apparent investment by concludes: “Leadership, organisational A good example of this tension is one environment supportive of collaboration pharmaceutical companies in new attitude to collaboration remain I heard discussed at the international in the health sector. organizational structures and customer- significant hurdles to partnering in symposium for influenza pandemic facing roles, some scepticism remains futures work to support policy preparedness held in Portugal in The tension within the healthcare about the pace and scale of transition development.” September 2008. An issue for system between the cost of delivering to a more collaborative business model.

132 133 Futures work in the context of A number of challenges to effective participants collectively failed to take inner world can also be conceived as government policy development is collaboration were identified. The the opportunity to lead in exploring the being populated, as it were, by a set of subject to significant consultation and control of the collaboration and futures collaborative working material available. ‘objects’ and ‘part-objects’ which are co-ordination, but limited partnership. content and process was discussed, in the residual representations of earlier The difference here concerns how part reflecting a reluctance to willingly 4. Collaboration and group relations – including infantile – experiences of information is sourced, addressed and “give something up” in order to work theory relations with others (Klein, 1959). used. There are numerous examples collaboratively, or a lack of trust in of where one team will seek technical the partner’s ability to maintain Development of ideas in the early years Mannie Sher is Principal Consultant, information from another, as a resources either in terms of technical of the Tavistock Institute of Human Organizational Development and source of valuable content. But the competence or people and funding. Relations ranged from the micro to Change, at the Tavistock Institute of engagement does not tend to include Revised operational priorities are seen the macro: the primary group; the Human Relations. According to Sher, joint “sense-making” of the information as a major risk here. When surveyed family; organizations; the larger society. the subject of collaboration should in the context of the current exercise. about good collaborative working Different system levels were integrated pay attention to object relations Not only that, true partnership would practice, collaboration process and via over-arching theoretical approaches. theory, because of its connection to have the stakeholders working together collaboration behaviours received the The source concepts which gave rise to Bion’s theory of the disruptive power of to determine the questions that they lowest scores, perhaps suggesting a the socio-psychological perspective are group forces. Collaboration necessarily both want answers to. capability gap. Feedback about the psychoanalytic object relations theory involves a number of irreducible process suggests that formal co-creation of Klein, Fairbairn, Bion and Winnicott; dilemmas. Organizations cannot Operational collaboration seems much of a collaborative initiative; the review Lewinian field theory; Von Bertalanffy’s collaborate without entering a process more common; “I couldn’t do my job and where necessary revision of a general systems theory and the that overthrows, if only temporarily, without collaborating with colleagues previously agreed contract during personality-culture approach of Miller vital achievements of maturity. The very in other departments because of my collaboration and a review of the and Rice. nature of the task of joining together own resource levels,” is not uncommon collaboration’s performance against in a mutually agreed task demands a feedback. Of course, here again the mutually agreed objectives is not At the time, Object Relations Theory regressive immersion in primitive levels direction of travel is set before common practice. In terms of represented the most advanced body of of experience that sets aside our highly collaboration is sought. behaviours, responses suggested that psychological knowledge then available. developed capacities for discriminating sharing assumptions about partners Miller (1993) and Rice (1965) describe object relationships as well as threatens Participants in the inquiry confirmed with partners is not common practice how our understanding of groups and our differentiated identities. To their belief of a need to collaborate and that there could be more clarity organizations, resting, in part, on open collaborate is to regress. This raises more; citing the increasing about the facts known and assumptions systems and psychoanalytic conceptions, a second point. Collaboration requires interconnectivity, complexity and held about partners. when taken together, allows a construct a form of leadership that is capable uncertainties in the external of a very useful model. The inner world of stemming regressive processes environment. But they also suggest Collaboration is a major component of of the individual includes experiences, and defending against anxiety. In that attitudes within their own leadership thinking and was recently emotions, attitudes and skills of which collaboration, leadership is a creature organizations and those of potential identified as a key element of 17 public he is largely conscious and which, of the collaborating organizations. partners need to change to make sector leadership challenges. And yet through the ego function, can be It survives only because it serves the increasing collaboration a reality. when a number of futures practitioners appropriately mobilised or suppressed collective’s purpose and only as long as with an interest in collaboration joined in the service of whatever goal he is it does. This is very much the opposite Steve Wells in a seminar, the pursuing and role he is taking. The of conventional wisdom, not to mention

134 135 our own often cherished beliefs in the that the way work was organised in defective not only as a means of very threatened, the threat being of power of our or others charismatic hospitals and nursing structures, raised handling anxiety, but also as a method nothing less than social chaos and leadership ability. We foster the value rather than lowered the levels of anxiety of organising its tasks. Menzies personal dislocation and breakdown. of leadership; we neglect the role of among nurses. Her study revealed that concluded that these two aspects To give up known ways of behaving - follower. the nature of the nurse’s task, in spite could not be regarded as separate. The and embarking on the unknown- is felt of its obvious difficulties, was not inefficiency is an inevitable consequence to be intolerable. Object Relations theory centres on the enough to account for the high of the chosen defense system. This is presence in every subject (individual, levels of anxiety and stress. Menzies the significant proposition put forward In terms of Object Relations Theory, couple, family, group, organization, attempted to understand and illustrate by Tavistock social scientists – that nurses’ ‘external objects’ are actual society) of “internal objects” that seek the nature of the methods the nursing the success and viability of a social damaged, cut open, bleeding, festering relationships with “external objects”. service provided for the alleviation of institution are intimately connected bodies of their charges. These ‘external To put it another way, if the ‘internal anxiety – its social defence system – and with the techniques it uses to contain objects’ “meet up” with their ‘internal object’ of an individual or an considered in what aspects it failed to anxiety. An understanding of this objects’ i.e. the pictures-in-their-minds organization, is of a rescuer, others function adequately. She concluded that aspect of the functioning of a social of damaged, ill, disintegrating and will be perceived as and related to as the social defence system represented institution is an important diagnostic dying parents. Nurses’ attraction to needing rescuing. This is commonly the institutionalisation of very primitive tool in facilitating social change. the profession of nursing, Menzies thought of as the source of motivation psychic defense mechanisms, the main Attempts at achieving organizational claimed, was based on their hope that of people in human service characteristic of which is that they and social change must understand by attending to external objects in the organizations. In other words, the facilitate the evasion of anxiety, but and work with social anxieties if form of patients, nurses psychologically “internal object” of rescuer seeks contribute little to its true modification social defenses are to be restructured. hoped to “repair” their ‘internal objects, relationships with “external” objects and reduction. Recommendations and plans for change i.e. their ill and dying parents. Menzies needing rescuing, and usually, if others that seem highly appropriate from concludes that the obsessive refuse to take up that role, they are The defense system (the way work is a rational point of view are ignored functionality of nursing procedures either coerced into that role or the organised) affects the efficiency of task- and fail in practice because they do in hospitals, the impersonalisation of ‘rescuer’ withdraws. There is a similar performance, in turn leading to the not sufficiently take into account the the nurse-patient relationship, i.e. the basis in the dynamic relationships inefficiency of the nursing service as common anxieties and the social chosen social defense structure, fails occurring between groups and a whole, for example, retaining high defenses in the organizations concerned, young nurses in their attempts to cope organizations. The implications for staff-patient ratios, significant amount nor provide for the therapeutic handling with their damaged “internal” objects, “collaboration” between organizations of bad nursing practice, excessive staff of the situation as change takes place. and ultimately leads large numbers of should be clear, except that regressive turnover and failure to train students young nurses abandoning their training. tendencies that occur in groups may adequately for their future roles. The According to Mannie Sher, the nursing Similarly, in policing, young men and turn the ideal of collaboration into high levels of anxiety in nurses adds to and policing services present these women seek to deal with their “internal fault-finding, blame and conflict. the stress of illness and hospitalization difficulties to a high degree, since the objects” of violent, mentally ill, abusing for patients and has adverse effects anxieties are already very acute and the or chaotic parents by externalising those Isabel Menzies (1959, 1961, 1970, of recovery rates. Recovery rates are defense system is both primitive and dynamics onto society, crime, disorder 1988), a researcher consultant at the directly connected with the morale of ineffectual. Efforts to initiate change and mental illness, and rely on Tavistock Institute of Human Relations nursing staff. Thus the social structure are often met with acute anxiety and policing institutions to do so safely during the 50’s, 60’s and 70’s discovered of the nursing service was found to be hostility which conveys that people feel and in a civilized manner.

136 137 Appendix : Collaborative partnerships model (Source: Hudson, Dodd, Marsay, Stamp & QinetiQ, 2008)

Chapter Summary STEADY Upper collaboration limit • Depending on context and environment, collaboration can become even complementary to main focus more important, and the main way in which organizations shape their efforts. of organization

• Collaboration provides a way of achieving what is not immediately I ndicator value achievable, particularly in a turbulent environment. It can become the engine CRISIS for change and renewed growth. collaboration essential • Collaboration can be seen as a temporary organization and transitional space

in which to foster innovation and learning, essential for long-term survival. UNCERTAIN NEW collaboration STEADY even more of STATE? an option collaboration an option

Natural ‘floor’

Zone 1: Zone 2: Zone 3: Zone 4: Time

“Things “Things look “Things are “Things are going good but it going wrong, are better, well,and we doesn’t feel and unless everything can always good” decisive feels back to do better” action is taken normal but they will get we count on worse” that”

138 139 Chapter 4: Social collaboration: how can it work In this chapter: My model for talking to the students about the power of coalitions [of state and non-state actors] is to use that “stone soup” fable in which the traveller comes to a village and proclaims his ability to make soup from stones. He boils a cauldron • Role of government of water with a few stones in the bottom, and remarks to various curious villagers that stone soup is even better if you drop in a few herbs... some vegetables... a few • Role of business potatoes... a little meat — and at each suggestion a villager donates the ingredient. Eventually a collaborative soup is produced which all share.

• Role of NGOs Dr Nicholas Cull, Professor of Public Diplomacy, University of Southern California.

• Better engagement Cull’s story shows it is the vision (or In the broad context of achieving what he calls the “cheek”) of the social goals, governments should think between governments, facilitator that achieves the result, not as much about their role as architects business and NGOs his own resources. The fable is pretty and builders (that is, shaping the widespread in Europe, with the inert conditions in which collaboration • Chapter summary ingredient sometimes given as an axe happens and delivering their part in or nails, but it seems apposite to the it) as about their role as leaders (that challenge addressed by this chapter. is, taking the primary responsibility for Who casts, in this sense, the first stone? achieving results and taking the credit Who contributes other ingredients? Can or blame for failure to deliver). As my collaborations between governments, analysis of “tame, wicked and critical business and wider civil society actually problems” in the next chapter will work? Governments need to be clearer demonstrate, there are clear reasons about their own role, as I explain in part why government should provide 1. They must understand better the leadership and why that leadership perspectives of business (see part 2) and style will depend on how the problem is NGOs (part 3) before deciding how best constructed. But it is counter-productive to engage with business and NGOs (part to presume that all that matters is 4). The next chapter picks up on the leadership, especially a narrow view “cheek” that we need leaders to show of it. if they are to get the cauldron boiling. Combined teamwork makes the 1. The role of Government difference. Other roles exist for all actors, including the citizen, and we Quite apart from the political leadership miss opportunities to exploit the that governments can give, effective potential of collaboration if we social collaboration turns on inspiring do not go in with what Kant called leadership across society. this “enlarged mentality”, achieved by

140 140 141 looking at problems from the point of Only then can we answer the fourth enabling one: it might start off as and knowledge is not just offering a view of all concerned before reaching question: “taking the lead” but over time gift but also part of building a rapport. a judgment. it becomes “what help do you need, Without being heavy-handed, these 4. Who has to do what to get the task and how can we provide it?” companies want to show that they Although he is best known for The done? are willing ready to do business. In Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith wrote That sort of language is increasing investing time and interest in another in The Theory of Moral Sentiments: For society as a whole, there is yet used by governments. But is their government, they need to show a “Though our brother is upon the rack, another question to consider. Quite strategic aim to provide support? Or return. as long as we ourselves are at our ease, apart from what needs to be done and is it to control, regulate or influence? our senses will never inform us of what who is best placed to do it, who should Governments will always have interests, Talking about roles is important; both he suffers. They never did, they never take the lead? but their actions vary according to in terms of defining the task to be can, carry us beyond our own person, whether those interests need to be achieved but also in making clear what and it is by the imagination only that we This approach helps ensure that the promoted, protected or merely taken is expected of whom. Many issues are can form any conception of what are his designing a policy and communicating into account. It may sometimes be in not properly addressed because of sensations.” (pp 3-4). it are two sides of the same coin. Only our own interests to put the interests presumptions about the role an when these four questions have been of others first. individual is taking and that person’s An enlarged mentality, based on realism answered does it make sense to ask power to change its scope. and imagination, provides a useful what the strategic communications Interested enablers perspective for both strategic and or public diplomacy strategy should The “interested enabler” role is one tactical reasons: governments cannot, be. The reason for bringing in This does not mean that the only taken by governments acting through or don’t want to, deal with social communications at the outset is intervention possible is that of an their embassies abroad. With the problems on their own. The way to not just to present the policy better honest broker. There may be an publication of its four policy goals, address some problems is not to assume but to establish what the policy is an explicit or implicit interest present that Britain is explicit about what it sees as leadership but to see the bigger picture appropriate response to. is neither aggressive nor self-promoting. the main challenges facing the world. and understand others. This strategy comes some way between It believes tackling those challenges Others — businesses, civil society, that of a disinterested facilitator and an together will benefit us all. Three questions need to be addressed ordinary citizens — are delivering evangelical advocate. It is one that we first: social change with little or no should be more open about. I had a useful discussion at our mission government help. The same is true in Geneva about the range of roles that 1. What is the nature of the problem or in some developing countries, where Many multinational companies in Britain plays in securing its objectives. opportunity? governments could usefully play a developing countries are aware of the In some cases, it is as an honest broker. greater role; instead, NGOs and local risks of giving host governments the Usually, though, the aim of hosting an 2. What is the range of solutions? communities are finding their own way impression that they have a blueprint open discussion with third parties is to of addressing social problems, often for commercial exploitation of that focus on the issues and ways in which 3. What could be done by whom, with assistance from international country’s resources. Whether they take they may be resolved. “Open” does not and with what degree of risk, donors. Even in these cases, everybody a strategic or tactical stance, those mean “open-ended”. The facilitation commitment, skills, resources and realises that local initiative is critical if companies achieve their ends by is part of a more directed strategy. success? contributions are to be significant and adopting the approach of an interested Participants need to know where their sustainable. So the third-party role is an enabler. For example, sharing expertise contribution fits, what’s expected of

142 143 them, what they expect of their hosts Relationships with host governments even annoying for the other party. This and how the group as whole can take and multiple stakeholders are needed Our ambassador was not driving confirms the impression that the whole any discussion forward. Many of our not just to keep bilateral relationships Hungary’s policy. He was simply public consultation process was a futile ambassadors — and, increasingly, our in good repair but also to provide an making sure that these workshops exercise. It alienates those who have political and commercial counsellors — opportunity to explore different were operating transparently and spent time, energy and resources chair such discussions with a light touch perspectives. As one diplomat put it, with the widest possible cross- working up a study or analysis.” combined with focus and momentum. “The policies might be the fuel in the section of stakeholders. But tank. But knowledge, know-how and the project also provided an If governments were more proactive, Interested enablers will invariably be networks are the oil in the engine.” opportunity for our own there would be two main advantages: looking for common ground. But it is government to put its views often difficult to reach that point until Speaking the local language is regularly direct to the Hungarian drafters. • It would broaden the scope they have created the conditions for mentioned as one of the skills that of respondents beyond the participants to establish a commonality give our diplomats an advantage. This shows what can be achieved if self-appointed and regular of interest — rather than merely Ambassadors of foreign governments one player facilitates meaningful commentators, leading to more common interest. told me that their diplomatic services consultation and acts on direct balanced sampling. could do more to encourage envoys feedback. Somebody needed to The FCO’s strength will clearly be to learn about a country before take the lead and ensure that the • It would build up in-house expertise in delivering a strategy, using its working there. Those who return to process got under way. But the in assessing how a proposal would knowledge, know-how and networks. a post after having served there earlier initiating party was not seen to be received by those affected. As It will be this rather than a specific in their careers have an advantage over dominate the scene. a diplomat said, it would benefit agenda that will engage others, others, even if much has changed in the policy-making and could dispel the according to businesses, NGOs, think- meantime — because they realise how administration’s image of being out tanks and others I have spoken to. Ideas they have yet to adapt Experience from posts abroad of touch with real life. capture people’s imagination, but can also distance them. It is the quality of One reason why partnerships between 2. The role of business the relationship keeps the dialogue Example: Hungarian National government, business and NGOs often going. Climate Strategy fail is that government does not see What is the evidence that outsiders the need to seek input and consult want to work with government or with This is why I asked Christopher Lomas The British Embassy in stakeholders. Another problem is that international institutions such as the of Naked Generations what he thinks Budapest sponsored a series of government often fails to acknowledge United Nations? “Generation Y” wants and how interdisciplinary workshops which feedback or tell those who make governments and business could contributed to the drafting of the comments how their suggestions were Two major reports demonstrate engage better with younger people (see Hungarian national climate change taken into account. increasing collaboration as a source Appendix: Naked Generations). Many of strategy. These workshops, which of business success. The first, in 2005, the points Lomas makes are essential to were chaired by Hungary’s One diplomat said: “Simply posting was a UN report on partnerships. The understanding why those in authority environment ministry, discussed working documents on ministry work of the Global Fund provides a don’t connect as well as they could background studies, collected websites for comment is not enough. strong example of what a non-profit with the rest of society. In Chapter 5, I missing information and formulated The lack of any feedback on how these international foundation can achieve. explore his arguments for engagement. a consensus. were considered is de-motivating and

144 145 The 11th Annual Global CEO Survey, “More than ever”, according to PwC’s in practice, particularly when it directly stakeholders to develop or refine conducted by PwC in 2008, was based CEO Samuel DiPiazza, “executives are affects the bottom line. Most companies business models. As experience with on contacts with more than 1150 being challenged to evaluate whether are still using collaborative networks on networks grows, their use in all company leaders and government their companies are fully exploiting the an opportunistic basis. Although CEOs industries is likely to increase. officials from 50 countries. It shows power of their global networks.” report that it is relatively easy to recruit collaboration at work in everything from (PwC, 2008, p.i). people who can collaborate, they regard Public-private partnerships: UN the pursuit of talent and technological lack of collaboration across functions as experience innovation to organizational dynamics More than half of all CEOs (57%) a major organizational barrier to and regulatory harmonisation. believe that collaborative networks managing change. The UN Report on Partnerships (2005) will play a major role in the way that shows how much the Millennium Tackling climate change is identified by companies will operate in the future. “Public-private collaborative ventures Development Goals and the World the survey as a global concern needing Only 17% “agree” or “agree strongly” can founder on a lack of understanding Summit on Sustainable Development a collaborative approach. A growing that the costs and risks of networks of each other’s respective objectives, in 2002 have been catalysts for public- number of CEOs support government- currently outweighs the benefits. Asia Richard Wakeford, Director General private initiatives. More than 200 led action. 82% of CEOs “agree” or Pacific CEOs are particularly convinced of Environment at the Scottish partnerships were agreed at the World “agree strongly” that governments about their value: 83% of Indian Government told PwC researchers. Summit. should lead the effort to address the CEOs are open to the idea that “They depend on respect by the private environment. 90% of Asian CEOs are “collaborative networks will be a sector of legitimate public goods, and The early evidence shows that all sides convinced that governments should defining organizational principle of sensitivity by regulators to the needs need to learn to exploit the potential take the initiative. 73% “agree” or business”. Chinese CEOs are less of business.” of partnership. Partnerships are seen to “agree strongly” that there needs to be convinced but are close to the global contribute significantly to outward focus greater collaboration among businesses average, indicating that a history of But the PwC survey concludes that a and impact. But many partnerships are in mitigating climate change. central planning does not preclude more strategic approach will emerge, not “mainstreamed” in the rest of the a willingness to collaborate. and that tomorrow’s networks will organization. There is a lack of Though the survey was conducted increasingly be initiated at a senior level incentives and capabilities and not before the financial turbulence of Stone soup: more than stones? rather than developed to take care of enough evaluation. The UN Report 2008/09, economic downturn was a company’s immediate needs. CEOs notes that most partnerships are driven already the global risk that CEOs The survey evidence highlights are more enthusiastic about “soft” globally, not locally driven or owned. regarded as their greatest concern. challenges. Networks are used mainly networks. Networks for creating and Despite potential risks from competitors, to achieve “soft” goals — such as sharing knowledge are seen as a “quite On the other hand, three-quarters of they still valued increased collaboration. advancing learning and sharing best effective” or “very effective” by 75% businesses say that partnerships will The key to getting the most out practice — rather than enhancing of CEOs; and networks for sharing become more and more important. of collaboration is deciding how to products and services. 37% still regard best practice are seen in the same 81% see brand value as the most balance it with competition and how the establishment of networks as a light (70%). Even though most CEOs important asset that partnership brings to infuse collaboration with traditional secondary activity, suggesting that they see development of networks as a while 73% see it as legitimacy. Nine management discipline. have yet to exploit the full potential of secondary activity, the research out of 10 say that the incentive to collaboration. Although many CEOs also shows that companies in the demonstrate good corporate recognise the value of collaboration, technology and media sectors are citizenship is the main driver. they have not embraced the concept already collaborating with multiple

146 147 On the negative side, these are some Increasing numbers of companies customers, demographic groups and of business in society is that attention typical comments from businesses: publish their social and environmental even the regions that companies serve. is drawn to long-term corporate performance. performance. “The test of a business- • Lack of coordination Studies of CSR going back to the 1960s and-society-based model is whether Alan Murray, lecturer in accounting and 1970s show that different societies it leads companies to use their power • Difficult to build partnerships at Sheffield University Management have specific and complex expectations and resources for the long-term benefit School, says that individual companies of the role of business, which go beyond of society, even if there are short-term • Bureaucratic structures and thinking find themselves under social and paying taxes and following the law. costs to the company.” (Blowfield competitive pressures. They are subject Carrol’s framework is the benchmark and Murray, 2008, p22). If businesses • Lack of speed in delivering on to new levels of transparency, whether for understanding CSR, and identifies see tensions as opportunities (see commitments in response to changes in corporate four types of responsibility: economic, Chapter 2, Part 2), they will want governance, to public concerns on legal, ethical and discretionary (Carrol, to get performance right as a way • Suspicion of business environment or to consumer rights. 1979). Ethical responsibility goes to maintain public confidence. Adverse disclosure threatens beyond legal compliance, and Companies that don’t work in this • Take-it-or-leave-it approach to shareholder confidence, brand discretionary responsibility refers to way will eventually find themselves business reputation, production stability, voluntary responsibilities, such as in the minority. employee trust and other corporate philanthropy, which companies can Both reports suggest that collaboration assets. take on even if there is no clear-cut Motivations and partnership are a growing trend. expectation from society. But there are still many hurdles to more Challenges are being also seen as Businesses have three main motivations effective joint working. opportunities. In Corporate Social Just as some brand attributes can go for pursuing partnerships. They provide Responsibility: A Critical Introduction from being seen as differentiators for another way of implementing traditional Rise of Corporate Social (2008), Alan Murray and Michael a company to being seen as something company-led community relations and Responsibility (CSR) Blowfield describe the twin spheres that everybody does, expectations of development programmes; a compelling that CSR has to embrace. It must deal responsibility can also evolve. Safety has business rationale – for example, access One way of understanding how with “capitalism’s Achilles heel” (Baker, always been a differentiator for Volvo, to new markets, avoidance of litigation business can become more involved 2005), within which are intertwined but which automobile manufacturer or an opportunity to improve image; in partnerships with a social goal is to capital, poverty and inequality. And it does not now want to be seen and a response to the trend towards track the importance they give to must promote capitalism as a solution producing safe cars? What has been civil regulation, the requirements Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). In to the key social and environmental achieved on safety is what governments imposed by civil society. a 2005 poll, 81% of executives said that issues of the age. Definitions of CSR and the vehicle industry will have to corporate responsibility was essential include Starbucks’ approach that achieve on carbon emissions. The The corporate failures that started in to their business. They disagree about responsibility is gauged by how opportunity now exists for car the 1980s show the continued need for what the term means but the majority companies respond to stakeholders’ manufactures to be distinctive by vigilance to ensure that business uses believe that business should serve as a concerns and the Pricewaterhouse- being innovative about tackling its resources for proper purposes. There steward in society and that it has a duty Coopers view that responsibility involves climate change. must also be an expectation that those to investors, employees, consumers, balancing profit maximisation and who run companies act honestly. This is communities, and the environment. stakeholder needs. For PwC, One result of involving a wider array of not only to enhance shareholder value stakeholders include employees, stakeholders in thinking about the role and to ensure the financial viability of

