I

ITALI AN CRIMES

IN

Thi is the first of a s ries of urveys of War . rimes in Vugoslm.•ia. Furth r instalmenls will deal with German, l/1111garia11, IJ11lgarit111 and Q ui ling crimes.

SL I FORM 'flU F1"I 'E LO D rg,~5 ITALI .AN CRIMES

IN YUGOSLAVIA

'/'his i the _first of a eries of sur'l:ey s of War Crimes in l'ugo lm•ia. Furth r instalments will deal with Ger111a11, J/ungarian , Rulgarian and crimes.

Y GOSL I FORM TlO OFFICE LO DO 19,~5

I

I

I ITALI AN CRIMES i

IN YUGOSLAVIA

This is Jhe fir l of a series of survey s of ll'ar Crimes in } ugoslat•ia. Fur/her instalmenl will dPal wilh Gen11a11, llu11garia11 , /1ulgnria11 a11d Q uisling crimes. l

Y GOSL I TFORMATlOI OFFI E LO DO 19,~5

I I I I C ~T E ~T ~

page

1. Fore:\\ ord

2. 'haptcr l - I ntroductor · 2

3. hapter ll -- Act· of ,'p radi and Organised \ 'iolencc 191-' - 19.p - 7

...... +· Chapter 11 I - Thc Preliminary '· Pre-war" \\'ork of ltalo ·auro

:>· 'hapter l \. - The War Pcriod- ./ (a) cneral bscrrntions - 52 (h) The ): rthcrn ..\rea 5 (r) ·'Judicial·· 'rimes 66 (d) ~rimes in :\lontcnc ro and DJlmatia - (e) ·onclusion

(. _\ ppendix on Forcible 'hange of Pcr·onal :'\ a mes -.., I I

,\ :\lap h,l\\·ing the ..\r ·a affect ·d by Italian crimes page iii with a key on page i,· .

.'- otc : .\part from the frontispiece anti entl-p1ccc, the illustration. to the · _ nuin tc:1.t "ill he fou nd in the ccmre of the book together "irh other photographs illust~ti, •of lt.tlian crimes in ·ui.:o~la,ia anti photogrnphs of th · document$ tlc~cribctl in Appendix B.

Figure I (paae I2) in the Julian Region from the Origins to the ." 111

KETCH HOWi G ENEMY PARTITIO OF

AUSTR IA YUGO LAVIA cale: one hundred mila - I inch.

KEY

I ~ .5 9 ~ 6 [IIO 10 ~ 3 ~• 7 g II ~

[]I I2 4 ■ □

)> I. Detached f rom Austria and annexed to after 191-1--191 toar 2. A nnexed by I taly i11 I 41 3. Occupied by l ta/-y 19.;r-1943 4. Annexed by Gumany 5. A nnexed by ll11ngary 6. Anne.-.:ed by B ulgaria 7. Occupied by Bulgaria 8. ltalian Protectorate of .\1onll'~!fro 9. r1nne.ud to ltalum Protectoralt' of 10. German .\filitary Administration 1 I. .\"ed1tch erbia rz. Ustasha roatia

The area m.:l'Tprinted in Red is tlte area of Italian criml's. 2

F R E WORD Cl-1.APTER I

I TRODUCTORY

The present tatement concerning Italian War rimes against Thi is an ac ount of crimes committed over a Ion ran°e of } ·u oslm.:ia based almost entirely on Italian official documents, year by the Italian tate again t the South lav people and does not purport to b a complete account of all that has happened. tate. The victim has been the Yu oslav tate in two en es. It is rather a 0 eneral un:ey of the purpose, scope, and methods The crimes have been committed against thou ands of Yugo- of Italian crimes, planned and executed by a11d for the Italian Lav people, men, women and children, not only as part of the late against Yugoslavia and the buth Slav peoples, both Yu oslav national organi m, but also as individuals, becau e duri11 the recent war and throuohout tlze fore oing oeneration they have persisted in their right, if they so choose, to think and durino u:hic/1 these war crimes were planned and rehearsed. The act as Yu oslav and to reject brought on them to be Italian . late ommission for the Im:estiuation of the n·me.; of the The crime have been committed by the in one sen e b n.Jad rs and their A w.slants has to date published 16 Reports only- to increase the physical area of the Italian State, even containin ,, et:id nee u:hich, thorouol,/y examined and appro ed though thi demanded the destruction of another people. by le al experts, makes it po sibl to illustrate Italian document It i a long record of crime, which as the years went by rew captured by units of the } ·uooslav f orces, and to present the teaclily more open and ruthle s. It is a record of crime which pr sent story of u·hat has happ ned in the kn.'ene lands, in parts ha brought some of the most prominent names of the Italian of roatia (the Littoral) and .Honteneoro, /em:ino Italian crim s tate, and hundred of their accomplice on to the Yu o lav committed in other parts of roatia and in Bos11ia-Tler~eoo1.:ina list of War Criminal . to be record d later. It ha become commonly reco nised that to suppre the people of occupied territo·ry by acts of eneral terrori ation of civilian , i criminal in time of war. It is criminal to burn down their public buildin s, to attempt to ruin them economically, to ubject them to unbearably drastic repressiv law , in themselve infrin ments of a commonly recognised J 4 human code. It i criminal to nten e them to incarceration country at the head of the Adriatic in which these pre-war in on entration camps and to death in order to conquer their preparations for the took place, that must territory. If it is criminal to do thi in time of war it is urely all th more criminal in time of peace. first attract our attention. This area, though outside the Yugoslav ta,te, in this matter of mass terrorisation by aliens The pre ent tory of crime begin in 191 , when the Julian Region (I tria, with th . lovene Littoral and the and of crimes authorised by the Italian State, forms an un­ interrupted whole with the Adriatic coast of Yugoslavia, from i rmrr ustrian ounty of Gori a) was first occupied by .the Jtalian tatc, and end with the liberation of this territory by usak (Fiume) in the north, to the Gulf of in the south, together with the deep hinterland of that coast, and was in the the Yugo lav and Allied Armie on May 1 1945. course of this war so treated by the Italian State. The area covered by the record thus varies. Part of the It was in the South Slav lands at the ' head of the country touched by these Italian crimes- , Adriatic that the liberation of Yugoslavia from foreign rule in and the Croat Littoral, all but , Fiume, !stria, this recent war was concluded. Similarly it is here that the lovenia and ome of the islands, came under the s.overeignty story of Italian crime began. of the 'i'. ugoslav tate in 1918. T his was a natural achieve­ ment, if incomplete, which the Italian tate tried to reverse It may, therefore, be convenient to give a few brief historical note· on this disputed area, the Julian Region. Who inhabits comp! tely by to Italy after 1941 of still further this territory ? Since when, and under what conditions ? Yu lav national territory. The inhabitants of all this newly 1. The " Juiian Region " consists of Trieste, !stria, and annexed area are al o outh lavs, quite indistinguishable from the former Austrian County of Gorica, also known in Austrian the other outh lavs of the interior of the Balkan Peninsula. administration as the Kustenland. The modern Yugoslav Th e newly annexed districts suffered from criminal acts term is " !stria, Trieste and the Slovene Littoral." only from April, 1941 after the enemy had over-run Yugoslavia, to final liberation on May 1, 194-5 . 2. This region, ainly unfertile limestone upland, was settled by lav peasants from the 6th Century A.O. Con­ In tho e four years occurred a cries of crimes equal in horror stituting a narrow link between the Italian Peninsula and the and extent to any the. Germans have committed anywhere. Balkan Peninsula, and at the same time a gate into Central Th e crimes of the Italian invaders threw fre h new light on Europe from the Mediterranean, it had become depopulated . I what ince 191 had been oing on in other Yugo lav territory under Italian occupation. by the passage of barbarian and other armies of the ancient world. A will be een, what happened in occupied areas of Yugo­ 3. This peasantry lived in comparative peace for many lavia . t11te t rritory after pril, 1941, wa merely the con-' centuries, before nationality became a decisi_ve factor in tinuation and culmination of what had f r a eneration b en international life. Much as the Romans in their invasion of happ nin in the Yu lav national territory at the head of the Britain stopped short at the line of Hadrian's Wall, and driati . Even had there been any ucc from Italian preferred not to penetrate into the highlands, Latin civilisation terr r there prior to April, 19.p , the event ub equent to 194- 1 annulled that · uc e fo r ev r. had left these Slavs at the head of the Adriatic alone. 4-. They received a vernacular bible from the Salonica Italian , in other word , have a long l\Ionk , Cyril and Methodius, who invented the first pre-war pr amble. In ord r to under tand what has (Glagolithic) lavonic alphabet, and made the first Slavonic taken place during the war, it i essential to understand what bible expressly for the ancestors of these Slavs. This was to k pla e between 191 and 19.p. T herefore, it is the done with the full approval of the Papacy. It is, therefore, 5 6

within thi ar a ~hat: till inte.rruption during the past twenty by the Germans and Italians on Yugoslavia on , 19.p, year , th la\'onic bible had its most ancient u e. !stria, Trieste and the . lovene Littoral were in fact in a con­ -. Thou h Venetian traders established small townships cealed state of war. The Italian tate was endeavouring to down the outh !av Adriatic coast (as also round the Albanian force the to become Italians, the Yugo.,lavs were and reek c~a ts) they ne_ver succeeded in obtaining control resisting. of t~e m_o t 1~p rtant port of this region , Trieste. Naturally ervm its hinterland T rie te ought the protection of the Hap-bur as the then eff cti\'e rulers of that hinterland and The crimes committed by the Italian invader in the ter­ 2 became an " Au trian ' port. · ' ritories of the pre-1941 Yugoslav tate, which after April, . . With th~ 19t~ entury two important changes in the 1941 , w1:re annexed by Italy or occupied by Italy, were thus a po 1t1on of th1 re 10n took place : (a) the [av peasantry continuation and culmination of the series of crimes committed awoke ' and be an to de\'elop their own modern national in other parts of the Yugoslav littoral by organs of the Italian culture; (b) Au tria -came more and more under the domination tate. These were throughout crimes committed with the of th German Reich, and Bi marck pronounced Trieste definite aim of de-nationalising territory which for many ' the point of the German word." centuries had been compactly South Slav. They were crimes 7- ln t~e p liti~al action of the outb la\'s which played a committed either by independent Italian nationalist and great part m breakm u~ Austria-Hun ary in 1917-1 , again t imperialist bodies, tolerated by _the State, or generally by.organs the n w German lmpenali m, to the advanta e of the Alli d of the State. Later, as the final preparations were being made Power-, th !av inhavitants of thi re ion played a prominent for the present war, the crimes committed were part of the part. n Au u t 16 191 , a outh lav" 1ational Council " general plan for the extermination of the South Slav population of -o ~ember ·wa . t up in , consisting of 12 repre- which stood in the way of Italian aspirations. enta:1,·e of D,!lmat1a 1 of the lo\'ene Populist Party, 10 of Thus the · crimes to be examined in the present account the 't u osla Democrat Party, 3 of the ocial Democrat Party fall into three main groups and will be treated under three and al 2 for Trie te and - for I tria. ' separate headings : 'fhe e 1. Acts of sporadic and organised violence, from 1918 to 1941 (Chapter II). 2. The history of the pre-war work for the planned ... de truction of the South Slav population of the Julian Re ion, and the work of 1ussolini's Personal Adviser on thi subject, Italo auro (Chapter III). 3. The Organisation of Sauro's S~cial Office for the "Co-ordination of the Extermination" of the Yugoslav­ conscious pop~lation of all areas previously annexed, and the continuation of this work of extermination in the officially organised w}:lolesale crrmes committed against the civilian population in all Yugo lav areas annexed, whether at a later or an ea rlierdate(Chapter IV). to the attack made 7 8

