Sub-Saharan Africa

Quick Culture/History Many areas of Sub-Saharan Africa were organized into large, powerful kingdoms ruled by multi- generational dynasties. Beginning in the 1500s, kingdoms and other large areas were conquered under the policies of colonialism by European governments (particularly Portugal, Spain, France, Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands, and Britain). Colonialism allowed European governments to exploit the manpower and natural resources of their colonial holdings while also ensuring a captive market for their export products. In return, the local people were seen to be “saved” by their colonial masters through efforts to “civilize” them, which came in the sometimes positive forms of education and infrastructure but also in things such as forced cultural change, especially in regards to religion and customs. In the late 19th Century, the remainder of Africa was divided amongst the colonial powers with absolutely no regard for geography, cultural, ethnic, or historical boundaries. When these newly-formed nations gained their independence, largely in the decades following WWII until about 1980, the new nations often consisted of citizens from disparate and sometimes violently conflicting ethnic communities. Conversely, members of the same ethnic group may be split among two or more adjacent nations. In this way, it is often more useful to discuss African cultures in terms of their ethnic/cultural rather than their national identities.

Music of Community It would be impossible to do just to ALL of the cultures of Sub-Saharan Africa, as the number of languages, ethnic groups, and musical traditions number in the several hundreds, possibly thousands. However, a few VERY broad generalizations may be observed:

Polyrhythm- the performance of music in multiple different simultaneous meters. This adds many levels of complexity to drum parts and melodic patterns. It also provides different ways of “feeling” the rhythm and therefore, different responses. Responsorial forms- “call and response” forms are common in both singing and instrumental playing. Ostinato- repeating patterns of either melody or rhythm upon which further material or variations are then layered and built- we’ve already seen this in the context of the Arabic Iq’at. Use of Percussion- Music in Africa is primarily thought of as percussion-based, and indeed we will focus on a number of those traditions, although other instruments are certainly important in different contexts. There are some ensembles that are entirely percussion based, others may treat the voice or non-percussion instruments in a percussive manner, etc. Percussion instruments of all types occur. Background Shimmer- many instruments have some sort of attachment that produces an extra-musical shimmer, rattle, or buzz to the sound, which is desirable for various reasons depending on context. Bells, Beads, shells, and bottlecaps are common. Connection between Music and Language- Many Sub-Saharan languages are tonal languages, meaning that words have different meanings depending on their inflection. This trait often carries over into the musical language of the area. Nearly all traditions include song of some type. Non-vocal pieces are considered to be “songs without words”, as the rhythms and pitches imply speech patterns. Participatory nature of the arts- often, ALL members of the community are expected to participate in arts performance of many kinds, particularly as singers and dancers. There is little passive consumption of music, music is actively engaged in by all. Connection between art forms- in many cultures, music, dance, and singing all share the same word, and all are inextricably linked. In many contexts it would be inconceivable to have one without the other two.

Many instruments are rough-hewn, made from locally-available materials. Many cultures believe all instruments contain their own spirits and are therefore to be respected. While there may be dedicated instrument makers in a community, most people will be able to create some sort of musical instrument, in keeping with the participatory aspects of music in the community.

Ghana Ewe Drumming- polyrhythmic and polyphonic (drums). Meter is held by gourd rattle called Axatse. “Groove” within that meter is held by some sort of iron bell (Atoke or Gankogui), and then the multiple independent drum parts (3-8 or more depending on ensemble) are all related to that time-keeping material. There is usually a lead drummer that will both improvise and “direct traffic” with specific calls that require specific drum responses or else indicate changes to different structural sections. [Ghana- Polyrhythmic Ensemble]; [Hands On’Semble- Crevice- meter is in 11: 22232].