148 149 companies but also to take account of industry-based standards; and company- Leveraging partnerships for the impact on other stakeholders — specific standards. enlightened self-interest Finance, Conservation International including employees, customers, and USAID to finance more than suppliers and communities. This The significance of the current banking James Thompson, Regional Director at $12 million in loans for rural principle was accepted by the Toronto and financial turmoil still needs to be the US State Department, provides the entrepreneurs in Latin and Central Stock Exchange in 1994. more fully assessed. But if the learning simplest rationale for the increasing America? in this report holds, especially in importance of partnerships between But just as strategy cannot be divorced being more strategic about risk and businesses and others. It is enlightened How does MTV justify its from implementation, rules and opportunity, business leaders need self-interest. commitment to provide regulations are not enough on their to develop partnerships as a way of technological resources to a own. Laws need to be matched by better connecting their organizations $13 million alliance between effective collaborative frameworks to to society’s concerns and aspirations. There are global challenges so USAID and the MTV Europe ensure a shared understanding and The insights developed in Chapter 2 complex that no government, no Foundation to increase awareness commitment to implement the spirit provide a way of making that private enterprise, no single team about and prevent the trafficking of corporate responsibility and, in implementation come alive, particularly of experts can effectively tackle of women and children for forced particular, sustainable development. in managing risk, building trust and alone. Public-private partnerships labour and sexual abuse? What is required to complement and embracing complexity. are not new. There have been reinforce agreed mechanisms is the numerous examples of joint projects The reasons behind these effective joining-up of traditional and Tri-sector partnerships where government agencies and investments are straightforward: non-traditional actors, a “suture”, or individual companies team up to self-interest. Companies that rely on sewing together of the fabric, that Partnership in a corporate-responsibility support educational initiatives, the natural resources and human makes a society, an industry sector or sense is different from the type of deliver healthcare or increase capital of emerging markets are a specific company function with agility, public-private partnerships that environmental conservation. investing and instituting sustainable resilience and integrity. governments promote to deliver public development practices and services. But one can also see emerging Why would The Coca-Cola education initiatives in partnership Following Enron’s collapse, Samuel elements of both in what are called Company, the largest beverage with the US government because DiPiazza of PwC developed a revised “tri-sector” partnerships between company with the most extensive both government foreign model of corporate disclosure, stressing government, business and civil society. distribution system in the world, assistance programs and companies not just transparency but also Warner and Sullivan describe this kind invest millions in an alliance alike are dependent on the global accountability and integrity. In the of partnership in the context of the between the US Agency for economy. Because of this reliance, UK, the Institute of Directors has mining, oil and gas industry: “Tri-sector International Development (USAID) both the public and private sector pioneered the qualification of chartered partners are, in essence, a new form and local bottling facilities in Africa, are motivated to act. company director, developing a keen of strategic alliance… [a] voluntary Asia and South America to conserve sense among business leaders that collaboration to promote sustainable water resources? James Thompson, Business for Social taking the wider strategic view is a development based on the most Responsibility Weekly (2007) boardroom requirement. DiPiazza’s efficient allocation of complementary And why is Starbucks Corporation work clearly identifies the need to resources across business, civil society working with Verde Ventures, work on three tiers: global, generally and government.” (Warner and Sullivan, Calvert Foundation, EcoLogic Thompson and I have been in regular accepted accounting principles; 2003, p17). correspondence in connection with

150 151 this report. I asked him what was most “Both governments and international Figure 4.2: Partnership outcomes for different stakeholders – examples from mining needed to get partnerships with institutions need to plan for Source: Blowfield and Murray (2008). Adapted from Warner and Sullivan (2003). business to work the way he wanted. partnerships and build in flexibility in their procurement processes for “You need to have some detailed partnerships,” he said. “There is still planning prior to the implementation a tremendous amount of institutional Outcomes for business of the partnership,” he said. “Goals culture-change that needs to take place, Enhanced licence to operate because Availability of new social capital for the need to be set, performance indicators so that staff now plan activities and communities affected by operations business identified and agreed upon, and a think about new approaches that bring will be satisfied that the business unit documented detail of what each in private-sector knowledge, technology is responsive to their concerns partner is going to contribute to the and creativity.” Reduced community dependency on Becoming ‘company of choice’ in the yes of partnership. There also needs to be the business unit (e.g. owing to governmental authorizing agencies and some flexibility as the conditions on The following tables show how one empowerment of communities to removing political objections to future ventures the ground can rapidly change.” can map contributions (Figure 4.1) manage their own development)

and outcomes (Figure 4.2) from Basis for resolving local disputes that Reduced risk to marketing, sales, and share And how do governments and different stakeholders. Good practice might delay financial approval or price associated with negative image of social international institutions need to in managing partnerships (Figure 4.3) is operations and environmental performance change? based on the importance of partnership exploration, building and maintaining. Outcomes for local communities

Figure 4.1: Stakeholders’ complementary contributions to partnerships Additional resources for community Ensuring that those affected by Source: Blowfield and Murray (2008). Adapted from Warner and Sullivan (2003); UNEP et al. (2005). development operations have an equal or greater level of welfare, income, subsistence and security

Fairer settlement/compensation for Access to the technology, finance and markets Government contribution Business contribution Civil society contribution community assets needed for new assets; and skill sets that can be transformed into sustainable livelihoods Strategic co-ordination Job creation Local knowledge through local development Improved infrastructure and capacity plans to manage it

Access to budgets in public Knowledge of procurement Mobilisation of community Outcomes for the public sector sector and supply chain management participation Agreed revenue distribution mechanisms Increased legitimacy with local populations Regulatory provisions Building local infrastructure Independent monitoring before commencing operations

Brokering of capacity- Capital equipment, technical Local and international More equitable distribution of revenues across Exposure to new ways of working and building roles skills and logistics credibility government, and between government and international good practice communities Performance-led work ethic and access to international Enhanced tax and skills base Empowerment of local communities best practices

152 153 Figure 4.3: Principles for managing partnerships contacts. This credibility is often value on the independence and Source: Blowfield and Murray (2008). Adapted from Warner and Sullivan (2003); CCC (2005c). buttressed by single-mindedness perspective that NGOs bring. in commitment, knowledge of the Partnership exploration stage subject and first-hand experience. In A broader perspective of the NGO Latin America, according to one DFID role Find the most practicable strategy Involve stakeholders in design contact, NGOs understand the problems of social inclusion far better than the However, seeing NGOs only in terms Be purpose-driven Set realistic expectations overseas government and are often of advocacy and delivery is limiting — Be willing to negotiate Be prepared to say ‘No’ better placed to tackle the challenges. both for them and for wider social collaboration. The role of NGOs is Consult But there are inherent problems. One changing, not just for their benefit Partnership building stage civil servant working with some smaller but for that of government and NGOs expressed both her delight in business. The most effective NGOs are Appreciate the importance of perceptions Accept that differences of interest will arise tapping the skills and knowledge of very adept at picking up on emerging

Integrate cultural values and priorities Encourage joint problem-solving the NGO and her utter frustration at issues, championing them and putting implementing a project with their help. pressure on governments and business Build trust, confidence and respect Identify the important voices, rather than the “They don’t seem to understand to change their policies. But they also loudest that we just want to see a brief add value by helping to inform and Be willing to negotiate implemented,” she said. “Not every frame the public debate. New ideas project is a reason for opening up a and perspectives can emerge that NGOs Partnership maintenance stage policy debate. There’s a time and a did not think of when they first started

Recognise reciprocal obligations Adapt to internal and external events place for that, and NGOs need to get lobbying. much more business-like.” Have clear work plans Measure added value One contact gives as an example a US Many NGOs, particularly those that government-initiated project to provide Maintain internal and external Do not be a slave to business value communications have longer-term relationships with schoolchildren with multi-vitamin government and business, understand tablets. The cost amounted to Be willing to negotiate Instigate continual learning the scope and limits of other $5 million. organizations. They know whom to lobby and when to push their “The students threw out the pills and 3. The role of NGOs adversaries, allies or targets — or as arguments. But there is a challenge refused to take them. The government deliverers of services, complementing for governments, business and NGOs. then spoke to some of the civil society In Chapter 1, we began to examine or replacing government functions. Each member of this trio must to better understand the problem. the wider range of NGO functions and appreciate each other’s perspective The reasoning was easy: there was how the potential of civil society could NGOs have advantages that and find common ground on which no awareness about what the tablets be better exploited. Many in governments and business do not to collaborate more effectively. were for and rumours spread across the government limit their perspective necessarily enjoy: credibility with certain Baroness Neuberger, who advises the country that the tablets were designed of NGOs, seeing them either as networks and often with the wider Prime Minister on the third sector, says for birth control.” advocates — and therefore as potential public, as well as specific expertise and that government needs to put greater

154 155 My contact suggests that a simple way The Carbon Markets and Investors business and NGOs in emerging of dealing with the problem would have Association (CMIA) is a trade association collaboration with single issue economies. Their detailed insights, been greater advance consultation with representing service providers to the NGOs. However, even when drawn mostly from personal experience the civil society, as well as direct contact global carbon market. It was formed successful, the operating limits of working with NGOs, show what with people in the communities. to represent businesses in the services of such relationships need to be effective collaboration can achieve on a sector, working to reduce carbon understood. participatory basis while demonstrating Another contact highlights the role emissions through the market the need to be realistic about the that NGOs play as a bridge between mechanisms of the UNFCCC. The CMIA In my experience one important challenges of bridging different the community and the authorities in represents an estimated three-quarters factor for smooth running is that perspectives. terms of communication and conflict of the transaction value in the global the NGO must expect, and be resolution. As President Sarkozy carbon market, which is expected to satisfied, to take a junior role to the A contact who works with an immediately saw when he took office, grow to $1 trillion by 2020. “If the government agency or department Indonesian-based NGO says: “NGOs issues raised with NGOs, particularly strategic aims of government are for the relationship to be effective — have used an ‘ideal’ perspective to those interested in the environment and predominantly aligned with that of an even if this means bureaucratic create their policy and campaigns. development, can trigger wider public NGO then collaboration will more than delays to a collaboration which can But government and business use a engagement and shape new legislation. likely bear fruit. This has frequently been be frustrating for fast-running ‘business-as-usual’ perspective. Both The very process of engaging with 330 the case with the Carbon Markets & private sector NGOs. There is no sides need to bridge their perspectives, stakeholder representatives and 17,000 Investors Association and the UK doubt that governments are getting and that requires compromise.” people in 19 regional meetings resulted Government, as both seek to encourage better at dealing with private sector in agreement on a five-year plan with the development of carbon emissions NGOs and are seeing them as Much of the feedback stresses that 268 recommendations. trading and low-carbon technology useful adjuncts to their policy collaboration must be based on the financing in new regions and to strategies and roll-outs, acting as a equality of all parties, on “mutual For NGOs, a key challenge is how they promote the City as a leading provider bridge between government policy benefits”, “a win-win” or on can best use their assets with partners to this market. and the “real world”. “symmetry”. Government might have or potential partners, enhancing the “administrative power” but “should quality of relationships with other NGOs Adam Nathan, Director, Public Affairs, never be superior to its partner in Carbon Markets and Investors Association as well as governments and business. This role positively encompasses cooperation”. Another contact says None of this detracts from their need the strategic remit of at least four that governments must show flexibility to pursue wider goals or maintain their government departments, the in how they deal with NGOs: “The independence. One colleague in the Climate and Energy department Feedback from the Chevening approach can be top-down or much French government said that many DECC, Treasury (HMT), Business (BIS) Network more participative.” NGOs needed to be clearer about what and Environment (Defra) – making an ideal relationship with government the collaboration more deep-rooted One of the networks that I drew on A further contact says: “Government might be; what a possible relationship in UK government policy and the was the FCO’s network of Chevening should see NGOs as partners rather than could be if everybody found made providing more chance of success; contacts, which identifies and supports rivals or opponents; and must be more compromises; and what the actual inter-departmental policy wrangles future leaders. They reflect a open and prepared to show empathy.” relationship might be if nobody made can limit scope for fruitful contemporary perspective on the Another says: “NGOs that cooperate changes. relationship between governments, with governments must maintain their

156 157 independence, particularly of agree the right processes and outcomes. Design tips participation of local communities to operation.” A contact from Jordan says NGOs could give establish ownership. be even more effective if: government Selection A contact who is not in a NGO, but who involved them earlier and gave them Choose the right NGOs, not your friends Sustainability understands the sector, explains why more time to implement projects; if the or the ones who have a soft opinion in Assess that objectives have a last independence is intrinsically valuable: private sector took a wider view of their what you want to avoid doing. Choose effect. Make sure that collaboration is “My bank is not a NGO, but we role; and if NGOs had more of a say the strong-minded NGOs that work organised as a serious sustainable cooperate closely with governments in donors’ discussions about funding. seriously in the sector and can advise consultative process and is not just in financing the development of Another suggests a more business-like you on long-term solutions — even for show. infrastructure, investing in education approach: clarity of roles; agreement though you may disagree with their and medical care facilities, and in on timeframe for implementation; advice. Strong NGOs will get their Implementation tips supporting the government’s upgrading agreement on performance indicators; opinion across to the public and so of industry policies. In my bank’s and financial accountabilities. you are better off working with them Integration cooperation with local governments, to improve your policies rather than Integrate plans and processes with we can make independent lending A Malaysian contact says that what is disregarding them and having to face government plans. decisions. The governments can needed are: “NGOs which are sensitive them in the media. recommend projects to us, but we to social change and demonstrate in Evaluation make an independent project-appraisal, their long-term goals that they possess Engagement Ensure activities are monitored, and conduct due diligence, and make our the quality of good “business” partners Engage NGOs throughout the process: commission reports and minutes. Have own lending decisions… Independence for companies. They need to create design, planning and implementation. clear key performance indicators. is important and makes the value and strategic benefit for corporate Have the NGOs write a business plan/ collaboration sustainable in the social responsibility.” One Guyanan strategy – even a short one. You and Communication long run.” contact, mindful of the gap between they need to be clear how they intend Consult through workshops and regular rhetoric and delivery, says: “Do the due to achieve their goals, no matter how meetings to ensure that there is shared One NGO contact from Cambodia diligence, maintain sceptical oversight, celebrated the cause. Have the NGOs understanding as well as the building who specialises in improving and don’t be swept by the hype!” state their terms of reference and of relationships. Ensure effective environmental awareness and the management structure. Ensure activities communication, both vertical and management of natural resources says Top tips for government and are monitored, and commission reports horizontal. that it is important to understand the business working with NGOs and minutes. dominant culture, particularly among NGOs: new ways forward government officials: “NGOs always Following a suggestion by Blake Accountability use a participatory approach, while Lee-Harwood, a former Greenpeace Secure agreement on key deliverables, NGOs are growing in importance and government uses a top-down and campaigns director and, more recently, timeframes and financial management impact. In the course of my research, I output-orientated approach. We a strategic communication adviser for accountabilities. Have clear ownership saw two very different examples of the therefore have to consider how the the FCO, I asked my Chevening contacts and accountability for the project. contribution that NGOs can make. Each two approached can be balanced.” to suggest “top tips” for effective Spend enough time consulting NGOs shows that, whether the initiative is working with the NGOs. There was and ensure NGOs have enough time top-down or bottom-up; whether it is As well as getting right the rules of a range of responses, which I have to consult local communities. Ensure the result of global or local leadership; engagement with NGOs, it also helps to organised under two categories. the many problems to which social

158 159 collaboration is a solution are, in fact, is must “attract, manage and disperse implement successful programmes partnership. The Global Fund has played glocal — a mingling of the global and resources” to make a sustainable and provided they received additional a major role in moving the world from local. By the time a campaign or an significant contribution to the reduction financial resources. This was wrong. a situation of severe resource scarcity operation takes off, it’s the interaction of infection, illness and death. In so Governments and their partners in civil in fighting the three diseases to one of of global, national, regional, and local doing, it must also contribute to the society needed significant capacity- much greater resource availability. initiative that delivers an overall result. reduction of poverty. The Global Fund building and technical assistance. For has tried to establish a new model for this, the Global Fund depended on But the evaluation also sets some tough NGOs are still evolving, but these development financing, combining partner organizations that were not challenges for the fund. These include examples show their potential. country-level ownership of programmes ready yet to step in. The fund was “mission creep” — an occupational with institutional efficiency and upsetting a system of development hazard for collaborations and Global Fund: building partnerships effectiveness. And it has advanced assistance and it took a few years partnerships, not least in the to tackle AIDS, tuberculosis and the concept of public-private to adapt. international development arena. malaria partnership, in both its founding The fund needs to be clearer about principles and its governance structures. But it is now shifting the model of how it combines its financing Founded with a strong mission to development assistance: from defined responsibilities with a growing policy address directly three pandemics, the This model of multi-stakeholder by donor requirements to one that is and development role. Global Fund provides a strong example participation is reflected in a public- demand-driven and country-led. We of a strategic focus on partnership, private partnership at country level now see participation by sectors not Where there is ambiguity in the performance-based funding and country to design proposals, implement and traditionally involved in making organizational role or the financing ownership. A not-for-profit international maximise the impact of grants. decisions on disease control at national intent of the Global Fund, the report organization based in Geneva, the Multilateral and bilateral agencies levels — such as civil society, those says, this compromises the ability of Global Fund has become the largest are important partners, assisting affected by the diseases and the international partners to mobilise multilateral funder tackling AIDS, with development proposals and private sector. resources. The main elements of the tuberculosis and malaria since it was implementing of grants. partnership model do not yet have a set up in 2002. An evaluation commissioned by the well-functioning system for the delivery When the Global Fund was created, it fund found that it had made significant of global public aims. The Global Fund was set up as a faced enormous public pressure to act contributions towards its original aims partnership between governments, civil fast. The lives of millions of people were over a six-year period. It has attracted This lack of clarity about partner roles society, the private sector and affected at stake and there was considerable nearly $18 billion from a variety of has resulted in varying expectations communities in response to calls from scrutiny by civil society activists and the sources both government and private, about the support countries need; Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General at media. This has resulted in a sometimes- achieving an exceptionally rapid start-up about which partners are to meet them; the time, and the G8 group. On the chaotic process, with ng resources being and making available $10.7 billion to and about financing this support. The fund’s international board, donor and made available before the necessary 136 countries by June 2008. evaluation warns the Global Fund that beneficiary countries have equal voting structures were in place. its partnership model requires a dynamic rights with members of civil society, This achievement represents a major approach to developing, nurturing, and people suffering from the diseases, the One can also question some of the advance in the partnership approach sustaining partnerships; and one that private sector and private foundations. assumptions on the fund was created. to development aid, providing a new recognises that the different stages of As a public-private foundation, the fund It was assumed that countries could model for a global public-private health partnership.

160 161 Global Fund/(RED) partnership: This success is based on the strengths An example was Christian Aid’s Collaboration at a local level is the using brand innovation to achieve of the partners and what each brings to supermarket campaign. Consumers sent lynchpin of these campaigns. A multi- social goals the partnership. The (RED) organization till receipts to their favourite retailers stakeholder campaign steering group is about marketing, branding and as evidence that they wanted fair-trade must involve representatives of the A good example of innovative advocacy; the Global Fund — an products. As support forthe campaign local council as well as community partnership between an independent, unknown brand to many consumers increased, companies began to respond. groups — for example, churches, social non-profit foundation and business is — is about achieving results and groups, local businesses, educational the partnership between the Global monitoring the effective use of Today, Fairtrade remains a partnership institutions, the local branch of Oxfam Fund and the enterprise known as funds. The partners have synergy, between producers, traders and NGOs. and other NGOs such as Friends of the (RED). This was created in 2006 by the complementarity and converging Producers from Asia, Africa and Latin Earth and WDM. The very strength of rock star and activist Bono to generate interests. And consumers can see a America sit on the Fairtrade board, this movement is in its diversity, with additional funding for the fight against clear connection between what they alongside people from Oxfam, each member playing to its own AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria as well contribute and the benefits produced Solidaridad, trade unions and strengths. The Co-operative Group as raising public awareness of HIV and by the partnership. In a relatively company traders. has proved to be a particularly strong AIDS in Africa. short time, the Global Fund/(RED) company partner, promoting the collaboration has established itself as In the UK, the Fairtrade Towns campaign to its own local membership In exchange for permission to use the a highly effective business model for movement now has 385 supporters, and sponsoring local initiatives. (RED) trade mark on their products, harnessing resources from the private with an estimated further 200 local companies contribute a portion of sector, becoming one of the largest campaigns. It began in Garstang when These partnerships are invaluable in their profits from these products to consumer-based income-generating the local Oxfam group and the manager helping to exploit local knowledge and programmes financed by the Global initiatives by the private sector for an of the local Co-op store were trying expertise in, for example, global trade Fund in Africa. Current partners include international humanitarian cause. to get more businesses involved with policies, local business knowledge or American Express, Apple, Converse, their campaign. They came up with the the ability to speak to a class of six-year- Dell, Armani, Gap, Hallmark and Fairtrade movement: harnessing idea of Garstang working to become olds. Many of the companies licensed Microsoft. It’s the first time that markets globally and locally the world’s first designated “Fairtrade to use the Fairtrade trade mark are leading companies have made a joint town”. involved in local campaigns, while commitment to direct a percentage of The Fairtrade movement started when others build partnerships around key their profits to assist in the fight against Mexican coffee farmers asked NGOs Barbara Crowther of the Fairtrade events such as Fairtrade Fortnight by the AIDS pandemic. And it is very to find a new way of promoting Foundation says her colleagues needed providing product samples, venues and successful: between 2006 and the end coffee produced by small farmers on some persuasion, as the Fairtrade trade staff support. A local campaign might of September 2008, (RED) raised more fair terms, following the collapse of the mark is primarily a product certification publish a directory of locally available than $112 million which the Global international coffee agreement in 1989. rather than a town endorsement. But Fairtrade products, distributed free and Fund used for grants to fight HIV and The only way the NGOs could achieve the foundation worked with Garstang supported by Fairtrade advertisers. AIDS in Ghana, Lesotho, Rwanda and this was by taking a business approach and other towns to develop the key During Fairtrade Fortnight, companies Swaziland. to building up consumer demand for principles of the Fairtrade Town often invite their producer partners to products and delivering a better deal initiative. These have since been the UK. By combining visits to trade to producers. They mobilised their own extended to other non-profit campaigns clients with participation in local networks, encouraging them to visit involving religious bodies, universities community events, the Fairtrade local shops or write to retailers. and schools.

162 163 Foundation ensures that the maximum advantage is gained. Initiative: Hungary promotes Initiative: Lloyds TSB and NHS discuss issues with senior leaders and social enterprises share commercial practices functional specialists in one of As Crowther says, “The important thing the UK’s largest banks. for any of these partnerships is to be The Hungarian Telehouse Recently the government sponsored very clear on the objectives you have as Association provides various services a scheme that encouraged “In an increasingly competitive and an organization, to find the common of public benefit under contract partnerships between NHS changing world, the ability to think ground in what you want to achieve from government departments. Foundation Trusts and FTSE 100 out of ‘organizational silos’ and and to know where your own This outsourcing provides the companies. One company that challenge the norm helps people to boundaries lie.” necessary financial stability for the took part in the scheme was Lloyds deliver better-informed and balanced NGO and provides for a more Banking Group. The aim of this decisions. This, in turn, will lead to 4. Towards a better engagement of efficient service delivery. This has initiative was to share commercial greater effectiveness and ultimately government, business helped the Telehouse Association practices with NHS trusts while also improved results”, Cheetham says. and NGOs to become the driving force behind allowing managers in companies “All organizations work in silos: it’s the European — and now the such as Lloyds to understand a human nature. The understanding of How would we all need to change to world-wide — telehouse movement different working environment. different industries and practices will make social collaboration work even (www.euta.hu). The network help break down these mental and better? James Thompson of US State provides a platform for many new One person involved in the scheme cultural barriers. This type of initiative Department says of government’s role: government, business and civil- was Stuart Cheetham, now facilitates this learning to happen.” “Both governments and international society initiatives. The key was to Managing Director of the Lloyds institutions need to plan for partner- establish a constant income for Banking Group in Tokyo. He worked “The experience demonstrated that, ships and build in flexibility in their the telehouses through a carefully closely with one foundation trust when building new relationships, procurement processes for partnerships. selected service portfolio. and believes that both organizations it’s important that both parties There is still a tremendous amount of achieved some success. For example, understand the mutual benefits to institutional culture change that needs Telehouses have now become self- they shared experience in areas working together. Some benefits to take place, so that staff now plan sustainable. They function like such as operational efficiencies, maybe intrinsic and difficult to activities and think about new social enterprises, serving the local performance management and measure but that doesn’t mean they approaches that bring in private sector community but charging for some executive decision making. are not powerful. For example, in this knowledge, technology and creativity.” services to avoid being over- case Lloyds managers benefited from dependent on state funding. What was learned from this improving their understanding in a This report has tracked three areas of initiative? “Getting people involved different industry and in a non-PLC learning on social collaboration: specific was never a problem,” says organization. It also takes time to initiatives, sector-led work, and work Learning point: Cheetham. “There was a real desire build trust and understanding, and done by countries over time. from both organizations. For Lloyds this can be increasingly different as all • This shows the growing importance staff, being involved in a project that parties still have day jobs to manage. of collaborations between focused on benefits for a non- However, investing this time will lead governments, business and NGOs commercial organization was a clear to a stronger relationship and a greater in generating their own funding. motivator. For the NHS trust, they chance for success”. had the opportunity to meet and

164 165 Learning point: DFID’s funding of civil society or- Entry to the PPA scheme is based on a Bank, the Kenyan government, ganizations range of criteria including: • One crucial lesson for Stuart Microsave Kenya as well as specialist Cheetham is that people need to organisations such as Coffey and DFID provides more than £329m a • sufficient consistency between civil take a step back and invest time to Frontier Economics. year to international civil society society and DFID priorities understand how they can work with organizations. The principal centrally- different organizations. Their support was vital in assisting managed schemes are the Partnership • high standards of corporate with regulatory conditions as well Programme Agreements (PPA), the governance as with the risks and benefits of the Governance and Transparency Fund Initiative: Vodafone provides project. (GTF) and the Civil Society Challenge • extensive reach to build public banking services to Kenya’s Fund (CSCF). support for development; and population The regulator, the Central Bank of Kenya, was also involved from the Partnership Programme Agreements • significant engagement in DFID policy M-PESA is a mobile phone-based earliest stages. M-PESA was were established in 2000 to provide formulation. payment service which enables launched in October 2005 and has unrestricted funding to civil society customers in Kenya who don’t seen massive customer up-take, organizations with which DFID has Corporate governance checks are have bank accounts to make indicating pent-up demand for a significant working relationship, a carried out before funding to ensure simple financial transactions. It simple financial transaction services. common ethos and a strong match in that the organization is corporately was developed by Vodafone and The M-PESA collaboration was also priority areas. sound. its network operator in Kenya, a pathfinder for developing Safaricom, with seed-funding financial services in other countries Currently DFID has 26 PPAs running How PPAs are monitored from DFID’s Financial Deepening lacking a developed infrastructure with UK and non-UK organizations. The Challenge Fund (FDCF). for telephony and banking. PPA budget is around £100 million per Unrestricted funding is provided based annum. on a range of strategic objectives and The DFID funding was critical SMART indicators, agreed with DFID, because it enabled the companies Learning points: How do PPAs work? against which the organizations are held to go ahead with what was seen accountable. at the time as a potentially risky • A combination of DFID money and Partnership Programme Agreements project, allowing them to spend Vodafone and local partner enterprise last from three to six years. The funding DFID and the 26 PPA organizations more time on assessment in the produced this result. is core and not tied to any particular have recently agreed strong individual development phase so that the project or programme. Monitoring performance frameworks, consisting product would fully meet user • Effective participation ensured that is based, as far as possible, on the of strategic objectives and SMART needs. Through FDCF, the project the right regulation was in place and agencies’ existing processes. All PPAs indicators. This allows DFID to gauge was also able to take advantage of supported. have monitoring frameworks with impact of the PPA funding scheme. expertise in the financial deepening indicators for internal review and sector and to gain the support of external evaluation. A “synoptic logframe” is currently being stakeholders such as the World drafted to map PPA partner objectives against key DFID priorities and provide

