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Geoscience Canada

Comparative Stratigraphic and Geochronological Evolution of the Northern Damara Supergroup in Namibia and the Katanga Supergroup in the Lufilian Arc of Central Africa R. McG. Miller

Volume 40, Number 2, 2013 Article abstract The Damara Supergroup in Namibia and the Katanga Supergroup in the URI: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/geocan40_2pfh02 Central African Copperbelt (some 1000 km apart) are characterized by rock successions indicative of almost coeval orogenic evolution through phases of See table of contents intracontinental rifting, spreading, continental rupture, subduction, ocean closure and continental collision in what appears to have been a single, elongate orogenic belt. Rifting began at about 880 Ma and lasted until about Publisher(s) 800 or 756 Ma. Post-rift thermal sag and marine transgression produced the first correlatable stratigraphic units, the argillaceous Beesvlakte and Ore Shale The Geological Association of Canada Formations, in northern, carbonate-dominated platformal successions on the Damaran Northern Platform and the Katangan Lufilian Arc or Fold Belt, ISSN respectively. Sturtian (~735 Ma) and Marinoan (635 Ma) glacial units are common to both successions as well as syntectonic molasse sequences 0315-0941 (print) (~595–550 Ma). Continental collision occurred at about 542 Ma and the 1911-4850 (digital) post-tectonic peak of regional meta-morphism was at about 535–530 Ma. Mineral ages record cooling to about 460 Ma. The extensive occurrence of Explore this journal stratabound, but not stratiform, copper mineralization, evaporitic minerals, salt and thrust tectonics, syntectonic breccias, and intense alteration in the Lufilian Arc have no significant equivalents in the Northern Platform. Cite this article However, the Beesvlakte Formation has both concordant and strongly discordant styles of copper mineralization and the mode of occurrence of Miller, R. M. (2013). Comparative Stratigraphic and Geochronological Evolution mineralization in the Copperbelt can be a guide to exploration in Namibia. of the Northern Damara Supergroup in Namibia and the Katanga Supergroup in the Lufilian Arc of Central Africa. Geoscience Canada, 40(2), 118–140.

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PAUL F. HOFFMAN SERIES

the first correlatable stratigraphic units, débutée il y a environ 880 Ma et s’est the argillaceous Beesvlakte and Ore prolongé jusqu’à 800 Ma ou 756 Ma. Shale Formations, in northern, carbon- Le fléchissement thermique post-dis- ate-dominated platformal successions tension et la transgression marine ont on the Damaran Northern Platform donné les premières unités strati- and the Katangan Lufilian Arc or Fold graphiques corrélables, soit la Forma- Belt, respectively. Sturtian (~735 Ma) tion argileuse de Beesvlakte et la For- and Marinoan (635 Ma) glacial units mation de Ore Shale, de la portion are common to both successions as nord des successions de plateforme well as syntectonic molasse sequences principalement carbonatées sur la (~595–550 Ma). Continental collision Plateforme nord de Damaran et de Comparative Stratigraphic occurred at about 542 Ma and the l’Arc ou de la bande plissée de Katan- post-tectonic peak of regional meta- gan Lufilian respectivement. Les and Geochronological morphism was at about 535–530 Ma. unités glaciaires de Sturtian (~735 Ma) Evolution of the Northern Mineral ages record cooling to about et de Marinoan (635 Ma) sont com- 460 Ma. The extensive occurrence of munes aux deux successions, tout Damara Supergroup in stratabound, but not stratiform, copper comme les séquences de molasses syn- Namibia and the Katanga mineralization, evaporitic minerals, salt tectoniques (~595–550 Ma). La colli- and thrust tectonics, syntectonic brec- sion continentale s’est produite il y a Supergroup in the Lufilian cias, and intense alteration in the Lufil- environ 542 Ma et le pic post-tec- Arc of Central Africa ian Arc have no significant equivalents tonique de métamorphisme régional a in the Northern Platform. However, eu lieu il y a environ 535 à 530 Ma. R. McG. Miller the Beesvlakte Formation has both Selon les datations minérales, le refroidissement s’est produit il y a envi- Consulting Geologist concordant and strongly discordant ron 460 Ma. La prépondérance du PO Box 11222 styles of copper mineralization and the contexte stratoïde plutôt que strati- mode of occurrence of mineralization Windhoek, Namibia forme des minéralisations de cuivre, E-mail: [email protected] in the Copperbelt can be a guide to des minéraux d’évaporites, de sel et de exploration in Namibia. tectonique de compression, de brèches SUMMARY syntectoniques, et d’altération intense SOMMAIRE The Damara Supergroup in Namibia dans l’Arc de Lufilian, n’a pas d’équiva- and the Katanga Supergroup in the Le Supergroupe de Damara en Nami- lent dans la plateforme du nord. Central African Copperbelt (some bie et le Supergroupe de Katanga de la Cependant, la Formation de Beesvlakte 1000 km apart) are characterized by bande cuprifère d’Afrique centrale (dis- présente des minéralisations de cuivre rock successions indicative of almost tant de 1 000 km) sont caractérisés par qui sont ou concordantes, ou forte- coeval orogenic evolution through des successions de roches montrant ment discordantes, et le mode d’occur- phases of intracontinental rifting, une évolution orogénique presque con- rence de la minéralisation dans le spreading, continental rupture, subduc- temporaines dans leurs phases de dis- bande cuprifère peut servir de guide à tion, ocean closure and continental col- tension intracontinentale, d’expansion, l’exploration en Namibie. lision in what appears to have been a de rupture continentale, de subduction, single, elongate orogenic belt. Rifting de fermeture océanique et de collision INTRODUCTION began at about 880 Ma and lasted until continentale, dans ce qui semble avoir A correlation of the Damara Super- about 800 or 756 Ma. Post-rift thermal été une seule et même bande group of Namibia, particularly the sag and marine transgression produced orogénique étroite. La distension a Otavi Group of the Northern Plat-