given to members of these minorities to " opt " for their own State, and to migrate to it with some measure of economic compensation for any loss im·olved. At the same time, CHAPTER II special clauses were inserted into Peace Treaties to protect the· rights of minorities which did not opt or if such a pos­ sibility of opting was not considered. Thus it came about that the Yugoslav State retained within its frontiers a sporadic Italian population, scattered down the coastlands, of up to some 10,000 persons (9,362), who were accorded special ACTS OF PORADIC A1 D ORGAN! ED minority rights. The Yugoslav State agreed contractually to these special rights of the Italian minority. VIOLENCE 1918-1941 Whereas only about 10,000 Italians remained within the Yugoslav State, over 5co,coo Yugoshvs (538,331) remained in Italy. The Italian Government adopted the standpoint ~ that, being one of the major Allied Powers, it was not required nder this heading in its char es a ainst Italian war to undertake any special obligations toward this minority. criminal . the Yugo !av tate Commi sion for the lnvestigatioo Liberal Italian statesmen declared, despite official Italian of rimes of the Invaders and Their A sistants, considers all publications which gave reasons for doubt, that the rights of act of violence whether of mob violence or of tate repres ion these outh lavs within the Italian frontiers would be dir cted against persons of Yu o !av nationality but citizens respected. of Italy from 1918 to 1941, for the purpose of compelling them ~evertheless, only a few weeks had gone by after the Italian to renounce their claim to Yugo )av nationality and turn them occupation of these western portions of Yugoslav populated into Jtalians. They are mainly the ubject of publi hed territory when the first assault was made on the rights of the Report ro. 49 of the tate omm1s ion. of · Trieste. The premises of the Slovene paper J t ha for Ion been an admitted principle of International · " Edinost," which was founded as far back as 1878, and L:iw and f the common laws of humanity, that a man hould however vigorously the Austrian State may have oppressed be at lib rty to u e, at least in private life, the language which the lovenes, was never suppressed under Austrian rule, he cho es, and throu h that langua e to develop the culture were attacked and destroyed. This act of destruction, aimed which he choo By the close of the 1914-1918 war the at the le&ding public organ of Slovene opinion in Trieste, took qu tion of the right of people to live within their own national place on December 29, 1918, only 11 days after the formation frontier had become one of the major war aims of the Allied of the Yugoslav State. Although such an act of violence, if Powers. tolerated by the Italian authorities- thereby was in con­ It wa neverthele evident that no frontiers drawn without tradiction to the principles expressed by liberal Italian statesmen Jar e cale migration f population could hope to form om­ of the then Italian Government, no action was taken against pletely ati factory demarcation lines between people of one the perpetrators of the outrage. and another nationality. There were bound to remain large Eight months later this repressive work was renewed, group of national of one country within the frontiers of when the Slovene " National House " in Trieste, the Slovene another c untry. In ome c e pecial opportunities were School on the Aqueduct, and the Commercial Co-operative 9 IO

House in the via Batti ta were de troyed by organised Italian written off as the inevitable con~equences of the four trying band. years of war which had just ended, and of the. delicate fr?ntier Follov,,-ing these serious acts of arson and pillage, committed adjustment. But they were not merely sporadic ~cts. ':1ewed with the benevolence, if not the connivance of the Italian as they can now be viewed from a distance. and m the light of authoritie , in eptember, 1919 act of terrorism by the Italian the events of this war, they constituted a growing menace. gendarmerie (Carabinieri) began to take place. On Septem­ July 13, 1920, has for the past generation be<' n s~ecially ber 19, 1919, Tomasini, Chairman of the Parish Council in remembered in Trieste as " Black Tuesday. ' On this day, Koj ki, arrested and beat up a widow named Karolina Simcicev, the I~alian mob burned down the "People's House." The because she had come to him as the public authority and, material damage amounted to 15 ,000,000 lire, or at the then having lost her husband in the war, requested support, but rate of exchange, or about £22i,240. using her native lovene tongue. In the same village, on eptember 24, 1919, the gendarmerie arrested all the adult This Tuesday was a day of serious and widespread disorder peasants for what was termed " resistance to public authority." in Trieste. The offices and homes of prominent Slovenes These were not isolated incidents, but links in a chain of were fired with cans of petrol. Dr Kimovec and Dr Vilfan, increasing terrorism. prominent leaders of thought of the Slovenes of Trieste, we~e . To close the lesser events of 1919, the South Slav " People's personal sufferers. Lencek's Inn was ~so attacked, and m House " in Pazin was attacked by an organised mob and addition to suffering damage, the proprietor was compelled destroyed, and on October 30, the premises of the lovene under threat of serious violence, to sign an obligation not to " Catholic Printing Press ' at the intellectual centre of Pazin serve Slovene patrons. Other Slav buildings attacked were in I tria were destroyed. the Credit Bank the Adriatic Bank, the Trieste Savings Bank, On September 12 occurred a major assault on Yugoslav the Orthodox School, the offices of Dr Pretnar Okretic, national intere. ts, by which at the same time Italian imperial Josip Abram and Josip Agneletto, the transport firm of" Balkan interests flaunted legality and challenged the pri11ciple of an Ltd ' and the Offices of the Yugoslav Consulate. international agreement. This was the seizure by d 'Annunzio, 1 he total damage done to Yugoslav property in Trieste on at the head of an armed band, of Fiume: Fiume had not even this Black Tuesday was over roo,000,000 lire, or about been claimed by Italy, let alone " promised " Italy by the £ r ,::,~ 1 ::,,• r .,co . At the same time, the " People. 's House " in 1915 Pact of London, yet now, with the backing of the Italian Pulj (Pola) was destroyed, the damage done_ e~t1mated at about tate, it was possible for thi attack on Yugoslav national 5,000,000 lire, and the offices of the solic1~or_, Dr Zukon. interests in the Adriatic to be made and acquiesced in. At Pazin, yet another Yugoslav-language pnntmg press was In thi way, from December, 1918, throughout 1919, the destroyed. free exerci e of their minority rights wa menaced both by the Later in the year, on Kovember 17, there were new out­ action f unoffi ial but permitted mob , and by organs of bursts. During a concert of Yugoslav music in the Central Italian tate law and order. Hall in Gorica bombs were thrown which caused numerous Per on re pon ible were not brought to book, and it goes casualties. 1\~o days later the ".People's Press " in Gorica without ayin that the mas of the outh !av inhabitants of was also attacked with, grenades, and serious damage cause~. I tria, Trieste and Gorica felt themselve to be seriou ly It was common knowledge that one of the ring-leaders of this menaced. attack was the on of the local Questore, Giganti. \\"ere these only poradic act of violence, they might be On January 2j, 1921, an Italian mob broke into a Yugoslav I I 12

Readjn Room in Trie te and d troyed everything they cou d lay their hands on. " People s Houses " had been built by subscriptions from most classes, but mainly by the accumulated pennies of hard­ Later in the ear, on eptember , they once a ain wrecked working peasants and town-workers. After so many centuries the presse of the paper " Edinost '' in Trieste, and burned under repressive Austrian rule, the Yugoslavs of these lands down the !av H use of Labour, the partacu ociety, and found themselves on their own soil against their will living in the" People' H u " in t Ivan: a state of masked Civil War forced upon them by their new, Durin local ele tion in kofije in I tria, on May 15, 1921, Italian, alien rulers. a num~er f hou were destroyed. On May 16, soldiers of Here it is necessary to underline that aJI these acts of the Italian Royal Ann comrrutted a imjlar crime in Mackovlje. repression, and the imperialist seizure of Fiume, took place In mi Kal on the ame day the property of a land-owner before the establishment of Fascism in Italy. named Andrijasi was

that Italian fa i m trained fo r the domination of Italy and ministratively part of I tria) held a conference and decided for the further d vel pment of wholesale crime reviewed in on the folio, ing steps : thi record. 1. Slovene teachers were to be removed from their ~tive Th next tage f the terror came in 192~ when elections districts and sent way into the i.nterior of Italy. were arried out in Italy. Durin the e electi n throughout 2. Religion was to be taught in the schools in Italian and th area, men were wavlaid and beaten up, and made the not a Yugoslav language. tar et of a a in . ln the mountain di trict f Brda a 3. All Slovene societies were to be dissolved. certain do tor of medicine, named Ottone, tand out a the 4. All school children were to join the Balilla. leader of th terr r. In the lowland Kanai di trict it wa a 5. Sermons and Church Services were to be conducted in man named Tap Ii wh wa the leader. At Ajdov~cina, the Slovene Churches in the . first l?vene martyr, nton . tancar, wa killed. Age wa no 6. All Slovene papers were to be suppressed. prot~ct1on . . For example, for his obstinacy in voting accordin 7. All Slovene co-operative organisations were to be to ·h1 wn 1mpul e , 76-y ar-old Piculin, of olo Brdo, near dissolved. Kozbana, wa beaten to the p int of lo of consciousness. Outrageous as were all of these proposals, especially directed M_any ele~tor fled aero s the Yugo !av frontier, leaving every­ ; by a State which purported to be civilised against a compact, thin behmd them. At , milj in I tria, gendarmerie fired on non-national population of well o..ter 500,000 persons, two of an election meeting cau in rn5 casuaJtie . the proposals stand out among all others in their monstrosity. The culminati n wa yet to come. On ~ vember 12, 1924, These are the second and the fifth. For, it must be repeated, the fir t arre t fo r the u e of the lovene Ian ua took place. it was for the Slavs of this area, once contiguous with the Thirteen men were ingin lovene n in their mother Pannonian Slavs, that the Slav Apostles Cyril and Methodius, ton ue, amon them three who were O\·e r 60 e:ir of a e. with the approval and support of the Pope, created the first The di appea red from the w rid into an Italian pri on. Slav alphabet, the so-called Glagolithic, and gave the Slavonic Les than three week later, at the be innin f December world its first liturgy and translation of the Bible. 1924, fo ll owed a · pe ial order prohibitin any pub Ii meetin : It was in the confines of the lstrian portion of the north­ concert or other arrangement in which the lovene Ian ua e western corner of Yugoslav-peopled territory, that this ancient wa u ed. ath lie printin pres which u ed the lovene Glagolithic alphabet was still to be found in use in the langua e were br ken up, and the lovene writer, Franc monasteries within living memory. The Catholics of this Bevk, was arre ted fo r a humorou ketch in a popular paper. part of the world, in common ,.,.ith the Croat Catholics, had The terror was in r asi n in inten ity. through the centuries stood out in the Catholic world, and The_ election , fa! e elections carried out under terror, pa ed, particularly after the Reformation period in maintaining or but till the Yu lavs of the e di -trict , lovene r roat striving for use of their own national language in their Church remained con iou of being Yugo lav and not Italians. No services. ow, at the bidding of Italian Fa cists, this funda­ doul t the Itali an Fa ci ts had expected thei r di play of mai led mental right was to be suppressed. fi t to have direct re ults. Yet the Yugo !av population Indeed, not only were children to be christened henceforth continued tubbornly to think and dream a Yu o !av . with Italian names, but even inscriptions on tombstones were n July 14, 1927, the Fascist leader· of orica, Trieste, to be desecrated, and ancient lav family names transformed l ' tria and al o of Fiume and the Port of Zadar fu rther down into bastard and hybrid " Italian " equivalents. ( ee Appendix, the coa t, left by the Peace T reaty in Italian hand- (ad- pp. 77-81). 15

