A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details QUEER MELAYU: QUEER SEXUALITIES AND THE POLITICS OF MALAY IDENTITY AND NATIONALISM IN CONTEMPORARY MALAYSIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE COLLIN JEROME DPHIL UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX SEPTEMBER 2011 STATEMENT I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature: .......................... i UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX COLLIN JEROME DPHIL QUEER MELAYU: QUEER SEXUALITIES AND THE POLITICS OF MALAY IDENTITY AND NATIONALISM IN CONTEMPORARY MALAYSIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE SUMMARY This thesis examines Malay identity construction by focusing on the complex processes of self-identification among queer-identified Malays living in Malaysia and beyond. By analysing representations of queer Malays in the works of contemporary Malaysian Malay writers, scholars, and filmmakers, as well as queer Malays on the internet and in the diaspora, the thesis demonstrates how self-identifying gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered Malays create and express their identities, and the ways in which hegemonic Malay culture, religion, and the state affect their creation and expression. This is especially true when queer-identified Malays are officially conflated with being “un-Malay” and “un-Islamic” because queer sexualities contravene Malay cultural and religious values. This thesis begins by discussing the politics of Malay identity, particularly the tension between “authority-defined” and “everyday-defined” notions of being Malay that opens up a space for queer-identified Malays to formulate narratives of Malayness marked by sexual difference. The thesis then discusses how queer- identified Malays specifically construct their identities via various strategies, including strategic renegotiations of ethnicity, religiosity, and queer sexuality, and selective reappropriations of local and western forms of queerness. The ways in which “gay Melayu” identity is a hybrid cultural construction, produced through transnational and transcultural interactions between local and western forms of gayness under current conditions of globalization is also examined, as well as the material articulation of queer narratives of Malayness and its diverse implications on queer-identified Malays‟ everyday lives and sense of belonging. The thesis concludes with a critical reflection on the possibilities and limitations of queerness in the context of queer Malay identity creation. Such reflection is crucial in thinking about the future directions for research on queerness and the politics of queer Malay identity. It is hoped that this study will show that queer-identified Malays reshape and transform received ideas about ii “Malayness” and “queerness” through their own invention of new and more nuanced ways of being “queer” and “Malay.” This study also fills up the lacunae in the scholarship on Malay identity and queer Malays by addressing the productions of Malay ethnicity and sexual identity among queer-identified Malays within and beyond Malaysia‟s borders. iii CONTENTS Acknowledgments iv Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Queering the Politics of Malaysian Malay Identity 29 Chapter 2 Representations of Queer Malays in Contemporary Malaysian Literature 61 Chapter 3 What Does It Mean To Be “Queer” and “Malay”?: Exploring the Construction of Queer Malay Identities in Contemporary Malaysian Culture 90 Chapter 4 “Who are Gay Melayu?”: Emerging Gay Male Identities and Cultural Practices in “Komuniti Web Gay Melayu” 121 Chapter 5 The Articulation of Queer Malay Identity and Its Material Impact on Queer Malays‟ Lives and Sense of Belonging to “Bangsa Melayu” 159 Chapter 6 Being “Queer” and “Malay”: Rethinking Queerness and the Politics of Queer Malay Identity in Malaysia and Beyond 201 Works Cited 242 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Pisang emas dibawa belayar Masak sebiji di atas peti Hutang emas boleh dibayar Hutang budi dibawa mati1 I would like to take this opportunity to thank the many wonderful people who have helped and encouraged me to put this thesis together. Many thanks to the staff at the University of Sussex Library, Prof. Dr. Vicky Lebeau and Mrs. Laura Vellacott at the School of English, and Mrs. Penny King at the Student and Progress Assessment Office for their assistance and helpful advice. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my teacher and supervisor, Prof. Dr. William J. Spurlin for his kindness, patience, and guidance. This thesis would have never been completed without his unreserved support and encouragement over the years. The Malay “pantun” (“quatrain”) cited above is especially dedicated to you – Terima-kasih cikgu! I‟m profoundly grateful to my friends who have continued to inspire me and have helped me in their own special ways: Connie Chin, Rosnah Mustafa, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ting Su Hie, Diana Carol, Jayapragas Gnaniah, Kavitha Ganesan, Suzanne Nizam, Sam Hoi, Radina Deli, Siti Marina Kamil, Chuah Kee Man, Ernisa Marzuki, Dr. Zaimuariffudin Shukri Nordin, Prof. Dr. Malachi Edwin Vethamani, and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Teh Chee Seng. Thanks must also go to all my friends in Brighton and Hove: Dr. Shamira A. Meghani, Dr. Gráinne O‟Connell, Nozomi Lynette Uematsu, Nadia, Sue, and Dr. AfzanMaria. Very special thanks to Feras Alkabani and Stephen Charles Cook for their love and friendship, not to mention their generosity and hospitality. I‟m hugely indebted to Osman Ali and Amy Ikram Ismail who granted me permission to use the stills from their films for this project.2 I would also like to thank Dina Zaman for her wisdom, humour, and friendship. To Wayne Chang Ping Lai: I thank you from the bottom of my heart for believing in me and, most importantly, for putting up with me for the last two years while I was writing this thesis. Finally, huge thanks to my dad, Jerome Ganah, my mum, Naem Chin, and my brothers, Robinson Eddie, Kevin Keegan, and Bryan Robson for their unconditional love and support. v 1 Sail away with a bunch of bananas/One ripe fruit remains on the box/Debts of money we can repay / Debts of kindness, we take to the grave (trans. Sim 30; qtd. in Lim Kim-Hui 31). This Malay “pantun” is often used to express one‟s sincerest gratitude to others, particularly for their “budi” (“kindness and good deeds”), which is unrepayable and will be remembered from now till the end of time. 2 Osman Ali‟s credit line: “...terima kasih kerana memilih filem Bukak Api sebagai bhan thesis. Anything just keep in touch” [thank you for choosing the film, Bukak Api, as the material for your thesis. Anything just keep in touch] (my translation). Amy Ikram Ismail‟s credit line: “...terima kasih atas pilihan anda terhadap naskhah comolot bg kajian tesis anda.” [...many thanks for your decision to use the film in your research project] (my translation). 1 Introduction My homosexuality as far as I am concerned, is perfection in God‟s eyes. I didn‟t ask to be gay. I was born gay. I never knew anything else. Haji Zainal, I am Muslim The short film Comolot by Amy Ikram Ismail, which was released in 2007, has aroused much controversy and criticism for being the first gay-themed film ever to be made in Malaysia. Although this eight minute experimental film was first (and only) shown at private screenings in Kuala Lumpur, I was very fortunate to have been able to watch it a year later on the popular video sharing website, YouTube.1 I never realised what the controversy was all about until I saw the erotic shower scene between the two leading male characters, Daniel and Aiman – a scene that has been considered by many to be the most explicit of its kind in the history of the Malaysian film industry (see fig. 1). Fig.1. Aiman is being embraced by his lover, Daniel, in Comolot, with permission from Amy Ikram Ismail. I found that viewers‟ reactions to the film, as evidenced in the comments that they posted on the YouTube channel, were equally, if not far more, controversial. Phrases such as “memalukan bangsa Melayu” (“bring shame to the Malay race”), “menjatuhkan 2 maruah orang Melayu” (“bring down the dignity of Malays”), and “menghancurkan umat Islam” (“disintegrate the Muslim community”) were frequently and extensively used to express their shock and disapproval of Amy Ikram‟s bold and unashamed take on male same-sex eroticism. As one viewer who addressed himself online as “rizwan614” wrote: aku seratus peratus bangkang gay!! tlg la... jgn jatuhkn maruah org melayu... Islam pulak tu... taubat la korg... wahai insan... korg nk dunia terbalik mcm zaman nabi luth tu ke? astaghfirullah... cite ni bagus utk org yg pndai pk mana baik mana buruk, jgn jadi camni... gay adalah dilarang sama sekali dalam ISLAM!! DILARANG SAMA SEKALI!! (rizwan614, “Comolot” March 29, 2010) [I object gay 100%!! Please... don‟t bring down the dignity of Malays... not to mention Muslims... People, please repent... Do you wish to see the world to be turned upside down like how it did during the time of Prophet Lut? Astaghfirullah (I seek forgiveness from Allah SWT)... This is an excellent movie for those who can think what‟s good or bad. Don‟t be like this... Gay is totally prohibited in ISLAM!! COMPLETEY PROHIBITED!!] (translation mine) Looking back at those phrases now, there is, I believe, a disturbing and profound truth about the powerful impact that male same-sex sexuality has on viewers‟ understandings of what it means to be “Melayu,” on the one hand, and what it means to be a member of “bangsa Melayu” and “umat Islam,” on the other.