Geoscience Canada, v. 40, http://dx.doi.org/10.12789/geocanj.2013.40.007 © 2013 GAC/AGC® GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 119 form of the Damara Orogen, with the Katanga Supergroup of the Lufilian Arc or Fold Belt in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (Figs. 1, 2), i.e. the Central African Copperbelt, has long been accepted on the basis of broadly similar rock types, platform-like tectonic settings and geochronological data (Haughton 1963; Cahen and Snelling 1966; Cahen et al. 1984). The two regions underwent approximately coeval phases of rifting, ocean opening and closure, subduction and continental collision. Recent geochronological data are worth inves- tigating further in order to tighten this correlation and to highlight the poten- tial for Copperbelt-type mineralization in Namibia and for Damaran-type lead-zinc mineralization in the Katanga Supergroup. The recognition of two ‘Snowball Earth’ glacial units, the Chuos and Ghaub Formations (~735 Ma and 635 Ma, respectively), in the Damara Supergroup (Hoffmann and Prave 1996; Hoffman et al. 1998a) enable a direct correlation with the Grand and Petit Conglomérat of the Katanga Supergroup (Master and Wen- dorff 2011) to be made. The individual cap carbonates are similar: grey and Figure 1. Relative locations of the Pan-African Damara Orogen and Lufilian Fold laminated above the Chuos Formation Belt in southern Africa (modified after Miller and Schalk 1980; Kampunzu and and Grand Conglomérat, and tan or Cailteux 1999; Porada and Berhorst 2000). pink above the Ghaub Formation and Petit Conglomérat. Dates for many struction of detailed stratigraphic sec- trending Kaoko Belt (Guj 1970; stages in the evolutionary history of tions but they do document a near Goscombe et al. 2003a, b; 2005a, b; these two regions are almost identical. continuous extent of Damaran/Katan- Miller 2008; Miller et al. 2009a, b) and This paper briefly compares gan geology across the 1000 km ‘gap’ its southern equivalent, the Gariep Belt the lithostratigraphy (Table 1) and the between the main exposures in Namib- (Frimmel 2008). The evolutionary rela- chronology of sedimentary, structural ia and DRC/Zambia. tionships of these three belts to each and metamorphic evolution (Tables 2- other are comprehensively covered by 5) in these two major regional succes- GENERAL STRATIGRAPHY AND Frimmel and Miller (2009a, b), Frim- sions. Supporting information is STRUCTURE mel et al. (2009), Germs et al. (2009), gleaned from the adjoining Kaoko, Miller and Frimmel (2009), Miller et al. central Damara, and Zambezi Belts, all Damara Orogen (2009a, b) and Will et al. (2009). The of which evolved coevally with their Namibia’s Damara Orogen, consisting Damara and Kaoko Belts are divided corresponding platform facies. A few of three arms meeting at a triple junc- into contrasting tectonostratigraphic relevant dates from the Nama foreland tion in the region of Swakopmund zones, but the Northern Platform is succession are given. (Miller, 1983a, 2008; Miller et al. 2009a, common to both (Fig. 2). Hedberg Exposures of Neoproterozoic b; Frimmel 2009; Fig. 1), evolved (1979), Hoffman and Halverson (2008) rocks in the Aha Hills along the north- through phases of intracontinental rift- and Miller (2008) provide detail of ern Namibia/Botswana border (Miller ing, spreading, compression and conti- Northern Platform stratigraphy; how- and Schalk 1980), in the Tsodilo Hills nental collision. Appropriate sedimen- ever, the reader needs to be aware that of northwest Botswana (Haughton tary rock facies were deposited during Hedberg’s (1979) Abenab Subgroup in 1969) and within the Zambezi each of these stages in the northeast- the western parts of the platform is supracrustal sequence to the south and trending Damara Belt (Martin 1965; the present Ombombo Subgroup west of Lusaka (Johnson et al. 2007; Barnes and Sawyer 1980; Miller 1983a, (Table 1). Only the ‘transition beds’ in Munyanyiwa and Hanson 1988) are too 2008; Miller et al. 2009a, b; Hoffman the Otavi Mountainland are included in sporadic and meagre to allow the con- and Halverson 2008), the north–south- the Ombombo Subgroup and Hed- 120

Figure 2. Tectonostratigraphic zones of the Damara Orogen (modified and simplified after Miller 2008). The Eastern Kaoko Zone (EKZ) is stratigraphically and structurally continuous with the western edge of the Northern Platform and differs only from the latter in the greater tightness of its folds. The Damaran sequence is continuous beneath the Mesozoic to Cenozoic cover on the Northern Platform. berg’s (1979) Abenab Subgroup in this the rift-phase succession, consists Damara Belt, and as sheet sands or eastern region is equivalent to the mainly of pale pink, hematitic, felds- wedge-shaped deposits, some with Abenab Subgroup in today’s classifica- pathic to arkosic, fluviatile quartzites rapid thickness variations, in numerous tion (Miller 2008). and minor conglomerates that are up half-grabens between and marginal to to 6 km in thickness. These beds accu- the rifts (Miller 2008). The Nosib suc- Intracontinental Rifting mulated in two, parallel, northeast- cession in the Northern Platform fines The Nosib Group (~900 – 756 Ma), trending rifts in the central part of the upwards and becomes highly ferrugi- GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 121

Table 1. Proposed stratigraphic correlation of the Damara Supergroup in the Northern Platform and Northern Margin Zone of the Damara Orogen of Namibia with the Katanga Supergroup in the Central African Copperbelt of Zambia and the Demo- cratic Republic of Congo. Damaran nomenclature is from Miller (1983a, 2008), Hoffmann and Prave (1996), and Hoffman and Halverson (2008). Katangan nomenclature is from Porada and Berhorst (2000), Cailteux et al. (2007), Batumika et al. (2007), Kampunzu et al. (2009) and in part from Selley et al. (2005).

Namibia Zambia and/or Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) SG Group Subgroup; Formation Formation Subgroup; Group SG Age Age 550? Ma Owambo Biano ~550 Ma Kombat Sampwe Kiubo Ngule Tschudi MULDEN ~595 Ma Mongwe 595 Ma 600? Ma Hüttenberg Lubudi Tsumeb Elandshoek Kanianga ~609 Ma Maieberg Lusele Gombela KUNDULUNGU Kyandamu (Petit Ghaub 635 Ma Congl) Auros/ Monwezi Bunkeya Ombaatjie Katete Kipushi Abenab Gauss/ Gruis Kakontwe

Berg Aukas Muombe NGUBA Kaponda /Rasthof ~735 Ma Chuos Mwale (Gr. Congl) 735 Ma Kanzadi Mwashia / 746 Ma

OTAVI Okakuyu Kafubu Mwashya Kamoya 765 Ma

DAMARA DAMARA KATANGA KATANGA Bancroft / Kansuki,

Devede + Mofya-R3.3 Kirilabombwe/ 759 Ma U Kanwangungu / R3.2 Dipeta

Naauwpoort Kibalongo / RGS- (evaporites) Ombombo R3.1

Chingola / Kambove

ROAN Beesvlakte + Pelito-arkosic / Kitwe/ U Dolomitic shales U Mines - R2 Ore Shale / Naauwpoort (evaporites) L Dolomitic shales ROAN /

Kamoto Askevold/ 757 Ma L ?804 Ma Naauwpoort Mutonda Mindola/ RAT1 - R1 Nabis Kafufya (fluvial)