It eems perhap impo sible that o monstrous a plan was to bomb · had been freely used by the gendarmerie to disperse be carried out, t thi wa the case. From 1927, the Italian lav politic:il gatherings, it was not surprising that there were repre sion took a ha1:iher form and the act of terrorism which · occasional disorderly scenes. ow these murders were to hitherto had rome in waves, began to be constant and y tematic be given a form of legality. As ill-luck would have it, in one occurrence . of these a Croat peasant was fatally injured. This was im­ It be an to be impo ible fo r I ading intellectual lovenes to mediately seized upon by the local Italian authorities, and a he. For exampl , Prof or Rado Bednarzik publi hed an number of young men were arrested. After some months in " Adriatic Almanack. ' This wa not merely prohibited, but custody, they were brought to trial. The authorised counsel Bednar.tik wa br u ht to tria\ for compilin this work in hi for the defence was a Croat la"yer. But three days before own Iangua e. He wa not tried before a i ii Court, but the Court sat, he was waylaid by a group of Fascists, dragged before a ov.rt 1\lartial held in idem ( dine). He was to the office of the local House of Fascist Culture, intimidated, entenc d to d radati on to the ranks and los of all civil rights. and eventually compelled to leave the defence of the accused The following year an avalanche of repre ive orders fol­ to an Italian lawyer appointed by the Fascist Court. lowed. One by one the clau of th propo al drawn up by The, trial was held in PQla befor:! one of the new Fascist the Fa ci t leader were arried out. Yu o lav teachers were " 'pecial Tribunals." The only evidence produced was that removed to Ital , and before 192 was out all Yugoslav iven by two letters of introduction issued by the cultural ocietie and o iati '1 , all newspaper and co-operatives organisation " Edinost ' in Trieste, to one of the accused w r dis olved. Public officials and e,·en railway workers of named Vladimir Gortan, and found in his possession. Yu o lav ori in in the t te ervice were rem ved to di tant There is really no question but that Gortan was innocent part of Italy. of murdering a fellow Yugoslav, though, of course, he was not Dy now, the e mea ur of repre ion cea ed to be tempered innocent of supporting the proper liberties of the outh Slavs y any con ideration of ju tice or humanity. i ot merely of Italy. But at this stage those liberties were still not com­ wer r ani ati n prohibited and di olved but the funds of pletely proscribed by the Italian State. For this reason, and the c, ften as embled from tens of ear f thrifty contri­ further in order to suggest that any support of proper South buti o,, by members of mall m ans, were seized b the Italian lav liberties was " Slav terrorism," it was necessary for nly a very few publi hing hou e and the free use of ,Italian Fascism to suggest that Gortan was guilty of common the two lav Ian ua es of thi area ( lovene and roat) in the crime. He was sentenced to death, an " exemplary " hurch still remained lar ely untouched. Xow lav ultural puni hment, and executed within 24 hours. His remains ocieti s, however, were di olved, includin the venerable were buried at a place unknown even to his parents. roat and lovenc · ociety of aint yril and aint This trial was followed by a monster political trial before a Methodiu " ultural organisation founded in the name of Fascist Special Tribunal in Trieste, in the following year, the first two great la Apostles, who work a we see, was eptember, 1930. The setting for this trial was arranged on a done preci Iy fo r this part of the world. The Ii ht of grand scale. The 58th Fascist Legion was mobilised, strong Yu o Ia li fe wa no, barely allowed to flicker. forces of the Italian Army were assembled, and Italian war­ The follo wing ear, the field of oppre sive action was ship were brought to anchor in the harbour. wid ned. Th re o curred the first of the repressive political The trial was a demonstration, and open threat of arms, of Yu o lavs b Italian courts. In di trict where a ain t the Yugoslav population of the Julian Region and the politi I electi n revolver shots and tear- a ainst the Yugoslav tate itself. The victims of the trial were accu ed of a mot! y of acts against the Italian State. The entire of Generals of the Garrison in Trieste ":ere pre nt in ourt in full dres uniform, and representatives_ of all other authoritie were pre ent in gala uniform. The Consuls CHAPTER III f fo reign po"·er were speciall y asked to attend, while hundreds of loYene and roat in T rieste, I tria and Gorica were arre ted by way of" precaution." It wa a political trial far remoYed from the usual concepts of ju tice. One of the defendin coun.,el, who had quite happily accepted 30 ooo lire from the parents of each of his two c)jents, declared that in hi opinion sentence of death was THE PRELIMINARY " PRE-WAR" WORK OF inevitable. A Bel ian lawyer present fel t obliged to ex­ ITALO SAURO po tulat , but thi Italian oun el for the Defence n:plied : " uch are my orders." On eptember 6. 1930 fou r of the accused were xecuted at Bazovica, near T rieste. The others .were entenced to many In 1934, what might be ironically qilled the normal forms of year ' penal servitude. Thi ma s trial was a new attempt to repression had reached their height. · Not only was the use of terr ri e the lav of this territory by pseudo-le al methods. Yugoslav speech in any public office prohibited; it had been A new wave of ree-l ance terror be an with an isolated and prohibited in every school and even in all religious activities. ar itrary incident, to be followed later qy mas terrori m. But this was not sufficient, It is a noto.rious fact that the n Octob r 20, 1930, a band of Fa ci t destroyed the intellectual repression of a people merely drives national offi e and printin I works of the only Yugoslav paper left, thought into underground channels. This is especially the the · !\ovi Li t." On D cember . 1 fo llowing, the Italians case if the people whose nationality is being attacked are h wed that even ::eligion could not be left untouched if it genuinely autochthonous inhabitants. It is easier to transform wa the rcli ion of the Yu o lav.. A band of Fasci ts broke an urban populat.,i9n , detached from its mother soil, than a into the hurch of Trevnik durin the ervice of a Mas . population which has been linked with the soil for many Th elc tric cable were cut, and the Church plun ed into centuries. darkn s . ln the en uin m le a number of people were In the introduction to thi accou nt of Italian crimes again t ri u ly injured. the Yugoslavs of the Adriatic, we pointed out that in earlier The " final " attack n the Yu o lavs of the Julian l\1arch centuries the Venetians had set up trading centres on the wa be innin . autious a the Italian authorities had to be Adriatic shores which, particularly in the north of the Adriatic, in any matter affe tjn th Church, the free Catholic practice had developed into small ItaJian cities, Italian-speaking islands o religion wa thenc fo rth under a cloud. On December 31, on the edge of a large South- lav sea. This situation is 19"4, the ath Ii Printin Pre at Gorica was seal d by the nowhere better illustrated than in the statistics of land owner­ Italian authoritie . From now onward the lavonic Bible ship in the Is"trian Peninsula. An ethnic map of the Peninsula and Prayer-book were to be ui:;- r eded by a Bible and Pray r­ shows the towns in which the majority of the inhabitants are book in Italian. Italian, joined by a narrow belt of territory in which the population is mixed to the -major part of the Peninsula m 20

\\'h ich there are no Italians. In thi minute mixed area, Commission for the Investigation of the Crimes of the wh re the old u trian ensus of 1910 howed the !av popula- Invaders and Their Assistants. This, in itself, is of key tion r b only -o~;,, it i note\\'orthy importance concerning Italian crime against the Yugoslav that- by the ~am tati stic - onl y r .20% of the land wa people and State. owned b the Itali an , th remaming 1. 0% bein owned Report o. 46 shows clearly that one of the principal con­ by Yu lavs. \Vherc the pr portion of Yu o !av was cerns of the 1talian State before the war has been the physical hi her- i .. , in the reater part of th t rritory- practically dispossession of the outh Slavs, who as we see, in this north­ no land wa Itali an-owned. western corner of Yugoslav ational territory, were not But \\hy back to the 1910 u trian tati tics? \Ve o merely the principal inhabitants, but were since time im­ back to the e bccau e ince the Au 'trian en u of 1910, le memorial the principal owners of the land. But first some than fo ur years cf re the outbreak of the 19q-1918 war, details of ltalo Sauro himself. there ha b n no en u whatever of this area which give Italo auro (Figure 2) was ~n Italian Counsellor of State, and any indi ation at all of nationality. •o Italian cen u has Mussolini's Personal Adviser on the work of elimi9ating the reco nised nationality. Even the Au trian cen u did not do Slav population of the whole Adriatic coast, from Trieste in that. But it did recogni se differences f Ian ua e. It was the north down to the Gulf of Kotor. We reproduce a copy based- a were erman tati tics in uch area a East Prus ia­ of Sauro's official bio raphy taken from Italian State Records on the ' mgangspraclt ," or language of everyday life. It (Figure 3). The most ignificant point in this curriculum quite naturally happened in many cases that the cen us official, vita: is the last line : " Lavoro : A disposizione del Duce per que tionin a not very interested bi-Jin ual or tri-lingual gli slavi "-or- " Occupation: At the disposition of the citizen f hi town and naturally making hi enquiries in hi Duce concerning the lavs. " own language, ften wrote down as ' 'muanusprache," a Thi explain how it was that after having specially asked Ian ua e which was n t rea lly the " national " language of the to be included in a regime~t fighting the British (who to individual c ncerned. auro were " Enemy To; 2 ' ), • ·auro obtained special per­ · verthele , the Au trian stati tic do give ome indication, mi ion from Mus olini to be transferred to a regiment fighting and in default of better fi gure , mu t be taken as the only the Yugo lav people. Indeed, he seems to have taken this tatistical indication of the na ure of this part of the Yugo !av step as soon as plans were set for the attack on Yugo lavia. lands. On I July, 1940, he wrote to Mu solini's private secretary, Another indication ·s certainly provided by some of the 0 waldo ebastiani : " Vi prego di dire al Duce di concedermi propo I of Mus olini 's per onal advi er on the outh lav un altro privilegio; essere in prima linea contro ii nemico del que tion. con iderable portion of the per onal archives of mio sangue, lo slavo." (Figure 4)- " Would you kindly ask Italo auro have fall en into Yugo !av hand , and it is signifi­ the Duce to grant me another privilege; to be in the first line cant that in .a new proposal on how to diminate the Yugoslavs against my blood enemies, the Slavs." , r from the proposed fi eld of Italian expan ion, made on On 6 April, 1941- the XIXth year of the Fascist era, as he 29 January, 1942, auro observed that much caution was still proudly puts at the top of his letter- we find Sauro writing to be ob erved in the work of di po sessing the lavs of their " from Kiana on the Ea tern Frontier " (near Fiume) two lands. letter . To Mussolini's secretary Sebastiani, he writes a ome of the fact which have come to li ght from Sauro's covering letter, saying he asks " vivamente " (i.e., urges) to fi le ar the subje t of the 46th Report of th Yugoslav tate have ' this hort communication of mine " passed to the Duce, 21 22