166 167 at-a-glance information on all countries core funding to the organization, continue to develop as a highly Sector-led work: Oil and gas and themes covered by the PPA funding supporting grants to partners and effective development agency. industry promoting sustainable mechanism. This overarching logframe work on development awareness. The flexible and long-term nature development through partnership will be useful for many areas of DFID Christian Aid of funding allows for successful and, equally importantly, it will allow innovation. VSO The oil and gas sector recognises that all PPA partners to be more aware of • The PPA makes a significant individual companies can better achieve possible linking and synergies between contribution towards • One of the most valuable aspects sustainable development goals by them. strengthening impact and of the PPA is its flexibility, allowing working with others. Companies are accountability, encouraging and us to use it wherever it is needed in increasingly collaborating with a wider What are the advantages of PPAs? enabling us to develop new the organization. We have supported range of stakeholders — including approaches to assess the impact a wide range of discrete activities other companies, government agencies, The PPA provides flexible funding to of our work and to use these within country programmes, in NGOs, community-based organizations a range of organizations, allowing assessments to improve the quality, regional management units and head and academic research institutes. them the ability to provide funding effectiveness and value-for-money of offices. At field level, the PPA has IPIECA, the International Petroleum and resources when required. PPAs our programmes. Save the Children supported some stand-alone projects Industry Environmental Conservation are analogous to budget support for but is more generally used to build Association, provided a case studies of government. • For many organizations, the strategic extra dimensions onto existing work 32 companies and six industry-wide nature of the funding is vital to its and ongoing processes; for example, partnerships, highlighting work in the Feedback from NGOs success. This provides flexibility and a deeper learning and reflection areas of biodiversity production, climate allows creativity and responsiveness process around a large project or change, air quality, oil-spill response, DFID compiled these responses from from NGOs at a time when such analysis to inform strategic plans and health care, education and community partners on the benefits of flexible funding is difficult to attain. organizational change processes. capacity building. funding: Progressio Care International UK. Guy Sebban, secretary general of the • Flexible funding allows us to reorient • The primary benefit of the • Through the PPA we have been able International Chamber of Commerce, work to a fast-changing external partnership is poverty-reduction, to have the ability to take risks to says that business, governments and environment, for example in based upon shared values in support innovative, emerging NGOs must cooperate. “NGOs and allowing us to address climate- development and development organizations. One World Action governments are often the only change issues. WWF. awareness, collaboration overseas organizations on the ground in least and in the UK, capacity-development • High-value, flexible funding provided developed countries which have • Greater continuity of funding, of government and civil society to through the PPA is of immense value credibility and in-depth local thereby facilitating greater continuity achieve pro-poor change, shared to Wateraid, enabling it to plan for understanding. Business is often the in development programming. Oxfam priorities in pro-poor basic services and respond to real needs in a timely only source of technological and and geographical alignment. The and strategic way and to undertake managerial know-how, with financial • In general, the PPA helps to enable second benefit to VSO is the long- important and significant work that means and access to a supply chain. activities across the organization. term nature of the PPA funding might otherwise not attract project- Rebuilding after the 2004 Asian tsunami The PPA has certainly contributed to mechanism that enables VSO to specific funding. WaterAid is a case in point.” Christian Aid’s impact through its

168 169 As a contribution to IPIECA’s review, have room for both a contractual business and civil society were some of as on business corporations. This action Ros Tennyson of the Prince of Wales and a partnership approach. But to the most illuminating that I took part in. prompted several organizations to International Business Leaders Forum move from a contract to a partnership coordinate a group in order to change says that the extractive industries are requires a significant cultural shift. Shell The theme of collaboration provided a their relationship with government. leaders in the field of partnership International believes that it is making way of opening up a dialogue on how innovation. “It is rarely easy for partners that shift by choosing to have some best to accelerate the process of reform Because of a combination of political to work with non-traditional partners,” strategic partnerships with NGOs. and modernisation while appreciating leadership and continued pressure from she says. It requires some radical the history and politics of each country. NGOs, the federal law was finally re-thinking on all sides, considerable Whether the approach is contractual or This allowed different interests to be brought into force. It was a major investment of time, some changes in relationship-driven, partnerships need raised while we tried to construct a breakthrough in reinforcing the behaviour and a willingness to take risks clear accountability for the delivery of shared picture of the challenges and relationship between civil society and when meeting old challenges in new specific pieces of work. In my view, it possible solutions. A collaborative government and represents state ways. is also worth making it an explicit mindset also provided a way of making recognition of civil society’s work in requirement for partnerships to have sense of past, present and future, as promoting the social interest. Among its The first few years of partnerships in integrity. Partnerships need to do the well as allowing us to think practically achievements is defining the activities of the oil and gas sector show that there right thing and be seen to be doing it. about what was needed to tip the civil society organizations that should be is scope to streamline and therefore balance in favour of reform. promoted. It also reduces arbitrariness in speed up the setting up of partnership The IPEICA study notes that many of the the relationship between organizations arrangements. IPEICA has produced partnerships it examined were launched Mexico and the Federal Public Administration useful guidance on evaluating the without a clear understanding of how through the establishment of reciprocal success of partnerships, agreements the experiment would end. One danger The relationship between civil society rights and responsibilities. and exit strategies. Few partnerships it highlights is that, because closure is and the Mexican government prior to seem to measure their actual impacts, not planned at the beginning, moving this century was driven by one-party The adoption of the law is itself an at least not very precisely. Partners on is often interpreted as failure. In rule. With the growth of democracy, experience of collaboration. It is an could benefit from agreeing a set of reality, the disbanding of a partnership civil society organizations have sought example of the capacity of bodies with performance indicators in the early after a task has been completed can be to transform their relationship with the different interests to cooperate in such stages of the relationship and from a significant indicator of success. state. They looked for the explicit a way that everyone benefits. Hence, assessing the lessons to be learned recognition of their rights and the “enacting coalition” in this process from the partnering process. Country-led efforts to build civil responsibilities within a new legal was solid and large. According to the society framework. Mexican government, the subject of The oil and gas sector distinguishes the legislation — the civil society between partnering agreements and My visits to Mexico and to countries Drafting of a Federal Law for the organizations themselves — were the contracts. A partnering agreement is in the new Europe including Poland, Promotion of the Activities Under- main promoters. But, critically, other voluntary, sharing shares risks and Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria taken by Civil Society Organizations public actors agreed to assume their implementation on terms that are highlighted the extent to which building (FLPACSO), began in 1990. In December responsibilities to legislate, regulate jointly decided and renegotiable. By civil society is both difficult and 1989, the Cámara de Diputados (House and apply the legislation. contrast, a contract is legally binding. potentially very valuable. The meetings of Representatives) imposed the same Collaborative projects in this sector hosted by British Ambassadors with income tax on civil society organizations

170 171 Hungary Social collaboration: future of how investments in technology delivering an integrated social strategy. challenges and opportunities can contribute to the success of the The theme of effective engagement Civil society in Hungary is less organization — to a transformation of local communities keeps recurring prominent than it was immediately after Accenture Development Partnerships wave, where organizations and the in feedback — not only from those on the transition. Although the Ministry for is a separate business unit within whole non-government sector address the ground but also those who work in Foreign Affairs told me that there are Accenture that provides consulting their entire approach. This will require international institutions such as NATO 40,000 active NGOs (and 60,000 services to non-profit organizations, organizations to significant investments and the UN. registered in all), only a tiny minority NGOs, foundations and donor in human capital and training. The are geared up to get involved with organizations on a non-profit basis. third wave, which Bulloch calls the Afghanistan’s international public policy at the highest levels. This has the potential for radically collaboration wave, looks to a new engagement, in which 40 countries are Membership of interest groups has changing how governments, business era where governments, business and involved, is a positive achievement that increased, as these figures show, but and NGOs work together. Development NGOs work together seamlessly. In this provides lessons to help us tackle other the focus has moved away from cutting- collaboration depends on private, public wave, there is greater collaboration challenges. So are the European Union’s edge issues. NGOs and business remain and civil society organizations becoming within the NGOs as a sector and in new successful enlargement and NATO’s de keen to engage with government but increasingly aligned towards addressing structures within the NGOs themselves. facto partnerships with a third of the do not see their contributions translated the complex challenges of poverty, United Nations. We now need to directly into policy and fear being education, health and climate change. Developing world: opportunities for address issues of effectiveness and associated with initiatives with which greater collaboration at all levels legitimacy in the relationship between they do not agree. Gib Bulloch, director of Accenture state and non-state actors as well as Development Partnerships, believes that Developing countries and emerging how to ensure that governments and For the British Embassy, the anti- NGOs must play a crucial role in the economies are not just catching up with local communities to take greater corruption issue is a good example future of the development landscape, the developed world. They are possible responsibility for their own affairs. The of how collaboration with non-state although he says that many are ill- catalysts for a new way of looking at proposal in the next chapter sets out parties can work in practice. Embassies equipped for the challenges ahead. the partnership between what is how a more collaborative approach representing the big foreign investors Their weaknesses include organization global and what is local; and between can bring together policy design and have worked with chambers of and governance; systems and governments, business, NGOs and local implementation and engagement. But commerce and individual businesses technology; knowledge management communities. Some of Britain’s toughest this will mean taking a broader and — together with Transparency and human capital; and often, basic challenges in Afghanistan and Iraq longer view of leadership. International, the media and the business acumen. This leads him and provide an opportunity for a shared Hungarian government — to get this others to call for major transformational collaboration within governments; and issue onto the agenda. There is some change within the majority of non- between governments, business, NGOs way to go in terms of creating a better governmental organizations. and the local population. business environment. But the habits of working together on contentious issues His analysis is that change comes in The security challenge, when have evolved in the process and provide “waves of evolution”. Many NGOs are combined with those of development a model for future collaboration. moving from an earlier, foundation and reconstruction. gives us practical wave — in which they rethink their opportunities for a better understanding strategy and become increasingly aware of the risks and responsibilities in

172 173 Chapter 5: Collaboration: and its implementation In this chapter: Chapter summary

• In the context of achieving social goals, governments can think as much • Leadership: a broader and about their role as architects and builders (shaping the conditions in which longer view collaboration happens and delivering their part in it) as about their role as leaders (taking the primary responsibility for securing results). • Strategy: problem types, • Despite evidence of increasing collaboration as a source of business success, and leadership response the full potential of collaboration has yet to be reached. • Engagement: public • Companies find themselves under social, as well as competitive, pressure. They are subject to new levels of transparency, whether in response to diplomacy and changes in corporate governance or to public concerns on environment or collaboration consumer rights.

• Corporate social responsibility is a means for companies to connect better • Delivery: collaborative with their stakeholders and customers as well as their own employees. approach to implementation • NGOs can play a crucial role in delivering on social goals, particularly in development — but they need to build capability for the challenges that lie ahead. NGOs are an essential social investment. • Chapter summary

174 175 Leadership exists when people are no longer victims of circumstances but participate None of this precludes limiting or more analytically about developing in creating new circumstances. qualifying the type of collaboration that collaborative relationships and evaluate one chooses to set up or to join. Nor the impact of their decisions. Peter Senge. does it preclude deciding not to collaborate or collaborating to compete. We can change the way we interact It is far easier to massage ideological erogenous zones than it is to cultivate a new But it suggests that a collaborative by being as explicit about the value sense of possibility. But the leaders who end up being remembered generations later approach should inform our choices of collaboration as we are about are the ones who have glimpsed, and served, a possibility rather than the status rather than merely emerging from a competition. Collaborative working on quo. course of action. the web is indicative of how we might work more generally. This report could Geoff Mulgan, Good and Bad Power (2006) p223. Most of the social policy challenges have been produced by using only that we face are systemic in origin and the contributions of others to test a Wonder also means being able to see one’s own position, assumptions, require a collaborative solution. This particular line of argument. Instead, I perspectives as strange, because it has been put in relation to others. Respective may apply to one’s own immediate had a series of wider discussions that listening thus involves attentive and interested questioning. But answers are always sphere of operation or more widely. The developed a number of perspectives. gifts. The transcendence of the other person always means that she can remain collaborative challenge works as much It is the interaction — rather than the silent, or tell only part of her story, for her own reasons. at a personal level as collectively. The assertion of any one point of view — means are there. Technologically, we that produced the result. Iris Maria Young, “Asymmetric Reciprocity” (taken from Ronald Beiner and Jennifer Nedelsky, have never been so able to connect. Judgment, Imagination and Politics: Themes from Kant and Arendt (2001) p223). What holds us back is not the I focused on organizations, technology but the culture and governments, business and NGOs behaviour that go with collaboration. because they provide the structure In drawing together the strands of this 1. Leadership: and direction for achieving social goals. report, my final chapter opens up take a broader and longer view of One way of fostering such behaviour But just as important is to look at what possibilities for how collaboration and leadership and teamwork; and addressing the factors that people in any organization can do partnerships could be used to improve undermine it is to identify a range together, whether or not organizations the design and implementation of 2. Strategy: of preconditions for collaborative support them or hold them back. policy. It takes forward the FCO’s work use collaborative thinking before relationships. The Relationships on public diplomacy and suggest how decisions are taken on problems, Foundation has assessed and supported 1. Leadership: a broader and longer organizations could make even better solutions and responses; the development of inter-agency and view use of the talent they have available inter-professional relationships in both both within and outside. My first four 3. Engagement: criminal justice and health sectors in Part 3 of chapter 3 showed how chapters were about how best to connect more strategically, whether it the UK, as well as assessing commercial leadership can take different forms. operate in collaboration. This chapter is with one stakeholder, with a group relationships. Their model of “relational Collaborations can be more effective is about exploring what collaboration or directly with citizens; an proximity”, discussed at the end of with changes in the leader and in could be better used for. Chapter 2, part 2, offers one way the type of leadership. In looking 4. Delivery: of exploring how policymakers, for examples showing varieties of At the heart is a proposal based on four apply collaborative processes to organisational leaders and those directly leadership and teamwork, I was as objectives: improve policy implementation. involved in service provision can think interested in the person as in the

176 177 organization. In these cases, it’s personal Since January 2008, the GBS group has to develop new communities and sector — was seen as making the most commitment that produces the spark improved its effectiveness in several infrastructure in the Cambridge the most of the chances of delivering of leadership or the first stone in Cull’s ways: sub-region. Cambridgeshire Horizons is growth to the highest possible fable of the stone soup. Organizations a partnership organization, which can standards. empower; but what makes the • through closer collaboration between only achieve its vision by working with difference is individual initiative Heads of Mission and Heads of and though others. Plant says that the solution to his and enterprise. Co-operation; challenge is greater partnership working. Plant describes the challenge: “We are “How does one do that when you only Example: Philip Parham, leading • by engagement of Heads of Mission trying to deliver many new homes. We have a small team? The company is partnerships to support Tanzania at strategic policy level; are one of the highest-stressed housing about 20 people. Though we control Philip Parham, Britain’s Ambassador areas in the UK: demand far outstrips the Housing Growth Fund for the in Dar es Salaam, has played a pivotal • with stronger leadership from the supply. We have big problems on county — we got about £14m for this role in supporting collaboration on lead partner in each area; affordability. This has consequences year — we need to get a whole group General Budget Support (GBS) for for labour market flexibility and for of people to align their actions and the government of Tanzania. The • by developing the personal r transport, schools, hospitals, community investment decisions in the right way. collaboration group was traditionally elationship between lead and facilities to match.” That’s all about effective partnership run by Heads of Co-operation and relevant minister(s); and using shared goals as a means of their technical staff; ambassadors did “Get it right and we can enhance driving behaviours in that wide team not tend to get involved. Because of • with less focus on process, more on quality of life for people already here of people.” the challenges that had to be met, this outcomes. and those who may move to the area, changed. Supported closely his DFID show how we can deliver housing and Example: Debbie Gupta, colleagues, Parham took up the chair Better engagement with the population growth whilst also dealing rethinking policy on pensions himself. In the spirit of acting government of Tanzania and others with climate change mitigation and collaboratively, he led the effort from has delivered progress and a confirmed develop vibrant new communities with Debbie Gupta works for the May 2007 to May 2008 and then GBS commitment for 2008-9. The high levels of social cohesion. Get it Department for Work and Pensions passed leadership of the group to GBS example is seem within the wrong and we’ll deliver gridlock, (DWP) as Director of Benefits the Danes. wider Development Partners Group unsustainable new developments, Performance, making the best use as offering clear lessons for enhancing increased social tension and ruin what of taxpayers’ money in delivering Fourteen partner organizations the development dialogue with the is currently a beautiful city and a high quality services to customers. provide GBS funding to support the Tanzanian government in other areas. pleasant county.” The department has around 100,000 government’s poverty reduction staff paying over 17 million customers strategy — the World Bank, the African Example: Alex Plant, working in Cambridgeshire Horizons was set up around £126 billion of benefits each Development Bank, the EC and eleven partnership to provide more housing because no agency or authority acting year. national governments including the UK. on its own could expect to achieve the In common with many such large-scale Alex Plant is Chief Executive, kind of outcome that the government Gupta’s appointment reflects a greater funding schemes, the GBS partners Cambridgeshire Horizons — a not- and local authorities wanted. Creating willingness to deploy stakeholder faced the challenge of showing that for-profit company set up by the local a body able to work with agencies, local management and communication skills development money had been well authorities, English Partnerships and the authorities and central government — across the full range of government spent. East of England Development Agency as well the private sector and voluntary business. In recent years, government

178 179 departments have brought in trailblazers what many would view a relatively disability rights legislation alongside • A coalition of 20 Polish NGOs from the NGO and charity sectors to “unsexy” subject was a conscious Polish NGOs. At the centre of Britain’s dealing with disability was formed help them connect better with social strategy to collaborate with citizens. effort has been Jane Cordell, first in 2008 to liaise with Poland’s change and to draw up policies to The process helped Government test secretary. Cordell manages a large policy government. It includes reflect citizens’ needs. Gupta’s policy options but also to build personal portfolio. This issue is also personally representatives from NGOs dealing achievement is in focusing both on awareness amongst participants of the important to her as she herself is deaf. with physical and mental health what a policy is designed to achieve, risks and choices they would need to problems as well as the Church and and how it is implemented. make if they were to plan effectively Early on, the embassy and UK provided an employers’ organisation. To avoid for their retirement. Individuals were much of the input. But then the Polish any disadvantage to smaller NGOs Building on her achievements in the asked to consider the trade-offs side developed its own ideas and started and to promote diversity, each NGO non-profit sector as Director of Public between raising taxation, “permitting” to determine what it needed — for has one vote. Affairs for Stonewall, Debbie Gupta was pensioner poverty and taking personal example, a speaker for a conference brought into the Government’s equality responsibility. Polling at the start and or a study visit in London for MPs. The • The coalition has produced a draft unit to broaden the equality agenda to end of the event enabled government UK’s role became more strategic — law on disability rights with the encompass discrimination, equality and to track how information and suggesting, for example, e-voting blessing of the country’s parliament. human rights in the round. The setting understanding affect the trade-offs technology as a way of quickly gauging It is based on UK legislation. up of a new Commission for Equality that individuals are prepared to make. levels of support for reforms. This was and Human Rights and a new anti- based on electronic techniques used • Poland’s prime minister has declared discrimination legislative framework are Governments in Britain have had recently at the FCO’s leadership his support for enabling disabled some of the legacies of those efforts. public consultation on policy initiatives conference and in the former people to play a full role in society, for some time. Gupta is keen to take Department for Constitutional Affairs This experience proved useful in this principle a step further. She wants in 2005. • The Polish minister responsible for supporting the Government’s rethink to explore opportunities to develop disability issues, Jaroslaw Duda, on pensions policy. Informing its consultation activity as part of the It has been important for embassy promised to put a draft law to the strategy was the realisation that policy development process. She hopes officials to monitor responses from the government by the start of 2009 and government alone cannot solve the this would allow government to nurture Polish government and NGOs. Being to get it passed into law by 2010. He long-term challenge of a population public understanding and build an realistic about the challenges in getting also wants to increase the percentage that lives longer and saves less. Policies “engaged and involved” audience. Such a fair deal for disabled people in the of disabled people in employment had to be developed that anticipate an audience could make the traditional UK and avoiding any impression of from 17% to 24% by that time. demographic changes and help consultation processes more meaningful “preaching” have also been important. individuals plan for their retirements for government and the public. It took the UK over 30 years to required attitudinal, behavioural and The British also incorporated work on develop its disability legislation. Poland, legislative change. Example: Jane Cordell, implementing the UN Convention on benefiting from the UK experience, is Polish disability rights reform Disability rights and provided a disability likely to achieve the same work in less In 2006, DWP had organised a National expert to discuss access issues in than five. If the Polish government Pensions Day across England, Scotland Over the last two years, under Charles Poland’s preparations for Euro2012. achieves this, it will help around two and Wales — an exercise in deliberative Crawford and now Ric Todd, the British million people with disabilities to live consultation involving over 1000 mem- Embassy in Poland has been supporting Progress since the first joint conference independently and develop their bers of the public. Delivering events on the Polish government’s reform of in 2006 has been impressive: potential. Britain’s co-operation has

180 181 given our embassy unparalleled access Example: David Ferrers, supporting maintain their morale. The next phase community, including Islamic business to the Polish government’s thinking on a management victims of the recession will involve further collaboration accounts and sharia-compliant party-neutral topic. between the (ESN) team to identify mortgages. David Ferrers is an independent more innovative methods of Example: Solitaire Townsend, US cap business and performance coach. In marketing individuals. The aim is to Hothi explains: “First, we needed to and trade initiative January 2009 he set up The Executive encourage ever-increasing collaboration build a framework on a sound business Support Network (ESN) to provide at all levels so as to build networks case that demonstrated how it added Solitaire Townsend, Chief Executive of practical and emotional support for within networks, all of which support value to the bottom line. I feel this was Futerra Sustainability Communications, managers who become victims of the individual and increase their chances crucial to winning hearts and minds is running the communication a recession that is causing severe of success. Apart from the CV writing of the staff. Second, by really campaign for the US Regional disruption to so many careers. The service all the support is provided understanding what the barriers Greenhouse Gas Initiative, a objective is to help redundant executives without charge and has already were to doing business with the Asian collaboration of 10 states working who have limited financial resources to produced positive results. community and appreciating the with the energy sector to regulate manage the feeling of being alone and challenges my colleagues faced when power generation through auctioning to provide hope in a market bereft of Example: Kamel Hothi, promoting reaching out to the Asian community, tradable permits. “This is very opportunities. The strategy is to provide links with Asian communities in [they] helped kick-start what was ambitious,” says Townsend. “The multiple layers of support through a Britain needed.” politics can change as we are working collaboration of David’s coaching skills with different governors and different and Steven Holmes’s CV writing skills Kamel Hothi, Asian Markets Director, These findings formed the foundation political parties; and the industry is very overlaid by a number of senior executive Lloyds TSB, is behind the Lloyds Jewel of a bridge between the bank and sceptical about regulation in a sector in mentors from different sections of the Awards, a strong example of how an entrepreneurs who were hungry to gain a real state of flux.” business and public sector communities. organization can connect better both access to lending. By training over 500 with its own employees and its front line staff on how to do business The other challenge is how the mar- This is the way that the process works. customers. I attended the 2008 awards when faced with cultural differences, ket will respond to the changes such a David picks up the new “client” as soon and saw successive examples of how the bank helped people reach out and regime brings into effect. Will industry as they join the network. He coaches business success is driven by people make contacts. bear the costs or will they be passed them to come to terms with their motivated to support their families and onto the consumer? The economic situation and to develop a plan of to serve their communities. Hothi says: Hothi adds: “It made me proud to model is based on the industry either action. Steven then helps the client “The Jewel Awards is the epitome witness over a 50-strong Lloyds TSB trying to avoid higher costs of pollution rewrite their CV to ensure it reflects of a successful sponsorship. It celebrates team working the Jewel Awards event, or, if it pollutes, paying the price to both their personality and their work the business success of Asian making connections and strengthening government for energy efficiency and capabilities. Finally, a mentor is communities in the UK.” relationships. This can only help renewal. The collaboration assumes that appointed to provide an insider’s link everyone to succeed and encourage if citizens end up with more expensive into the “real world of work.” David Since 2002, when of Lloyds first became greater engagement across other energy they will use less of it. continues to work with the client to involved, its recognition in the UK Asian diverse groups. If I can start with only stimulate their thinking, encourage market has improved by almost a third. a small number of contacts some them to collaborate with their own three years ago to now over 2000 networks so that members of their The bank has also launched products connections, I feel anyone can build network support one another to tailored specifically for the Asian this network if they really went out of