NOSIB 900? Ma Chimfunsi (evaporites) 880 Ma

Rift units Glacial units Cap carbonate Molasse 122 nous (Hedberg 1979). Thick, local per- face (Hoffman and Halverson 2008). 2008). There are a few interbeds of alkaline ignimbrites (Naauwpoort For- The base of the formation consists of pyroclastic rocks related to the final mation), some with associated subvol- recessive purplish phyllite and siltstone pulses of Naauwpoort volcanism. The canic alkaline intrusions, occur at the and channels of pebbly sandstone. overlying Okakuyu Formation consists top of the group just south of the Layers of laminated pink dolomite of cycles of deltaic clastic rocks that southern edge of the Northern Margin increase in number up towards a mid- coarsen upwards but fine and thicken Zone (Frets 1969; Miller 1980, 1983a) dle marker unit of tectonized, weather- northwards. Phyllites in the Okakuyu (Fig. 2; Table 2). Coeval, highly epido- resistant, sericitic dolomite displaying Formation are purplish in colour, and tized leucitites host copper mineraliza- light and dark coloured cherty beds. sandstones reddish brown; a stroma- tion in the Askevold Formation (Miller This unit is capped by microbial lami- tolitic dolomite featuring patches of 1983a; Kombat Suid formation of nite that has an exposure surface at the oolite forms the top of the formation Söhnge 1957). Upper Nosib sedimen- top. The dolomite passes into black (Hoffman and Halverson 2008). The tary rocks locally contain volcanic frag- limestone northwards. Above this are Ombombo Subgroup includes the het- ments (Hedberg 1979). The Nosib highly tectonized, recessive ‘ribbonites’, erolithic siliciclastic and carbonate Group reaches 1200 m in thickness in marly rhythmites and sericitic dolomite ‘Transition Beds’ (Söhnge 1957) in the the platformal Otavi Mountainland and that grade upwards into the basal Otavi Mountainland in the Tsumeb 1500 m in the western parts of the Devede Formation (Hoffman and area (Miller 2008). Northern Platform (Hedberg 1979), Halverson 2008). The Devede Forma- The glaciogenic, Sturtian-age where the Nosib also displays extensive tion, consisting of phyllite and minor Chuos Formation at the base of the potassic alteration (Jennings and Bell carbonate interbeds, is widespread. It Abenab Subgroup (Table 3) contains 2011). Evaporitic rocks occur at the varies in colour from dark grey (main- mainly basement-derived clasts, top of the succession in the southern ly) to light grey or pinkish and is although some clasts are from the rift of the central Damara Belt (Behr described by Hedberg (1979) from sev- immediately underlying Nosib and et al. 1983a, b) and are believed to have eral localities north of the Kamanjab Ombombo rocks. Associated oxide been present near the base of the thick Inlier, where thicknesses vary but reach iron formation (Martin 1965; Roesener sedimentary fill of the northern rift 300 m in the Opuwo area. Martin and Schreuder 1992) is a distinguishing (Weber et al. 1983; Miller 2008). Hoff- (1965) assigned it to the upper Nosib feature (Miller 2008). The dark grey, man and Halverson (2008) report a Group and Hedberg (1979) included it laminated Rasthof Formation in the few pseudomorphs after evaporitic in some of his descriptions of the west (Hedberg 1979; Hoffman et al. minerals at the top of the Nosib in the Nosib succession, although he general- 1998a, b; Hoffman and Schrag 2002; western part of the Northern Plat- ly regarded it either as a transition Hoffman and Halverson 2008) and the form. sequence or the basal part of what was laterally equivalent, fetid Berg Aukas called the Abenab Subgroup at the Formation farther east (Hedberg 1979; Evolution from Rifting to Spreading time (now Ombombo Subgroup). Miller 2008) form a single-cycle, mark- During slow evolution from rifting to The Beesvlakte phyllites near er, cap carbonate succession that is up spreading and final continental rupture the western margin of the Northern to 400 m thick in places. Algal mat in the Damara and Kaoko Belts, the Platform and along the northern edge roll-ups are a feature of the Rasthof siliciclastic-dominated Swakop Group of the Kamanjab Inlier host dissemi- Formation (Hoffman et al. 1998a, b; was deposited in the central part of nated, discordant and possibly concor- Hoffman and Halverson 2008). Pale the orogen and the carbonate-dominat- dant copper mineralization (Schneider grey dolomite grainstone that is locally ed Otavi Group was deposited on the and Seeger 1992). The Beesvlakte For- brecciated and contains fragments Northern Platform and its deeper- mation has been divided informally enclosed in a fibrous isopachous water marginal regions, the Eastern into a thin, basal Omivero formation cement, forms the top of the Rasthof Kaoko Zone and the Northern Margin and lower and upper Omao formation Formation. The Gruis Formation in Zone (Fig. 2). Cyclical deposition typi- by Jennings and Bell (2011) who point the western part of the Northern Plat- fies most units of the Otavi Group in out that most of the approximately form consists of cycles of pink ‘rib- the western part of the Northern Plat- 200 copper showing in the Eastern bonite’ and grainstone averaging 1.5 m form (Hoffman and Halverson 2008). Kaoko Zone and along the northern in thickness (Hoffman and Halverson The Ombombo Subgroup edge of the Kamanjab Inlier occur in 2008). Its equivalent farther east, the (Hoffmann and Prave 1996), which is the Omivero and lower Omao forma- Gauss Formation, is commonly a mas- divided into the Beesvlakte, Devede tions. The Beesvlakte Formation is sive, fragmented light grey dolomite in and Okakuyu Formations (Tables 1, 2), usually recessive (Hoffman and Halver- which fragments are rimmed by coarsens upwards but fines northwards son 2008) and is commonly covered by fibrous isopachous cement. This may in concert with a northward deepening scree, alluvium or thin calcrete (Jen- have developed during rather passive of western parts of the Northern Plat- nings and Bell 2011). slumping, but the solution and remobi- form ‘lagoon’ (Hoffman and Halver- The Devede Formation is lization of evaporites in the formation son 2008; Hoffman 2011). The contact made up of stacked cycles of north- could also be a cause of the fragmen- of the Beesvlakte Formation with ward-fining siliciclastic rocks, grain- tation (Hedberg 1979). The Gruis and underlying rocks of the Nosib Group stones and pinkish stromatolitic car- Gauss Formations have few stromato- appears to be an abrupt flooding sur- bonates (Hoffman and Halverson lites, suggesting rather deep water dep- GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 123

Table 2. Comparative lithostratigraphy of the Nosib Group and Ombombo Subgroup on the Northern Platform of the Dama- ra Orogen in Namibia and the Roan Group in the Central African Copperbelt. Data are compiled from Hedberg (1979), Miller (1983a, 2008), Porada and Berhorst (2000), Cailteux et al. (2005a, 2007), Hoffman and Halverson (2008), Kampunzu et al. (2009) and in part from Selley et al. (2005).

NAMIBIA: Ombombo Formation Formation ZAMBIA & DRC: Roan Group Subgroup (upper part), Nosib Group (lower part) U Mwashia: shale, siliceous dolomite, conglomerate, oolitic chert, pseudomorphs after gypsum, upward shallowing & exposure. Local pyroclastics; hematite & pyrite in lower half Thin, upward-coarsening, deltaic Mwashia L Mwashia: dolomitic shale, grey–black carbonaceous cycles of brown-weathering shale, sandstone; Lwava volcanics; Mufulira – 10-40 siltstone, sandstone, Okakuyu Mwashya m thick shale-sandstone, shale-dolomite-sandstone conglomerate Subgroup cycles, oolites at top; hematite, pyrite, pyroclastics in places DRC: massive, stratified and algal dolostones, dolomite grainstones; jasper beds, pyroclastics, hematitic Cyclical dolomitic shale, sandy dolomite, dolomite, (ex: Bancroft Carbonate Unit or U. Roan); start carbonate very Kansuki, D: 5-25 m thick cycles of Devede (D) abrupt; intrusive gabbros; cyclical; argillaceous to Mofya – R3.3 dolomitic siltstone & dolomite, feldspathic sandstone, conglomerate, sandstone, Upper siltstone, topped by grainstone Kanwangungu intrusive mafic rocks; volcaniclastics, numerous Naauwpoort erosional surfaces and intraformational conglomerates and pink dolomitic biostromes; R3.2 N: minor (N) in upper Kansuki Kibalongo Shale with grit (Antelope Clastics); dolomitic siltstone RGS – R3.1 Chingola Cherty and argillaceous dolomite, dolomite, shale at top; stromatolitic, talcose & carbonaceous dolomite, black Kambove carbonaceous dolomitic shale & siltstone Pelito-arkosic Sandstone, shale, dolomitic shale, dolomite at base; Upper northern arenitic facies, southern finer grained facies Beesvlakte with carbonates and evaporates; dolomitic and B: purple slate, siltstone; pink (B) dolomitic carbonaceous shale, dolomite and sandy dolomite, limestone, grey dolomite, marly shales sandstone, arkose laminite, black limestone Upper N: minor Naauwpoort Copperbelt Z & DRC: Shale, dolomitic shale and siltstone, (N) Orebody sandstone; argillaceous, arenitic and stromatolitic Member dolomite, Na-rich evaporites replaced by microcline & oligoclase, iron formation; shale in south (basin) or through shale-siltstone (slope) to bioherm+sabkha in Ore Shale north (littoral); Kamoto 1st dolomite forms base of unit N: >6600 m peralkaline ignimbrite, Lower K-rich & Na-rich centers; very

minor mafic ash-flows; Naauwpoort A: Leucitite; associated Cu /Askevold Conglomerate, coarse arkose, argillaceous siltstone, Pale pink feldspathic sandstone, Mutonda minor eolian sandstone, rare dolomite; often dolomite scattered pebbles; conglomerate Nabis in DRC lenses; basal conglomerate Kafufya High-Mg quartzites Chimfunsi Red conglomerate

Rift arkoses Rift volcanics Waning rift volcanism & early platform clastics and carbonates

124

Table 3. Comparative lithostratigraphy of the Abenab Subgroup on the Northern Platform of the Damara Orogen in Namibia and the Nguba Group in the Central African Copperbelt. Data are compiled from Hedberg (1979), Miller (1983a, 2008), Porada and Berhorst (2000), Batumika et al. (2007), Hoffman and Halverson (2008), Kampunzu et al. (2009) and in part from Selley et al. (2005).