" at thi momer.t in which the whole people of the Adriatic be req'uired before deeds could be legally transferred. turns its eye to\ ard him as to a beacon." (Fi ure -). 2. A thorough enquiry should be made and statistics drawn If one a ks how it i that au ro assumed that the Yugo lavs up to show what land was still actually owned by Slavs. When of the Adriati re ard d ~fu olini a a beac n thee ·planation that was done it would be possible to direct local Fascist i- to be found in aura's lett r to l\lu olini him elf, for in thi officials to assi t in the work of deprivin the lavs of their he ay quite impl : holdin ., Due - No\\' that the campaign a ainst Yu oslavia, 3. tati tics should al o be prepared to show what properties b \\'hich a d ci ion i to be f; reed, has be un, I am o~rned by Italian were actualiy cultivated by la tenants, prepar cl, arm - in hand, to fi ht the ancient enemy of my so that steps could be taken to effect the deportation of these p ople. That h alway been my incere de ire. You, to lav to other part of Italy. whom I hav alwa een faith ful and I yal, are my fir t 4. teps should be taken to tr;msfer land owned by absentee thou ht .. .. Th return of Dalmatia to Italy will , for all time, Italian owners to new ownership capable of ensuring that the sw ep th fo rei n r fr m the driatic .... " (Fi!rure 6). )av pea antry did not encroach. In fact, the wh le of au ro' a ti\·ity was that of finding ways auro offered to direct this plan himself, a king for a mini­ and mean t weep th Yu o lav away fo r ever from the mum of one or two assistants. He also propo ed a number of area marked out fo r Italian coloni ati on- areas defined . acce ory measures, uch as : ' differently from ti me to time, but in Italian yes basically 1. To prohibit even the temporary visit of any other·person corr p ndin to the area dominated in the Balkan Penin ula of lav origin to the districts to be wrested from the lavs. by the Roman Empire in one period or an ther. 2. To effect the transfer of a numher of intractable lav The re rd of Italo aura whi h the tatc ornm1 10n priests to the interior of Italy. pos es e , make it p s ible to follow hi corre pondence with 3. 'To order all Italian school teachers (i.e., !those Italian Iu solini on thi vbject from a far back as 1935. school teachers who had already been appointed to ta~e the \Ve ha e traced the rowth of Italian crime a ainst the place of the original lovene or Croat teachers) Ito remain in Yug? lav populati n of !stria Trieste and the ounty of their villages throughout the school holidays, the reason for Gonca, up to the vents of 193 4. The years of the Abys inian this being that it had been found that even if they were absent war (19" 5-37) under tandably di tracted me attention from on holiday for only a few weeks, all the work they had done in the outh lav pr blem but by 1939 we find auro developino­ etting the younger generation to _speak Italian and not Slovene hi prop al with full ener . or Croat, was undone. . On July _31, he wrote to Iu olini , from Koper in !stria, auro did proceed to_investigate the basic land problem of to outline h1 propo als for dealing with the problem at it root. !stria. Trieste and the County of Gorica. When he did so, he The imple meth d of terrorism so far u ed had failed to was dismayed to discover how large a proportion of the land pr duce any permanent effect on a peasant people. auro was still owned by the lavs. It wa a greater proportion than aw the problem a one of actual expropriation. He therefore, he had even feared. This is the more remarkable when we u ge t d to Mu s lini the following points : bear in mind what had taken place, particularly in the Gorica t. That any per- n of outh !av origin hould be debarred area during the 1914-18 war. It .is in this district that the from pur ha e of land. A special Committee of Enquiry famou town of Caporetto is situated, Kobarid in the original hould be s t up to examine the credential of any person lovene. The movement of battling armies through the acquirin land, and a certificate from that omrni sion h uld villa es of the ounty of Gorica resulted in great destruction of the homestead and farm buildings of the outh Slav 3. To make it impossible for Slavs to buy or take over f3.ITDers of this county. After the war, compensation for any property or land. damaged property wa ranted by the Italian tate. But I 4. To give land to those Friulian or other Italian families this war dama e was i sued in tate Bonds, later to be cleared who seemed likely to be resistant to the Slavs. throu h the bank . Eventually, money was only payable 5. To prevent any visit by foreign !av families. a ainst these Bonds, throu h authorised banks, and these .. 6. To remove Slavs from their own land in all possible Italian banks i ued loan for rehabilitation of property against way , primarily by the refusal of credits, and secondarily the Bonds up to only 50% of their nominal value. by propa anda likely to attract them to urban centre . In additi n, the bank themselves appointed the building 7. To set up in Pola a powerful indu trial centre likely to contractor who were to carry out the rehabilitation. Thu , attract lavs, and at the same time t develop more active thou h outh lav farmers may have received new buildin , propaganda for the purp se of attracting lav workers from it was at the co t of los of effective economic liberty to banks the neighbourhood of 1 rieste to di tant industrial centres, controlled by the Italian tat . thus fo tcrin di per ion. After about ten year , many farmers, deep in debt. were To facilitate in every ·ay possible lavs selling up their forced to sell thei r farms at a I ss. There were, for example, land. 634 enforced ales of property in the aunty of Gorica in 9. To undermine lav ownership f land by all possible 1929 alone an'd 6 o in 1930, when the world economic cri is er dit and fiscal operations. Banks were to be ordered to truck at farmer already in difficulties. Within a sin le y~ar char e lav hi her intere t, and tax payers were to be mulcted in thi period, a Jar e part of territory which for centuries had of execs ive contribution . been in the hand of the outh !av pa ed to Italian 10. To carry out a persistent policy for the removal of lav hand . workmen and profe sional miner to di tant centres, and to the Even so the proce was too slow for ltalo auro and Italian colonic by the bait of higher wages, etc. Imperialism in hi district and el ewhere. The ancient root 11. To remove families of Slav workers and pea ants in large of th outh lavs were too old and deep to be easily torn up roups to Eastern Africz, and there to di perse them over a by mere financial method to uch · an extent that the country lar e area. mi ht really become Italian and not outh lav. As we have 12. To et ~p numerou elementary school and kinder­ already observed in the first para raph of thi cha pt r, the artE>ns, and particularly in the kindergarten to keep the outh Jay repre ented the autochthonou and land-ownin children all day under Italian influence. population, comparable with the yeomanry of Great Britain, 13. 1n elementary chools and kinder0 arten to appoint in t~ whole of the country f J tria, Trie te and the ounty of I tali an prie ts, monks and nuns as teachers. on a. 14. To et up a dense network of espionage against lav , auro, therefore, produced a new and more e,·ten ive plan leader and agitators likely to have some connection in Yug.o­ of 16 point which in the "ame year, 1939, he pre ented to slavia, and against all those possessing kinsfolk in Yugo~lav1a, ~lu olini. The point of hi new plan were: or educated there, a well a against all persons of the liberal 1. To collect accurate data concerning all outh lav profe sions, and as far as possible to refuse or limit the issue holdin in land, and their financial standin . or renewal of passports valid for Yugoslavia. 2. To take over for Italians all land either owned by er dit 15. To remove all lavs who had been entenced by the in titution (bank etc.) or mortga ed to these. Courts. 2- 26

16. To keep a check n the work of lav priests and set up they show signs of intransigence. For these reasons, we can a peciaJ fund for the maintenance of Italian theological without fear of contradiction assert that a Slav problem exists . tudents in the Trie te eminary. and must be thoroughly studied both in its. material and The e 19 point appear in more than one form in . auro's psychological aspects, if we are not either in the near or distant archive . For example (Figures 7, ) we find him on eptember future to find ourselves at the eleventh hour confronted with ~5, in the XYth yea r of the o-called Fasci t era, that is to say, the painful need of undertaking a purge of our frontiers just m eptember, 193 , ubmitting a set of 15 points (which are when we need to use all our forces to break down these frontiers partly the am a the 16 partly the ame a those sent to and extend them." Mu oLini in 1939) to ianni Apollonio, then Governor of This is a striking indication of the attitude of mind of " Per una oluzione problemo slavo nella \ .G." (" For Mussolini's personaJ adviser on the !av question. Resistance the oluti n f the . !av prob! m in the Julian Region. ") A to what he calls" benevolent propaganda "(examples of which, furth r note made on 19 epteml er, at the bottom of the since 1918, we have examined) is in his eyes " resorting to sh et, r cord ianni · uog ti ns have b en adopted. methods of force and tei:ror " by the Slavs. This is reminiscent I~ . October, 1939, , au r al o wrote a pecial study on the of. the attitude of Mussolini's brother, ArnaJdo Mussolini. po 1t1on of th , la\" in the provi nce of T rie te. He was He was the editor of " II Popolo de Trieste," and on the day him elf in thi in no doubt about the connecti on, which we after the shooting of the Bazovica victims (7 September, her~ emphasi e. between the early pr -19.p and pre-Fascist 1930), in his paper commented on the lavs as follows : " But Italian acts of n len e and the later ltaJian pro ramme of totaJ do vermin which have effected entry into your house possess· e~propnat1on. In the preamble to his tudy he wrote nationality ? " t:mmphantly of "a low which fo r Italians has begun to Selecting further documents from Sauro's archives, we see Ii ht n the ky a low cau d by the flames of these lav that on 5 June, 1940, he again wrote to Gianni Apollonio, the stron -p int , the premi. e of the Balkan ompany, of the Governor of lstria, to tell him what he thought the South People Hou e , and of th offi e of the paper ' Edinost.' " lavs were · capable of doing both inside Italy and on the ProudJy Startin with th e events of officially tolerated Yugoslav side of the frontier. vi?lence of December, 191 , of 1919 and 1920, he concluded Gianni's reply was· to suggest the establishment of con­ wit~ the followi n remark : " If we folio, all preceding centration camps at Verona and Trento, for all " u picious period step by tep, what tand out i the fact that the aliens." Gianni also suggested that all alien soldiers, i.e., economic pro pe~ty of th !av and their yearning for their Italian subjects of Yugoslav origin, should be removed from fath ~land , con titute a menace . . . Immediately after the regiments on the frontier of Yugoslavia and immediately war (~.e., aft r 1?1 )_ as a re_ ult f profuse propaganda and our despatched to units either in Libya or . Italo Sauro negation of their . n°ht (1. e. after terrorism and violence) accepted Gianni Apollonio's observations, and ·without delay, we sa~v them rap1~ly weakening. Yet in the period of as­ on 10 June, 1940, submitted a concrete proposal to Guido sumption of authority by the fa cist which can be called the Buddarini Ghendi, Under Secretary of the Italian Ministry elimi~ation of the la,· (cacciata degli lavi) we see the Slavs of the Interior. resorting to methods of fo rce and terror. Less than a year later, the Axis attack on Yugoslavia began, " When we come to the pre ent, we have to admit that the and as we have seen, Sauro wa ready" on the Eastern frontier." Slavs have remained lav , that benevolent propaganda does Hitherto he had been engaged on the suppres ion of the South not affect them and that in any situation which is at all traii:ied, Slavs within the territory annexed to Italy after 1918. ow the vastly uperior xi fo rce over-ran th whole of Yugo- lavia. Lar e portion w r annexed to Italy, and other di trict placed under the Italian Army of ccupation. The field of action of Ital auro and hi confederates was vastly enlar ed. Whereas b fore the war he had been obliged to elaborate omplex plans to iv at least a cloak of legality to the Italian attempt to exterminate the outh lav as a people, the onditions f :t\azi-Fa ci t rule in an c upied country made it p ibl fo r :\1u olini and the Itali an overnment to ,,ork by entire! different method . The peri d f what mu t eem to the out ide world pre-war rime in Yugo lav-pe pied districts of Italy, was at an end. The ub qu nt annexation of till lar r area of Yugoslavia and the e. tablishment of p•Jppet admini tration in till other di 'trict , in actual fa t broke down the di tinct1on between tho e Yu o lav wh had for over 20 ears enj yed Yugo !av verei ty and th e who had b en under Italian ovei:eignty. B · the ·e a t the ltalian tate had annuli d the unju t fr ntier made I etween Yu o la\'ia and Italy after the last war, nd th whole .ir a whether a quired in 19! or only after 19.p , wh re Italian f re moved in Yu o-lavi. , became a ingl , c mmon area of planned and unlimited crime. Thi is tht subje t of the foll owin 1 chapter.

Fig. 2 (p. _o) ltalo auro. --

ROMA, I LUC:L 10 XV 11 I

Al I• Ec c. OSVALDO SEBAST IAN ! Segreter lo Per t ; c o l are de l OUCE

S A U R O FU NA.ZAII IO

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Fi" . ll. Executions in Slo ··enia. 3i

38

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Fiu. n (i). Fig. :n (ii) CHAPTER IV

THE \ AR PERI D 1941-4'"