Ghana/Nigeria Talking Drums- Dun-Dun/Donno, etc. Drums are used to imitate tonal aspects of language for signaling over longer distances and for other purposes. In this way, singing is not necessary, as the drums ARE singing the tune themselves. [Ghana-Talking Drums]; [YouTube- Ayan Bisi Adeleke- Master Talking Drummer]

Senegal/Gambia Music of the Jali- “artisans of words”- keepers of the people’s history, genealogy, singers of praise songs Jali- a specialized caste of musicians (Griots in the colonial French)- born into the profession, long lineages Kora- primary instrument of the Jali- two-sided lute/harp hybrid instrument- each hand plays strings on one side [Senegal- Jali with Kora] Balafon- popular keyboard-type percussion instrument (idiophone) played with rubber mallets. Resonators are made by covering gourds with spider webs, which give the instrument a characteristic buzz. An ancestor of the modern Xylophone and Marimba. [YouTube- Balafon baragnouma]

Other instrumental considerations While there are a host of instruments of all families in Africa, we will primarily focus on percussion- based traditions. However, one tradition of instrumental playing that is noteworthy is the idea of alternation playing, particularly among single-tone trumpet-type instruments. In these cases, each player is responsible for a single pitch played at certain times, and the combination of those single pitches forms a composite melody. [Trio for Ogun- Conch shell trumpet parts]

Uganda Akadinda xylophone tradition- one of the fastest musics on the planet- multiple players sit around a single large keyboard and play very intricate interlocking rhythms in multiple octaves. Accompaniment can include drums, shakers/maracas, etc. [Uganda- Akadinda Xylophone]; [YouTube- Akadinda- Minimal Music from Uganda, 13:15 to end and elsewhere]

Zimbabwe- Music of the Shona Mbira dza Vadzimu (shortened to just Mbira)- multi-keyed lammellophone (tongued idiophone) attached to a resonant piece of wood that is then affixed inside a calabash gourd for further resonance. The board and gourd may have shells or bottle caps affixed to add a characteristic buzz to the sound. [see picture on website]

In the Bira ritual, the mbira is used to communicate with the spirits of the ancestors, who are called to answer crucial questions and provide spiritual protection for the community.

Music is based on a number of short interlocking ostinato melodies that are then varied by the players, creating a very complex melodic texture. A full ensemble may consist of two or more mbira players, a shaker called Hosho, and possibly a small bell and/or drum [Zimbabwe- Mbira Dza Vadzimu]; [YouTube- Nexus- Mbira]

Most lyrics are metaphorical, but some deal with contemporary issues, such as AIDS relief, government corruption, etc.

South Africa Music traditions rise out of oppressive conditions of British/Afrikaans-instituted Apartheid.

Gumboot- percussive dance/music developed out of the work uniforms of diamond mine workers. [YouTube- Gumboot Dancers in South Africa]

Iscathamiya- all-male harmonized choir singing. Harmonic language developed out of Western harmony brought to schools by Western missionaries. Lyrics are often in Zulu or English and many pieces are settings of Methodist Hymns. Emphasizes low end of the range for maximum resonance. Also contains a number of non-syllabic effects. [LBM-Unomathemba] ; [LBM-King of Kings]; [LBM/Paul Simon-Homeless]

African Popular Music-The Development of Afro-Beat

Ghana- Palm Wine (later “Highlife”) song, 1920s- intricate interlocking guitar parts with drum and clave- adoption of European forms, instruments, and harmonic conventions, but then adjusting the melodic material to their own needs. [Ghana- Palm Wine Highlife song]

Nigeria- Fela Kuti, the Rise of Afro-Beat, and Music as a Vehicle for Protest and Social Justice Fela Kuti was a Nigerian musician (primarily keyboards and saxophone) who developed a musical style called Afro-Beat that combined aspects of the Highlife style with Western (particularly American) Jazz, Funk, various Rock styles, and various traditional chants and rhythmic devices. His music featured large bands of numerous percussionists, doubled horn sections, and long jam-like buildups created by layering numerous ostinatos over a long period of time. Following a trip to the US in 1969 and exposure to the pro-African Black Power Movement, Fela returned to Nigeria and turned his musical pursuits towards protest against the military dictatorships in control of many governments in the wake of independence from European colonial powers. He also sought to use his music as a vehicle for the pursuit of social justice- particularly in issues such as oppression of the poor, Western Imperialism, corruption, and the abandonment of African culture by the upper class. He often sang in Pidgin English instead of his native Yoruban so that his music could be understood by a wider audience. As a result of his outspoken political stance, he was harassed, beaten, and imprisoned throughout his career. He died of an AIDS- related illness in 1997, and his funeral was attended by over one million people. [YouTube- Fela Kuti- Confusion, lyrics start at 14:10]