NAMIBIA: Abenab Formation Formation ZAMBIA & DRC: Nguba Group Subgroup A: four cycles of brown shale & Monwezi Dolomitic sandstone, siltstone, shale dolomite or limestone Auros (A) / grainstone, oolitic layers towards Ombaatjie N: dolomitic sandstone, siltstone, shale top Katete S: cyclical green to dark grey shale & laminated, purple to O: 8 x 25 m-thick limestone (O) white, albite- & talc-bearing dolomite (pinches out to N) grainstone cycles Ga: light-medium grey dolomite, often slumped; abundant fibrous, Fine-bedded black dolomite, black chert, white oncolites; sparry, isopachous cement Gauss (Ga) / with cyclical, grey-brown dolomitic shale in S (thins to around fragments Kipushi Gruis (Gr) N) (Auros equivalent?) Gr: 1.5 m thick pink dolomite ribbonite - grainstone cycles Kakontwe (may be Six-unit formation in north: basal light grey dolomite followed by five limestone units; lateral Three-unit formation in south: namely, equivalent of U: dark grey dolomite, black chert; One 100 to 700 m-thick cycle; M: brecciated light grey – purplish dolomicrite, sparite U: light grey dolostone grainstone Kaponda – cement (Gauss equivalent?) M: laminated dolostone, algal roll- Berg Aukas Porada and L: Pyrite-rich, light grey dolomite, gypsum pseudomorphs, ups /Rasthof Berhorst tortuous folds (Rasthof equivalent?) L: dark grey, laminated, dolostone 2000) cap, , 3-75 m thick; Calcareous to carbonaceous shale & siltstone; subgreywacke in NE that coarsens & becomes more Kaponda proximal towards NE Base: Dolomie Tigrée – cap dolostone consisting of alternating dark & light grey laminae; up to 150 m thick Mwale Main diamictite, <<100 - 1000 m Diamictite, 200-1200 m thick, BIF lenses; some local thick; BIF layers Chuos (Grand pillow lavas Conglomérat)

Snowball-Earth glacial units Cap carbonate succession osition (Hedberg 1979). The upper- Tsumeb Subgroup (Table 4) is often tic and widespread marker horizon at most formation in the Otavi Moun- only patchily developed. It is most the base of the formation. Mass flows tainland, the Auros Formation, con- extensive in the Northern Margin with intraformational clasts occur in sists, where fully developed, of four Zone and the Otavi Mountainland places (King 1990). Dolomite tops the cycles of brown shale and dolomitic or where it locally reaches a thickness of Maieberg Formation in the Otavi calcareous grainstone, with oolitic lay- 2000 m (Grobler 1961 – equated with Mountainland. Numerous phyllite- ers towards the top of the formation. the Chuos Formation by him). Its clast dolomite cycles characterize the light Maximum thickness is 450 m. The suite is dominated by carbonate frag- grey Elandshoek Formation in the west equivalent unit in the west, the ments derived from the underlying but it is often massive in the Otavi Ombaatjie Formation, is made up of Otavi rocks. However, its cap carbon- Mountainland and in the Northern eight calcareous grainstone cycles aver- ate succession, the Maieberg Forma- Margin Zone where occasional oolitic aging 25 m in thickness. Oolites and tion, is laterally extensive and again a bands or stromatolites hint at its cycli- stromatolites occur towards the top of single-cycle marker unit of marl – cal nature. Irregular bodies, bands and these two formations (Söhnge 1957; limestone rhythmite up to 700 m thick layers of white jasperoid are a charac- Hoffman and Halverson 2008; Miller in places (Hoffman and Halverson teristic feature. Kerogen specks occur 2008). 2008; Hoffman 2011). A positively in Elandshoek packstones in the Otavi In contrast to the Chuos For- weathering, tan-coloured cap dolo- Mountainland. The final unit of the mation, the glaciogenic, Marinoan-age stone, the Keilberg Member (Hoff- Otavi Group is the Hüttenberg Forma- Ghaub Formation at the base of the mann and Prave 1996), is a characteris- tion, consisting of bedded grey to dark GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 125

Table 4. Comparative lithostratigraphy of the Tsumeb Subgroup and the Mulden Group on the Northern Platform of the Damara Orogen in Namibia and the Kundelungu Group and Biano Subgroup in the Central African Copperbelt. Data are com- piled from Hedberg (1979), Miller (1983a, 1997, 2008), Porada and Berhorst (2000), Wendorff (2003, 2011), Batumika et al. (2007), Hoffman and Halverson (2008), Kampunzu et al. (2009) and in part from Selley et al. (2005).

NAMIBIA: Tsumeb Subgroup and Formation Formation ZAMBIA & DRC: Kundelungu Group Mulden Group U: cycles of vari-colored shale, sandstone, limestone, dolomite, casts after gypsum M: cycles of grey-black shale, siltstone and Arkose, conglomerate, argillaceous sandstone; minor sandstone and limestone, minor casts Owambo Biano SG unmetamorphosed; orogen-derived detrital after gypsum muscovite (Tabular Kundulungu?) L: cycles of vari-colored shale, siltstone and minor sandstone Cycles of grey to grey-green shale, grey Cycles of dolomitic shale and argillaceous to siltstone & sandstone; black, carboniferous Kombat Sampwe sandy siltstone shale marker Cycles of purplish-red shale and dolomitic siltstone and sandstone; more arenaceous than U: light grey arkose, feldspathic sandstone & Kiubo Mongwe; some pink sandy limestone, greywacke; fines upwards Tschudi pseudomorphs after anhydrite towards top of L: dark grey shale, minor feldspar-free siltstone fm & sandstone Cycles of purplish-red shales and dolomitic Mongwe siltstones and sandstones Grey dolomite, chert layers; cycles of grainstone to packstone; cross-bedded silicified oolites; local black shale bands; Pink oolitic limestone & sandy carbonate beds massive dark grey fetid dolomicrite; Hüttenberg Lubudi stromatolites; ‘augen’ limestone (after anhydrite) 4.2 m thick grey siliceous dolomite grainstone- Cycles of greenish, pinkish to purplish grey, laminite cycles; often massive in Otavi calcareous to dolomitic shale and siltstone, Mountainland; local kerogen in packstones; Elandshoek Kanianga pink dolomitic microbialaminite toward top of fm stomatolites Single cycle up to 400 m thick of laminated argillaceous limestone, plumb stromatolites, Pink to grey micritic dolomite (Calcaire or Dolomie sea-floor aragonite fans; mass flow breccia Rose – a few 10s of m thick); shale where lenses Maieberg Lusele dolomite absent Basal 40 m - tan dolostone cap (Keilberg Member - marker) Diamictite; often thin and only sporadically developed but can reach 2000 m in Diamictite, often with abundant carbonate thickness; carbonate fragments usually Kyandamu fragments; southward facies change from tillite abundant. A maximum of 1600 m of section to glaciomarine. Grand & Petit Conglomérates separates the Chuos and Ghaub Formations Ghaub (Petit separated by 5000 m of sediment in centre of on the Northern Platform but they are in Conglomérat) basin but in contact with each other in places contact with each other at the western end of along basin margins. the Northern Zone (Maloof 2000)

Snowball-Earth glacial units Cap carbonate succession Molasse

grey dolomite with dark grey to black nodular chert, intracrystalline kerogen Continental Rupture chert beds and local black limestone. and nodules of black calcite pseudo- Final continental rupture in the Dama- Silicified and cross-bedded oolite beds morphs after anhydrite. One marker ra Orogen occurred during the Ghaub and stromatolitic zones point to an bed 1.4 m thick, the ‘augen limestone’ glaciation and only in the Southern upward shallowing during deposition. or ‘augen dolomite’ contains a high Zone (Miller 2008; Miller et al. 2009a, In the middle of the Hüttenberg For- concentration of these nodules. Drill b). The resulting basin was probably mation in the Otavi Mountainland are holes have intersected anhydrite at rather narrow and Red Sea-like, and dolomites and several 1–4 m beds of depth at this stratigraphic level (Miller was floored by oceanic crust that limestone containing lenses of black, 2008). became the source of later syntectonic, 126