182 183 their way to understand the community Thinking collaboration Defining problems and appropriate collaborative process to make any they serve and the challenges faced by leadership responses kind of progress. those serving them.“ Unless there is an acute emergency and no time other than to think and act For Keith Grint, problems can be viewed Examples that Grint gives include: These examples highlight that fast, there are few problems that don’t in one of three ways: is the problem developing strategies on transport, collaboration generates more benefit from taking this broader tame, wicked or critical? (Grint 2005, energy or defence, devising a national leadership, distributed between approach. Rittell and Webber, 1973) health system or an industrial relations different people and not limited to strategy and developing a strategy for a single person. It also produces better Sometimes problems are so stubborn A tame problem may be complicated dealing with global terrorism. leaders who encourage others to be that they don’t go away. But they are but can be solved through unilinear leaders themselves. They are better not necessarily what they first seem. acts. It is likely to have occurred before. Grint also identifies a critical problem. able to work with uncertainty and It’s easy to confuse the stimulus that a There is only a limited degree of In a crisis, the problem is presented as complexity because they can improvise problem provides with how we might uncertainty and it is therefore self-evident in nature, providing very and adapt to changing circumstances. respond. Many problems look familiar associated with management rather little time for decision-making and They are ready to take risks and make and demand familiar responses. But, than leadership. The manager’s role is action. It is often associated with mistakes, and learn from those consciously or not, we are also to provide the appropriate processes to command (Howieson and Kahn, 2002; mistakes. If organizations want to interpreting the problem, its relevance solve the problem. cf.Watters, 2004). There is virtually no develop strong, collaborative leaders, and its importance. Is it indeed a uncertainty about what needs to be rather than just strong leaders, they problem in its own right or a signal Examples include: timetabling the done to provide the answer – at least must be supportive of a more diverse for something else? railways, building a nuclear plant, in the behaviour of the commander, group of people taking initiative and training the army, planned heart surgery whose role is to take the required responsibility. Where collaboration is Leadership, especially in collaboration and enacting a tried and trusted policy decisive action. needed, a focus on efficiency and or partnership, involves more than just for eliminating global terrorism. effectiveness must go hand in glove reacting. At each stage, we can ask: Grint’s article explores how leaders can with the ability to engage with others. is there only one perspective, or A wicked problem is complex, rather frame problems along the lines of what possibly more? If there is more than than just complicated. It is often they want to be seen to responding to. 2. Strategy: problem types, and one perspective, do we connect with intractable with no unilinear solution. I think that there is a limit to how much leadership response others? If so, with whom and to what There is no stopping-point. It is novel, we can construct reality; but it is an extent? Is it to acquire information, any apparent solution often generates interesting perspective. An attractive We miss opportunities by not exploring to involve others or to integrate their other problems and there is no right or part of his argument is that what counts how collaboration could be used before thinking into ours? In thinking about wrong answer, merely better or worse as legitimate authority depends upon we draw up our strategies and define the problem, are we making it our own, alternatives. There is a huge degree of “a persuasive rendition of the context our response. Acting collaboratively will somebody else’s or one that is shared? uncertainty involved and it is associated and a display of the appropriate often be neither possible nor desirable. with leadership. The leader’s role with authority style” (Grint, 2005). But thinking about how collaboration This approach makes explicit that a wicked problem is to ask the right could work pays dividends. problems and how to tackle them questions rather than provide the right Success is anchored in persuading can be linked to decisions about who to answers because the answers may not followers that the problematic engage, on what basis and to what end. be self-evident and will require a situation is either one of a critical,

184 185 tame or wicked nature and therefore or fragile but rather the degree of problems are often associated with embody the opportunity to delay that the appropriate authority-form is influence derived from legitimacy and coercive compliance, tame problems are decisions. For example, President command, management or leadership, the positive attraction of values. Hard associated with calculative compliance Kennedy’s actions during the Cuban with the role of the decision-maker implies traditional concepts of power and wicked problems are associated missile crisis were often based on asking being, respectively, to provide the such as coercion, physical strength; with normative compliance. Grint questions of his civilian assistants that answer, to organise the process or to or domination achieved through produces a table (see figure 5.1) which required some time for reflection – ask the question. asymmetric resources rather than ideas. shows the relationship between despite the pressure from his military An oversimplification would be that the increasing uncertainty about solutions advisers to provide instant answers Does leadership determine context or military tend to operate through ‘hard’ to problems and the increasing (Grint, 2005, p1473). If we accept that, context determine leadership? Without power, while political authorities tend to requirement for collaborative resolution. even in crisis, we need time to think, exploring that debate, the point about operate through ideological attraction – As Grint notes, not all wicked problems collaboration can emerge as a preferred collaboration as a form of leadership soft power. But the military has to are rooted in complex issues that also policy or even as an insurance policy. is not to underestimate the extent win hearts and minds and this can be to which the situation is actively only through soft power. Politicians constructed by leaders or decision- may need to authorize coercion – hard Figure 5.1: A typology of problems, power and authority. makers. Grint argues that leadership power. (Source: Grint, K. (2005) p.1477) involves the social construction of the context that both legitimates a Grint argues that the limits of using an particular form of action and constitutes analysis based on hard and soft power Increasing uncertainty about the world in the process. If that might be transcended by considering solution to problem rendering of the contextis successful Etzioni’s alternative typology. Etzioni – for there are usually contending and (1964) distinguishes between coercive, competing renditions – the newly calculative and normative compliance. constituted context then limits the Coercive or physical power is related alternatives available such that those to total institutions, such as prisons or WICKED LEADERSHIP: Ask involved begin to act differently. armies. Calculative compliance is MANAGEMENT: related to rational institutions, such TAME COMMAND: Organize Types of problem, and uses of as companies. Normative compliance Provide power is related to institutions or organizations answer CRITICAL based on shared values, such as clubs Keith Grint links insights into types and professional societies. More than of problems with the ongoing debate forty years on, one can see the extent to about hard and soft power. In his book which normative compliance has grown Increasing Soft Power: The Means to Success in importance as means to change COERCION CALCULATIVE NORMATIVE in World Politics, Joseph Nye has behaviour. requirement for suggested that we should distinguish collaborative Soft power between power as “soft” and “hard” This compliance typology fits with the Hard power resolution (Nye, 2004). Soft does not imply weak three types of problems and makes the link to collaborative resolution. Critical

186 187 In principle, we can ask whom else we narratives, however important these In thinking about how we connect, we to set expectations that one cannot want to engage and whether we are are as part of a delivery process. can ask strategic questions: meet. looking for information, support or active involvement from others. If we want our public diplomacy to What is the point of engagement over If we were asked to specify the work, we need to grasp the strategic time, where might it lead and what are principles that govern our engagement, Engagement: public diplomacy and challenge as organizations and the consequences? Are we genuinely what might these be? This report collaboration institutions of those we include open to ideas and feedback and will suggests four: and exclude in our engagement we take the needs and interests of Building on Grint’s insight, collaboration on policy and to be clear about the others properly into account and • clarity with any interlocutor about provides a broader-based leadership the rules for involving others. Not all our respond realistically to them or just use what, in principle, we can and cannot opportunity not only to respond more engagement needs be public. But an engagement process to show we are discuss and how any contribution effectively to what might appear as a thinking about engagement should more outward-facing? In which spheres might be developed; given context but to frame the problem not start when there is a decision to of our decision-making are we and the solutions to it, thereby helping bring in the cameras. receptive to the perspectives of others: • curiosity about other perspectives, to shape the context. on the frontline, in our planning, or ideas and possibilities; Thinking strategically about in our strategic intent and corporate This also means that, in making engagement values? When we hold a conversation, • commitment to make a process of collaborations work, we have to set what are we each expecting of it? How engagement work; and and manage expectations about what At the core of this approach is to ask narrowly or broadly defined are its problems that they are designed to on what basis we are connecting with parameters? Are we just influencing or • courage to take the risk of reaching tackle and what form of leadership is others. are we ready to be influenced? Is it to solutions, including taking personal therefore expected. This perspective address a short-term problem or longer responsibility for one’s part in effectively allows us to show that There are three levels of connection: one? What impact does engagement building the relationship. communications and public diplomacy in one area have on engagement have to be seen as a strategic tool and • Inform: acquire and exchange elsewhere? What signals are we None of this cuts across a policy or not only as part of the implementation. information sending about a decision to engage business decision to say yes, no, maybe or not engage? When we give others or not now. But it’s taking the courtesies Thanks to a growing body of study and • Involve: encourage participation, responsibility to engage with others, of private conduct between people practice, we are now better placed to where contributions inform but don’t what authority do we also give them? who know and trust one another see the scope and limits of public dictate our own decisions and turning them in principles of diplomacy activity (Welsh and Fearn, Principles of engagement engagement between state and non- 2008). There is much that we can now • Integrate: take another’s state actors, between organizations go out and do rather than agonise contribution properly into account The novelty of engagement wears off and the communities they serve. about. But we need to adopt a strategic and build it into our own thinking so unless it is back up by a commitment to perspective and not assume that our that decisions, though our own, fully build relationships in greater depth over In part 2 of chapter 3, we saw that perspective is the same as others or reflect others’ perspectives time. It is to this extent better not to attitudes to learning in collaboration is just about louder and more pervasive engage — or to engage only on were unlikely to be either purely selfish communication of messages and narrowly defined business — than it is or sharing (Huxham and Hibbert, 2008).

188 189 The sharing/exploring attitude is: “We responses. If it is an instrument of policy, Anholt’s four types of public Anholt’s sensitivity to the different take from you and we give to you; you it must be able to change shape and diplomacy uses of public diplomacy demonstrates take from us and give to us – and we adapt to what is required of it at that the “new” public diplomacy will learn together to create knowledge.” different times and different contexts. In working with diplomatic posts and have both innovative and conventional As Huxham and Hibbert say, “while we other governments, I have drawn on features. My last section, on applying would not question the presumption The work of Nicholas Cull, Simon Simon Anholt’s four types, or stages, of collaboration, supports the view that that partners’ relative levels of Anholt, Alex Evans, David Steven and public diplomacy. part of being effective is managing the knowledge affects their mutual Ali Fisher provides a timely focus for dualities of continuity and change. bargaining power, [this also] presumes the debate is on public diplomacy 1. Promotion – Information provision on Public diplomacy is no exception. that partners’ perceptions of each and where, in the light of this report, foreign policies Borrowing an approach from other’s attitudes to mutual learning one could take it. The Wilton Park 2. Persuasion – Influencing foreign McDonalds, operating globally and affect the process of interaction conference helped confirm that the policy attitudes locally — “glocally” as one might call between them”. (Huxham and Hibbert, collaborative approach supports it — means “freedom with a frame- 2008, p523). both the strategic and operational 3. Image management – Influencing work”. Any strategy must be adapted requirement to make public diplomacy national image overseas through to a specific immediate context as well Taking public diplomacy forward an integral part of a government’s work. some engagement with foreign as a wider one. It does this by working through how we publics Looking ahead, we need to weigh get the best from others, privately and Example: Nicholas Colloff and up the relative advantages and publicly. 4. Instrument of policy – Bringing about Vitaliy Kartamyshev — Health Care disadvantages of pure advocacy on a change in view and behaviour Access in Russia the one hand and facilitative dialogue One lesson that Cull draws from the through engagement on social issues on the other, shaping our public history of public diplomacy is that When the Global Call to Action against diplomacy strategies appropriately. “public diplomacy is not always about Anholt points out that although one Poverty (GCAP) was launched at the In the last chapter, I described the you: once liberated from a narrow could trace an evolution over time of World Social Forum in 2005, no one increasing role of “interested enablers”, obsession with national image, the new types or stages of public diplomacy, quite expected the impressive impact enablers with a stake in the outcome public diplomacy holds the potential to these aren’t really chronological and that the coalition would have. In less or the process and therefore having address a wide range of global issues. there are good reasons why some than twelve months, GCAP had grown the power to make a difference. In the It is one of the few tools available to countries might want to be practising into the world’s largest anti-poverty light of Grint’s distinction between the the state or any other international several variants simultaneously. Anholt alliance, whose organizations types of leadership response produced actor wishing to establish an interface and I also use the phrase “collaborative represented more than 150 million by different kinds of problems, this role with the international public — who public diplomacy” to mean different people and ran national campaigns in allows practitioners to work with any hold the fate of the earth in their hands things. My focus is on collaboration over 80 countries. leadership. as never before.” Welsh and Fearn eds, between public, private and other (2008) p26. sectors. What Anholt means is One of these was Russia. Oxfam’s Public diplomacy is at a turning point “multilateral public diplomacy” i.e. launching of GCAP Russia could have in its effectiveness at supporting countries working together on joint been seen as a quixotic venture in a diplomacy. It needs to be flexible public diplomacy aims. context where civil society organizations enough to support different leadership are underdeveloped and collaboration

190 191 between organizations is rare. Though The second catalyst was modest Finally, there have been two critical Engagement on this model is one many Russian NGOs provide good- financing from the British Embassy for factors in the coalition’s success. First of four strategies, the others being quality services to their constituencies, a series of workshops to enhance the was the coalition’s relative lack of shaping, disruptive and destructive. their experience of effective and ability of GCAP members to interact financial resources. This has focused Evans and Steven say that a shaping sustained advocacy and campaigning with their clients, to understand their decision-making on what is critical and strategy can take a conversation and is limited — especially when the topic needs and build from these evidence- meant that members of GCAP are give it resolution, allowing public at hand is as broad as poverty at home based advocacy campaigns. value-driven, not simply fulfilling diplomacy to take on a campaigning and abroad. activities of an external donor. The guise. Rather than make this an exercise second was maintaining an informal Despite these difficulties a small group in theoretical education, participants network with no organizational The difficulty for engagement strategy, of organizations — of diverse outlooks, worked on a selected theme: access to overheads. This meant each in my view, is that for it to have areas of work and means of support health care for disadvantaged groups organization offering the “sweat credibility —particularly traction with — did come together to try and build such as homeless people, people living equity” they could. Critically, those whose engagement we seek — a coalition. Some of the early meetings with disabilities and women in prison. organizations were not immersed in it needs to be clear about the signals were long and exasperating, more akin They conducted qualitative and time-consuming conversations about being sent if government is pursuing to “herding cats” than coalescing to quantitative research in the regions who ought to occupy which “official other public diplomacy strategies. In common purpose. At one moment of and across sector groups to produce role” in the organization. the example of the UK GM public high frustration, participants at a compelling evidence on access issues. debate given in Chapter 2, for the training session on advocacy and Engagement, what type of public debate and the government campaigning were challenged to say With national experts, they shaped engagement? reviews to be taken seriously the why they were there. To this, one this into a compelling national report government genuinely had to be of participant replied: “Because Vitaliy with key recommendations that was What kind of engagement do we want? the view that it is was neither for, nor [Oxfam’s policy officer] is very persuasive submitted to the state duma committee This report highlights some choices. against, commercial exploitation of GM and Nicholas [Oxfam’s Country Director] on health reform, to relevant Ministry Engagement strategy wrestles with crops. So a commitment to engagement has a charming smile.” of Health officials and the Minister of the same issues as collaborations and as facilitation of dialogue is not Health herself. partnerships. Involving others might be necessarily neutral nor without broader Two catalysts transformed this situation. necessary or desirable but it is neither implications. It is a sign of intent to The first was the need to host common Backed by media coverage and a easy nor without consequences. The acknowledge the other on his or her events ahead of the G8 St Petersburg subsequent open letter to the minister, perspectives of Alex Evans, David Steven terms. Summit in 2006. St. Petersburg coalition one of the key recommendations — and Ali Fisher throw light on some members devised a series of popular abolishing the need for people with of the tensions that any new public Ali Fisher of Mappa Mundi consultants, mobilisation events to draw people’s permanent disabilities to register their diplomacy has to manage. Evans and who was director of Counterpoint, attention to the summit and its status every year — was immediately Steven demonstrate that policy goals the cultural relations think-tank of importance in addressing poverty adopted, announced and enacted. This can be pursued through distinct public the British Council, argues that the globally. The practical focus of actual removes them from a time-consuming, diplomacy strategies that sit on a development of new technology has events gave people the experience costly and often humiliating process. continuum that runs from consensual spawned different ideas and new of working together for simple, Its early success has immeasurably and open at one end to covert and approaches to engaging with measurable outcomes. Confidence strengthened the coalition’s self- controlling at the other (Welsh and people around the world. One such was reinforced by their success. confidence and sense of mission. Fearn eds (2008) p56). development is the ability to approach

192 193 public diplomacy based on the Fisher makes the point that this type of Marcial Losada is the founder and External/internal relates to the methodology employed in the diplomacy stresses is not merely about executive director of Meta Learning, a orientation to team itself, and to the production of open-source software. persuading people to adopt one’s own consulting organization that has worked context. Positivity/negativity relates to This approach provides the means to goals. Facilitative or niche diplomacy in developing high-performing teams the tone of interactions. engage with communities of other is about achieving your goals through at several major corporations in the concerned actors, communicate helping others to achieve theirs. United States as well as Europe and Inquiry/advocacy is worth expanding. through human voices, place emphasis Latin America. As director of the Center Research indicates that inquiry tends on understanding lessons from previous According to Fisher, successful for Advanced Research in Ann Arbor, to produce decisions of higher quality. initiatives and engage on the basis of collaboration — whether as part of Michigan, he developed an Inquiry generates multiple alternatives, the interests of those communities. facilitative diplomacy or contemporary innovative approach to studying fosters the exchange of ideas and Ideas can no longer be seen as owned decentralised networks — can best be working teams. This allowed him to considers a variety of options and by a country; mass communication approached by asking what others are develop the meta-learning model, which people who then work together to provides the means to see beyond trying to achieve and how one can shows the dynamic patterns achieved discover the best solution. People have national claims of unity. Recognising contribute. In centralised networks, by high-, medium- and low-performing their own interests but the goal is not this and embracing the means to the central hub has the authority to teams. The variables in the to persuade the group to adopt a given engage with communities that are decide who is in and how is out, meta-learning model are positivity/ point of view but to come to agreement defined by ideology rather than physical whether through acting as gatekeeper negativity, inquiry/advocacy and internal on the best course of action. Inquiry borders provides the potential to make to a negotiation process or through /external orientation. The control encourages critical thinking and conflict. public diplomacy initiatives more issuing the invitations to an event. parameter of the model is connectivity. It may be intense but is seldom personal. relevant to the target audience and Decentralised or facilitative approaches ultimately more influential. do not give that level of control; they Losada’s findings can be summarised The implicit assumption is that a work on the basis of engaging through as follows: If a team is highly connected, solution will emerge from a test of For Fisher, this goes beyond creating the interest of others. it will tend to maintain equilibrium strength among competing ideas rather communities of chosen hierarchies to between internal and external than from duelling positions. engaging on a genuinely symmetrical, Whether we adopt one of the Evans/ orientation as well as between inquiry peer-to-peer engagement aimed at Steven public diplomacy strategies or and advocacy. It will also keep a In the advocacy approach individuals or engaging in collective effort with see in the new public diplomacy an positivity/negativity ratio above 2.9 (see groups with special interests advocate groups that were previously largely opportunity to develop decentralized Losada line) but not higher than 11. particular positions and see decision only considered as part of the target or facilitative approaches, thinking If connectivity is low, the team will be making as a contest. Their goal is to audience. In the contemporary context, strategically about collaboration requires more internally focused, it will advocate make a compelling case, not to convey these collective efforts would be us to be clear about the basis on which strongly and its positivity/negativity ratio an even handed or balanced view. thought of in terms of decentralised others are involved. will be below 2.9. Losada found that Participants are passionate about their or peer-to-peer networks. However, the high levels of connectivity lead to high preferred solutions and therefore stand methods required to create successful Losada’s model of high-performing performance in business teams (Losada, firm in the face of disagreement. They collaborations in this environment have teams 1999; Losada & Heaphy, 2004). often find it very difficult to remain a long history amongst diplomats. They Performance is defined by three criteria: objective, limiting the capacity of the are known as “facilitative” or “niche” One of the strongest arguments for profitability, customer satisfaction and team to give attention to opposing diplomacy. optimising collaboration is that the more 360-degree evaluations. arguments. Advocacy is often about a group connects, the better it performs. gaining resources.

194 195 Positivity/negativity has echoes of the Barbara Frederickson has used these and make constructive use of any how can we all help one another and work of the mathematician, John findings to take Losada’s research in the contact. But, for others to interact, each take responsibility for effort and Gottman. His work has been with life direction of what constitutes “flow”. government needs to be more self- risk involved?” partners. He has developed an accurate She uses the terms “flourishing” and aware, more honest about its reasons means of predicting whether or not a “languishing” to describe groups. for wanting others’ involvement and Advocacy and engagement working relationship will last. The key indicator Gillian Stamp, Lorraine Dodd, Mark more patient in working out the basis in combination is whether or not one partner shows Round and QinetiQ are building on for a more productive relationship. The contempt for the other. If that happens, this work. Whatever further empirical government’s interlocutors need to Effective engagement can complement the likelihood of the relationship lasting studies are needed, these insights can do the same and to manage their advocacy by anchoring it in the is considerably diminished. Gottman’s be used by practitioners to encourage expectations of their relationship with appropriate context. Regina Saffa, a ratio is 5:1, meaning that for every greater collaboration and make government. PhD student at Reading University’s negative interaction, five are needed collaboration work. graduate institute of politics and to restore the balance. One lesson is not to presume the space international studies, worked with DFID Emerging challenge for social that one works in, or wants to work in, in Sierra Leone, Uganda and Tanzania. Losada’s 2.9 ratio for connectivity collaboration between governments is the same as others’ space, whatever and high performance and other organizations and they volunteer or not. If we are striving Saffa says that advocacy involves between organizations and citizens to find common ground, we need to engagement at state and grassroots If we want groups to connect, to balance this with working our way levels using different approaches. generate and therefore to reach high If we want engagement to be the start backwards and get into others’ frames “Partners often are often so state performance, we can look to Losada’s of a longer term relationship, we can of reference, building up a picture that focused that they risk poorly developed research a way of being more aware use that engagement to lead to framing we and they both recognise. Stamp’s links between advocacy and grassroots of our part in team inter-actions and of problems, exploring of options, phrase is worth recalling: “Before activities and fail to build strong the overall balance of the team’s a measure of agreement and a getting into the shoes of others, it helps alliances. International NGOs have contribution. For Losada, the optimal commitment to act. It doesn’t mean to take one’s own off first.” access to funding information and ratio of inquiry to advocacy is 2.9 we forego our own interest. strong connections with donor agencies (likewise external/internal orientation, Understanding others and keeping up a which gives them the competitive and positivity/negativity). This suggests Pressing for an outcome reveals an regard for them has to balanced against advantage but not the expertise.” that for every demonstration of interest and therefore the approach the pursuit of one’s own interest. What advocacy we need to see almost three discussed in Chapter 2, part 1, about is important in building up relationships Saffa adds, “There is nothing wrong demonstrations of inquiry for that group suspending assumptions while is not just the space you let yourself and with choosing partners that share one’s to connect and generate. explaining them, can be used. others occupy but the regard in which common interests — but it is worth each is held by the other. selecting those with practical experience The difference in the ratios offered by One issue that this highlights is in the area of intervention. Local NGOs Gottman and Losada may be to do with conveying government’s multiplicity of Governments have to be particularly need to be taken seriously and their the fact Gottman looks at relationships roles, making this more transparent attuned to ensure that, consciously or analyses must not be ignored. Their between two people whilst Losada so that others know how best to work inadvertently, they do not give signals competitive advantage must be studies groups at work. with government, to give it what it such as “we are the parent, you are enhanced building their capacity to needs, to get what they need from it the child” or “we’re in this together, so engage in policy dialogue and advocacy.”

196 197 3. Delivery: collaborative approach to reverse the trends. Small steps are abuse and its related disorders. problem as well as shape the context to implementation needed — like recycling waste — as According to Mark Napier, “The within which new solutions could be well as big steps such as decisions on response to the issues presented by found – taking the public with changes There are two critical political issues for energy policy. excessive alcohol consumption has rather than being seen to work in a collaborations dealing with social issues: tended to reflect the concerns of contrary direction. establishing enough agreement on the In taking the debate forward, it is not individual agencies or organizations, kind of problem to which collaborative just a matter of understanding the each taking a partial view of a much Example: Beverley Ashton, Kent leadership is a solution and being aware context but producing a convincing broader picture. Police seek to tackle Police, and collaboration between that problems such as climate change, explanation of the problem and the anti-social behaviour and violent crime, forces terrorism, and conflict require solution to it. So a global financial crisis primary care trusts have promoted governments not only to ask questions or economic slowdown does not issues around public health, hospitals Beverley Ashton is Head of but to be seen to do something. automatically mean that tackling climate have dealt with the most apparent Development for Kent Police and change is a lesser, or competing, priority effects of ill health and treatment has been leading the programme Leadership is both about asking the — provided the links are made between providers have focused on detoxification, management for the Kent/Essex right questions, and ensuring that we short and long term economic stability. abstinence or controlled drinking.”One collaboration for the last year. She sees get somewhere. It does not mean that of the main challenges is that each the challenges collaborative working the leader has the answers but that The framework set out above has party’s efforts have been frustrated by can bring. everybody, including the leader, does implications for the domestic sphere the framing of the problem within too enough to make a difference. Because as much as it does for issues at the narrow a context rather than in a more Ashton says, “Unless the engagement social problems are multi-faceted, international level. Involving people in holistic one. strategy enables leaders to use leadership needs to balance the constructing their own account of the collaboration in the most effective way highlighting and framing of a problem, problem is a highly effective way of Napier’s view is that the problem is to solve their problems, you will most the exploring of solutions and the ensuring that they identify the seen in terms of what any given likely develop resistance to change. driving of agreement, commitment and opportunities and threats, listen to organization can offer. By exploring Working with others requires implementation — which is the basis alternative perspectives and think issues around alcohol through the lens negotiation, compromise and effort of effective collaborative practice. through their role in helping to meet the of a collaborative approach, it may be that will always seem to outweigh the challenge. By opening up a discussion possible to begin to unravel what has anticipated benefits of collaboration Hybrid problems on policy options for the future, Britain’s to date often been seen as an unless the objective behind doing it is Department for Work and Pensions intractable problem. A collaborative clearly understood.” Is dealing with climate change a wicked provided an opportunity for members approach may help to explore the or critical problem? Or is it a tame one? of the public to work out choices for problem from the perspective of all This understanding is critical to It is a wicked problem in some respects government and for themselves. relevant partners, thereby reframing implementing short-term change and and a critical one in others, with some the terms within which the issue should sustaining it in the longer term because scope to make many of its problems Example: Mark Napier, Centre for be tackled. Given the ongoing debates the effort to maintain the relationship tame. Unless leaders demonstrate that it Public Innovation, and tackling in society about acceptable levels is a continual process, not a one-off is possible to take effective action, they alcohol abuse of drinking and the role of the state engagement. Where collaboration is will not build up enough momentum in advising on drinking levels, a the obvious solution to a performance/ for people at all levels of society to take A domestic issue that represents a collaborative approach may also foster service problem, it is much easier to responsibility for the changes needed particularly wicked problem is alcohol dialogue that would help frame the gain commitment than when the driver