(a) GE. ' ER. L OB. ERVATl :'\.' With the collap e of the old Yu oslav Arm and the oc upa­ ti on of Yu o lavia the fic.:ld was open for more whole: ale and ruthle mea ures of de-nationali ation of the western outh _'I · v land by and on behalf of the Italian tate. This work of de-nationali ation included both an attempt to en~ rce ,, hole: ale conver ion from Yu o !av to Italian and al o the ~imple phy ical extermination of the p pulation of rn tlistricts. The work divided naturally into two main part' : the mea ure propo ecument rcproduct'd in Figure ro (p. 35). order not to provoke too much ppo. ition and to penetrate J his \\as an outline of the con· titution and functi ons of a more deep] with reater ca e. In each case th !av prie t nc\\ offi e, named, quite imply for '' o-ordination of the hould fir t ea h ha e an Itali an prie t added to them. Lnter ~ationali ation of the driatic." Thi propo ed office wa to they h uld be lirnina ed." be a department directly dependent on either ::\1u. ol in i's In Fcbrua, · 1943 a bill wa. uhmitted to the Italian ?ffice or that of the :\Jini, ter of the Interi r. Apart from Parliament concerning tho e new Yugo la\" t rritories annexed 1t general ten~- rc\"ealed in the title, it main propo al o.n 3 :'.\'lay (the lovene territory) and I c :\lay, r94 ( roat \\ ere two, bot~ .inter-connected and of reat interest, especially Littoral and Dalmatian territory). nder thi· bill, all per on when the po·1t1on of Trie te is on idered. They were : (a) either born in th di tricts or domiciled there fo r at lea t I~ to promote urban centre , \\ hich in the t rritorie to be years were to obtain citizenship. oncerning lovenia, a we nati~nalised arc throu hout mo t capable of formin and ee from the propo als ubrni ted to the Duce in eptember, en 1ng a po,\erful centn::s of irradiation of Italian civilisation r94r, the provi ion fo r the u e of. lo\"ene in the newly annexed and of h a· imilation of the lav mas e , and (b) . lav t rritory (a Law pa sed on 3 ::\1ay, 1941, "guaranteed" " thorou .hly to undermine .'lav property, e pecially inland." the • lovene the use of their own ton ue) was to be made null There I no need to omment on the i nificance of the e and void as soon as po ible, fir t with the appearance of propo·al· , except to refer a ain to the accompanying legality, but if nece ary by force. ~ ow, eeing this n w bill which would ha ve ran ted the Yu o lav populati on of the Axi did not d clare war on Yu o lavia, pre umably it did not newly annexed tem torie fu ll Italian citiz n hi p auro intend to d clare a restored tate of peace. Thu indeed ha tened a in to apply pe iall · to ~Iu olini. Jn an appli­ fasci ta re sor tate , b ing essentially predatory, place them­ cation to him dated I February 1943 auro a ked two thing . selves outside the law. Italy, in fact by it very acts, declared The Ljubljana ar a was to be truck out of th bill alto ether and and acknowled ed a tate of perman nt warfare, which began the ituation in that dl tri t made the ubject of a , pecial tud ·, in the extreme north-we tern part of Yu o !av territory in 191 and the bill w al o to be temporarily wi thdrawn in o fa r a benveen Italy and th Yu o lav people , and was merely it oncern d Dalmatia until the " normali ati n f ondition " extended in 1941 . in that province. A further a ra atin factor w the n Yel act of ma . auro·· prote twas ·u ce . ful; hi advic· wa fo lio ved. T he persecution to which allu ion has already been made. By thi. , hill wa , ithdrawn. ~ ew areas of Yugo h\'ia had been in the area of Yu o la via newly anne ·ed to Italy, the anne:\ed to Italy, but the citizen , both tho e born there and inhabitant were depriv d of all or an · citizen hip. They tho e domiciled ther for a deci ivc period of year . were ceased in Axi eye to be Yugo lav citizen without becomin deprived of all ri ht. of citiz n hip. T he reason fo r thi was Italian citizen . that it w ulf the lsonrn and the hill of the ar o ". •· Against •The !oven territory of pre-19+1 Yugo lavia (i.e., the lovene te_rrito_ry tho e "h on thi~ ~iJe or beyond the Id frontier, still cheris h impo sible ap:i rt from the arinthian and Julian Slove~c lands) . was rb1trar:ly dream,. the inexorable 1:m of Rome " ill be • pplied." r,anitioncd bctw en ermany and It !y. __fhe no~tner': _pan_ " ~ But th ~<'" r the .ire. te~t d.1y · of. xis ill usion . fo r Mu solini went on to ·• ann ed" to ermony, and declared e ,;entml eff!1an tc._ntory, th1 s~~ : " The ~ec ml hmt "111 he pened neither here nor in any other part will be dealt with in the ac ount. o. (?ernar:, ~.~r . r!~cs. Th~ ot the " orlJ. The .h1 and the Tripartite ower ha"e the means to southern pan, under the nam .. P~ov1n ia_ d1 Lubhana, "a annexed chic,.,. ,ictor,·." (E'I. ract~-d rom BB ~lonitoring Dig t). to Italy, and declared e sential ftahan terraory. ·9 0 tion pe pl . The followin method were Italian repre i n of the Yu o·la,· f ccupied or ' annexed " parti ularl spe ificd : to bri e indi\'idual to b tray thers, to are . razi Ii ' order was directed a ain t the civilian re rt to phy i al intimidation to obtain ecret re arding population. Roatta's order was directed a ain t the civilian impri on intern, pilla e and kill. p pulation a p tential upporters f the ;'\ational Liberation thus in titutcd a ain t the civilian Army, but al o a ain t the ).;ational Liberation Army itself. It proved inadequate. The lovene was to expel the fa ci t invader and t uhduc their qui ling ted. Durin the winter 1941-42 a istant that the Yu o lav people , fo llowin o- the collap e of la\' re i t n c r w ,·er,.,,.,·here. In the lo,· ne land the old Yu o lav Arm , took up arm to reate a new ) u o !av . powerful branch f the ~ational Liberation M ovemen~ Army. A ain t thi Yu osla,· resistance the Italian command (nati nal in tw s n~e , b in a mO\· ment f r the liberation of now propo ed a va t and y tema~ic extcn ion of the r to ni ed , I ,·enia. but a a n tituent part of Yu o. lavia) was built up. mean of warfare in exce of exi tin u a c . Thi into full acti n bef re th clo e of the winter. Here it i important to empha i e that from the out et of it A ain t it, in l\Iar h, a wave f terror of a was organisation the Yu oslav National Liberation Army bore in in tigat d under :\lu lini 's di rect rder . mind the provisions of the Ha ue Conventions of 29 July, 1899 R ::1tta·s headq art ·r ,,ere at usak on the uthern ed e and 18 October 1907 re pe ting belligerents. In these the of the. lo,·ene area and J tria. ·oder him, in th II-nd Anny, di tinction between franc -tireur and regular soldier is laid Roatta had th XI-th Army orp , which operated in the down, namely, that a regular army i or ani ed, under the 11 rthern p rti n thi Italian-annexed territory. Thi , until command of properly appointed officer , and wear a sufficiently 1: December 19.42 was under th din: t command of G neral distin!!Uishino- uniform which ha been made known to the :\lari Rob tti. From that date until the fir t Italian collap e enemy. on . ptcm er , + the ommand, ·a tran ferr d to eneral British reader will remember this point in connection with , a t ne , ambara. the L.D.V. Detachments, later the Home Guard of Britain. At T h XI-th Arm · i ions: the German suggestion that L.D.V. men would be treated as The Inf ntry Divi i n •· I on;~o " with headquarter at ovo francs-tireurs, the British Government took the proper steps :.le. to, und r th comm nd of eneral Frederico R m ro from to make as certain as feasible that tbe enemy recognized the 11 '.\l ay 19.p to February 19+2, en raJ Emili oronati until regular in ignia of the L.D.V.'s. _o July 19+2 , and neral A. '.\l accario until the capitulation. That the Italian Commands were fully informed concerning T he Cranaticri di : ard na Oi,·i i n, with headquarter at ~he Yugoslav Liberation Army, there can be no doubt. By Lj ubljana, under th com mand of eneral Taddeo Orland . Report Ko." 1_13211 of February+, and Report ~o. J/ 5120 / 8 T h 'a ciaton delle . lpi with headquarter at of February 23, 19+3 , official copies of both of which reports Ljubljana, under the mmand of en°ral Vittoro Ru iero. are in Yugoslav hands, Roatta communicated further details T h ombardia Di,·i ion , with headquarter at K arloYac, concerning the organisation of what he refers to as the in roatia, under the command f neral Biddau. ' Ezercito Nazionale Liberatore Jugo lavo "- or "Yugoslav T he :\ la cerata I)i\'ision, with headquarters at Ribnica. ~ational Liberation Army.' On 16 .'.\Iarch 1943 under T he uarcl ia all:i Frontier roup, with headquarter at :Ko. 08/ 1825, the headquarters of the Isonzo Divi ion ent in a K C\'j '. special memorandum on the tactics employed by this Yugoslav n 1 :.Jar h 19+-· Roatta i ued a mprehen i"e Order, by Army. ir ular ., , ,, hich introdu ed a totally new principle into the Moreover, n a number of occ ions, upon Italian ugge tion, .. 61 62