Alpine-type serpentinites (Barnes local stratigraphic sequences (Frets ments derived from the Central Zone 1982). The basin was swamped by 1969; Guj 1970), the Mulden Group were deposited as a southern, feldspar- pelitic greywackes of the Kuiseb For- forms a continuous, paraconformable bearing molasse at the top of the mation, much like the Gulf of Califor- cover on the rest of the Northern Plat- Nama Group (Nomtsas Formation and nia, and had a mid-ocean ridge that form (Söhnge 1957; Frets 1969; Guj Fish River Subgroup; Germs 1972, produced the mid-ocean-ridge basalts 1970; Miller 1983a, 1997, 2008). Mete- 1974, 1995; Miller 1983a, 2008; Miller and gabbros and Besshi-type cupreous oric palaeokarst features associated et al. 2009a, b). pyrite deposits of the Matchless with this paraconformity host the poly- Amphibolite Member (Goldberg 1976; metallic Tsumeb and Kombat deposits Lufilian Arc Killick 1983, 2000; Miller 1983b; Bre- (Söhnge 1964; Innes and Chaplin 1986; The Katanga Supergroup succession itkopf 1989). Rupture was accompa- Lombaard et al. 1986). The Mulden and its structural features suggest nied by continental, passive-margin Group is predominantly grey in the events similar to those in the Damara mafic volcanism on either side of the lower half and red or vari-coloured in Orogen (Porada and Berhorst 2000; Southern Zone (Miller 1983b, 2008; de the upper half, and consists of numer- Selley et al. 2005; Cailteux et al. 2007; Kock 1989; Miller et al. 2009a, b) and ous upward fining cycles, many of Batumike et al. 2007; Kampunzu et al. by large-scale subsidence of the whole which have a carbonate top in the 2009; Wendorff 2011; Master and of the central Damara Belt. Initial car- upper parts of the group. Highly car- Wendorff 2011). Northeast- to north- bonates (Karibib Formation) were fol- bonaceous layers are also present. west-directed folding and thrusting lowed by accumulation of up to 10 km Rhombohedral voids after gypsum, (Coward and Daly 1984; Daly 1986) of greywacke (Kuiseb Formation) some filled with calcite, occur in the produced the four arcuate tectonos- throughout this region (Miller 1980, upper half of the sequence (Hedberg tratigraphic zones of the Lufilian Arc, 1983a, 2008). The carbonates of the 1979; Miller 1997, 2008). namely, the Katangan High, Synclinori- Karibib Formation are the lateral In the Eastern Kaoko Zone, al Belt, Domes Region and External equivalent of the Tsumeb Subgroup which forms the western part of the Fold and Thrust Belt (Fig. 3). The carbonates. Carbon isotopes (Hoffman Northern Platform, tight short-wave- Lufilian Arc is separated from the and Halverson 2008) strongly suggest length folds in Otavi rocks overlie coeval, high-grade Zambezi Belt to the that the top of the Karibib Formation open folds in the Nosib Group, sug- south by the northeast–southwest- is time equivalent (at least isotopically gesting a décollement between the two trending Mwembeshi Shear Zone equivalent) to the top of the Tsumeb groups, probably in the highly tec- (Kampunzu and Cailteux 1999; Porada Subgroup. The Kuiseb Formation tonized upper Beesvlakte Formation and Berhorst 2000; Key et al. 2001; greywackes do not occur and have no (Hoffman and Halverson 2008). Selley et al. 2005; Johnson et al. 2007; equivalent on the Northern Platform. The deep Southern Zone with Kampunzu et al. 2009). To the north is its floor of oceanic crust became the the subhorizontal Foreland Basin (also Convergence, Subduction, Molasse, locus of collision between the Congo called the Kundelungu aulacogen or Flysch and Foreland Deposition, and Kalahari cratons. Northeast-direct- palaeograben). Much of the Lufilian Continental Collision ed subduction of this ocean floor Arc stratigraphy may be cyclical in Transpressive convergence of South beneath the leading edge of the Congo nature but there is insufficient detail in America with the Congo Craton Craton, referred to as the Okahandja descriptions to be certain of this. In (Goscombe et al. 2003a, b; 2005a) and Lineament (Miller 1979; Downing and the following account, Zambian rock the Congo Craton with the Kalahari Coward 1981; Fig. 2), resulted in uplift unit nomenclature is used, and DRC Craton (Miller 1983a, 2008) led to and erosion of the frontal region of nomenclature is also provided in italics. large-scale uplift, erosion and the dep- the Congo Craton and the Central osition of syntectonic flysch, foreland Zone of the Damara Belt (Fig. 2). Intracontinental Rifting and molasse successions. The Mulden Greywackes thus generated (Hureb At the base of the Lower Roan Group, Group forms a northern molasse on Formation) were deposited syntectoni- fluviatile conglomerate, arkose, the Northern Platform. This was cally in the closing Southern Zone quartzite, siltstone, and minor evapor- deposited during and subsequent to Ocean (de Kock 1992; Miller 2008, ites and eolian sandstone of the Min-

D1, mainly from sources in the Kaoko 2009a, b). The foreland carbonate dola Subgroup (Mindola Clastic For- Belt. It thickens northwards north of ramp and distal, largely feldspar-free mation of Seeley et al. 2005; Table 2) the Kamanjab Inlier (Fig. 2) and is flysch of the lower Nama Group are accepted as having formed in an proximal in the west and distal in the (Germs 1972, 1974, 1995; Grotzinger intracontinental rift environment east (Hedberg 1979; Guj 1970; Miller and James 2000; Grotzinger et al. 1995; (Unrug 1988; Porada 1989; Binda 1997). It was folded together with the Saylor et al. 1995, 1998) was deposited 1994; Porada and Berhorst 2000; Selley underlying Otavi succession during D2 on the depressed leading edge of the et al. 2005). Wedge-shaped cross sec- (Miller 1983a, 2008). The Mulden Kalahari Craton and was largely coeval tions (Selley et al. 2005) are suggestive Group records a complete change and probably laterally continuous with of half-graben depositional basins in a from carbonate to siliciclastic sedimen- the uppermost parts of the Hureb For- terrain with pronounced topographical tation on the Northern Platform. mation (Grotzinger and Miller 2008). relief (Mendelsohn 1961). The sedi- Unconformable to paraconformable in Following closure of the Southern ments vary rapidly in thickness and marginal intramontane basins with Zone ocean and collision, the sedi- facies along strike (Porada and GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 127