198 199 is related to cost reduction and the collaboration is largely linked to merger The collaboration needed a framework processes ensure that that the concerns outcome is for the benefit of the following the national police-force to benchmark services that enabled self- and aspirations of key players inform organisation as a whole while being merger debate of 2006. interest to be overcome and traditional the implementation. to the perceived detriment of the delivery methods to be challenged. department concerned. The collaboration between Kent and The programme manager built on a Implementing a strategy needs to be Essex enables a much broader outcome model devised by the National College matched with the right degree of Kent and Essex police forces initiated than merely merging departments. for School Leadership that evolved into involvement and ownership at every a collaboration in 2007 that has Declaring a “preferred partner” status a process combining empirical data, level. Building on Losada’s research, the developed into a significantly productive allows collaboration to be used bottom-up staff engagement focus and momentum of a project can working relationship during 2008/09. innovatively as the solution to a range for developing options and challenge be enhanced by greater connectivity By working collaboratively across a of issues, from simply sharing best through the use of a “provocateur”. — with the group looking outside itself, broad range of initiatives and projects, practice to radically re-engineering The Organizational/Operational being of an inquiring mind and drawing the two forces have delivered financial how a service is provided. Support Review process identified over on other networks and citizens savings, increased resilience in high risk £3m of savings during 08/09 and has themselves. Britain’s criminal justice areas of business and opened channels The benefits do need to include been expanded to cover areas of core system has already seen big advances of communication, while spreading best cash and efficiency savings. But by operational policing and performance in better coordination between police, practice to improve service delivery. collaborating the forces have also as well as productivity and efficiency prosecution service, courts, prisons, The strength of the first full year of demonstrated reduced risk, increased during 09/10. probation, offender management and collaboration has led to the commitment resilience/capacity and capability and youth justice services with the National to a three-year business plan, placing improved performance in service Ashton stresses that trust is also Criminal Justice Board and local criminal the thought process of choosing delivery. The forces maintain a strong important – but parties need not justice boards. Through an innovative collaboration options in decision-making independence and stay competitive. But share the same views and motivations. approach to engagement with the local clearly at the fore of leaders’ minds. they also see that service delivery can What is crucial is recognition that each community, community justice aims to be improved by working collaboratively. party has their own agenda and this is make courts more responsive to local Police forces are used to working “out in the open”. The Kent/Essex people and to solve the causes of, and together with other agencies for Success factors include leadership and collaboration is a partnership of problems caused by, offending in the emergency planning/scenario testing. governance. There needs to be a mix equals and the honest nature of the local area. Now, though, a new form of of day-to-day champions to provide relationship allows for collaboration to organizational collaboration is the short-term impetus and shared take place where it is the right thing Greater collaboration is effective, developing. This is intended to meet ownership through more formal to do while permitting participants to whether the challenge is to act on the challenge of difficult financial oversight arrangements to ensure work separately or with others if the behalf of others or to move from settlements and increased public longer-term continuity and sustainability benefits are greater elsewhere. doing things for people to working expectations of service delivery in an when key individuals move on. This with them and supporting them to environment where public services have governance, provided by a Joint Integrated solutions: policy, take responsibility. In either case, a to become more business-focused and Statutory Committee of Chief implementation, and engagement collaborative approach to delivery is provide the most effective and efficient Constables and Police Authorities, important. Alex Plant, Chief Executive use of public funds. This is a relatively has provided the bedrock of success Strategies need to be adapted to the of Cambridgeshire Horizons, served in new concept in policing and the term for the Kent/Essex collaboration. operational context while collaborative a number of policy posts in Whitehall,

200 201 including the Treasury. “It is critical to Afghanistan brings home the difference • Realism: no over-selling of “Introduction - Key Themes in use collaborative thinking before that local ownership makes. opportunity or down-playing of risks. Peacebuilding and Corruption”, decisions are taken,” he says. “But International Peacekeeping, 15:3, often the problems I see in public We are already seeing how greater • Consistent messages from all parts of pp301 -309). policy generally are a slip ’twixt cup and collaboration is the catalyst for tackling government. lip, between policy design and policy shared problems. What’s needed for Early emphasis on transparency and implementation. What is essential is an effective joint working is: • Mechanisms to consult and inform the rule of law is seen as crucial to effective and open feedback loop partner organizations and making arrangements work. This is why between policy-makers and on-the- • Use of the “fusion cell” approach on representative bodies both in UK we need to continue to see the value ground deliverers — all part of an the ground – a group in which all and locally. and challenge of the role that NGOs ongoing collaborative process.” government bodies, agencies and play in better governance. actors are represented; with clear • Consistent behaviour in support of Practical solutions to challenges in strategic direction, internal and agreed strategy — for example, a But if we are to draw on NGOs more, fragile or at risk states external communications, and lines broad cross-government agreement governments need to recognise how of command; open sharing of towards developing the market in important it is for many NGOs to be — In fragile states, at risk economically information between all involved on question. and to be seen to be — independent. or in terms of security, a collaborative a trust basis, even when government Some respondents think this is already approach is needed to stabilise and is still working on departmental lines. • Layered advice and help available for too late. Others believe that we could rebuild countries. Collaborative working larger and smaller companies and try harder to preserve a space in which is very much part of the solution, not • Common IT problems – secure video investors: the largest will only need NGOs operate and are not seen as just the funding. conferencing facilities and telephony strategic guidance; the smaller will adjuncts of governments. Effective are a real advantage. need more practical help during first collaboration is just as much about Our own mission at NATO, bringing visits. respecting differences in roles as it together in the same office civilian • In-country co-ordination between is about respecting difference in and military staff and the Netherlands all external actors, donors and Interventions to stabilise post-conflict perspectives. mission, emphasised the value of international organizations. If societies no longer just interpose troops integrated strategy on the ground. practicable, layers of co-ordination between combatants and negotiate a Collaboration and “war amongst the It drew on collaboration between within that group and between that peace agreement. Instead, they engage people” civilian and military effort, between group and the host country in far-reaching efforts of institutional international governments and other authorities. and society transformation to prevent In his discussion about Iraq, Grint organizations and between the a relapse into war and to encourage quotes W. Andrew Terrill, a professor international effort, the host • Maximum profile for the UN. a sustainable peace. As Domink Zaum at the US Army’s War College Strategic government and the involvement and Christine Cheng argue, “although Studies Institute. He says: “I don’t think of the local communities. Effective To build confidence and encourage the usefulness of corruption in ensuring you can kill the insurgency . . . The idea engagement of the local population businesses and NGOs to operate in short-term peace remains contested, there are x number of insurgents and is part of a wider collaboration. Simon areas that are making a transition from there is no doubt that corruption ha dire that when they’re all dead we can get Anholt’s telling example in Chapter 1 being insecure to not yet completely economic and political consequences in out is wrong. The insurgency has shown about local power generators in secure, one of my respondents stressed: the long run.” (Cheng and Zaum (2008) an ability to regenerate itself because

202 203 there are people willing to fill the ranks Non-state actors are participating in assumption group’ and their conscious contract or covenant; personal and of those who are killed.” (Grint (2005) conflicts. “Both confrontations and and unconscious interactions. role contract], and working in p1488) conflicts are conducted by multinational Mannie Sher of the Tavistock Insitute conditions of uncertainty). groupings and non-state groupings… of Human Relations describes the Without getting into a discussion about The theatre or operational level is more proposition: “All groups (three people Ultimately, group relations will focus Iraq or a particular conflict, the insight and more important because of these sunning themselves on a beach or on what is not known as much as on is clear: our paradigm of war and alliances. They are frequently formed hundreds of thousands of people what is known. This is the rub. conflict is changing and it has a strong in the theatre – the geographical area running a health service) are According to Sher, a collusive dependent collaborative dimension. In an interview containing in its military and political simultaneously work groups and “mythologizing” occurs in which the by Toni Pfanner, Editor-in-Chief, totality an objective the achievement of basic assumptions groups. A basic public and public servants ‘assume’ that International Review of the Red Cross, which alters the strategic situation to assumption in group relations terms is the experts ‘know’. Can the experts General Sir Rupert Smith argues that in advantage.” an assumption made by members of a accept emotionally that they may not recent decades we have lived through group, usually based on unconscious know, may have huge gaps in their a shift in the way we frame war. In the Can a “war amongst the people” ever anxiety, that they are gathered for knowledge and still claim the past, in what he calls “industrial war”, be won? “Yes … In this confrontation a different purpose to work. The cooperation of the public that wants one sought to win a trial of strength you are trying to win the population unconscious purpose of the gathering them to ‘know’, on the basis of shared and thereby break the will of the from your opponent to a greater or (the gathering may be actual or virtual, values? (The public are also prey to opponent to finally dictate the political lesser degree in order to isolate the e.g. membership of a profession or race) ‘basic assumptions’). outcome. opponent,” says Smith. “This is what is emotional, e.g. to enjoy togetherness, the West did to the Warsaw Pact fight, triumph, gain recognition, The group relations approach involves Increasingly, in a “war amongst the to win the Cold War, which was a protection, etc.” planning in conditions of uncertainty, people”, one seeks to change the confrontation: it never became a willing to take risks, taking action in intentions of the opponent and the conflict. It was the revolt of the people Crucial to the approach advocated by conditions of incomplete knowledge people amongst whom one operates to of the Warsaw Pact satellite states, and this report, effective leadership involves and capable of tolerating win the clash of wills and thereby win a then the revolt of the people of Russia holding the balance between satisfying disappointment on the basis that trial of strength. The essential difference against their government, that marked the group’s emotional basic assumptions failure is an opportunity for learning, is that military force is no longer used to the end of the Cold War, not a military and holding the group to ‘work’ not blaming. decide the political dispute but to create adventure at all.” (identifying task [strategy], managing a condition in which a strategic result boundaries [leadership], achieving clarity Group relations approaches place great is achieved. Wars among the people Collaboration: using new tools of of roles [organisational theory], importance on internal ‘mindsets’ of are, for Smith, “timeless”. In his view, policy analysis knowing where sanction is derived both leaders and followers in addition “military objectives are not strategically [intuition, common sense], exercising to acknowledging the place of external decisive, with the result that you have to Understanding how groups relate and authority [values, honesty, justice], sources of motivation and behaviour. hold your position by military means… complexity works can help make col- spotting markets, garnering resources It focuses on the dynamic interaction until such time as you find the political laboration work better. [being outer directed], ensuring between the ‘mind’ of leadership and solution.” (International Review of the methods of production [operations, the ‘mind’ of followership – something Red Cross, December 2006). Group relations relies on the concepts skills], prioritising and rewarding - akin to the aphorism that the universe of the ‘work group’ and the ‘basic practical and emotional [social is full of thoughts in search of thinkers

204 205 – or ‘characters in search of a play’. This sometimes by events or shifts in • Review outcomes more regularly and In January 2008, a group of prominent is complex, but I also believe that there issues regarded as ‘background’ and look for deviations from plans and World Economic Forum business leaders are practical ways in which we can plan unimportant. These shifts in regime are models; consider what else has issued a call to their peers to join for such complexity. almost impossible to predict - both in become important, what other collaborative efforts to strengthen public terms of when they will happen and factors are starting to play a part, governance frameworks and institutions Professor Peter Allen and Dr. Jean what will emerge as a result. what unintended consequences there as a core element of their approach to Boulton at the Cranfield School of have been (collaboration between corporate citizenship. Fourteen global Management are leading efforts to Many experienced leaders understand strategists and implementers, wider CEOs and chairmen, representing a bridge complexity science and planning this instinctively – the challenge is to steering groups). range of industries and regions, signed in conditions of uncertainty. Complexity make such approach work at all levels a statement calling on businesses to science presents a different worldview of an organization, and between • Cast your net more widely in looking engage in public-private partnerships about the way the world is and different organizations, so that it at context (collaborate in sharing to strengthen public policies and therefore how we have to behave. becomes part of the working culture. knowledge, vision); use scenario institutional capacity at the national, The traditional ‘scientific, ‘professional’ planning, do futures work, notice regional and global levels. This was worldview is that the world is The related concept from complexity what works better than expected, part of the Forum’s Global Corporate predictable and controllable - and points to the fact that history tends not what blocks expected outcomes. Citizenship Initiative in partnership therefore we are safe. Complexity to repeat itself - that situations and the with lead partner Business for Social science presents a view of the world way they unfold are unique, triggered • Pay more attention to cross-overs Responsibility (BSR), as well as as inter-connected, prone to shifts in by the interplay between the detail of a between policy areas (collaborate in AccountAbility, Harvard’s Corporate regime, not entirely predictable, new particular situation and the relationships policy development and policy Social Responsibility Initiative and things can emerge. This requires a big and patterns between factors currently implementation) - where are there the International Business Leaders shift emotionally for people and takes established. This focus on particularity conflicts, how can these be Forum. Signatories of the leadership away a sort of safety and security. and the importance of detail is an evo- addressed, allow room for local statement include the chairmen or CEOs lutionary perspective which complexity variation - identify required outcomes of Ayala Corporation, Diageo, Merck This report should fuel interest in how thinking embraces. and values and principles but allow & Co, Microsoft Corporation, Pakistan to engage with people to explore the more space for local variation in State Oil Company, Tata Industries, ideas of complexity. The journey is as This is consistent with the approach that implementation and seek common The Coca-Cola Company and the big much about inner fears as it is about I developed at the beginning of Chapter standards by encouraging learning four accounting firms, Deloitte, Ernst intellectual ideas, and therefore 2: strategic pragmatism. According to rather than dictating the ‘how’ & Young, KPMG and Pricewaterhouse- necessarily involves addressing the Boulton, these two factors then, change (collaboration between implementers Coopers. human side of collaboration. the role of modellers and planners. The to share learning and with policy advice is: makers to learn from practice). The outcome of the project, called Complexity science gets to grips with “Partnering to Strengthen Public issues of uncertainty and particularity • Still plan, still model, but hold your Leadership role for business Governance – The Leadership Challenge in ways that other disciplines do not. plans and models lightly. They may for CEOs and Boards” is a CEO-signed Whilst the past is a reasonable predictor miss key factors and subtle detail Business has a pivotal role to make leadership statement and supporting of the future when the context is which tip the balance. collaboration work in achieving social report. It provides a roadmap for relatively stable, situations can change goals. business leaders seeking to work with rapidly and radically, triggered governments and other stakeholders

206 207 to improve the enabling environment nationally, but within the context • Allocating time and resources to build strong bonds of trust in multiple for sustainable economic growth and of other national governments and collaborating on the co-design of and overlapping communities all over development. “Public governance is a supranational entities, each with their regulations; the world.” global issue. No longer can businesses, own agendas.” (11th Annual Global governments or non-governmental or- CEO survey, p60). • Investing in the development of the Straker says that a social media platform ganizations afford to act independently personal relationships and mutual linking staff of a multi-national of each other — the stakes are just too Many of my respondents in the banking trust that are necessary to achieved organization would improve high,” said John Connolly, chairman and finance sector say that the sector shared objectives. communications, breaking down cross- of the global board at Deloitte. “Only has no option but to be more strategic cultural and cross-generational barriers through a combined effort can we if it is to maintain confidence and The work done for this report by and using such differences to produce achieve economic growth, sustainability remain competitive. But this requires Christopher Lomas of Naked fast yet creative results. One example and create an opportunity for a better even greater collaboration within the Generations highlights the gap that is the pharmaceutical company Pfizer, life for people everywhere.” sector, as well as with the authorities, governments and business have to close which has launched a networking site to ensure that regulation delivers. in engaging with younger generations enabling employees across the globe to The paper acknowledges the key role (see Appendix: Naked Generations share ideas and collaborate. that partnership plays in advancing PwC argues that mutual self-interest is v0.2). Governments and businesses the global agenda and the need for a powerful starting point for successful that seek collaboration must provide In Robert Hayes’s far-reaching paper business to take on this agenda based collaboration. The survey findings, a focused context or subject matter for the International Public Relations both on its capacity and legitimacy. and its own experience, suggest that around which to base discussion. They Institute, “Public Relations and Business engagement in promoting many CEOs have still to appreciate should operate in the spirit of “ask, Collaboration”, Robert Grupp, its effective governance is most effective, the influence they might have on the don’t tell”. president, says “CEOs today play a and most credible, where it reflects regulatory process (11th Annual Global leadership role on the global stage key principles including transparency, CEO Survey, p61) PwC’s recipe for Heledd Straker from Naked Generations and they expect public relations and dialogue and respect for the unique role effective collaboration between believes trust to be the key prerequisite its linked disciplines to play a key role. of public institutions and puts value on business, governments and regulators for any form of collaboration, Do we have the skills, knowledge and working with civil society organizations. includes: particularly within an organization. moral will to move into this position? “In order for organizations to be Ultimately, successful business Even before the recent financial turmoil, • Taking a strategic, long-term view of successful in the long term, it is essential diplomacy depends on a very PricewaterhouseCoopers was arguing the regulatory framework in which that they design and implement an special cadre of people who have in its 11th Annual Global CEO Survey business operates; effective trust-based culture into which the experience, the communication (discussed in Chapter 4) that business a collaborative mindset is ingrained,” skills and political savvy to work can play a much greater role in shaping • Creating an effective dialogue she argues. successfully in the space where the regulation, “National governments have between the regulator and those goals of corporations, governments to walk a fine line. They have to develop regulated; “To build such a culture, a solution and civil society converge. This type and implement regulations to achieve can be found in Generation Y and its of collaborative diplomacy is not just specific policy aims, often involving • Recognising that the languages of relationship with social media. good public relations; it’s good the correction of market failures, while business and regulation can be Generation Y enhances its physical business!” (Grupp, in Hayes (2008)). avoiding unintended consequences. different and making the effort to world with the virtual, using social And they have to do so not just understand those differences; networking sites and online games to

208 209 Business can see the reputational as governments in the era of the have interesting and well-informed rise to Cohen’s challenge. I believe that advantage of corporate social market state will have to learn the discussions, and possibly even come to it can be met if we encourage others responsibility, but most of my business methods of wealth creation, the right conclusions more often than to take greater responsibility and give respondents remain unconvinced that so businessmen — however much not. But because none of them is acting them authority to act; and if we see CSR is enough of a priority. For some, they dislike it — will have to learn the like an entrepreneur there is no one in collaboration as a combination of the term “social” both motivates and methods of winning public consent, charge, no leadership, and none of assertion and cooperation. If we want confuses. One business contact says, for they have truly global interests.” the decisions leads to decisive action. trust to work, this means that the “business needs to act responsibly. It’s (Bobbitt (2008) p509) There is insufficient follow-through, human element of collaboration is a as simple as that.” insufficient execution.” (Cohen, with vital part in an organization’s capability. Running this through this report is Terry Ilott (2007) p137) We need to ensure that we treat it Philip Bobbitt’s recent book Terror and the emphasis that I have put on explicitly as an important asset, invest in Consent is as much about re-forging creating value and delivering it. Unless Collaboration builders can learn from it, develop and evaluate it; and expect a the links in society between strategy collaboration is geared to achieving successful entrepreneurs in spotting and return. Vigilance is having an eye on the and legitimacy as it is about dealing an end, it will not be an imaginative exploiting opportunities, and seeing opportunity, as well as the threat. with terror. Bobbitt acknowledges that and productive use of time. A business that uncertainty has an upside, as well UN agencies are already beginning to focus, particularly the entrepreneurial as a downside. Entrepreneurs create Collaboration is becoming a new outsource operations and to cooperate spirit, makes any collaboration more and do not just find opportunities, and and important source of competitive with NGOs on problems such as public efficient and effective because it obliges have the courage to change the rules advantage. We need to rethink the health and rural development. If “the any venture to be outward- and of the game. They see how a disparate way we manage innovation. In their health of any society is only as secure as forward-looking. It also stresses elements can be combined together to Harvard Business School study of the medical conditions of the worst-off ownership and responsibility. produce a solution, focus on the most business innovation and competitive society, whose infections can circle the important challenges, and persist in advantage called Innovation through globe in hours,” he says, “there must Sir Ronald Cohen’s book The Second implementing their vision of success. Global Collaboration, Alan MacCormack be ample reason for GlaxoSmithKline Bounce of the Ball is not only the story They are alert to emerging opportunity and his colleagues show that traditional or Pfizer to join with the World Health of a distinguished career building a and threat, have the skill to focus on approaches, based on the assumption Organization to improve preventive successful global private equity business what is essential, and harness their that the creation and pursuit of new care and early warning systems in the but an insight into leadership, especially resources to make the greatest impact. ideas is best accomplished by a poorest countries.” (Bobbitt (2008) when it comes to embracing risk and What resources they do not have, they centralised and collocated research p509). opportunity. Partnerships can frustrate find. They build productive relationships, and development team, are rapidly a sense of ownership that every and are not afraid to confront issues. becoming outdated. Instead, Bobbitt adds: “International NGOs do entrepreneur finds fulfilling, “It is not innovations are increasingly brought not have that basis in legitimacy that uncommon for partnerships to be Britain has exercised leadership during to the market by networks of firms, is provided by democratic processes. negative in their effect, especially if the recent financial crisis. Crisis calls for selected for their unique capabilities What is needed is greater transparency the partners have similar skills, similar leadership. But, as the United Nations and operating in a coordinated manner. in the operations and funding of NGOs. roles and an equal voice,” Cohen says. reminds us, many chronic problems Among the most important NGOs, “There can be too much consensus, do not go away with the economic MacCormack argues that firms develop although we don’t think of them this too much hiding behind the collective downturn. Any leadership in different skills: in particular, the ability way, are multinational corporations. Just authority of the group. The partners collaboration with partners will have to to collaborate with partners to achieve

210 211 superior innovation performance. He competitive advantage is shifting: it is depending on the size of project, nature other countries brought about by the found that many firms mistakenly less and less related to the possession of dispute and type of contract. With “shortening of time”, resulting from applied an “outsourcing” mindset to of deep individual technical skills in more emphasis being put on life-cycle technological progress). Non-designer collaboration efforts which, in turn, hundreds of diverse disciplines. While costing and sustainability, requiring stakeholders are having more say in the led to three critical errors. First, they the company still has such knowledge, ever greater collaboration between design of buildings, particularly when focused solely on lower costs, failing this is no longer what differentiates it the designers, the developers, the life-cycle costing is used to assess a to consider the broader strategic role from competitors. Boeing’s unique contractors and the end-users, particular project. of collaboration. Second, they did not assets and skills are increasingly tied to the introduction of a new project organise effectively for collaboration, the way the firm orchestrates, manages responsibility, “collaboration The result is inevitable believing that innovation could be and coordinates its network of management”, will solve the problem misunderstandings and mistakes managed much like production and hundreds of global partners. of where responsibility for life-cycle that may not be adequately covered partners treated like “suppliers.” costing and hence sustainability falls. in the traditional contractual framework Third, they did not invest in building Example: Ghanem Nuseibeh, and Such a step would require leadership the construction industry is accustomed collaborative capabilities, assuming that collaboration in the construction from within the construction industry to. In Nuseibeh’s view, those their existing people and processes were sectorGhanem Nuseibeh, Director, as well as collaboration of the different misunderstandings can be resolved already equipped for the challenge. Cornerstone Global Associates, is a professional institutions that deal with before they occur by ensuring project manager in the construction the industry. collaboration between the different MacCormack’s paper quotes as a strong industry. The sector is continuously stakeholders, some of whom do not example of these dynamics Boeing’s evolving and is open to new ideas Sustainable buildings often involve come from the construction industry development of its 787 “Dreamliner” on management. The project team higher initial costs that are offset and who are increasingly important, aircraft. Boeing builds the most complex involved in the design and construction by cheaper running expenses. In partly due to the increasing prominence commercial products in the world. The of a building traditionally consisted otherwords, “life-cycle costing” is of life-cycle costing. This early levels of capital investment required and only of architects, structural engineers the economic justification for making collaboration should continue the increasing breadth of technologies and building services engineers. The buildings more sustainable. throughout the design and construction that must be harnessed – from digital role of project manager has changed. stages of a project. It needs to be cockpit design to new lightweight Once performed by architects, it is now As buildings are required to be more facilitated by an “unbiased” new materials – have led Boeing to look at increasingly done by specially-trained sustainable, the construction industry, team member, who can represent the new forms of organization. The aim project managers. Project managers and designers in particular, find interests of the developers, financiers, is to share risk with partners while are now an integral part of the themselves required to be more designers and contractors. A traditional exploiting the unique technical construction project teams. They have innovative in terms of building systems “project manager” will not be able expertise that each brings to trained as quantity surveyors, civil used as well as adopting new design to undertake such task due to the development. Boeing’s approach engineers or more recently graduates standards that are continuously inherent bias she or he may have. A to the 787 was the epitome of global of construction management courses. being updated. In many situations, “collaboration” manager will therefore collaboration. The project included over practitioners in the construction industry be able to ensure inter-disciplinary 50 partners from over 130 locations Nuseibeh anticipates another evolution find themselves outpaced by the rapid interaction helps avoid contractual working together for more than four in project management. Conflict evolution in sustainable building design problems in the rapidly evolving years. In the view of MacCormack and resolution on projects often involves (partly due to the faster dissemination construction sector. his colleagues, Boeing’s source of an adjudicator, arbitrator or mediator, of experiences and new techniques in

212 213 Example: David Rowling, business believes that the external consultant has participating increasingly as equals and Research shows that the more teams are improvement and building cross- to create the conditions for effective committed to working in long-term connected and the more they generate functional teams collaboration: to guide the discussion relationships across organizational and between them, the higher their and to inject ideas from other industries other boundaries. Collaboration does performance. Effective collaboration David Rowling advises companies on when things flag a little. Once the not offer magic solutions, and is often operates in a space where traditional using IT to improve their business. strategic vision has been agreed, the tough-going. But if done for the right means of control no longer work. It is Business improvement projects are most detailed work of the design of new reasons and in the right way, it can about driving both performance and successful when a cross-functional team business processes, ways of working open up possibilities. It builds on a participation, trusting others to take is engaged and the value of effective and new technologies can begin. The commitment to engage with others initiative and responsibility, appreciating communication is built into every stage team needs to co-operate during this by agreeing to work with them. different perspectives, and working of the process. The members of the phase to ensure that the needs of each through complexity. It also involves team should be made up of managers function are met through the new Working to a common end which no being more strategic about risk. If trust who can expertly represent their business model. one person or organization can achieve is a conscious regulation of one person’s functional specialism yet who also alone, collaboration requires advanced dependence on the other, risk requires can positively conceive of new ways The cross-functional team and project leadership and team-working skills and leaders to rely on judgment — their of operating the business. The team manager have an additional vital role. a change of attitude. Many of the own, and others’. We have no option should spend time understanding the All areas of the business relevant to challenges that we face as societies but to treat others more as leaders in current operation and gain insight into the improvement have to buy into the cannot be adequately addressed by a their own right, at every level. the current strengths and weaknesses. project. Rowling’s building blocks for trial-and-error approach to building The team then will define a strategic success include: steering board with collaboration. The growing global role This report has been about vision that will deliver a set of goals executive representation from each of the East only serves to remind many collaboration, and an exercise in defined by senior executives. It is function; cross-functional team with in the West how much many Asian collaboration. The learning that it has common for the team to be facilitated representatives from each function; cultures are built on the importance of produced for me and others who gave by an external consultant during this communications strategy so that all relationships and the value put on trust contributed is that in the very acts of phase. The external consultant brings stakeholders are communicated with and reciprocity. soliciting, capturing and aggregating knowledge of alternative ways of relevant and timely information. It is others’ responses, we cannot help but operating businesses from a number common to use newsletters, forums Most of our most intractable problems make assumptions of our own and of different industry sectors. Through and ask for feedback during major require greater collaboration. Where reveal preferences — such as what facilitation by the consultant and free change initiatives in order to take most collaboration is most difficult, it is often to include and exclude, how best to thinking by the team the creative spark employees along with the project. most necessary. There are real dividends translate from concept to practice or is struck and fanned to form concepts. Broad support from senior executives, — political, economic and social — that from individual case to working managers and employees is essential. we are missing because we are not hypothesis. The formation of a cross-functional tapping our combined strength as a team working within the same physical 4. Conclusion society. But we won’t achieve the What makes collaboration so space within facilitated workshops wider goals of collaboration without challenging yet potentially so rewarding encourages the discussion of innovative Collaboration is the right idea for our addressing others’ needs first, and is that it can help redefine not only ways of working. At all times the times. Systemic problems need collective showing our commitment to their our interests, but also change our environment has to be positive and and concerted action by different actors resolution. perspective, and even our position. encouraging of new ideas. Rowling One of the more challenging lessons

214 215 Notes, References and Bibliography

is that sometimes the best way to of engagement. Just as we cannot give 1. Notes and References influence is to let oneself be influenced. way on an issue, others will not. Yet we If we want more of a dialogue, we have can still work on the relationship and Introduction to be prepared not just to listen but to even deepen it, whether we agree or want to listen and to accept the limits disagree. Maddock, S. (2009), Change You Can Believe In: The Leadership of Innovation. National School of Government Sunningdale Institute, BIS.