I cal truces were arran ed tw en Italian and Yu lav impo ible dr am , the inexorable law of Rome " was to be unit for negotiation concerning exchan e of prLoner . B applied. the e ne tiation th Italian c mmand a e full r cognition In preparation for this puniti,·e offensive, on 9 July General to th, Yu lav fo rce to a properly con tituted army. Coronati ordered the internment of. whole familie , or even fa t , , wh le f Order and Circulars villa es if considered suspiciou , and on r 5 July Grazioli and i sued by the ari us Italian ommands, all ba ed on the Robotti j intly ordered the cessation of all public traffic and ori inal cir ul, r is u d b Roatta repeated that all pri oners­ threatened that any hostile bearing toward the Italian forces of-war x ept women and men wounded, or of undt:r 1 years was to be punished by death. When the offen ive had be un fa · wer t be h t ut of hand. For example in an order Robotti, under direct in truction from Grazioli, made it i ued b · encral Taddeo rland , ;( . 02 1310+, of 2 April puni hable by death for any per on to be f und in po 10n 19+2 tand ·: of any ~ational Liberation Army literature. " oltant i f riti , le donn d i ma hi minori de anni 1 , Thus not m rely le ally in civilian life, but de facto, under dev n e sere denunciati ai predetti tri unali. Tutti Ii . Italian martial rule, spreadin the " civilisation of Rome " a Itri dc\'ono e sere immediatemente f ucil?ti ui po to." life became impo sibly difficult for the . lovene . Crime was Accordingly, piled upon crime by the Italian invader. Whereas earlier " \\"ounded, women, and m n of I than 1 , mu t be in 19+2 ome de ree of mercy wa shown to wounded pri oner - handed ver to th pre~ rib d tribunal , . All the thers f-war, to women and youn pri oners t o, in effect thi de ree mu t he immediate I · sh t on the pot." of con idcratio~ for the rule ~f war and the cu tomary law of Thi rder wa rep ' ated f r all divi ion and ther units human decency in warfar wa annuli d by the order pro­ under R atta'· commands. In addition, eneral :\ a ari o, vidin for the sh otin out of hand of " su piciou " person , :\larch 1 + by rder :'\o. 02 1 • - i ued n direct r an · per ons earin ~ ~ ational Liberation rmy propa anda tion from ner:al :'Ilario Rob tti, ommander f th material. '.'\ ot merely were wounded pri ner -of-war not rmy orp::..- ordered that all member of partisan pared; Yu lav military ho pita) were deliberately bombed. familie and their immediat nei hbou ,, r t be hot. Exemplary Italian record fo r uch act ar in the hand of n 6 i\Iay 1 +2 razioli and Robotti i sued a j int the tate omm1 ion. To i\'e one- in tance, in July 19+3 pr lam tion providing f r the hootin of group of ho ta e , olonel , rdi ent a tele ram, :-.Jo. "'23-, reque ting the if the guilty were not found "ithin + hour f any incident b mbin of the mall vill:i e of poti though it was well­ aused by "c mrnunist briaand-." known that a Yugo lav military h pita! w ' ituated in the n 20 ~ lay r 4-2 razioli fdered the clearance of all \·illa e. On 12 July 19+3 eneral .\laccari re ponded by v ·gctation r an buildin n a belt of +o metre wide on rdcrin the de tructi n b b mbin of the villa e, including either ~jd' f any railway. r ad or ther c mmunication line. the ho pital. The e and numer u other imilar orders were of no avail. Finally, uilt for the e flagrant violation ' f military law n 2 July :\Ju olini resorted t a further inten ification of and cu tom i clearly admitted by the attempt made by the the terror. At the gr at rally of tr ops at orica, to which Italian c mmand to conceal what was bein done. Variou refer nee ha ' already heen made, he str ve to inflame the n w orders ( .a., .\lac ario' rder :'\o. o- I063 of 3 .\larch 19~3 force of 0,000 pi ked troop prepared for a major punitive :'\Taccario's econd Ord r ~o. 02 ' 03 of 5 June 19+ and offen i,·e again t the . lovene people, . ain t tho e , ho, Ro si' rder No. o 1063 of ., :\ larch 194-.,) were i ued n thi ide r cyond the old frontier, are still cheri hin ivin in truction that wher ver Yugo !av ldier or civilian were h t ut o hand they were to b ited in army return a Crmosnjica had been razed, and 200 men had been arrested · killed in armed c nflict. " bringing the number of men of between I and 55 years of It remains t pl e on re ord ome of th a rifice which age under arrest in Cemomelj up to 900 person . " thi olicy f It lian onque t by arm cau ed the Yu lav ignificant of t!te atmosphere in which all thi was accom­ po ul tion of the affected di trict . plished, are Casano o's followin ob ervation : " I will not Rep rt;\ . +of the .. tate mmi , ion fo r the l m·e ti ation try to tell you of the despair of the familie of the interned oi the rime· f the I m·aders and Their . i tant ,' tate· : persons- but, in comformity with _your order , have withheld the peri d of It lian ccupation, from 11 :\lar h from any interfen.: nce . . . . Al thou h l admit that innocent t9 1 t eptembcr 1 +3 in th Ljubljana di tri t alone, the person were in question, I was obliged to remo e them. ' I Ii n fo r e· h t 1 ,ooo per·on a· h ta e did to death with A another example, the following quotation from Report re t brutality over ,ooo per on (even man • who had air ady ~ 1o. 4 may serve : heen acquitt d by th infamou Ljubljana Italian :\lilitary " A example, we will quote the ca e of one of many hundreds oun ), urned down ,, ,ooo h me , completely razed and of villages destroyed in the ill-famed Fa cist offen ive which pill a ed oo ,ilia and de patched 3, ·oc person to vari u was e n on 16 July 19+2 a ain t the . lovene people, that on entration amp· in Italy. (T tal population of thi area of Babno-Polje in the Cabar di ·trict. The fir t wave of the oo 000). Ten f thou and of .~lovene pa ed throu h occupational armed forces in its pa a0 e through this villa e, the han of the Ljubljana Que tura (Police Headquarter ), took nine peasants who were hay-makin to be uide - a few wher they were ubjected to• mo t terri le tortures, and day later their were found at Jerrnen-dol. The " men were rap d and brutall • u ed to death. The :\lilitary second wave of the Italian armed forces arre ted 9 male urt in Ljubljana ·entenc d thousands of per on to im­ persons in this villa e, of whom 40, after ind cent torture, ri ·onment fo r long period or fo r life, and of the e it i known were machine- unned on '.\Iount Vrazjo-\'rhov. Four other that on the l land of Rab, over -t, ·oo per on were later done men were thr wn alive into the pit in which these 40 men were to death y · t rYati n. " buried. Eighty-three persons belonging to thi village were .-\ e nd qu tation from Report ;\O. + will illu trate the interned, of whom 19 died on the I le of Rab. Houses in condi ion which at thi time pr ,·ailed in lovenia : thi Yillage were razed to the round on three occa ions, two "By Rep rt ;\O. 50 of 27 July 19+i Emilio asano o, on July 25 and 30 and finally, on order from Lieutenant i,·i l mmi· ar at ernomelj, info rmed razioli that he had \'er no, the villa e was completely destroyed. · razed 120 home in the nei hbourino Yilla es, and that 2 o A examples of what , as meant by · cross-examination ' ' pt:rson were under rre·t in ernomclj and :\letlik ready for under the principles of '' Roman justice,'' the following internment. Ily Re ort ;\ . 17 of 1 Au t 19+2 he stated quotation from Report ~o. 17 may be iven : that the number of pri oner· had ri · n to ·oo that home ..,,·ere ' Marshal* l\ladoglio, Captain Giovanni and arabinieri burnin all r und him, and that eneral :\Iaccario was taking por tortured Toman Antun. tane Kovac and Jozica part personally in the · op rati n .' n week later on imoncic. For some hours they were kept hanging by chains Augu t 19+2 he informed razioli that by orders of olonel on a wall, they were beaten in the region of the kidneys until F. iancab;lla ommandcr of the - rd ' omo ' Infantry thev, fainted , needles were driven under their nails, for eleven R iment, a numb r of hou c in the nei hbourhood of •'.\tarshal '.\ladoglio; "marshal " here. lt:ilian •· mareschallo '', i a ~Report :-:o. 12 . ba,eJ on ,1Jd1t1orul e,idencc. ho\\ed the number to ha,·c gendarmery ronk roughly corrcsp nding to Quarter-master. and not to be been a hii;:h a. 4.;00 p n.ons. lt.1 l1Jn ~c rct report~ ~tateJ them rtality in onfused with" '.\1arshal" ·' Fieldmarsh:il." their "" c,1mp, to rc.:ich 2· 0 0 ! 65 66 days they were given no food , and finally they were stood wa to trace and seize property and anything of value, and he again t a wall , while a farce of pretended hooting was played achieved brilliant results." before them. eneral Gambara wa dir ctly concerned in Finally, we may quote from Report ~ . 12, mainly con­ cerning the work of the Supreme Commi sar of Italy for the thi . " Finally , in this matter of organi ed cruelty, the following Ljubljana area, Emilio Grazioli, who " when he left Ljubljana pa a e from Report No. 17 may be given in order to illustrate after the fall of Fascism, plundered the Palace of the Dan, the univer ality of the crime. from village to village in the removing ru , candelabra, furniture, about 35 kilogrammes of gold, a number of sack of coffee, and many other variou . lovene land . •· olohel di Negro, Commander of the 1st Regiment of the goods, which had fallen into hi hands as a result of the con­ ranatieri de ardegna and Lieutenant Guiseppe Torno, at fiscation of the property of' rebels.' ' the end of Au ust in the village of Travnik shot five peaceful civilian whom they had taken with them as guides, while at Lo ki Potok they killed four school-teachers and eleven pea ants, burnino down 87 houses and I 38 other buildings in \ (c) "J or IAL" RIME .. the villa e. At rednja Vas, they burned down seven houses, at Hrib four and at Retje four. Torno robbed and interned a Whereas in Reports ~os. 4, 12, r6 and 17, as we have seen, tar e number of people, particularly in egova Vas. Colonel it wa impos ible for the tate Commi sion to separate civilian Pau ini , on 6 June 1942 burned down three farm properties repression from military repression, since from the outset of the in the villa e of Dragi, robbed 16 peasants and shot eight occupation by Italy of further Yu oslav territory the civilian villa ers. l n June 1942 Leiutenant :\1. Angelli ordered the authorities worked in closest contact with the military b ming do,,;n of 70 buildings in the villa e of Ravna, and the authorities, the crime review d in those report- have primarily fl and arre t of all the men. At Kocevska Reka seven a military character reports :'.\os. 25 and 2 deal more parti- were hot. At Podgora the property of twelve ularly with crimes committed hy the Italian tate, which p r·on · wa· burned down , and in the village of Golo on thou h frequently involving or making u e of the armed force f the tate, and being moreover crimes re ulting from the 2~ July 194-2 twelve innocent ,·illa er were shot .. . .. etc.' latent tate of war over twenty y ar in the Julian Region lat r In addition it mu t be recorded that be ide the destruction which with the inva ion of more Yuuo lav territ ry, hecame of human life, enormou material

(. pecial Tribunal for the Defence of the tate). A consider- It is necessary to present this story of Italian repression of ble part of the a tivit_ f thi Tribunal was the prosecution men guilty only of wishing to develop their own Slav way of anJ per e ution of Yu lav , principally lovene and , life, as a sum of years, in order to emphasise the measure of not nly tho e who were Italian ubjects in the Julian Region, the human suffering, the enforced ~terility of mind, to which but to ether \,·ith the e. many Yu o !av ubjects arrested in the " Roman civilisation " was capable of condemning leading the Re ion as well as Yu o !av ubjects in tne area newly men of another people. British public opinion universally cu pied in April , 19.p. condemns Italy as a whole for acquiescing in the deliberate The trial in the court e tabli hed by thi pecial Tribunal subjugation of African peoples. It should be reminded that wer conducted in di re ard of all reco ni ed principle of in the heart of Europe, fellow Europeans of ancient culture court procedure, in that p rsons brought before them were could be sentenced to an average of 14½ years of terrible condemned without the accusin authorities being called imprisonment, equivalent to a 1iving death, for also refusing up n to submit any proof of their accusations. to be thus subjugated. For it must also be recorded that the The e trial form part of the whole machinery of Italian conditions of imprisonment in Italy were such that a long . crime a ain t Yu o lav nationals and the Yugoslav State. sentence of imprisonment was equivalent to sentence to death. Report ~ o. 25 cite as many a 33 different roup trials as In respect of the crimes committed in cold blood under this example of Italian method Three examples will be iven heading by the Fascist Special Tribunal, the Yugoslav State her . Commission claims as war criminals a long list of Consul­ n q ecember 19.p a lovene . niversity lecturer, Generals, Generals and others employed in the Tribunal Dr Lavo la\' ermelj, to ether with 59 other young Yugoslavs included in the list of Italian war criminals so far named, at the were tried at Trie te before a pecial Tribunal for a motley end of this boQJc. Ii c of irredenti t acts, including an alle ed attempted assas- Report o. 28 is principally concerned with the activity and ination of '.\l u lini. Five of the accused were executed; responsibility of General A. Bergonzi, Commandant of " Civil the remainder w re entenced to long term of imprisonment. Defence " in the Julian Region, with headquarters at Videm. The ccond reat trial was ta ed in Rome on 25 June 1942 We have already in Chapter 1 dealt with Italian acts of again t 22 a cu ed, e\·en of whom had e caped. ::-.line were repression committed in this district before the war. The xecuted, the e\'en ther in apti,·ity bein entenced to task of General Bergonzi was that of supervi in " Civil ~o years penal sen ·itude ea h. Defence " durin the war in this Yugosla,·-populated comer of The third reat trial wa ta ed in Rome on 13 October 1942. what was at the outset f the war till by International Law, Fi\·e were xe uted, the ther entenced t Ion term of Italian territory. impri onment. Here it is important to record that if there had been any Alt ether, in the our e fit~ activity intended, in auro's doubt about the state of war existing in this area between the own word , to effe t " l'eliminazione dello lavi mo "(Figure Italian tate and the Yugoslav population between 1918 and 9 (i i) ('' the elimination of the lav idea '') the pecial 1941, there was no question of the state of war following the Tribunal entenced 20 other per on to death, 31 other per ons A.xis attack on Yugoslavia. • ot merely did the Yu oslav to 30 year penal en·itude, 21 other person to 24 years penal peoples of the Yugoslav tate as it then was ri e in March Cffi tude, and excluding tho e entenced to death or life 1941 again t their own appeasing Government. and take a impri onm nt, 16o ther pe on a total of 2, 41 year penal tand on the side of the · nited !\ations, in the war against en·i ude, or an a\'er.ige o 14~ ye r per per on. Fasci m and :"\azism. They were joined wh le-heartedly by ....