interpretation is that they form a plat- form margin reef succession that sepa- rates a deeper basinal area with fine- grained siliciclastic rocks in the south from a restricted platformal facies in the north (Annels 1984; Binda 1994; Porada and Berhorst 2000). The overlying Kirilabombwe Subgroup (Dipeta Subgroup) starts with a succession of shale and grit of the Kibalongo Formation (or Antelope Clastics), which is followed by wide- spread dolomite of the Bancroft For- mation (Porada and Berhorst 2000; the upper Roan carbonates of Mendelsohn 1961). The dolomites include breccias with associated bodies of gabbro and amphibolite. Instead of being strati- graphically superposed one above the other, the carbonates may be a lateral, shallow-water facies of the Kitwe For- mation (Annels 1974, quoted by Pora- da and Berhorst 2000; Annels 1984). The uppermost part of the dolomites in the DRC, the Kansuki Formation, con- tains silica-poor volcanic rocks that extend into Zambia (Cailteux et al. 2007) as the basaltic to andesitic Lwavu volcanics (Key et al. 2001). These DRC volcanic rocks have been interpreted as having been erupted in a continental Figure 3. Structural zones of the Lufilian Arc or Fold Belt of the Central African rift environment (Kampunzu et al. Copperbelt relative to the upper Kundelungu Foreland Basin, the Mwembeshi 1993, 2000; Tembo et al. 1999; Cail- Shear Zone and the coeval, high-grade Zambezi Belt (modified after Kampunzu teux et al. 2007). The overlying and Cailteux 1999; Porada and Berhorst 2000; Key et al. 2001; Selley et al. 2005; Mwashia Subgroup (Mwashya Subgroup) Kampunzu et al. 2009). either overlies the Kirilabombwe Sub- group transgressively or structurally Berhorst 2000; Selley et al. 2005), fine rest of the Lower Roan Group. At the overlies it along a thrust (Porada and upwards, and are hematite-bearing base of this subgroup is the economi- Berhorst 2000). The Mwashia consists (Cailteux et al. 1994). In the DRC, the cally important Ore Shale Formation dominantly of dolomitic to carbona- equivalent R.A.T. Subgroup (Roches (Copperbelt Orebody Member; Kamoto ceous shales and local tectonic rafts of Argilo-Talqueuses) consists of an Formation in the DRC; Table 2), which mafic rocks (Porada and Berhorst upward-fining succession of dolomitic consists of shale; dolomitic shale and 2000; John et al. 2003). In the DRC, and argillaceous sandstone and silt- siltstone; arenite; siliceous, arenitic and shallow-water carbonates are common, stone and dolomitic argillite (Cailteux stromatolitic dolomite; and pseudo- along with mafic and felsic pyroclastic 1994; Cailteux et al. 1994). Thickness is morphs after evaporitic minerals (Sell- rocks in the lower half of the unit; normally 200–300 m but reaches ~1 ey et al. 2005; Kampunzu et al. 2009). pseudomorphs after anhydrite and gyp- km locally (Selley et al. 2005). Howev- It overlies the rift succession in some sum occur in the middle of the sub- er, the Mindola Subgroup may thicken places and pre-rift basement in others group (Cailteux 1994; Cailteux et al. substantially to the north along a basi- (Selley et al. 2005) and appears to have 2007). nal axis in southern DRC. been deposited during a significant The overlying, carbonate- flooding event. The overlying Pelito- dominated succession is divided into a Evolution from Rifting to Spreading arkosic Formation (Upper dolomitic lower Nguba Group and an upper Thermal sag during slow extension, shales) consists of proximal arenitic Kundelungu Group by Batumike et al. and occasional rejuvenation of the units in the north and finer-grained (2007) but forms the Lower and Upper major rift faults accompanied by local clastic rocks accompanied by carbon- parts of the Kundelungu Group of mafic magmatism, facilitated basin- ates and locally by evaporites in the Selley et al. (2005). Glacial units consti- wide deposition. The first post-rift unit south. Dolomites of the Chingola For- tute the basal formation in each of is the Kitwe Subgroup (Tables 1 and 2) mation (Kambove Formation) form the these two groups (Tables 1, 3, 4). In or Mines Subgroup, which makes up the top of the subgroup, but an alternative the Nguba Group (Table 3), north to 128 south facies changes accompany a al. 2007). Formation (Upper Kundelungu Shales of southward thickening with a concomi- The Nguba Group records Selley et al. 2005). Layers of pink, tant increase in the proportion of car- large-scale differential subsidence with- dolomitic microbial laminite cap some bonate and a decrease in grain size of in the Katangan basin, such that 5000 of the cycles toward the top of the siliciclastic rocks (Batumike et al. 2007; m of section separates the Grand and formation. Up to 150 m of pink, thick- Kampunzu et al. 2009; Table 3). The Petit Conglomérat in the southwestern ly bedded limestone of the Lubudi For- clast suite of the glaciogenic Grand regions. In contrast, these two diamic- mation forms the top of the Gombela Conglomérat or Mwale Formation, which tites form a contiguous, 250 m thick, Subgroup. reaches 1300 m in thickness (Batumike glaciogenic succession in parts of the The Mongwe and Kiubo Forma- et al. 2007; Master and Wendorff basin margin (Porada and Berhorst tions of the overlying Ngule Subgroup 2011), is dominated by pre-Katangan 2000). A similar scale of differential together reach some 600 m in thick- rocks, but locally, clasts from the subsidence is recorded in the Damara ness (Batumike et al. 2007). Both con- underlying Roan Group are abundant. Orogen, where 4000 m of section sep- sist of interbedded purplish-red shales Banded iron formation occurs in this arate the Chuos and Ghaub Forma- and dolomitic sandstones and silt- unit (Porada and Berhorst 2000; Key et tions in the eastern part of the North- stones. The Kiubo Formation is the more al. 2001; Wendorff and Key 2009). ern Zone (Fig. 2), although they are in arenaceous of the two and contains Kampunzu et al. (2009) consider that contact with each other in the west some layers of pink sandy limestone the overlying Kaponda, Kakotwe and (Maloof 2000; Hoffman and Halver- and, towards the top of the formation, Kipushi Formations form a cap car- son 2008). pseudomorphs after anhydrite. bonate succession. Nevertheless, it is the Kaponda Formation that has the Stratigraphy Associated with and Convergence and Deformation, greatest resemblance to a massive Following Possible Continental Foreland Basin Deposition transgressive succession. This consists Rupture Coward and Daly (1984) and Daly primarily of calcareous shale, siltstone Continental rupture is assumed to have (1986) recognize two phases of north- and proximal subgreywacke (Batumike taken place during deposition of the east- to northwest-directed folding and et al. 2007). In the DRC, 150 m of Petit Conglomérat, as it did during thrusting, some of which may have alternating dark and light grey laminae deposition of the Damaran Ghaub been facilitated by the evaporites in the of the Dolomie Tigée form a typical cap Formation, and presumably in the Mwashia sequence (Kampunzu and dolostone at the base of the forma- Zambezi Belt, as it did in the Southern Cailteux 1999; Cailteux et al. 2007). tion. This laminated unit contains algal Zone of the Damara Orogen. Although Batumike et al. mat roll-ups identical to those in Except for the Mufulira area, (2007) place the Sampwe Formation at Namibia (Batumike et al. 2007; Master the Kundelungu Group (Table 4) is the top of the Ngule Subgroup, they and Wendorff 2011). The overlying poorly represented in Zambia. In the point out that it occurs at the northern Kakontwe Formation, so named in both DRC it is divided into Gombela, Ngule edge and north of the folded and the DRC and Zambia, is calcareous in and Biano Subgroups (Batumike et al. thrusted rocks of the Lufilian Arc, has the north-central parts of the DRC 2007). The glaciogenic Petit Conglomérat a subhorizontal attitude, and forms the Copperbelt but dolomitic farther south Formation (also called the Petit Con- base of the Katangan succession in the (Batumike et al. 2007), where parts of glomerate Formation or Kyandamu For- northern plateaus. Batumike et al. it which consist of brecciated, light mation) at the base of the Gombela (2007) suggest that the southernmost grey to purplish dolomicrite cemented Subgroup, like the Ghaub Formation, Sampwe rocks lie discordantly on fold- by sparite are reminiscent of the Gauss is only intermittently developed. A ed Kiubo rocks. The Sampwe Formation Formation in the Otavi Mountainland. southward facies change from tillite to is up to 1700 m thick and consists of Nevertheless, this is retained as a cap glaciomarine sedimentation is accom- alternating dolomitic shales and argilla- carbonate succession and Maieberg panied by a decrease in thickness from ceous to sandy siltstones. Conformably equivalent in Table 3. The Kipushi, a maximum of 100 m and a marked above this are some 400 m of subhori- Katete and Monwezi Formations decrease in clast size from 1 m to < 2 zontal, carbonate-free arkoses, argilla- (Kundelungu Shale Formation of Sell- cm. Clasts are from extrabasinal and ceous sandstones and conglomerates ey et al. 2005) may be the equivalent of intrabasinal sources (Master and Wen- of the Biano Subgroup, which is derived the Auros Formation. The Kipushi For- dorff 2011). The Lusele Formation, con- from basement to the north as well as mation consists of thinly bedded black sisting of pink to grey dolomicrite from the advancing thrust sheets of dolomite with black chert and white known as the Calcaire Rose or older Katangan rocks to the south oncolites in the north, and cyclical Dolomie Rose, is a few tens of meters (Wendorff 2003, 2011; Master et al. grey-brown dolomitic shale in the thick and forms the cap carbonate. 2005). Together, the tabular Sampwe south. The Katete and Monwezi Forma- Where carbonate is absent, shale rests and Biano rocks form the Kundelungu tions consist of cyclical green to dark directly on the Petit Conglomérat and Biano Plateaus. grey shale and laminated purple to (Master and Wendorff 2011). The Wendorff (2000a, b; 2003, white, albite- and talc-bearing dolomite Lusele Formation is overlain by up to 2011), in a somewhat controversial in the south, passing into a proximal 1000 m of cyclic, greenish, pinkish to reshuffling of the stratigraphy, places a dolomitic sandstone, siltstone and purplish grey, calcareous to dolomitic major early D1 unconformity at the top shale facies in the north (Batumike et shales and siltstones of the Kanianga of the Kiubo Formation. He suggests GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 129 that his Fungurume Group overlies Albite enclosing tourmaline laths is zoic Sinclair Supergroup at Rehoboth this unconformity and consists of syn- locally an abundant matrix phase in the south of Windhoek but are not in con-