Senge, P. et al (2008), The Necessary Revolution: How Individuals and Organizations are Working Together to Create a Sustainable World. Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

Chapter summary Chapter 1: Understanding collaboration • The first four chapters were about how best to operate in collaboration. This chapter outlined what collaboration could be better used for. Anholt, S. (2007), Competitive Identity: The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions. London: Palgrave Macmillan. • Leadership: take a broader and longer view of leadership and teamwork; Cropper, S. et al. (eds) (2008), The Oxford Handbook of Inter-Organizational • Strategy: use collaborative thinking before decisions are taken on problems, Relations. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. solutions and types of leadership response required; Cropper, S. et al. (2008b), Introducing inter-organizational relations. In: Cropper, • Engagement: connect more strategically, whether it is with one stakeholder, S. et al. (eds) op. cit. pp.3 - 21. or a group of them, or directly with citizens; and Emery, F. & Trist, E.(1965), The causal texture of organizational environments. • Delivery: apply collaborative processes to improve policy implementation. Human Relations. 18 (1), pp.21-32.

• Collaboration and innovation go hand in hand: we need to invest in Fox, A. (1974), Beyond Contract: Work, Power and Trust Relations. London: collaborative capabilities to gain sustained advantage. Faber & Faber.

Galinsky, A. et al. (2008), Why it pays to get inside the head of your opponent: The differential effects of perspective taking an empathy in negotiations. Psychological Science. 19 (4), pp.378-384.

Hudson, L. & Anstead, A. (2008), How government, business and non-governmental organisations can work together to address global challenges. In: Welsh, J. & Fearn, D. op. cit. pp.146 – 159.

Huxham, C. & Vangen, S. (2005), Managing to Collaborate. London: Routledge.

216 217 Ipsos-MORI. (2004), The Expert Perspective: View of Corporate Social Responsibility the French by A. F. Whyte. Originally published: De la manière de négocier avec les among NGOs and CSR Commentators (MORI White Papers). London: MORI. souverains. Paris. M. Brunet, 1716. Available online from: http://www.ipsos-mori.com/content/publications.ashx [Accessed 17 September 2008]. Ekblom, P. (2004), Shared Responsibilities, Pooled Resources: a Partnership Approach to Crime Prevention, in P. Ekblom and A Wyvekens A Partnership Approach to Ipsos-MORI. (2005) Company Relations with NGOs. Presentation by Jenny Dawkins, Crime Prevention. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Head of Corporate Social Responsibility Research, Ipsos-MORI. http://book.coe.int/EN/ficheouvrage.php?PAGEID=36&lang=EN&produitaliasid=1782 Jaques, E. (1990), Creativity and Work. Madison, CT: International Universities Press. Farson, R. (1997), Management of the Absurd: Paradoxes of Leadership. London: MacLeod, D. & Brady, C. (2007), The Extra Mile: How to Engage Your People to Win. Simon & Schuster. London: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Fox, A. (1974), op. cit. OECD/DAC statistics website. Available online from: [Accessed 26 September 2008]. Handy, C. (1994), The Age of Paradox. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press.

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232 233 Appendix: Compendium of collaborative partnerships

Stern, N. (2009), A Blueprint for a Safer Planet: How To Manage Climate Change This appendix lists short case examples of collaborative partnerships. These have and Create a New Era of Progress and Prosperity. The Bodley Head. informed and provided evidence for the report. They are included here as an Stiglitz, J. (2006), Making Globalization Work. Penguin. inspiration as to what can be achieved.

Sun Tsu, (1998), The Art of War. Shambhala. Environment/Climate Change

Taleb, N.N. (2007), The Black Swan. Penguin. Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities

Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1959), The Phenomenon of Man. Harper & Row. The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities is a multi-stakeholder network that promotes and demonstrates innovative ways to improve the air quality of Asian cities through Tett, G. (2009), Fool’s Gold: How Unrestrained Greed Corrupted a Dream, Shattered partnerships and sharing experiences. Air pollution is a major issue in a number of Global Markets and Unleashed a Catastrophe. Little, Brown. Asian cities, with motor vehicles identified as major contributors to the problem. The Clean Air Initiative partnership was established in 2001 by the World Bank and Thaler, R. H. & Sunstein, C. R. (2008) Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, the Asian Development Bank to address air quality issues. The partnership includes Wealth, and Happiness. Yale University Press. government agencies, NGOs, research institutes, international organizations, and private sector firms. As a non-legal entity, the Partnership is a forum for urban air Tilly, C. (2008) Credit and Blame. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. quality management and focal point for country and regional networks. Because it is complicated for governments to join a legal entity, the formation of the Thompson, M. (2008), Organising and Disorganising: A Dynamic and Non-Linear Partnership enables national and local government agencies to maintain their Theory of Institutional Emergence and its Implications. Axminster, Devon: Triarchy involvement in the Clean Air Initiative. Shell joined in 2002 with a focus on Press. coordinating the stakeholder groups responsible for setting air quality specifications.

Tomlinson, F. (2005) Idealistic and pragmatic versions of the discourse of Better Environmental Performance at Gatwick Airport partnership. Organization Studies. 26 (8) pp1169-1188. Gatwick airport needs the consent of local communities in order operate and does Welsh, J. & Fearn, D. (eds) (2008), Engagement: Public Diplomacy in a Globalised this by controlling its impact on these people by lessening noise and improving World. London: Foreign & Commonwealth Office. Available online from: runway occupation, sticking to approved routes and a continuous decent approach http://www.fco.gov.uk/pdpublication>http://www.fco.gov.uk/pdpublication on the flight paths to the airport used by airlines before landing. Community [Accessed 21 July 2008]. groups, Gatwick airport operators and chief training pilots of airlines form the Flight Operations Performance Committee. Woolf, H. (2008), The Pursuit of Justice. OUP. The approach taken to achieve better environmental performance was not based Woolf, P. (2003), Discernment, The Art of Choosing Well, Liguori. on punishment but by sharing best practice in track-keeping (sticking to approved routes), continuous decent approach (flying in a long smooth approach rather than Zizek, S. (2008), In Defense of Lost Causes. London: Verso Books. a series of steps down), noise (recordings over monitors) and runway occupation (the time taken on the runway during landing and the use of the optimal rapid exit taxiway). Instead of financial incentives and penalties it played to partners pride and professionalism and resulted in an improvement in track-keeping performance without any reduction in safety. It allowed joint thinking and action between highly

234 235 competitive players, without damaging their competitive positions. It also led to enforcement actions and awareness raising in the local communities. It brought creative thinking on rewriting Flight Management Systems. together various sectors in a way that hadn’t happened before in Tanzania.

Green New Deal Bus Rapid Transit

75 years after President Roosevelt launched a New Deal to rescue the US from The Centre for Sustainable Transport CTS-Mexico was established in 2002, with financial crisis, a new group of experts in finance, energy and the environment came financial support from the Shell Foundation, to introduce and promote Mexico City’s together in 2008 to propose a ‘Green New Deal’ for the UK to confront the first Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) line as a means of reducing the city’s green house gas potentially disastrous combination of climate change, high inflation and economic emissions. The Hewlett Foundation became a source of institutional support from slowdown. 2004, and Caterpillar Foundation in 2006. Project support has also been received from DEFRA. As in past times of crises, disparate groups have come together to propose a new solution to an epochal challenge. The Green New Deal Group, drawing inspiration The BRT in Mexico City, Metrobus, was taken from concept to implementation from the tone of President Roosevelt’s comprehensive response to the Great between 2002 – 5, working in partnership with the institutional supporters, World Depression, propose a modernised version, a ‘Green New Deal’ designed to power Resources Institute, EMBARQ - a global network of sustainable transport NGOs, a renewables revolution, create thousands of green-collar jobs and rein in the Mexico City authorities and public transport providers. Metrobus - which functions distorting power of the finance sector while making more low-cost capital available like an above-ground subway in which large buses travel in dedicated lanes and stop for pressing priorities. International in outlook, the Green New Deal requires action at special stations - already carries more than 260,000 passengers each day along at local, national, regional and global levels. Focusing first on the specific needs of Mexico City’s Insurgentes Avenue, one of the longest and busiest streets in the the UK, the Green New Deal outlines an interlocking programme of action that will world. It has resulted in a 50% saving in average commuting times for passengers require an ambitious legislative programme backed by a bold new alliance of and a 38,000 ton annual reduction in carbon dioxide. Mexico City’s Major Ebrard industry, agriculture, labour and environmentalists. has publicly committed to creating an additional nine Metrobus lines over the next five years, extending the network from 20 to 220 kilometers and creating one of Fight against Dynamite Fishing the largest BRT systems in the world. Construction has already begun on an extension to the existing Metrobus line, as well as on a second route along the im- In Tanzania, some fishermen use the damaging practice of throwing a stick of portant thoroughfare known as “Eje 4.” CTS-Mexico also carried out a diesel retrofit dynamite into the sea in order to kill all fish in a 10-20 metre radius. This also pilot project for Mexico City’s bus fleet in 2004-5 using ultra-low sulphur diesel and permanently scars the coral reefs and undermines the local tourist industry. particulate traps, which has resulted in particulate emissions being reduced by 90%. A number of organizations have an interest in stopping the use of dynamite in The next stage is to work with Mexico City (and three other cities in Mexico) to fishing: investors in tourism facilities on the Tanzanian coast, environmental NGOs, implement an integrated transport system. Two major challenges are to better Tanzanian Ministry of Natural Resources and police. However few of these integrate the BRT system with other transport modes and fare prices, and to organizations were in touch with each other. There was an email contact group incorporate cleaner technologies into urban transport systems. of NGOs and tourism investors to keep track of explosions. But no interface with the Tanzanian Government. Recycling in the Emirates

The British High Commission helped establish links to the Tanzanian government The British Embassy in Dubai collaborated with the Emirates Environment Group fisheries department and the national and marine police. They set up a task force (EEG) to improve recycling in the Emirates. This involved the funding of a “Green between all these organizations, which organized a national conference on Truck” to collect items for recycling from schools etc and targeted media work in dynamite fishing attended by senior Tanzanian politicians, and has supported police Dubai and Abu Dhabi to publicise this.

236 237 The collaboration came out of an ongoing relationship with the EEG. HSBC bank The most significant challenges were getting the leaders to work with each other co-sponsored. It helped that all three organizations shared the same objectives harmoniously and bringing the Brazilian Government on board - the risk being that and worked in similar ways (focused and well organized). Although this was a self they would walk away. It took time, perseverance, personal leadership - and a bit of standing initiative, it was part on an ongoing relationship with EEG and HSBC. The luck - to set up this successful partnership. key to making this sort of relationship work was regular contact and having the initiative led by people with energy, enthusiasm and time. The latter is a key point Keeping it going is much more time consuming than the Embassy had thought - a as busy Posts are increasingly pulled in many different directions and just don’t have constant task; managing people’s egos and people’s and institutions’ expectations the resources to do everything they (and sometimes FCO London) would like. was hard work; choosing the right people to lead and co-ordinate was crucial - they needed good interpersonal skills as well as expertise. Personal networks with those Changing Public Debate and Policy on Climate Change centrally involved, their bosses, funders etc was very important to keep the show on the road. Constant contact and communication amongst all participants was Changing the nature of public debate and policy on Climate Change in Brazil (the crucial. second half shared only partially by the host Government participants!) was the challenge of the collaboration. To do this the British Embassy sponsored a detailed CEO Forum on Climate Change report on the Economics of Climate Change in Brazil (a ’mini’ Stern report), to stimulate and underpin public and policy debate. The strategy was for the Embassy In 2006, the British Consulate General in Los Angeles collaborated with the to be the initiator, but for Brazilian institutions - some public sector, some private - California State Government, the NGO - Climate Change Group, BP and other major and individuals, to own the work and to give it credibility. Also to involve so many companies to create a CEO Forum on Climate Change at Long Beach, attended main actors that the Brazilian Government had to buy in, although they were by the then British Prime Minister Tony Blair and Governor of California, Arnold suspicious initially. Schwarzenegger.

The programme and partnership is still underway, but has already had a major Tony Blair was to visit USA to sign an agreement between California and the UK to impact on thinking, and been adopted as underpinning the National Climate collaborate on climate change issues. That agreement was proposed by the British Change Plan that is being prepared. There is a need to move forward more quickly Consulate General in Los Angeles and the idea was initially greeted with some to advance Brazilian Government thinking on climate change in the approach to scepticism by colleagues elsewhere in USA and by DEFRA. The key to overcoming Copenhagen (December 2009), bringing to bear the weight of scientific and popular this was the commitment from the Prime Minister’s Office to make it happen. opinion in Brazil. The British Ambassador stimulated the partnership through Constant personal involvement by the Head of Post was then necessary to deliver personal contacts. The Embassy is the sponsor. The participants are government the right event and the extraordinary publicity it achieved. and private institutes and individuals, representatives of social organizations, Government officials etc, supported by the whole climate change community. Expectations were high and were more than achieved. The agreement, between a state and a country, was unusual if not unprecedented. That got attention. Follow The key was that the Ambassador and Embassy acted as a catalyst, in favour of a -up has required a lot of work by the two British Missions in California and by cause many participants think important, but had not been able to co-operate on others such as DEFRA, the British Embassy in Washington and the Foreign Secretary’s themselves; bringing funding, good personal relationships, and leadership from adviser on climate change, John Ashton. It has ultimately worked very well. those we asked to head the programme.

238 239 Accountability Key challenges faced:

National Taxpayers Association, Kenya • How to keep the GBS partners together

The National Taxpayers Association (NTA) is a national, independent organization • How to improve the group’s engagement with the Tanzanian government, to formed by civil society, private sector and faith-based organizations focused on encourage the right conditions for the continuation of GBS. supporting good governance in Kenya through strengthening citizen to government accountability, and citizen-to-citizen accountability. The focus of the NTA is on Approach agreed by the GBS collaboration: improving the delivery of essential government services and the management of funds across Kenya. By demanding greater accountability from managers of • Private contacts between the Chair of the GBS (UK High Commissioner) and the government services and funds, the NTA aims to realize annual financial savings Tanzanian Finance Minister, a partnership with the shared objective to maintain for the Government of Kenya (GOK) of 10 percent of the total money allocated to the GBS devolved funds. Based on the 2005/06 national budget the projected savings for the GOK are KShs 3.43 billion (US$48.9 million) over three years. This compares • Swift reporting to and frequent meetings of the GBS with the total cost of establishing the NTA in 60 districts, which is KShs 380 million (US$5.5 million). • Monthly frank meetings of the GBS’ troika with the Minister of Finance and other relevant senior officials, with carefully prepared agreed lines to take, and The NTA is an intervention that has a very high socio-economic value in terms of communication with the Minister afterwards, and the maintenance of the return on investment for both the GOK and citizens. The NTA is developing a confidentiality within the group. transparent and rigorous performance monitoring and impact evaluation system to demonstrate the annual savings for the GOK and citizens in the pilot phase districts. The Tanzanian government moved forward on the corruption allegations, the GBS’ For the first three years of operations the NTA aims to secure financial support from engagement with the government, and insistence on progress before commitments, the GOK and Development Partners. After three years the NTA aims to secure pushed the government forward when it might have slipped back. GBS partners col- sustainable funding through an Act of Parliament. lectively confirmed commitments for 2008/9.

General Budget Support in Tanzania Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

A group of 14 partners – World Bank, African Development Bank, European Some 3.5 billion people live in countries rich in oil, gas and minerals. With good Commission and eleven national governments – provide 12.5% of the Tanzanian governance the exploitation of these resources can generate large revenues to foster government budget through General Budget Support (GBS). The UK and the growth and reduce poverty. However when governance is weak, it may result in World Bank are the two largest providers. The UK has been strongly convinced poverty, corruption, and conflict. The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative of the rationale for GBS, other partners are on varying points of the spectrum of (EITI) aims to strengthen governance by improving transparency and accountability commitment and confidence in it. The quality of engagement with the Tanzanian in the extractives sector. EITI supports improved governance in resource-rich government had not been great: annual reviews and progress against benchmarks countries through the verification and full publication of company payments had not been rigorous. and government revenues from oil, gas and mining. The EITI is a coalition of governments, companies, civil society groups, investors and international In addition a number of serious corruption allegations had been brewing, clearly organizations. having a bearing on GBS, with the result that partners were unable to make new commitments for 2008/9.

240 241 The initiative works by a government agreeing to implement EITI, working with civil Transparency in the Business Environment society organizations and companies on implementing the transparency and accountability measures, leading to published audited accounts of revenue The aim of the collaboration was to achieve more transparency and reduced information. EITI has support from international organisations (World Bank, IMF, corruption in the business environment in Hungary. The strategy was to get the OECD), companies (including Anglo American, BP, Shell), industry associations issue onto the agenda in that country, leading to better legislation, implementation (including International Organisation of Oil and Gas Producers), 71 investors and and enforcement. NGOs (including Transparency International). Businesses operating in Hungary identified the problem. Embassies representing The collaborative process leading to a country implementing EITI has seen many the main Foreign Direct Investment providers then got together with Chambers of results. For example, the Government of Nigeria increased revenue collection by USD Commerce and Transparency International to clarify the issues and produce and 1 billion as a result of EITI. And some of the most corrupt countries in the world, finance reports that set out recommendations for action. These were launched at including Azerbaijan (137th on Transparency Corruption Perception Index) and media events and were promoted in speeches, interviews, and meetings. The Nigeria (152nd) have published audited reports of revenue collected from the relevant Embassies were targeting key players. The challenge was to get everyone extraction industries. speaking from the same script and being blunt where necessary about the problems. Close coordination and regular meetings meant that the collaboration was Improved Multi-Stakeholder Governance successful in raising the profile of the issue dramatically - communication was the key to success. Two global health partnerships, the Global Fund for the fight against AIDS, TB and Malaria, and the Global Alliance on Vaccines and Immunisation, both employ A problem was that some stakeholders were more proactive than others. But it was multi-stakeholder governance to allow a wider band of actors to demonstrate clear that where collaboration happened, the sum was much more powerful than responsibility and to sustain commitments, necessary to restore public and political the parts. However, not all Embassies/Chambers of Commerce saw the value of confidence in major international institutions and to ensure a more effective delivery speaking to civil society organizations. The biggest challenge, of moving from words of services. The Global Fund established an effective public-private-civil society to action, still lies ahead. partnership, which includes seats on the Fund’s Board for NGOs representing communities affected by AIDS, TB and malaria; for technical partners involved in the Health/Social Reform/Human Rights/Democracy delivery of interventions, as well as the private sector and grant-making foundations. The Mega community The Global Alliance on Vaccines and Immunisation started as an informal alliance in 1999 between WHO, UNICEF, the World Bank and the Gates Foundation. As a result A major challenge confronting governments, businesses and NGOs is complexity: of its successes and rapid growth, the Global Alliance has grown into a partnership the growing density of linkages among people, organizations and issues across the institution in its own right, with donor constituencies on its Board serving alongside world. Solutions require multi-organizational systems that are larger and more private and technical partners. oriented to multilateral action than conventional cross-sector approaches are. In such systems the winners are those who understand how to intervene and influence The two organizations have found that engaging non-state actors has led to others in a larger system – a “mega community” - that they do not control. The genuinely innovative multi-stakeholder partnerships. The global public health sector mega community is a public sphere in which organizations and people deliberately has been a trailblazer among international organization reform. join together around a compelling issue of mutual importance. An example of a mega community was the 200 professionals that met in New Delhi, India in October 2003 to establish a coordinated approach for combating HIV/AIDS in India.

242 243 Businesses included PepsiCo, Lafarge and the Tata Group. Civil society leaders came access to places and services available to the public. The 2003 (2004 for new from major global donor organizations, like the Gates Foundation, as well as the Member States) deadline for transposition of the directive into national law, let Heads of local NGOs, the groups that worked in the cities and villages in India. From alone effective implementation, was not met by many EU Member States. the Indian Government came health officials and military officers. International players included the World Bank, USAID, United Nations and WHO. Community The European Commission and the FCO awarded project funding to an international workers represented people living with HIV/AIDS. Through a strategic simulated HIV/ NGO – the European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC) – to establish partnerships with AIDS crisis, organized by Booz & Co., in which each individual was assigned to a parliamentarians, judges and lawyers, and NGOs in EU countries in order to help stakeholder – community, government official, businessperson, donor, activist, them implement the directive. This was achieved by arranging round-table journalist – the professionals started to understand the linkages and collaboration discussions between EU law experts, parliamentarians and key officials (these that would be necessary to reverse the crisis. After the simulated work, real discussions often brokered by the local British Embassy); training lawyers and judges collaboration started. Eight major companies expanded their workplace and in the legal aspects of the law; and training NGOs to lobby, form partnerships and community activities to encourage HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment programmes. monitor implementation of the race-equality legislation. An Indian pharmaceuticals company announced a HIV/AIDS drug attainable for less than US$1. These organizations formed a mega community whose enterprise The partnerships helped speed up the process of passing national equality laws, and against the spread of HIV/AIDS continues today. trained some 1,000 judges and lawyers. NGOs in the project countries were left with the skills to form similar partnerships. As a result of this activity, ERRC was asked by Romanian Orphanages a number of new EU Member State governments to carry out further training of their judges after implementation of the directive. The plight of children in state care in orphanages has been an issue of international concern following the overthrow of communism in Romania in 1989. Post 1989 De-mining in Colombia Romanian governments, aided by international organisations from the largest such as the UN to small charities arranging the transport of clothes and toys, have been The aim of the collaboration was to organize de-mining training in Colombia, which addressing this issue. The UK’s main bilateral assistance was delivered through DFID has the worst record of civilian and military casualties from landmines in the world. in the form of a £1.8 million project to create a National Authority for Child The Government has signed the Ottawa Convention, but the guerrillas continue to Protection and Adoption. All the large orphanages are now closed and there are sow mines extensively. Specifically the project was to set up a de-mining training fully functioning state institutions in this sector. centre in Colombia along the lines of the one the British Government sponsored in Kenya All this happened without a formal collaborative partnership, not least because the domestic NGO and business communities were in their infancy. That situation has The strategy was to build commitment to de-mining within Colombian military and now changed. A collaborative partnership led by the British and Romanian Prime government circles. After that to broaden this commitment to include other donors. Ministers, endorsed by the novelist JK Rowling, and supported by NGOs and The next stage, now starting, is to increase civilian involvement and buy-in to the businesses, is now working to assist disabled children in Romania, with many signs project, promoting trust, dialogue and cooperation between the donors, the of success. Colombian Government and civil society.

Implementation of EU Racial-Equality Law The results so far: training was successful. The G24 has ownership of the project, under the current Japanese chairmanship, and a wide range of NGOs are involved. In 2000 the EU passed a directive outlawing discrimination on the grounds of race The biggest initial challenge was to educate public opinion (not least among a or ethnicity in employment, education, social benefits and advantages, housing and number of NGOs who were initially suspicious) that humanitarian de-mining was

244 245 different in kind and intention to military de-mining and that this was a process the limits of what the Embassy is doing in-country to meet humanitarian needs and designed to benefit civilians rather than enable Government troops to prosecute foster the conditions for democracy, yet not going so far that they shut the whole their campaign against the guerrillas more effectively. De-mining techniques lot down. traditionally employed were so rudimentary that many of those involved were killed. The experience raised a number of intangibles about successful collaboration: There is now widespread buy-in for de-mining as a national priority. But significant you can do the mechanics of engagement very easily, yet far more difficult is challenges remain. Not the least of these is ensuring that those injured by mines understanding what makes it work in some contexts and not in others, and the role receive the treatment and help to which they are officially entitled. The mechanisms of personal chemistry and credibility. Outreach can often appear forced or insincere, theoretically exist, but rights get lost in the bureaucratic jungle: continuing and and can actually damage one’s objective. The key in the Burmese case was creating sustained pressure by civil society will be essential in making a difference. This is a balance, admitting mistakes, developing key relationships and not asking them to an on-going project in which the focus has evolved significantly since its original believe the unbelievable. And that’s much more difficult to define and capture, but relatively narrow base. The input of the Embassy was key to sustaining the you know when it works and when it does not. momentum, especially in the initial stages. Over rigid bureaucracy by some other potential donors meant that building alliances took time and in some cases proved Investigative Journalism in Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine impossible. The British Embassy’s good relationship with the Colombian Government was critical in getting the project off the ground and ensuring that the necessary The task was to improve the standards of investigative journalism in Jordan, Syria, resources were made available. The Embassy would have liked to involve civil society Lebanon and Palestine.This was aimed at improving the quality of democratic more fully earlier on in the project, and with the benefit of hindsight this probably debate and accountability, as part of political development towards more responsive could have happened; but first the Embassy concentrated on dealing with suspicions and rights-based government. In turn, this served the objectives of conflict about the real intention of the programme. The Embassy also needed to secure prevention and de-radicalisation. access to more funding than the UK alone could provide to ensure sustainability, and this has now been achieved through the G24 mechanism. The context was very poor standards of journalism, in a media environment emerging from a long tradition of state control and censorship, and held back by Burma very poor leadership from senior editors. The programme to improve this has the strong support of the King of Jordan, and more generally of enlightened political The British Embassy in Rangoon’s collaboration with the (repressive) Burmese modernisers in all four countries. The sponsor was the British Embassy, the training government is limited, but extensive with all other players. Sustained and personal was delivered by the Thomson Foundation, the participants chosen by their editors engagement with lobby groups and NGOs in the UK and on the Thai /Burma border in the print. radio and TV media, and links made to a parallel local NGO with the has resulted in a significant improvement in the dynamic of the UK government/ same goals. lobby relationship and a wealth of pro-democracy collaboration in Burma. The partnership worked smoothly, and the quality of trainees and their output has The Embassy engages with a range of players - the strong parliamentary caucus, improved year on year (over the past four years of the project’s existence). The the Burma Campaign and with a wide spectrum of human rights and humanitarian Embassy extended it in 2008 to cover Iraq for the first time. Feedback from the NGOs, the objective being to increase understanding, and to pull everyone behind trainees was highly positive. They find it frustrating though that their editors a strategy that maximizes the chance of success. The key factors: sustained personal continue not to give them real opportunities to exercise their skills, and pay in engagement from ministers and the ambassador on the ground, openness, being the sector remains so low that the more talented leave journalism altogether. The clear about limitations and red lines, and personal credibility. The key challenge was blogosphere however offers more scope. We are continuing the partnership, but the diversity of views. One can’t please all parties. Another was the active hostility we recognise that there are wider solutions required, and that our limited resources of the Burmese regime - the fine line that has to be tread on a daily basis: pushing on their own will not make a decisive difference.