( thei r Yu oslav kinsfolk in the Julian Re ion, who also placed twenty y"'ars of trying to treat them as Italians, were proving a them ·el ves on the side of the United Kation . serious fighting element on the United -ations' side, are · Italian official papers captured reveal that General Bergonzi also interesting. Bergonzi's terms of reference were to ensure ent dai l report to the . upreme Command of the Italian the civil defence of an area which had been regarded as Italian rmy in Rome c ncernin the work of the Yu oslav -ational for those 23 years of Italian misrule. His was a separate Liberation fi hter who were in action from Fiume and Pulj command from that of Grazioli, upreme Commissar in the in the outh f thi area, from T rieste and Gorica to the then immediate hinterland of the Julian Region, the Ljubljana frontier at Po tojna and the Predil Pa near Tarbiz between district. That was quite logical, since Grazioli's territory was the Julian Re i n and arinthia. newly conquered, and merely occupied Yugoslav territory, At the time when thi work was vital for the Anglo-American " annexed " only b the Axis disregard of all existing inter­ armie n a ed in the, at one time, desperate struggle with the national laws and customs. But Bergonzi 's ultimate proposal Afrika Korp in Xorth Africa, the Yu o lavs of the Julian for mastering the serious menace to the Axis presented by the Region were, in the word of Report :-i!o. 2 , paraphrasing Julian Yugoslavs fighting with the was of Ber onzi' report , ' in ee ~antly day after day attacking traios extreme simplicity. It was nothing less than to extend to the and mot ri ed tran po rt on the hi h road , mining roads, Julian Region the very measures adopted in the newly invaded railways, tracks and \·iaduct , cutting down electric power territory under the jurisdiction of Grazioli and the military ( pylons telc raph and telephone po ts, de troying aqueducts, command of Roat~. The same proposal we find repeated warehou. e , fr ntier-po ts, trong point and factorie . " less than a month later, on 10 August 1942, in Report ~o. :\1oreover, the c Yu o !av parti ans, so Ber onzi complained 1 507, made by Bergonzi 's Deputy, General Ci~cabo .. Cic~abo were " pre\·entin the er an workers in fact(¥"ies and forest stated that the activity of " rebels," (i.e., Italian anti-fascists) from w rkin ; makin ince ant attacks on guards and patrol ·, within the frontiers of " old Italy " was growing, ar:td was di arm in oldier , eizin · arm and equipment stores." supported by the" allogeno " (i.e., aJien Yugoslav) population. A examrle, Report • o. 549 of 20 July '1942 from Bergonzi He, too, suggested that the measures already a~opted ~n the ay that all group of rebel consi t of Italian citizen incited Ljubljana province should be extended to _the Julta_n ~eg1on. by" all eno ' per on i.e. , by Yug !av . These significant proposals were a cardinal adm1ss1on of the Here, a in all Ber onzi' reports to Rome and also in the continuity of crime against the outh Sl~v peoples for nea~ly replie to Ber onzi from Rome, the political attitude of the a quarter of a century by the Italian tate. For the repressive Italian authorities mu t be ob erved. For over twenty years measures, criminal by all civilised standards of la\~ and custo_m , they had refu ed the . outh lav of the Julian Re ion any which had been applied with increasing rigour m t~e Julian ri hts as a minorit_, clas ifyina them resolutely as Italian Region, were not to be applied to the newly occupied_ area , ubjects and treating any refu al to be ltaliani ed as but the unheard-of wholesale crueltie introduced m the " rebellion. " ).;°ow we ce the attempt to a e as Italians the newly occupied areas were to be extended backwards into the population of the J ul ian Re ion, lovene or roat, abandoned Julian Region. . . as u ele . They ar no I n er referred to a Italian rebels. Thus after the summer of 1942 in the Julian Region The have bec~m , by open confe ion, " allogenos " or followed a sorry series of mas arrests, burning of villages, and shooting of hostages. Two examples may be quoted. On prop al f r dealin with the ituation, in which 9 August 1942 a day before Ciccabo made t~e ~eport we have " aJlo enou person ," admitted a uch after more than ju t quoted, the Carabinieri Officer, :\1arom Ciro, had fallen 71 j 2 in a skirmi h with Yugo !av resistance forces. Six peasants of the nei hbourin village of U tje were immediately seized and shot, 1 hou es were razed to the ground, and some 300 innocent old men, women and children removed to another (d) CRIMES I MONTENEGRO. A D DALMATIA. villa e, the remainin men bein taken to _a concentration camp. (Report ·o. 2 ) . At the other extreme of the Adriatic coast of Yugoslavia, On 2 :\lay 1944 Itali an endarmerie tationed at Trie te immediately south of Dalmatia, is Montenegro, descending vi ited the \·ilia e of abrovec. The arrested and shot nine to the sea in the Gulf of Kotor. Here, in the Italian attempt person , includin a five-year-old child, and a man in his to execute the plan outlined in Tamaro's work " La Venetie sixtie , then fired the \·ilia e, aft r throwin the dead bodies Julienne et la Dalmatic," the corollary to the seizure of into on of the hou e . (Report ~o. 4). Dalmatia and the Gulf ·of Kotor was inevitably the seizure of Apart from the lar e numbers shot in village after villa e • the mountains of Montenegro which command the Gulf. from 1941-1 945 , thou and upon thousands of the citizens The crimes committed by the Italian Forces in Montenegro of I tria, T rie te and the ounty of ('orica wert in the cours of are dealt with in Reports os. 2, 3, 11, 1 3 and 14. a little o\·cr a y ar n unded up and ta.ken to Italian concen­ Report No. 2 principally cites . later tration camp in the Lipari I le and el ewhere. Large Minister of Foreign Affairs in Mussolini's Government, number of thes , fo ll win the capitulation f Italy in October, General Alessandro Pirzio-Biroli, General Tucci, Commander 194., were handed over to the German , who transferred them of the '.\1essina Division, and General Marotta, who was to the mo t notori us f erman concentration camp , namely, President of the Court Martial. lazzolini for some time Dachau, u chwitz ( \ i czim), '.\Ialhau en and others. occupied the post of • upreme Commissar for l\lontenegro, Finally, in the la· t throes of Axis :-e i tance, the north­ with full authority over both military and civilian personnel. we_ tern corner of Yugoslav populated territory centred on oder his administration a whole series of crimes of repression Tne _t e was the cene of a la t de perate stand by Italian and annihilation were committed in Montenegro. At a later Fa c1 t and ther fa ci t and '.\azi group . The innumerable date the post of 'upreme Commissar was cancelled, and in his crime committed in the I t sta e of alien occupation of place, as l\lilitary Governor of Montenegro, was appointed Yu ? l:w nati nal territory by these de peradoes, cau ing a General Alessandro Pirzio-Biroli, who continued the policy of pec1al to the Yu slav Army to come to the urgent r pression. General Tucci made his headquarters in the uccour of the 1 ca l Yu o· lav population, will be the subject capital of Montenegro, , and in this capacity, apart of a pecial upplementary Report. from issuing orders to the forces under his command for the \Ve have o far , revi ew d Italian crime in the north-western execution of acts of repression, he al o served as Pre ident di tri of ~u _o lavia, bein the ubject of Reports of the of Court l\Iartial in Cetinje. tate omm1 100 fo r the ' Investi ation of the Crimes Apart from this Court there was a regular ourt '.\1artial at of the Invader and Their A si tant " );os. 4, 12, 16, 17, 25, etinje under General Marotta, re ponsible for the execution 2 , 46 and 49. of hundreds of Mont ne rin civilian . Report No. 2 contains a rim list of victims both of the shooting squad and of the pri on and concentration camps et up by the Italian forces in '.\1ontene ro in which the conditions of confinement were uch that imprisonment was 73 74 pra ticall equivalent in many case to entence to death by small and scattered villages and minute towns. Throughout torture. this country under Italian occupation a systematic reign of Apart from the pri ons and con entration camp set up in terror prevailed. In the larger part of Montenegro there is Montenegro itself, it ha been so far established that as many not a single parish which has not suffered in lives and property. as 9 ,703 Montenegrin men, women and children were interned Frequent reference is made in aJI these reports to the co­ in Italy, di tributed amon a many as 195 intecnment camps. operation offered by Yugoslav , notably Chetnik ondition of confinement in these Italian camps need no bands under the direct command of General Draza . lihailovic. detailed description. They can be judged be referetlce to Report • o. 46 (Chapter iii) also records that towards the end the already well-known condition in the German concen­ of 19.p Sauro obtained a special audience with Mussolini tration amp . • ince the total population of the relative part to submit to him ·an important report on proposals made by of ::\lontene ro in 19.p did not exceed 300,000, this means " prominent persons " of and , who wished that fully one-third of the population was removed either to to get in touch with the Italian authorities to discuss the Italian die or to suffer permanent ruin of health. future in the Balkans and" subversive movements "on former Report No. 3 i principally concerned with the work of Yugoslav territory. Pirzio-Birc,,li and officers under his command, and is in effect, Later, on 29 January Sauro S'mt Mussolini a detailed report :1 continuation of Report !\o. 2. In the first place, it quotes on this whole question, which is concerned with his contacts ,- from the handbook i sued by Pirzio-Biroli, as Governor of with Dobrosav Jevdjevic and other plenipotentiaries of Draza ::\lontene0 ro, to the Italian forces fighting in :.vtontenegro. Mihailovic, who was at th i1 t time already in contact with Apart from some dubious Axi propaganda about the " com­ certain Italian generals. muni m of talin allied to English old," this handbook is Thi work of Yugosl:-.v quislings will be the ubject of a principally concerned with incitin the Italian soldiery to separate account of qu:,:;ling war crimes in Yugo lavia. There cast aside all s ruple in dealing with the Yugoslav resistance too will be found tl-.e full story of Italian crime in the hi.nter­ force . " Hate thi people _! ' it reads. " This is the people land of the Adriatic coast, i.e., in Bosnia-Herzegovina for a ain t whom we have fought for centuri on the shores of par excellence in that part of Yugo lavia from the outset the Adriati . Kill , hoot, bum and de troy this people ! of Axis occupation Italian action is in eparable from that of Do not believe the man who shares a las with you, nor even German forces, tooether with Pavel itch u ta, ha, :\1ihailovic the man who iv you information. Do not believe the chetnik and Neditch forces, though there i no uggestion in woman wh o offers y u a mile ... ·, thi that the uilt of Yugoslav qu_i !in in Bo nia-Herzegovina Report ~ . i,·e a fu rther lvn Ii t of victims and tate- (or anywhere else in Yugoslavia) or the co-operation of G rm~n ment con ernin wholt:·ale hootin of h ta forces, in any way exculpates the Italian tat from 1t Uilt Report· ):o . 11 r and r+ continue to fill in detail of the fo r l ng-planned and systematic infringement of fundamental story outlined in Rep rt ~ o . 2 and 3. international law and civilised human usage . The t ry in ea h of the e report is the ame. A they J:inally, in considering the criminal rec rd f th~ Ttali ~n come t Ii ht, details oncerning one distri t after another tate and of respon ible ltalian tatc men and officer in ar hein publi hed. The full reckonin has yet to be made. Y~ oslavia, we have to return to the fir t report published by the In on iderin what ha be n done here, the economic and Yu oslav tate Commission for the " Investigation of the social conditi n· in th hi hland of ::\lontenegro must be rimes of the Invaders and ·Th~ir A i !ant ' which deal taken into ac ount. This i · notoriou ly a p r country, with with Italian crimes in Dalmatia. Th:s r p rt cites a Ion 11 t 75 of Italian hi 0 h Ricers and official , as well as lesser ranks. endeavour to establish permanent Italian po e ion of what Foremo t amon these is iuseppc Bastianini, fir t Governor was proposed as the reward which had actuated Italy in f Dalmatia, one tin, . mbassador to the ourt of 't. James enterin the 1914-18 war on the side of the Allies, yet which nd hi~ uc e ' or iunta. in 1917 Italy was prepared to relinquish in order to make The fundamental do urnent on which Italian war crimes in peace had Germany and Austria bee·n ready for thi (" Lloyd Dalmatia re t, is the Order promul ated by Guiseppe eorge War '.\1emoirs," \'olume 2, paO'e 11 9.) Ba tianini as overnor of Dalmatia on 7 June 1942. This first rder con erned the area of the territory annexed to the administrative di trict of Zadar, which, though separated fr m ltalian-anne · cl Yugosla\· national territory by many miles of Yu o·lav tate territory, uotil the 1941 seizures was (e) O~CLC IQ:-.;. in luded in the Julian Region adn{inistrative area. But by ub equent orders f Ba tianini and hi successor Giunta To summarise once again the area of the e innumerable thi Order \,a extended to the whole of Dalmatia, includin~ crimes reviewed here, it consists of: parts of the coa t which were at first claimed by the Ustasha Firstly- The Yugoslav inhabitTreaty of Rapallo in 1920, and the area of their pla c of domicile should be shot without trial. i'i; ttuno Convention of 1922 (the'· Julian Re ion") ; The basic order further made preci e regulations, such as that econdly-The. districts annexed immediately after the c n erning the area et ·een brovac and Zegar by which no Axis . in April, 1941, namely, the food supplie wer to be distributed until at least eight persons eastern hinterland of Trieste and the Julian Alps, bein the f each village pre ented themselves to the local command to " ," and the Yu 1 oslav littoral \,1th serv as h ta e of the district at the disposition of the hinterland immediately around the Port of Zadar, and between Italian for es. Any infrin em nt of any order was to be this and Fiume ; puni hed by shootin . Yet lest this should not be a eneral Third/y--"'Yiontenegro in the south, a the hinterland enou h threat of terror, !au e 5 of the basic order al ·o o\·erlooking the Gulf of Kotor ; and pr \·i d d that' ·· in every a e, on orders of the aforementioned Fourthly-The whole of the remainder of the Yu oslav authoritie . an person who ive any upport or a i tance littoral, in between the northern area (Julian Re ion, I tria. \\ hat e\'er to the work of the Parti an hould be hot." Zadar, etc.) and the outh (Gulf of Kotor). Finally, it must be recorded that these Italian crimes, as In Report :-.; o 1 , a in th r tatements made by the Yu oslav , tate mmi. wion a I n Ii t of mas shootin without trial borne out by the evidence po ses ed by the Yu o· lav " tate destructi on f propert , a t of torture of individuals and ommission for the Investigation of the Crime of the terr ri ati on f · whole di trict , a well as of the deliberate lm·aders and Their Assistanr,' con titute a planned attempt ann_ihilati n of p oplc and h me in distri t~ regard d by the to exterminate the whole outh !av populati n of the Adriatic ltal1an as key cntre fo r coloni ati n, has been filed. and it hinterland, by deportation of population, terrori ation Alto ether this on titut s a devastatin indictment f the with a view to enforcin renunciati n of Yu 0 o !av nationality, ru thk · n •' with which the Italian . tate was prepared to and beer annihilation. l