D1, deep-water, nappe-front olis- breccias, and albitization commonly tact with any Damaran rocks fall on a tostromes overlain by conglomeratic extends outwards from such breccias. Rb–Sr reference line with an age of marginal marine and continental units, 821 ± 33 Ma (Ziegler and Stoessel all of which were overridden during D2 CHRONOLOGICAL COMPARISON 1993). This may be a syn-rift age. by older Katangan rocks and are now Available Nosib ages record the tectonically interleaved with such Pre-Katangan and Pre-Damaran approximate end of rifting, namely 752 Katangan rocks. There is a marked Basement ± 7 Ma for zircon from lower Naauw- northward decrease in size of frag- In Zambia, the youngest pre-Katangan poort Formation lavas (de Kock et al. ments in the olistostromes. In this sce- rock (Table 5) is the Neoproterozoic 2000), whole rock Rb–Sr of 764 ± 60 nario, the Biano rocks form a molasse Nchanga Granite (883 ± 10 Ma; Arm- Ma for Lofdal Nepheline Syenite succession slightly younger than the strong et al. 2005). Pre-Nosib base- (Hawkesworth et al. 1981, 1983), and foreland Fungurume Group (Kampun- ment in Namibia is Paleoproterozoic to 757 ± 2 Ma for zircon from the Oas zu and Cailteux 1999; Wendorff 2003, Mesoproterozoic in age (Miller 1983a, Syenite (Hoffman et al. 1994). Both 2011). The ‘olistostromes’ are the tec- 2008). The oldest ring complex of the syenites are associated with Naauw- tonic breccias of other workers (Cail- anorogenic Richtersveld Intrusive Suite poort volcanism (Frets 1969). Frimmel teux et al. 1994, 2005a, b; 2007; Kam- adjoining the Gariep Belt in southwest- (2008, 2009) and Frimmel and Miller punzu and Cailteux 1999; Kampunzu ern Namibia – the older Bremen Com- (2009a) associate the younger intru- et al. 2005; Batumike et al. 2007); some plex – has pre-rift(?) ages of 906 ± 22 sions of the Richtersveld Intrusive may be the result of salt tectonics Ma (U–Pb multiple zircon) and 903 ± Suite, which yield single zircon U–Pb (Jackson et al. 2003). The olis- 14 Ma (Rb/Sr) (Allsopp et al. 1979, ages between 831 ± 2 and 771 ± 6 Ma, tostromes/breccias contain recalculated by Frimmel 2008). with crustal thinning during rifting. megablocks up to 800 m across and fragments of mineralized Roan strata. Rifting The Zambezi Orogeny Several orthogneisses in the Zambezi Alteration Lower Roan Group and Nosib Group Belt have emplacement ages of Calcium-magnesium, potassic, sodic In Zambia, basal conglomerates of the between 880 and 780 Ma and a mean and limited silicic alteration, some of it lower Roan Group contain 877 ± 11 thereof of 830 ± 28 Ma (n = 36) multistage and some locally very Ma zircons derived from the uncon- (Goscombe et al. 2000). These ages intense, affected much of the Roan formably underlying Nchanga Granite have been interpreted as recording a Group during diagenesis, ore forma- (Armstrong et al. 1999). Hanson et al. compressive orogenic event, the Zam- tion and deformation (Selley et al. 2005 (1994) and Porada and Berhorst (2000) bezi Orogeny, under upper amphibolite and references therein). Much of this suggest that this granite, together with metamorphic conditions (Barton et al. alteration is concentrated in or near the the Kafue rhyolites (879 ± 19 Ma; 1991). This event is not recorded in Ore Shale Formation but extends well Hanson et al. 1994) and the associated the Namibian Pan-African belts nor beyond mineralized zones and as far Nazingwe metabasalts in the Zambezi the Lufilian Arc. Some structural and up the stratigraphy as the Mwashia Belt, relate to continental extension geochemical evidence, however, sug- Subgroup as well as into the underlying and rifting that started at about 880 Ma gests emplacement of the orthogneiss- basement. Ca- and Mg-bearing phases (Hanson et al. 1994). Johnson et al. es during extensional rather than com- in siliciclastic and carbonate rocks and (2007) report ages of 880 ± 12 Ma and pressional tectonics (Goscombe et al. in breccias are anhydrite, calcite, 876 ± 10 Ma for the Kafue rhyolites, 2000) which is supported by the inter- dolomite, phlogopite and Mg-chlorite. 880 ± 14 Ma for a Nazingwe rhyo- pretations of Hanson et al. (1994), These are typical of sabkha environ- dacite, and 829 ± 9 Ma and 820 ± 15 Porada and Berhorst (2000) and John- ments and/or Mg metasomatism. K- Ma for the Lusaka Granite, which son et al. (2007) presented above. feldspar, phlogopite and sericite typify intrudes higher stratigraphic levels. Thus, it seems questionable whether the potassic alteration. Diagenetic K- Hanson et al. (1994) and Porada and there was a ‘Zambezi Orogeny.’ feldspar mantles detrital K-feldspar, Berhorst (2000) suggest that the alka- replaces detrital plagioclase and, under line basal Rushinga Igneous Complex Gradual Transition from Rifting to metasomatic conditions, can become (804 ± 10 Ma; Vinyu et al. 1997) in the Spreading the dominant mineral phase in precur- southern Zambezi Belt, and alkaline There is little evidence for any spread- sors that were initially argillaceous and and carbonatitic complexes in the ing in the Northern Platform but the Al rich. Fine-grained sericite is the Western Rift of the DRC (830 ± 51 to stratigraphy of the central Damara main potassic alteration phase where 803 ± 22 Ma; Kampunzu et al. 1998) Orogen indicates a slow transition over hydrocarbons or H2S may have been date the end of rifting (Table 5). almost 120 my, i.e. from about 752 Ma present. Secondary albite and scapolite The start of Damara deposi- to 635 Ma, from rifting to continental result from sodic alteration. Albite tion is undated and has only been esti- break up (Miller 2008; Miller et al. overgrows or replaces sericite and K- mated at about 900–800 Ma (Miller 2009a, b). The first deposition of car- feldspar and Na concentration general- 1983a, 2008). Unmetamorphosed bonates and fine siliciclastic rocks ly increases upwards in the section. dolerites that intrude the Mesoprotero- above rift-related arkoses record the 130

Table 5. Comparative stratigraphic, structural, metamorphic and plutonic evolution of the Damaran and Katangan Super- groups. See text for references to ages.