246 247 Defence partnership worked together to plan and speak at a conference designed to help companies introduce effective anti-corruption policies. Arms Trade Treaty Economic Development Irresponsible arms transfers foment violent conflicts, perpetuate poverty and underdevelopment and contribute to countless violations of human rights and M-PESA humanitarian law. Yet there is no universally-agreed standard to guide the trade in arms. In 1995, Dr Oscar Arias started work with a group of fellow Nobel Peace The growth in mobile telephony in developing countries created the potential to Laureates on an International Code of Conduct on Arms Transfers. This evolved into deliver new financial services through mobilephone networks. Vodafone and the Arms Trade Treaty initiative, headed by a coalition of NGOs (including Amnesty Safaricom, Kenya, with DFID funding, launched M-PESA, a mobile phone-based International, Oxfam and Arias Foundation) and legal experts (such as the payment service that targeted customers in Kenya who didn’t have bank accounts. Lauterpacht Centre at Cambridge University). A Framework Convention on International Arms Transfers was drafted in 2000 that would be legally-binding on The lack of infrastructure in Kenya in fixed-line telephony and in banking, ensured States. It would require States to authorize arms transfers by issuing licenses. NGOs strong growth of pre-pay mobile telephones and the possibility to use them as a engaged governments, sometimes in separate public campaigns that had similar means to transfer money. DFID funding enabled the companies to spend more time goals – such as Control Arms campaign and Million Faces, to gain support for on a ‘needs assessment’ in the product development phase than would have been international arms trade legislation. possible in a normal time-constrained Return on Investment process, brought in expertise in the financial deepening sector and gave the project a high profile. In December 2006, the UK, Australia, Argentina, Costa Rica, Finland, Kenya and Stakeholders (Kenyan government, NGOs, International Organisations and private Japan introduced a UN Resolution calling for work towards a global Arms Trade sector) have assisted with regulatory buy-in to the M-PESA service. Treaty. 153 governments supported the proposal, 24 abstained and one voted against. Since then 100 States have submitted their views on the Treaty to the UN, Massive customer up-take in the project’s first year gave an indication of the pent up a record number. The FCO is working with a broad coalition of other governments, demand for simple financial transaction services in emerging markets. NGOs and the UK defence industry to ensure that views are considered in the work leading up to an Arms Trade Treaty agreed and ratified by a great majority of the Tourism Industry Emergency Response 192 member states of the UN. The 7 and 21 July 2005 terror attacks in London had the potential to deter visitors Business Growth and Anti-Corruption Policies in the Defence Sector from travelling to Britain and London, and severely impact the tourism industry. Britain’s visitor economy is worth £74 billion and employs 2.1 million people. In The UK aerospace and defence industry is a worldwide leader with a reputation 2001 the combined effects of the Foot and Mouth outbreak and the 9/11 terror for first-class quality and innovation. However, corruption poses the single biggest attack in USA cost the tourism industry more than £3 billion and highlighted the threat to that reputation. fragmented structure of the industry. To address this, VisitBritain, the national tourism agency, established the Tourism Industry Emergency Response (TIER) group In 2006 the Areospace and Defence Industries Association of Europe developed the with over 10 industry representatives. Common Industries Standard as a benchmark of anti-corruption measures. The (UK) Defence Manufacturers Association and the Society of British Aerospace Companies • Following the bombings of 7 July 2005, TIER went into action to: took the initiative to promote the Standard to UK companies. In partnership with government - UKTI, and a NGO - Transparency International, a ‘Tools to Grow Your • Provide accurate, consistent information to reassure and inform visitors Business in a Changing Ethical Environment’ booklet was designed. This cross-sector

248 249 • Promote a clear ‘business as usual’ message in UK and international media The project, still underway at the time of writing, represents a significant opportunity for collaboration between DRC, China and UK to reduce the potentially • Ensure media worldwide and UK Government are given consistent messages from negative social and environmental impact that opening roads can bring, yet Britain’s tourism industry improving the sustainability of economic growth from a better transport infrastructure. • Limit speculation as to the possible financial impact of 7 July and provide the authoritive impact assessment Justice

• Leverage opportunities to demonstrate consumer confidence and kickstart Criminal justice: Simple, Speedy, Summary recovery. The aim of a collaboration between the judiciary, courts, police, Crown Prosecution The greatest measurement of success of this communications campaign was the Service, probation services and defence solicitors was to bring defendants in lack of sensationalist headlines and stories on the impact of the bombings on magistrates’ courts to justice more quickly. By working together more effectively, Britain’s visitor economy, very different to the media reaction in 2001. Although the collaborators created a simpler system that balanced speed with fairness, while there was a downturn in visitors immediately following the bombings, this was eliminating unnecessary delays and adjournments to cases. An example is grouping short-lived and overall visitor figures for 2005 show a record year. together all cases where defendants are likely to plead guilty, so that large numbers of cases can be dealt with in a session. The TIER campaign effectively brought together in a collaborative arrangement Britain’s vast and fragmented tourism industry to communicate with one voice. Figures show a 22% reduction in adjournments to court hearings since 2006/7 and that, on average, cases are being dealt with more quickly. UK/China/DRC Collaboration on Social and Environmental Impact Management Community Justice

Both the UK and China are helping to rebuild the transport infrastructure in the Through a fresh approach to engagement with the local community, Community Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). China is bringing much needed investment Justice aims to make the courts more responsive to local people, and to solve the in infrastructure. The UK has been working with the Government of DRC and the causes of and problems caused by offending in the local area by working with local World Bank to develop a national roads programme. agencies and services.

The shared aim of the collaboration between the UK, China and DRC was to help Allowing the new courts the freedom to initiate local solutions to local problems the Chinese minimise the negative impact of the infrastructure work and maximise has led to a range of innovative practices. For example, in Middlesborough holding the positive, ensuring that the poorest and most vulnerable also benefit from the ‘unpaid fines sessions’ in a community centre in partnership with providers of development process. The DRC Government agreed that: benefit, welfare and addiction advice to help offenders deal with the causes of their offending. Another court has worked in partnership with the children’s • UK would support DRC identify the environmental and social standards that they charity Barnardos to offer parents attending court support with parenting skills. want companies building roads to abide by

• UK would provide expertise to work alongside Chinese engineers doing feasibility studies

250 251 Community Payback The Fund offers community organisations grants of up to £15,000 to support initiatives that seek to engage people with their local and wider communities, and Community Payback is a collaboration between the Probation Service, local involve them in addressing public issues and influencing government policy. The authorities, mayors and community members to raise the profile of unpaid Fund is promoted through a weblog where ideas can be posted and debated, community work projects carried out by offenders and to give local people the allowing groups to link up and pool ideas and resources. chance to decide what projects the offenders work on. Winners have included Speakers’ Corner Trust, which established a speakers’ corner Probation Service staff invited mayors in their area to sponsor a Community Payback and held a day of debate in Nottingham; and the FixMyStreet website, which allows project – one of their own choosing or one already planned which appealed to their people to tell their local authority and others about issues like grafitti or inadequate communities. They were encouraged to engage local residents by seeking their street lighting. suggestions through local media or town hall communication channels. Most projects had an environmental theme, bringing back derelict areas into public use. Corporate Alliance for Reducing Re-offending

The scheme has been enthusiastically welcomed by participating mayors. Local A national strategy in partnership with the Ministry of Justice, Prison and Probation communities have benefited from millions of pounds of unpaid work (£6 m in Services and businesses, to bring together companies which see the value of 2007). People can see the projects completed and know that offenders have done employing ex-crime offenders and believe that these ex-offenders can provide a something to pay back for their crimes. And unpaid work is seen as a credible solution to business needs. Programmes aim to develop the skills and employment sentence for those who have committed public order, assault, theft or driving opportunities for ex-offenders and provide them with the possibility of a secure job offences. with the company on successful completion of training and release from prison.

Victim Support Plus For example Wessex Water have been running a training and employment programme with prisons in the south west of England for three years. The training Funded by Government, the national charity Victim Support contacts victims of is run by Wessex Water staff over 12 weeks before the offender is released from crime by telephone and conducts a structured needs assessment, and then arranges prison. The offender has to show commitment to complete the course. A mentor for support services to be delivered to the victim, based on their particular need. is appointed to help the offender during the course and through the transition into Victim Support then provides continued one-to-one contact with the victim to help working life. Over three years, Wessex Water has interviewed 40 offenders and them through their experience and collate feedback on whether the victim was based on business need accepted 16 people onto the training programme. All who satisfied with the approach taken and the service provided. completed the course were offered employment on release.

Support can take the form of advice on personal safety, emotional support from a Administration of Justice in Mexico volunteer with specialist training, or practical support such as the installation of new locks on the victim’s home. The project took the form of a collaboration between the British Embassy and Mexican central government and state authorities (as well as British Council) to Building Democracy Innovation Fund explain how the oral, accusatory system of administration of justice works in the UK, as well as the alternative forms of justice that accompany it. The Building Democracy Innovation Fund is a collaboration between the Ministry of Justice and community organisations to get more people participating in democracy There is a widespread lack of confidence in the Mexican legal system, resulting in and getting their voices heard. high levels of unreported and unresolved crime and uncertainty for investor and

252 253 businesses. In collaborating with the British Council, the British Embassy worked The concept has now been extended to Latin America, with DFID making additional with the Mexican Federal Presidency, the Federal Academy of Penal Science, resources available to 12 existing PPA partners with programmes in Latin America to state governments and judicial authorities to deliver a series of visits, workshops, deepen and expand their work in that region. simulations and training events. The partnerships were particularly successful both because of the high level of engagement by influential Mexican authorities and Common Purpose/PwC Leadership Programme because the Embassy was able, through the use of multipliers, training the trainer, event and regional conferences to achieve an impact well beyond the immediate PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), the international accountancy firm, and Common audience. Media reporting of project activities was particularly important as, of Purpose, a not-for-profit leadership development organization, collaborated to course was significant funding from FCO. evelop a leadership programme for the UK Partners of PwC.

Once established, the partnerships developed a momentum of their own and led PwC already has a strong reputation for developing its people, in the same way to a range of requests from other potential partners. It was important to keep that Common Purpose has in the leadership development and experiential learning a broad strategic vision of the project. This formed part of a wider effort to help the fields. However, despite the potential ‘good fit’ between the two organisations, it Mexicans handle a dysfunctional justice system, reduce impunity and improve legal took 18 months to agree to work together. certainty and security for businesses and investors, as well as to create a firmer basis for Mexico’s transition to a fully fledged democracy and emerging economy. It is The condition that made this work was the genuine confidence in one another’s generally recognized that the Embassy’s input played an important role in the expertise and an appetite to learn from one another, as each organization had adoption by the Mexican congress of a major package of justice reforms in 2008. different skills, competencies and knowledge to bring to the collaboration. They agreed joint responsibility, so that there was no blame for things that didn’t work, Other Partnerships instead creating ground rules about truthful feedback and keeping information flowing between the two organizations. With a shared goal guiding both Programme Partnership Arrangements organizations: participants on the programme should have a powerful and transformational experience. A key component in DFID’s support to international civil society organizations is Programme Partnership Agreements (PPAs), some £100 million per annum from the The collaboration is now well developed, with continued learning a joint £329 million DFID provides to civil society organizations. responsibility.

PPAs provide unrestricted funding to civil society organizations with which DFID has FCO/DFID Sudan Unit a significant working relationship, and shares a common ethos/vision and a strong match between DFID and the organization’s priorities. The money is not tied to any When it was set up in 2002, the FCO/DFID Sudan Unit was regarded as an particular project or programme and can be used to do much of the vital research innovative Government structure. As well as the two lead Government departments, and capacity development work not provided for by short-term project-specific it secured good buy-in from MoD and agencies of government. The Unit increased funding. DFID has 26 PPAs running with both UK and non-UK organizations, as the scope for and effectiveness of its outreach to parliamentarians, NGOs and three to six year agreements. churches, almost all of whom started as hostile to the Government’s Sudan policy but wound up as supporters and partners. The Unit also drew on the expertise of PPAs are seen as more than just funding arrangements. They are viewed as outsiders for short-term assignments as well as less conventional contacts with key partnerships between the organizations and with DFID, facilitating a better policy foreign influencers on Sudan issues. dialogue and exchange of ideas/ sharing of information.

254 255 Appendix: FCO Survey of Heads of Mission on collaborative partnerships

Lisbon Treaty Ratification Fourteen Heads of Mission, the sample having a global spread and covering large to small missions, completed a survey on their Post’s role in collaborative partnerships. Throughout ratification of the Lisbon Treaty, the FCO worked closely with a number of stakeholders to strengthen parliamentary support for the treaty. The aim was to The results show that all Posts are actively participating in networks of government, generate supportive information for Members of Parliament (MPs) and press articles business and NGOs, publicly advocating for closer engagement and actually from trusted and credible organizations. In return, the FCO briefed organizations on themselves engaging in partnership with these sectors. All were sponsoring the Treaty and regularly updated them on the parliamentary process. partnerships, although not quite as frequently as their engagement and participation. Fewer were entering into large-scale multi-year support to Civil Society umbrella groups, aid/development NGOs, voluntary organizations, the partnerships. Green Alliance and children’s charities briefed MPs on how they would benefit from the Treaty. This was welcomed by MPs. All Heads of Mission were actively encouraging staff to work together with the host government, business and NGOs and themselves participating in the partnerships. FCO worked to secure public backing for the Treaty from business too. A Global Many were often or sometimes initiating the partnership, and they were being seen Europe event in January 2008 attended by the Prime Minister, Foreign Secretary and as a leader of local partnerships. Fewer recorded their involvement in partnerships leading business figures attracted positive media coverage. FCO also worked with in internal reporting. Business for New Europe, a pro-EU business group who lobbied MPs and issued supportive press articles, and Think Tanks like the Centre for European Reform. Partnerships were most often entered into on the FCO goal of promoting a low carbon, high growth, global economy. The next most popular goal for partnerships was preventing and resolving conflict. Third was the goal of countering terrorism and weapons proliferation, closely followed by developing effective international institutions. Nearly half of the respondents rarely or never entered into partnerships to counter terrorism, closely followed by effective international institutions.

The answers to the questions:

How does your Post work together with combinations of the host government, business, NGOs or local communities?

Actively participate in networks of such organisations - 5 said ‘always’, 8 said ‘often’ 1 said ‘sometimes’, nil ‘rarely’ or ‘never’.

Publicly advocate for closer engagement between government, business, NGOs - 5 said ‘always’ (and not the same five as the previous question), 8 said ‘often’, 1 said ‘sometimes’, nil ‘rarely’ or ‘never’.

Engage in partnership with government, business and/or NGOs on initiatives in the host country - 4 said ‘always’, 9 said ‘often’, 1 said ‘sometimes’, nil ‘rarely’ or ‘never’.

256 257 Sponsor partnerships between government, business and/or NGOs on initiatives in For your Post, have you worked together in partnership with the host government, the host country - 2 said ‘always’, 7 said ‘often’, 5 said ‘sometimes’, nil ‘rarely’ or business and/or NGOs to support the FCO goal of promoting a low carbon, high ‘never’. growth, global economy?

Make large-scale multi-year commitments of support to initiatives in the host 5 said ‘always’, 4 said ‘often’, 4 said ‘sometimes’, nil said ‘rarely’ and 1 ‘never’. country 2 said ‘always’, 3 said ‘often’, 3 said ‘sometimes’, 4 said ‘rarely’ and 2 ‘never’. For your Post, have you worked together in partnership with the host government, business and/or NGOs to support the FCO goal of developing effective international What is the role of your Head of Mission when your Post works together with the institutions, above all the UN and EU? host government, business and/or NGOs? Nil said ‘always’, 6 said ‘often’, 3 said ‘sometimes’, 4 said ‘rarely’, 1 ‘never’. Head of Mission’s commitment to working with the host government, business and NGOs is recorded in internal reporting - 4 said ‘always’, 7 said ‘often’, 2 said ‘sometimes’, 1 said ‘rarely’.

Head of Mission encourages staff to work together with government, business and/or NGOs - 12 said ‘always’, 2 said ‘often’, nil ‘sometimes’, ‘rarely’ or ‘never’.

Head of Mission participates in these partnership initiatives - 5 said ‘always’, 9 said ‘often’, nil ‘sometimes’, ‘rarely’ or ‘never’.

Head of Mission initiates the partnership with the host government, business and/or NGO - 2 said ‘always’, 5 said ‘often’, 7 said ‘sometimes’, nil ‘rarely’ or ‘never’.

Head of Mission is seen in the host country as a leader of local partnership working to tackle a global issue - 3 said ‘always’, 7 said ‘often’, 4 said ‘sometimes’, nil ‘rarely’ or ‘never’.

For your Post, have you worked together in partnership with the host government, business and/or NGOs to support the FCO goal of counter terrorism, weapons proliferation and their causes?

2 said ‘always’, 4 said ‘often’, 2 said ‘sometimes’, 4 said ‘rarely’ and 2 said ‘never’. For your Post, have you worked together in partnership with the host government, business and/or NGOs to support the FCO goal of preventing and resolving conflict?

1 said ‘always’, 6 said ‘often’, 4 said ‘sometimes’, 3 said ‘rarely’, nil ‘never’.

258 259 Appendix: Risk and Regulation Reference Material

In the professional research world, science is continuing to broaden our Core proposition / findings Exponents Research understanding of some related aspects of human co-operation and the regulation fields of behaviour. With this in mind, Roger Miles of the King’s Centre for Risk Management has compiled a brief review of some topical positions and debates among academic analysts of risk management, behavioural and political science. Closely co-operating groups, especially of senior 7, 8 D,E professionals, are prone to various delusional and deviant behaviours, the most commonly noted being: group think, We apologise to any citees mentioned who might object that the brief format of whereby members want to self-comfort by supporting this precis traduces their work. other group members’ (possibly ill-conceived) efforts; and normalisation of deviancy, where the group decides that certain external rules “needn’t apply to us”, typically because “we know better”.

Core proposition / findings Exponents Research fields In the event of crisis, highly organised groups of people, in 9 D,E, J attempting to make sense of rules which offer no specific help, may respond in deviant and even self-destructive People’s responses to rules (and to hazardous situations) 1, 2 A, B ways. can seem perverse. This may be because responses are informed by risk perception, which incorporates simple cognition of facts as they appear but also more complex Deviant behaviour is only defined as such by other people’s 10 F cognitions, notably including “heuristics” (the short-cuts response to it. Communities tend to forgive “unethical” our brains use to make sense of complex new data). behaviour as long as some greater communal good is Subsequent actions may flow from rational response (what perceived (e.g. pop stars are “allowed” to take drugs; seems most logical) and/or from affect (what feels best to bankers are “allowed” to exceed their trading limits as do at that moment). long as they make a profit).

We now live in a “risk society” in which individuals 3, 30 A,C The creation of rule-books, and reporting compliance with 11, 12, 13, E, G, I, J assemble their own view of which risks are acceptable, the rules, are expressive or performative activities 23, 24 based on private experience, perception and affect. (i.e. done for effect more than for outcome), in which Personal views may be held to be true whether or not government, regulatory agencies and regulated objective evidence supports their validity (i.e. “because communities knowingly adopt gaming strategies. All three I say so”). Adamantly held views based on sides have an interest in maintaining the regulated system misapprehensions are a typical outcome when in an apparent equilibrium. To do so requires an absence public risk perception has amplified by, for example, lurid of embarrassing failures of control – which may sometimes media coverage. encourage deliberate overlooking of suspected failings by any or all three parties. “Fantasy documents”: Many public reports, regulations, and crisis-response plans are Organisational cultures: The way a structured group of 4, 5, 6 D,E the “rhetorical” product of a need to demonstrate that people behaves rather depends upon members’ various “something is being done”. The function of these artifacts motives: Members joining the group from different points is more expressive than instrumental. of origin will have different views of what worthwhile work actually is. Public-sector (“unitary”) types look for shared interests and objectives, harmony and loyalty; commercial Instrumental conditioning: Where a regulated worker 14 E, G (“plurealist”) types are more driven by local allegiances, breaks a rule and is perceives neither punishment nor harm creative conflict and the urge for change. following this behaviour, this experience encourages them to go on breaking rules in general.

260 261

Core proposition / findings Exponents Research Core proposition / findings Exponents Research fields fields

Obedience: Most ordinary people are content to carry out 15, 16 H Designers of regulatory policy may cynically incorporate 25, 26 G perverse instructions for as long as they are unwilling to “air gaps” which enable deniability in the event of crisis. By question the authority of the person giving them – or as long adopting this approach, agnotism (designing-in “ignorant as they perceive that that person has authority. spaces”), policymakers can insure against the reputational fall-out following systemic failures. Prearranged structural gaps in control allow for junior functionaries to be punished Formal and informal organisations: When setting up any 17 E and/or removed while insulating strategic managers from collaboration or system of control, one should be aware that blame. It could be argued (though I wouldn’t) that the FSA’s the formal (“organogram version”) of organisation is not a non-regulation of bank liquidity was just such a gap. reliable guide to “whose word really counts there”. A formal (published) guide to the organisation’s structure is of no value as a predictor of how it will respond to any initative Newtonian optimism: A long-term systemic weakness 27 D,E,J you might be about to impose there. Informal organisations of regulatory policy. Much regulation is prepared in a (loose, self-organising groups of like-minded individuals) naïve spirit of optimism anticipating a high degree of carry the true power to support or frustrate most initatives. “spontaneous compliance”. This relies upon the fallacy that regulation is like a lever acting directly to modify the behaviour of the regulated group. In reality, compliance is a Enforced self-regulation may be the most effective 18, 19, 20 C,I much more complex, multi-headed beast; whilst the drafting strategy for controlling complex industries, because of regulation rarely appears to reflects any knowledge of the regulators will always lack the audit resource to exert full science of behavioural response direct control.

Regulatory capture: Where government, state agencies 18, 19 G,I Compliance is – far more than is recognised – not a matter 12, 21, 22, E, G, J and commerce co-operate to produce rules or guidance of simple obedience v. disobedience. Between the extremes 25 on acceptable risk, there is a systemic hazard: Powerful of “highly conformist” and “deviant / fraudster” is a subtle commercial interests may form associations which dictate range of responses to attempts at control. Midrange the rules on terms preferential to themselves (invoking responses include: arguments about the importance of enterprise, employment, tax revenues, etc.) It is not hard to spot the relevance of this - legitimate coping (e.g. auditors allow for a “materiality” to any commercially powerful interest. factor which allows them to ignore minor errors)

- “situational morality” (“we ignored the rules because Inflexible regulation based on the setting of fixed numerical 19,20,21 E,G,J we were busy managing a crisis”) targets is An unsound mechanism for driving behavioural change. Regulatory unreasonableness is likely to - opportunist gaming (“we can meet this performance encourage perverse consequences such as gaming target if we just change the definition of what it’s responses, which render the original target measure measuring”) meaningless (and invite public ridicule). More generally, over-zealous and/or inflexibly applied regulation invariably - strategic ignorance (see below) provokes dissent. This may take various forms ranging from outright rebellion, through falsified reporting, to tacit subversion.