7 77 Thi Law was introduced in the outh Tyrol to ltaliani;;e names of German origin. In this pro\'ince foreign names other than tho e of German origin or names to which a foreign termination APPENDIX had been added would be extremely rare. There is little doubt but that this Law speaking of" names translated into other tongues " The compulsory ltalianisation of the surnames of innumerable was designed as a basic law to apply :o all the territories newly outh lav families of the Julian Re i n, and the change of others annexed from Austria. And indeed, after various representations under unbearable pre sure wa one of the methods of Italian from Fascist authorities in the Julian Region, a Royal Decree oppression. It was accompanied by the change of all possible ~o. 494 of 7 April 1927 was promulgated, for the" extension to all place name . territories of our new province of the provisions contained in the The hi tory of 1tali .an _le ~station co~cerning change of family and Roya} Decree of 10 January 1926 No. 17 concerning restitution place nam_es of the :ipplicat1on of Italian laws concerning these, and of surnames of the families of the Julian Region to an ltaliap form. of the arbitrary change of names by local authorities without regard " The restoration to the Italian form will be' declared by a Decree for the existing laws, may be of intere t. of the Prefect of the province, of which the persons interested will bi! The rrovi ions of the old Civil Code of the notified, and which will be published in the Official Gazette of the concerni.ng changes of personal name were designed quite Kingdom and recorded in the official population registers. natu:a_lly not_to faci_litate uch procedure l>ut to make adequate " Any person who following the restoration of his name makes use prov1s1on ag:11n t arb_1trary o_r fri\"Olous changes, and to see that any of a surname in foreign form, will be punished by a fine of from change was duly reg1 tered m all n cessary official records. 500 to 5,000 lire." The pro,·isions are contained in Chapter VIII (Article ll9) of a This Decree was made law by an Act of 2~ May 1926 :--;o. 9 . Royal Decree No. 2602 of 15 .. o,·ember 1865 which is based on By these Acts a facade of legality was g~ven to the ltalianisation of Law 10. 2215 of 2_ Apri~ 1865 and Royal Decree 1 o. 2358 of outh lav personal and place names in the Julian Region . The 25 J,une 1 65. ThJs Af1;1cl~ of _Chapter VIII of the Law lays thesis of the Italian tate was that a large number of names were of down that any person w1 hmg either to change his surname or Italian or Latin origin but had been slavicised. A dictionary of to_add some other name to this should make application to the these names and their Italian equivalents was drawn up by a special Kmg thr?u~h the 1\linistry of Justice, giving reasons for his request commission, and all persons bearing these names were obliged to and _furm _hmg a certificate and other documents. Clauses 120 to accept the Italian form. A sample page from this dictionary is 125 inclusive made further provision for publication in the Official gi\'en here (Fig n p. 37), in which it will be seen that even so Gazette and other authorised newspapers of the proposal to effect ob,·iously slavonic a name as Hor,;at i.e .. Croat, is to be changed a change of name and for a period of four months to elapse before to re,;ato while other derivati,·es ar'! to be changed in a imilar any further step could be taken during which any objections to a way ; thus so that Horvat becomes Crcvato Her,atich becomes hange of name could be lotjged. Crevati, Her,;atin Crevatin, and so on. . After t~e 191~-1 war, two areas of former Austrian territory Thus a cloak f legality howev~r spurious wa gi,·en. Person were acquired y Italy namely the outh Tyrol known in Italian with umames recognized by the Italian authoritie a indubitably parlance a th_e Tr~ntin?, ~nd the Julian Region known in Italian not of Latin origin were merely pre ed themsel\'e . to apply f?~ a parlance as v en_ezia

.... • i9 80 names. It would therefore only be possible to prooe that IVANICH considerably before the Fascist :\larch on Rome and a umption is derived from GIOVA NI or" Johnson " or is not so derived, by of power. A Commi sion Extraordin~ry functioned in the Juli~n consultation of family trees, or by circumstantial evidence such as Region in the immediate post-war penod, and i r example by its that provided by the fact that derivatives of IVAN (Old Slavonic Act No. 5672 of 21 December 1921 igned by Pier Domini o ioannu) are to be found scattered in their tens of thousands, if chjavi determined a list of Croat and ' lo\·ene urnames of the not millions throughout the comparatively vast populations of all district' under chia\'i's authority and the new Italian names which the Slav countries, while derivatives of JOH. or GIOVANNI are were to be applied in place of ~hem. . . . . comparatively rarer in Italy. Thus here too in the detailed question of the Italian1 ation of Take another example provided by the Italian " restoration of names, it must b; obsen·ed that there was continuity of act(on by names " dictionary- BOZHICH or BOZIC. This is a fairly the Italian imperialist intere_ ts throu&hout the whole penod_ of common outh Slav name, from Adriatic to Black Sea. It is a occupation of the Julian Region fo_llow11~g the fin act of f~rc1ble derivative of bog or " God." In the supposed Italian " original annexation of this area by the Italian Liberal Go\'ernment in the fonn" we see only a comparatively rare Italian name. autumn of 191 Sl. . One example more : to the unitiatcd DEBELL! might seem 1. For the interest they offer, we ap~cnd reproduction (reduc~d quite a reasonable Italian name-form built on the Latin helium hy one-half linearly) of a nui:nbe: of docu~ents f~om the _official or bellus. It is offered in this Italian " restoration of name" Italian archi\'es of the authont1 in the Julian Region, which are dictionary as the original of the good South Slav name DEBELJAK illu trati\·e of the action pursued by the Italian tate. or DEBELIAK. How many Italians may not have murmured indignantly reading this ridiculous dictionary, against the Slav Figure r3 (p. 3 ) . barbarians who added so " bru~o" a termination as the Slavon·c Letter from the Pode ta of Al bona to the Prefect of I tna at ak to the . beautiful word " of Italian or Latin origin." Pola, stating that : " l n this commune the sla,·ici ed surname Unfortunately, DEBELJAK is indubitably of Balkan ::;lav origin. were largely corrected by measures taken by a De~ree of th~ ?m­ It is derived from Turkish TEMBEL = lazy. In the South mi sion Extraordinary of 21 December, 1921 :S o. 56i_2. fhe Slav languages following the common law of migratory words, a Podesta further reports that 300 personal name co,·enng about special case of the original meaning has taken root, and debeli 1 900 families in his area have a'lready been changed, and iOO place mean , not lazy but " fat." DEBELJAK is a name which par names. Therefore, there remain only ome 50 more names to be excellenc denotes a Balkan lav origin. changed . Finally we may glance again at the initial order of the Com­ mi ion Extraordinary. This, dealing with only the more striking Figure I,+ (i) (1i ) (pp. 39, 40) . mark of " foreign deformation " deleted the final ch of the opy of a circula: froi:1 the_P~efect of the (?uarnero concerning outh Slav urname of many families. One may imagine the the extention to \ 'enez1a Giulia of the articles of the law of 10 ~0 rea tion f cot or lri hrnan, had Whitehall attempted to turn January, 1926, giving legal (orm a~d camouflage 1 the ~\'Or~ of them all into as enachs, by removing the " Mac!' from their Italianisation already begun. fhe circular says: In t~1 s \\Ork name . Yet to the philologian, Mac at the beginning of a Gaelic it hould be borne in mind that it is a case solely of restormu to the name or -ich at the end of a la\'Onic name, are not merely formally ori{(i11al form urnames of Italian or Lati11 origi11 whi~h ha\'e bc~n the ame both being indications of descent, but are also philo­ deformed and not of changing names of non-Italian or Latin logically the same the " M " of Mac being merely a phonetic origin ." ince the rea o~ability of_this _p_ro:·,i ion was depen?~nt prefi o that from the philolo ian · tandpoint Gaelic J\1ac or ac, on the definition of " Italian or Latin ongm and such definit!on Wei h ap and lavonic -id1 are identical. solely on arbitrary and tend_en~iou_s lt~l ian decision this in truct1on It i noteworthy however that this fiction of legality by which is merely guidance how ltal1an1 a~ 1on I to be cloaked. per onal names admitted by the Italian authorities not to have had Italian or Latin ori in, are to be chang d only on application of Figure 15 (i) (ii) (pp. ,+1 , ,+2) . the h ad of the family bearin the name was maintained by legis­ Letter from the Ministry of J usti(ie to the Prefect of th_e Prov1~ce lation after the a umption of power. But a large measure of of Pola (I stria) informing him of the extension to the J ult an Reg!on compulsory It liani ation of names had already been accompli hed of Articles I and 2 of the Law of 10 January 1926, concerning by the Ital ian local authorities in tht: n \ ly annexed Julian Region change of names in the outh Tyrol. Figu re 16 (i) (ii) (pp. +3· H ) Letter from Lazza ri ni, Pode-ta of :\!bona, to the Prefect of Pola. transmitting to him a c py of the " note," i.e., pro\·i i n of >7 o . .- 6i2 of 21 Deccmher r 2 1 " with which th then ·ommi :ir E, traordinary. Pier Dominico 'chiaYi proc eded to the rectification o sl:l\·i·ed urnames ... ·• and pointin out that since ther \\ as no kgal machinery for the r ·gistratio n of uch name. (i ., name· forcihly changed) the matter \\'a - no t put in proper order. '.'\e\'crthe­ less, '' ... tacitly in the ·cl1ools, con ription Ii ts and rnriou · subsequent register· con crning the population, urnamc were in crihcd in the corrc t form. and ha \'C thu attain ed pul lie usage." Lazzarini oncludc· hy ohsen ing tha t as in HJ2 t only th mo t ol \'iou mark of ·la\ ism (th· omrni · ar Extra rdinary had men:!\' laid do\\'n that" the t1.:rmination r h is always to be arnided ") were · remo\·ec.J and " more radical rran · fo rm:1tion " wcr ' no undertakcn. it was no\\' nece ·sa rv " mo reo\·er common en e (co n Latto e h11u11 .r11w ) to make a general and thorough re\·i ion 0f the \\hole ma tcr.''

Fig ·1 res 1; (p. +.-) and i.' (p. +6 ) The DircLlor of Edu<:ation of the Julian Region transmit· to school inspector · and secondary scho I master· a special cir ul:ir cnjoininir thcm to hr· ng "tactful p 't'Wasion" to hea r on thei r charges to obtain the maximum I t.1lianisation " of thei r ·urn amc' of fo rci n form." Figure 19 {p. +7 ) The Go\'crnor of the Pro\·ince of l tria , Lazza ri ni, inf rms all " 'ommitte ·s of Patronagi:, " chil d \\'cl fa re organi ·a tio n and aLo he Prefecture of !stria anu the Pro\·incial f deratio n of hild \,.cl arc )rganisa ion of he step· to he ta ke, to l ml ian i e the ' urnamcs of illi:-git1mJte chi! ren.

Figures 20 (p. +·'). :? r (i) (ii) (pp. +9· 50 ). and 2 _ (p. 51 ) Letter from the :\ I in is try of the lnrerior to the Prefect at P la, pointing out thJt \·a nous pensioner· ha\·· fai led t re i. ter the ... proper changed form of their names. ltalo f o hi replie at some len{!\h reporting tha som · .-ri.ooo p ·rsons rec: idc nt in f tria ou t fa total population of 30_,9 'o ha\·e char ~cd their name·, :ind throws part o the hlamc on local au hori ti ·s fo r nor duly reporting the hange of name·. 11 • conclude. by ·ayin that h ha· requc.ted from the Treasur\' au th ri tie in Pola a full Ii t of the per·on. in re cipt f pension· in r tria. in order to be able to make a h rough re\·i·ion of thi· question of chano-e of urnames. The arbitrary mca ure and o·ten·ib'. legislation in Italy regardin the han e of :la\' name to Italian fo rm , i~ the ubject of Report '.'\o. 7- of the tate ommi. ion fo r th " Im·e tiga ti n of the rime of the In\·adcrs and their . si tant·." l'rl11h'd hr ( ·. .). E. J.. \ \''l' :>; l.'1' 11. , 1:1 11<1 rt! 11 11 11,,·, Farri111(1lu11 Kt., ~:.c.4

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