262 263 13 Clarke, Lee (1999) Mission Improbable: Using Fantasy Documents to Tame Disaster University of Core proposition / findings Exponents Research Chicago Press field 14 Gonzalez, Jose J, and Agata Sawicka (2003) Modeling compliance as instrumental conditioning. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Cognitive Modeling (ICCM 2003), Bamberg, Public administrations which address regulated groups in a 28,29 F,J,K Germany. “Parent-to-child” manner merely encourage these groups to self-exclude from regulatory controls. 15 Milgram, Stanley (1974, 1983) Obedience to Authority Rutgers, Stanford

16 Zimbardo, Philip (2007) Investigating Social Dynamics chapter in The Lucifer Effect Rider / Random House, London

1 Merton, R.K, (1936) The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action in American 17 Gray J.L. and Starke F.A. (1998) Organizational Behavior: Concepts and Applications MacMillan Sociological Review vol.1 no.6 pp.894-904 (London), p.432

2 Slovic, Paul (2006) Risk as Analysis and Risk as Feelings: Some Thoughts about Affect, Reason, 18a Ayres, Ian and Braithwaite, John (1992) Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Risk and Rationality in Risk Analysis vol.24 no.2 pp311-311 Debate Oxford University Press (Oxford / New York)

3 Beck, U. (1999) World Risk Society Polity Press (Cambridge) 18b Braithwaite, John (1982) Enforced Self-Regulation: A new strategy for corporate crime control in Michigan Law Review vol80 pp 1466-1507 4 Horwitz, F.M. (1991) Human Resource Management: An Ideological Perspective in International Journal of Management vol12 no6 pp4-9 19 Baldwin, Robert and Cave, Martin (1999) Understanding Regulation: Theory, Strategy and Practice Oxford University Press (Oxford / New York) 5 Fox, A. (1966) Industrial Society and Industrial Relations HMSO 20 Bardach, Eugene and Kagan, Robert A. (1982, revised edition 2006) Going by the Book: The 6 Mintzberg, H. (1990) The Manager’s Job: Folklore and Fact in Harvard Business Review, March Problem of Regulatory Unreasonableness Temple University, Philadelphia / Transaction, New 1990, pp163-176 Brunswick

7 Janis, Irving L. (1972, revised edition 1982) Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions 21 Bevan G. and Hood C. (2005) What’s Measured is What Matters: Targets and Gaming in the and Fiascoes Houghton Mifflin, New York English Public Healthcare System, The Public Services Programme, ESRC, December 2005

8 Vaughan, Diane (1996) The Challenger Launch Decision: Risky Technology, Culture and Deviance 22 Arrow, Kenneth J. (1958) Utilities, Attitudes, Choices in Econometrica vol 26 no1 pp1-23 at NASA University of Chicago Press 23 Cox, Louis Anthony (Tony) (2008) What’s wrong with Risk Matrices? in Risk Analysis 28: 2 9 Weick, Karl E. (1993) The Collapse of Sensemaking in Organizations: The Mann Gulch Disaster in Administrative Science Quarterly vol.38 pp.628-652 24 Hawkins, Keith (1983) Bargain and Bluff: Compliance Strategy and Deterrence in the Enforcement of Regulation in Law and Policy Quarterly 5: 1, pp.35 – 73 10 Becker, Howard S. (1963) Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance Simon & Schuster, New York 25 McGoey, Linsey (2007) On the Will to Ignorance in Bureaucracy in Economy and Society 36: 2, May 2007, pp212-235 11a Hutter, Bridget M. (2005) The attractions of risk-based regulation: Accounting for the emergence of risk ideas in regulation Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation,London School of 26 Hutter, Bridget M. and Power, Michael (2005) Introduction in Organizational Encounters with Risk, Economics, Discussion paper 33 Cambridge UP, pp1-32

11b Hutter, Bridget M. (2005a) ‘Ways of seeing’: understandings of risk in organizational settings in 27 Miles, Roger (in press) Coping strategies in response to regulatory intervention in UK banking: The Organizational Encounters with Risk (Hutter and Power), Cambridge UP, pp67 -91 creation of Chief Risk Officers King’s Centre for Risk Management, King’s College, London

12 Fairman, Robyn and Yapp, Charlotte (2005) Enforced Self-Regulation, Prescription, and 28 Berne, Eric (1970) Games People Play: The Psychology of Human Relationships Penguin Conceptions of Compliance within Small Businesses: The Impact of Enforcement in Law & Policy, 27: 4, October 2005, pp .491-519

264 265 Appendix: Naked Generations Collaborative Partnerships – Sourcing wisdom through online environments

29 Cohen, Stanley (2001) States of Denial Polity Press, Cambridge Audience

¹ NGOs – Non 30 Pidgeon, Nick; Kasperson, Roger E.; and Slovic, Paul (2003) The Social Amplification of Risk This document has been written as a specific contribution Governmental Cambridge to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office report exploring Organizations Collaboration between Business, Government and NGOs¹. It will be read by collaborating government departments and Key: Research fields businesses.

Brief A Risk perception The British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (a part of the B Decision science British Government) sent Naked Generations the following brief: C Social science • How can we best to engage with the younger generation

D Organisational behaviour, psychology • How should organizations adapt to better connect with their own employees and publics. E Management science • How can we use collaboration as a tool for moving from

F Criminal psychology hierarchy based to team, service and network based organizations

G Regulatory theory • Use a combination of concept, and practical evidence.

H Experimental psychology Key Terms defined

Baby Boomer – the generation born between 1946 and 1964 I Law Builders – the generation born between 1925 and 1945 Generation X – the generation born between 1965 and 1978 J Political science Generation Y – the generation born between 1979 and 1995

K Social psychology Structure

The structure of the document is divided into three parts, addressing each of the three topic areas requested in logical order: (1) Engaging with the younger generation; (2) How organizations generally can adapt to better connect with their

266 267 2 Pricewaterhouse- own employees and publics; (3) How collaboration can be ‘8th Habit’ says that we are moving to a ‘Knowledge Worker 4 Covey, S., (2004) Coopers 11th Annual employed as a tool for moving from hierarchy to team, service Economy’ and that this new economy is driven by The 8th Habit: From Global CEO survey Effectiveness to 4 2008 – source: and network-based organizations. ‘Empowerment’ and ‘Release’ (Covey: 2004) . Greatness Free Press: www.pwc.com New York The document concludes with a summary and five challenges Expect push-back. Generation Y are groomed by school and 3 5 ‘MMORPGs’ – to organisations and leaders of business and government. university education to find fault or a better way to do what Plowden, B., (1967) Massively Multiplayer ‘The Plowden Report’, Online Role-Playing you told them to do. Generation Y has been brought up, in London: HM Games is a genre of Preface the UK especially, under an education system that has shifted Stationary Office computer role-playing for late Generation X-ers and all of Generation Y. Since the 6 games (CRPGs) in 5 Pollard, N. (2006) which a large number Why is collaboration important? In a recent study (PwC publication of the Plowden report (1967) , in which emphasis Teenagers: Why do of players interact Annual Global CEO survey 20072) of Global CEOs by was placed on the elements of self-discovery and critical they do that?, Milton with one another in PricewaterhouseCoopers, 87% of them responded that the analysis, education has shifted from the teacher-centric Keynes: Damaris a virtual world. ‘Ability to Collaborate’ was top of their agenda – ‘Creativity (‘telling truths’) to pupil-centric models (‘discourse and Books and Innovativeness’ was a close second (85%). By debate’), according to Nick Pollard (Pollard: 2006)6. School participating in a global report about collaboration, Naked essays are no longer, ‘tell me everything you know about Generations shows its commitment to understanding the x’, they are: ‘author X makes this contention, what do you need for collaboration in next-generation leadership think?’ and the essay will be spent giving a critical analysis of companies. The ability to create effective networks of human the author’s view, backed up by sources. This is also a sign of capital that trust each other and are willing to co-create is the philosophical times in which Generations grow up. At the a fundamental operating behaviour we see in MMORPGs3 start of the century ‘Builders’ (born 1925-1945) were guided and will be a defining core skill of next-generation leaders. by Modernism – the aim: to use the collective body of people Companies that know this have long since created Alumni present or available, to find answers for the collective, in order networks that will keep create networks of past and present that the greater good of a nation state or company might be employees (e.g. KPMG, Goldman Sachs, IBM). realised. This philosophy has shaped much of the Baby Boomer (born 1946 – 1964) expectations and cultural How best to engage with the Y(ounger) Generation environments of Government and Business today. Today we live in (arguably, a post-) post [sic] modernistic society. This Ask, don’t tell. This might sound counterintuitive and to philosophy assumes that everyone has a truth and none is most of the Baby Boomer generation it is. However, if greater than the other, or truer. This is intensely frustrating. companies and Governments are seriously going to engage Furthermore the commercial and political imperatives stare with Generation Y (born 1979-1995) it is, initially at least, citizens and employees of nations and companies (respectively, by seeking their opinion. Why has this necessity come about? or both,) in the face. We must find new truths. Realising the Generation Y has been stimulated from birth with a parenting joint challenge and opportunity that is before us, as leaders, system that has sought to affirm them and tell them that we must actively be asking this Generation Y to find new they are valuable and loved. When they are ‘told’ they will answers and concrete routes forward, and not just to criticise. themselves be denying the very essence of their upbringing and parenting. Diametrically opposing this is the ‘traditional’ This generation is growing up using ‘mash-up’ leadership command and control forms of authority and management structures (fast assimilation of teams, in order to achieve – led by power, influence and force. Stephen Covey in the a goal and then dissolving the structure and joining with

268 269 7Lomas, C., others to form new teams). They are stimulated through organisations that were previously seen as limited in financial 8http://messageboards. (2008) ‘Shifting goal-oriented objectives, where they receive ‘immediate resources (the charities, NGO’s and other relief worker lego.com/en-US/show Environments’ www. postaspx?PostID= nakedgenerations. compensation for successful completion of a project’ organisations) now also have access to the free medium 1000602147 com/blog (Reeves, Malone and O’Driscoll: 2008). From our research, of publication – the web – allowing them to create greater PricewaterhouseCoopers are particularly good at employing awareness. 9http://www.number these tactics in their approach to strategy project work. The 10.gov.uk/ communicate/ask-the- increase in the uses for, and speed of, Technology has How do organisations need to adapt to connect better pm inevitably been a major factor in driving a shift towards with employees and publics? a culture of immediacy and heightened expectations. These 10‘WWW’ – World Wide Web are the ‘Generation Y’-ers that are coming into global Having said all of the above specifically about the differences businesses around the world that are being asked to operate between the generation in management positions today and under old paradigms. In these situations there can be a the younger generation in business and government, what distinct mismatch between expectations and reality (Lomas: are some of the opportunities that are presented by new 2008)7 . technologies and environments present for collaboration between government, business and NGO’s? Specifically, how In order to meet the same objectives but with different means: should (or rather, could) organisations adapt to better connect provide the brief and set the challenge, within relatively tight with their own employees and publics? timescales, for the Generation Y to return to its leadership team with recommendations – this will give them a It is worth prefacing all of the following with a simple heightened sense of ownership. In itself this is not enough, statement: Baby Boomer and Builder generations will however. If this information is never used the enthusiasm will naturally be ‘Digital Immigrants’ (those that have adapted to wane and the Gen Y-er will lose interest and respect. This can many of these new technologies during the course of their be extremely detrimental to an organisation or government. lifetime) and X & Y Generations are ‘Digital Natives’ – that is Especially since Generation Y are particularly skilled in the art to say, they have grown up with technology around them, and of online communication – and we intuitively know that the already use many of these tools as a ‘given’. combined effect of ‘speed’ and ‘scale of influence’, provided through the medium of the internet, has given this generation There is a trend for the most technologically advanced an immensely powerful tool to collaborate information businesses and governments to employ collaborative and resultant in the creation of virtual ‘opinion share-prices’. User-Generated Content (UGC) mediums that encourage Generation Y are interested in the challenge of sifting and ‘participation’ (e.g. Lego ID8, and Ask the PM9) to raise and producing the content, but also in understanding how they solve topical issues. make a contribution to the greater ‘whole’ (or Context). They need purpose. For clarity, this doesn’t always relate to Technology and the WWW10 together have offered an providing some greater good effect through CSR schemes, opportunity to create, share, and discuss vast reams of, or trips to help ‘the disadvantaged’. In some cases this previously only physically published, paper documents in a draws in the more socially conscious, but on the whole this format that Next Generation Producers, Leaders and generation is as interested in capitalism, socialism, liberalism Collaborators will understand and warm to. and the environment, as the ones before – it’s just that

270 271 11http://www. There is much evidence to suggest that ‘Co-creation’ and a group of individuals and leave them to come up with the 14Seely-Brown and youtube. UGC is vastly popular amongst Generation Y (evidenced in answer through the combined wisdom – in this model there is Hagel,. “From push com to pull: The next 11 12 YouTube ; MySpace; Facebook; and Wikipedia ). These sites sufficient incentive in the kudos of solving the problem for the frontier of 12http://.wikipedia.org are not only popular they are also creating a valuable revenue individual to participate. Where the end result is displayed innovation” 13EMarketer, “User stream for themselves from advertisers: In 2006, UGC sites or used by the public the thirst is for the ‘identity’ of being (McKinsey Quarterly) Generated Content: attracted 69 million users in the United States alone, and in the products creator. This takes the traditional role of 2005, #3 Will Web 2.0 Pay its Way?” June 2007 2007 generated $1 billion in advertising revenue. By 2011, members of a product team in an organisation and outsources 15Economist (2008): UGC sites are projected to attract 101 million users in the U.S. it to the general public; ‘Crowd Casting’ is the third way Google’s vision is to and earn $4.3 billion in advertising revenues13 . where collaboration assumes that the consumer is often the ‘organise the world’s information’ http:// best inventor. Say, Seely-Brown and Hagel: ‘Rather than www.economist.com/ Going beyond the phenomenon of individuals being able treating producers as passive consumers whose needs can books/displaystory.cfm to create and discuss, and into the value to government be anticipated and shaped by centralized decision makers, ?story_ id=12253015& and business, the conversation must turn to ‘usability’. pull models treat people as networked creators even when fsrc=rss Functionally, the vast creation of content has inevitably led they actually are customers purchasing goods and services. 16http://www.amazon. to scepticism about its value – if anyone can create. Pull platforms harness their participants’ passion, com commitment, and desire to learn, thereby creating Collaboration should be differentiated from ‘Blogging’ or communities that can improvise and innovate rapidly14’. ‘Casting’ per-se, although they may take these forms. These audiences are often stimulated by prize money or Governments and Businesses that seek collaboration must a share of the revenue from the product. provide a focused context or subject matter around which to base the discussion. ‘Noise’ is an unwanted bi-product of any Companies such as Amazon and Google have also made form of unfocussed collaboration – which will not yield the significant head-way into the issue of mass UGC creation desired results if the outcome is more than pure thoughts or and have stated their ambition to ‘Organise the World’s opinions. Secure environments in which to collaborate will information15’. If this seems bold, you should know it goes further limit noise (but also breadth of contributions). way beyond the ‘online’. They are doing this using ‘rating’ Naturally, the quality of the people asked to contribute will systems and filters. Amazon.com16 is a particularly good determine the output too. Finally, in the ‘Long Tail’ of the example. Amazon.com will recommend books that are organisation of ideas through online means, there will still ‘most read’ or ‘most purchased’ by others who also read or be a trade off between getting the majority of ideas down purchased whatever you are reading or buying. This requires quickly, whilst perhaps missing the brilliance of ‘the one’ that collaboration through rating and recommendation. It also is muddled in the middle of the noise. enhances the opportunity for ‘narrow-casting’ – the ability to target a specific group of online viewers/ collaborators for Practically this can be achieved in three ways: ‘Peer-peer’ product sales, or indeed for requesting insights, opinions or collaboration assumes the form of smaller groups of innovations. It is immensely valuable information that most individuals, which lead to defined answers or definitions of would expect to pay people for, but these organisations are issues and are where the process or outcome may be shared able to get it for free. Put (too) simply: people enjoy giving through closed wiki’s (which may eventually be shared); their opinion. ‘Crowd Sourcing’ in which companies take a problem to

272 273 17http://www.pres. What does all this mean for business, NGOs and government? networks of trust without a central organising system 20https://docs.google. investorrelations. They are able to get Collaboration in many cases for free (or controlling their behaviour or directly enforcing their com lloydstsb.com/ seminars/ certainly less than FTE product teams)! Furthermore, in this compliance, more and more organisations are following announcement/ triangle of organisations, internal conversations can be this trend and using freeware provided by Corporations such webcast.asp established on wiki’s blogs and through video-and pod-casts as Google (Google Docs site20) in order to achieve the ends in a way that will engage the y(ounger) demographic to described above. Custom made applications can be costly 18Moore, G., 2002. Crossing the Chasm. participate – because it is intuitive to use these means to them in start-up and ‘beta’ phases. Proving the principles of HarperCollins: London anyway. Getting value from this content is dependent on both collaboration for free in the online can be a good motivator focussed objectives, and rating systems that will filter highly for change. 19Surowiecki, J., (2004) ‘The Wisdom rated products or conversations to the fore. of Crowds: Why the To provide an example, in 2008 our own organisation (Naked Many Are Smarter Are people able to comment with as much insight as those at Generations) started up a Google Intranet online. Registering Than the Few and ‘the centre’? Increasingly so. Board room conversations and was very simple, and free. Within minutes we had uploaded How Collective Wisdom Shapes political announcements that were previously the reserve of our own logos and branding on to the site and created a Business, Economies, the few, are now public. BBC parliament is streamed to the number of folders we could start to populate. Immediately Societies and Nations’. world and is accessible through online mediums. Corporate we were moving folders and documents that were taking up Anchor: Canada. takeover conversations and strategies are publicised on video space on our hard drives on to the Google servers. Not only casts (e.g. Lloyds TSB acquisition of HBOS17). This all points were we freeing up space, but by moving our documents in to a more ‘transparent’ and ‘honest’ future, in which to a collaborative, wiki-style, environment we ensured that organisations do collaboration. everyone had access to the latest versions of client files.

For many this sharing of information and needs beyond We operate a ‘networked organisation’ (meaning we work the walls of corporate offices will be a ‘disruptive and remotely more often than we operate from a centralised discontinuous behaviour’ (Moore: 2002)18, making it location) and everyone is able to contribute through the counterintuitive to adopt. Therefore, by using those within intranet to client work and in gathering intelligence. Partners the younger demographic to implement these strategies, not in the business all have their own blog and can publish and only will it build a lasting culture within the business, but it search content at any time, 24 hours a day. will also be owned. That is not to say that older generations cannot or should not strive to adopt these practices – rather, We were able to create permission and access levels for clients some ‘reverse’ mentoring up the traditional hierarchical chain too, so they can see parts, but not all the information we may need to occur, which will add confidence and trust about publish, keeping ‘Chinese walls’ for confidential or sensitive these systems. This challenge will engage Generation Y. information. This enforces the view that everyone has a contribution to make towards projects and we operate a Moving from hierarchical to team based and network very linear reporting structure to project work. Like in online organisations. worlds and video games, different leaders will take charge for different challenges in the organisational challenges – the Following the ‘Wisdom of crowds’ (Surowiecki: 200419) in ‘CEO’ isn’t always the one in charge! Projects are run which Surowiekci describes how groups of people can form according to expertise not titles.

274 275 Conclusions: Five trends to watch see benefits in operating freeware systems that reduce the time it takes to transfer information, and to which everyone What are the challenges and opportunities for Governments, has the ability to contribute; Second, by collaborating with Businesses and NGOs in online collaborative worlds? those external to the organisation business and government can encourage consumers/ citizens to have a real influence on Knowledge Transfer is of paramount importance to innovation of policy and product, that doesn’t require internal organisations today. We are on the edge of an unprecedented product teams; third, innovation and contributions to these mass ‘crew-change’ as Baby Boomers retire and Generation projects are generally made outside of ‘9-5’ – that is to say, X and Y are filling their shoes. There is a plethora of wisdom non-chargeable. A ‘24/7’ global workforce exists driven by contained in the retiring generations. Organisations at all kudos. levels will be left embarrassed and ill-informed in the future if they do not capture this intelligence over the months and Finally, a cultural issue. Business and government ought to years to come. By creating cultural values that encourage recognise that as with all new behaviours, current leaders online collaboration, more data will be captured to ensure may be resistant to change. ‘Big Business’, appropriately, wisdom (defined as ‘Knowledge + Experience’) is shared and recognises that mistakes are costly and virtual worlds are that businesses see revenue succession. not tools that come naturally to most senior leaders today. In virtual worlds (such as ‘Second Life’) and in MMOPRGs the The future is more honest: Content sharing, access to Next Generation of leaders has adopted a different model of information and a desire to collaborate will lead to blurred gathering information and testing ideas. They are able to boundaries between public and private information, this has experiment and create in a way not previously possible: implications for businesses on two levels. First in reputation: virtually, and for free – thus they aren’t bound by the 9-5 ‘virtual opinion share prices’ drive very real economic share timescale, but when they feel creative (even in the middle of values (as we have seen evidenced in the BBC Business Editor, the night); and there is no cost, so it is very accessible. Their Robert Peston’s, announcement of the British Banks seeking appetite for experimentation is greater too. ‘Online’ users are financial support from the government in the downturn of able to create avatars to protect their real identity and in most 2008); second in knowledge ownership – a currency for cases these environments are ‘non-critical’, as you can online content is required. Seeing return on investment ‘re-start’ a game. And yet, these skills and abilities they learn from published content and tracking where information has are valuable and useful in the real world too (if indeed there come from will increase the incentive for online collaboration. is still a boundary). Harnessing an ability to use online networks to naturally crowdsource or crowdcast is invaluable There is a risk that nothing gets done. By increasing to a government or business wanting to do market research, collaboration organisations involve more individuals than for example. would most likely have been previously. Time scales must be tight and clearly communicated – thus encouraging high levels Paul C. Edwards Professor of Communication at Stanford of activity in smaller spaces of time. University, Byron Reeves, commented in an IBM case study, that nearly 50% of ‘managers with experience in multiplayer Ultimately, collaboration reduces cost on three levels: First, online games said that being a game leader had improved by using individuals to collaborate internally it is possible to their real-world leadership capabilities’, and Naked

276 277 Appendix: Group relations

The author of this Generations has commented before, elsewhere: ‘If I have Group relations is a method of study and training in the way people perform their document is the ability to lead a group Online, in ‘Second Life’ or Grand roles in the groups and systems to which they belong. Therefore an understanding Christopher Lomas (Founder and CEO Theft Auto, to discover, conquer and grow virtual economies, of group relations theory can help us understand the dynamics that influence the of Naked Generations, to get products designed and made, and to achieve goals behaviour and performance of individuals and organizations, and the multiple a London-based faster than my competitors, then I may just have the right parties to any collaboration. These insights can help us become more effective consultancy and skills needed to pursue a career in any industry offline too leaders and builders of collaborations, because they help us analyse factors that Think Tank). For more information log on – searching for rare resources, get places faster and smarter can have a big impact on success or failure. to www.naked than my competitors, using the skills of making rapid generations.com or decisions with imperfect information, convincing others, The basis of group relations theory is that groups move in and out of focusing on email Christopher direct at c.lomas@ and ultimately winning! their task and a number of different defensive positions based on unarticulated nakedgenerations. group phantasy. com. In closing, about implementation: these technologies in themselves don’t call for a top-down approach. It is much To summarise the main research very briefly, Bion (1961) found that groups operate Copyright Notice 2008: This more likely to work at grass-roots levels. Using digital natives on two levels - the work level where concern is for completing the task, and the publication is to implement and drive these strategies will be the difference unconscious level where group members act as if they had made assumptions about protected by between success and failure – it will create ownership, and in the purpose of the group which may be different from its conscious level – the basic copyright. No part successful implementation situations ‘Identity’ too – which is assumption group’s primary task is to ease members’ anxieties and avoid the painful of it may, in any way whatsoever, be what this Y(ounger) Generation is motivated by. emotions that further work or the end of the group situation might bring. Bion reproduced, stored in identified three types of basic assumption: dependency, pairing, and fight-flight. a retrieval system or Turquet (1974) added oneness – where members of the group seek a feeling of transmitted without prior written unity from their inclusion in the group, and/or the group commits itself to a cause permission. outside the group as a way of survival.

Group relations training consists of experiential events, because the most powerful way of learning about it is to experience it oneself. In his paper “Mirror, mirror on the wall”, Phil Swann, until recently Director, Tavistock Institute, shares one example: “The consultant explained that the purpose of the exercise was to learn about inter- group dynamics. He said that five rooms were available for the event, four of which had a consultant present. He then left the room.

We assumed that we had to split into five groups, one of which would not have access to a consultant. We discussed how we could divide ourselves up for nearly 40 minutes. A variety of suggestions were floated, discussed and either rejected or put to one side. Then one member, a tall male, said that he was bored and frustrated. He was going to go to room one and anyone who wanted to join him was welcome to do so. At that point there was literally a stampede out of the room. A number of people were physically jostled as most of the participants rushed to get out. The switch from rational debate to an irrational rush for the door, the stampede, took seconds.”

278 279 In organizational life, and collaborations, the switch from the rational to the Lucian Hudson innovates and implements important irrational, knee-jerk shifts to new positions, and ill-judged rushes to action, can be initiatives. He is a senior communications and change director seen all too often. An understanding of group relations can help us to step back and with experience of working in government, broadcasting make better, more rational decisions, which help our collaborations achieve more and commercial sectors, and chairs a collaborative strategies than may otherwise be the case. network bringing together leaders and advisers in private, public and voluntary sectors.

Now back at the Ministry of Justice providing strategic consultancy, he is implementing the findings of the Lucian J. Hudson report that he produced for the FCO on what makes for effective partnership and collaboration, especially between governments, business and non-government organisations (NGOs). He has worked closely with ambassadors in 25 countries, and involved more than 120 organizations globally, including 20 governments, and 10 international institutions, including UN, EU, NATO and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria.

From September 2006 until June 2008, Lucian was the FCO Director of Communication. He led for the first time in the FCO’s history a single communication directorate, and a global network of 200 communicators. This drew together strategic communication, public diplomacy, media, internal communication and stakeholder engagement. He led the first change programme to mainstream communication across the FCO, overseeing a £20 million programme to upgrade FCO websites.

Previously, Lucian led the UK government’s Media Emergency Forum, and co-chaired a Cabinet Office working group involving government departments, emergency services and media representatives to agree and implement new rules of engagement after 9/11. He was the chief communications adviser to the government’s Risk Group, and oversaw implementation of the Freedom of Information Act across government communications.

280 281 Between 2004 and 2006, he was Director of Communications, DCA (now Ministry of Justice), a member of the National Criminal Justice Board, chaired the department’s crisis management team and led its sustainable development strategy. Between 2001 and 2004, he was Director of Communications and Chief Knowledge Officer at the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Lucian was seconded to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) to run media operations at the height of the foot and mouth crisis in 2001 from his post as the government’s first Director of e-Communications, also known as “Webmaster-General”! He launched the UK government’s first web portal, and established the first UK online marketing strategy.

Before joining the Civil Service, he was editorial director of a dot.com following a 16-year career with the BBC and ITV, as a television executive, programme editor and producer. Lucian’s BBC career included: Head of Programming for International Channels, Chief Editorial Adviser at BBC Worldwide, and Editor of BBC World’s Newsdesk and Newshour programmes. He had responsibility for more than 70 live events and breaking news programmes, including production of the first six hours of coverage of the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. Lucian was on the BBC’s Nine O’Clock News for five years, first as producer, then as senior producer, specialising in economics, politics and social affairs. He planned and supervised 50 royal obituary and emergency exercises.

For seven years, Lucian led two not-for-profit organizations, the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, and the Rory Peck Trust. He is an Officer of Liberal Judaism, and facilitates for the Institute of Directors and other professional bodies.

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