Damaran, Northern Platform Ma Ma Katangan (and Zambezi Belt) (and Kaoko and central Damara Belts) Karsting, oxidation, vanadates; Cretaceous Cretaceous Karsting, oxidation, vanadates; from Cretaceous into Tertiary - Tertiary - Tertiary from Cretaceous into Tertiary Cooling 490 - 460 510 - 467 Cooling U-bearing alaskite in Central 510 512 Mineralization; metamorphism? Zone Tsumeb pipe 531 Peak post-D3 - M2 535 533 Post-tectonic Hook Granite metamorphism 538 Post-tectonic rhyolite dyke Continental collision in Southern 542 529 -532 Whiteschist metamorphism & Zone = D3 continental collision; D3? (monazite in whiteschist shear zone) D3; open folds 542 D3; open folds; age? D2; thrusts, decompression ~550 D2, thrusts, decompression, low-P amphibolite facies metamorphism, weak S2 Pre-D2 granites (Central Zone) 565 -555 551 Rhyolite in Mwembeshi Shear Zone 566, 559 Syntectonic Hook Granite Mulden molasse 595 -550 600 -550 ? U Kundlungu & Biano Group (detrital muscovite – 638, 573 Ma) D1, M1; isoclinal sheath folds, 595 659 ?; D1, M1; isoclinal folding, thrusting; strong S1 axial 595 -592 thrusting; strong axial planar planar foliation; staurolite- S1 foliation; eclogite facies kyanite (Damara Central Zone metamorphism at ~607 Ma & Kaoko Belt); karsting of Tsumeb Subgroup Tsumeb Subgroup 635 - ±600 L Kundulungu, Gombela Subgroup Hartelust Rhyolite Member 609 Ghaub diamictite; continental 635 ?635? Petit Conglomérat (Kyandamu rupture, sea-floor MORB in Fm) Southern Zone Abenab Subgroup Nguba Group Chuos diamictite <746 ~735 Grand Conglomérat: Mwale Fm Ombombo Subgroup; final 746 745 -765 U Roan; Mwashia SG: gabbro Naauwpoort volcanism – 745, 753 Ma; Lwavu volcs – 763, 765 Ma End-Nosib volcanism 756 ? End L Roan, 820 Intrusion of Lusaka Granite Nosib L Roan Start rifting/Nosib deposition ~877, Start L Roan deposition (RAT 1 879 & Mindola Subgroup); Kafue Rhyolite (879 Ma); Nchanga A-type Granite (877 Ma) Youngest pre-Damaran age 903 883 Youngest pre-Katangan age GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 131 beginnings of this long, slow evolu- of the Damara Belt. The MORB-type an age of 568 ± 5 Ma (Goscombe et tion. Pulses in rejuvenation of rift chemistry of eclogites in the Zambezi al. 2005b) and ages of granites report- faults and spreading are marked by Belt is the only indication of possible ed as being late tectonic range from local mafic volcanic or intrusive rocks ocean floor there (John et al. 2003). A 565 ± 13 Ma (Seth et al. 1998) to 549.2 along the margins of the Southern layer of fragmented rhyolite, the ± 1.9 Ma (Goscombe et al. 2005b). In

Zone of the orogen (i.e. the Vaalgras Hartelust Rhyolite Member (Miller the central Damara Belt, post-D1 – Subgroup in the Southern Margin 2008), occurs along the southern mar- pre-D2 to early-D2 granites have ages Zone, and the Daheim, Omusema and gin of the Damara Belt at a level ranging from 564 ± 5 to 546 ± 30 Ma Lievental Members of the Ghaub For- approximately equivalent to the top of (Haack et al. 1980; Miller and Burger mation in the southern Central Zone the Karibib and Hüttenberg Forma- 1983; Hawkesworth et al. 1983; de and just north of the Okahandja Lin- tions. Zircons from the rhyolite have Kock et al. 2000; Jacob et al. 2000). eament; Miller 2008). yielded a lower intercept U–Pb age of Ages of detrital white micas in 609 +3/-15 Ma (Nagel 1999). This the syntectonic successions record the Upper Roan Group and Ombombo would mean that the 10 km of unroofing and erosion of adjoining Subgroup greywacke in the overlying Kuiseb For- high-grade zones. Those in the Biano Extensional evolution from rifting to a mation were deposited in the ca. 15 my Group molasse (Katanga Belt, Kun- ‘proto-oceanic rift stage’ (Kampunzu et period between this date and those for delungu Group) yield 40Ar–39Ar plateau al. 2009) took place in the Katanga the first syntectonic metamorphic min- ages of 638 ± 4 and 573 ± 5 Ma (Mas- Basin from about 765 to 735 Ma erals. ter et al. 2005). Almost identical are (Porada and Berhorst 2000; Key et al. those of 643 Ma (mean of 15 ages) 2001). Lwavu basalts and basaltic Convergence and 576 Ma (mean of 15 ages) andesites in the Mwashia Subgroup In the Lufilian Arc, the oldest meta- throughout the foreland succession of yielded U–Pb zircon ages of 765 ± 5 morphic ages are 592 ± 22 Ma (U–Pb the Nama Group in the Damara Belt Ma and 763 ± 6 Ma (Key et al. 2001). monazite) and 585.8 ± 0.8 Ma (Zimmermann 1984; Horstmann et al. In the Ombombo Subgroup, ign- (40Ar–39Ar plateau age for biotite; Rain- 1990; Grotzinger and Miller 2008). The imbrites of the volumetrically minor aud et al. 2002). Early deformation older age is identical to that of the 640 upper Naauwpoort Formation within during subduction in the Zambezi Belt Ma terrane in the Dom Feliciano Belt the Devede Formation gave an age of is recorded by the Sm–Nd garnet – of eastern South America (Basei et al. 759 ± 1 Ma (Halverson et al. 2005). A whole rock age of eclogite formation 2000), from which such micas (at least feeder dyke to an upper Naauwpoort of 595 ± 10 Ma (John et al. 2003). in the Nama Group) must have been rhyolite that directly underlies the Hanson et al. (1993) record a spectrum sourced during convergence in the Chuos Formation (Miller 1980) has of syntectonic to post-tectonic U–Pb Kaoko and Gariep Belts. The younger been dated at 746 ± 2 Ma (Hoffman et zircon ages from the Hook Granite ages probably correspond to early al. 1996). (Fig. 3) and associated rhyolite dykes at metamorphism and unroofing in the the southeastern edge of the Lufilian Zambezi and central Damara Belts, Nguba and Abenab Subgroups Arc: syntectonic granite (566 ± 5 Ma respectively. Brecciated and altered porphyries in a and 559 ± 19 Ma); a syntectonic rhyo- Thin volcanic ash beds in the breccia containing iron formation frag- lite dyke in the Mwembeshi Shear Nama Group date the final stages of ments and apparently closely associated Zone (551 ± 19 Ma); undeformed, convergence just prior to continental with diamictite yielded a U–Pb zircon post-tectonic rhyolite within the granite collision in the Damara Belt. The age of 735 ± 5 Ma (Key et al. 2001). massif (538 ± 1.5 Ma); and a post-tec- stratigraphically lowest of these is Key et al. (2001) state that these vol- tonic phase of the granite (533 ± 3 approximately halfway up the foreland canic rocks overlie the Grand Con- Ma). succession and yielded a 207Pb–206Pb age glomérat but Kampunzu et al. (2009) Almost identical to early Lufil- of 548.8 ± 1 Ma; the highest ash bed regard them as being part of the ian metamorphic ages is the Sm–Nd in the foreland succession is just a few

Grand Congomérat. age of 595 ± 13 Ma for syn-D1, peak- meters below the Precambrian – Cam- M1 garnet in the Coastal Terrane of brian unconformity at the base of the Continental Rupture the Kaoko Belt (Goscombe et al. Nomtsas Formation and has an age of 2003a). Goscombe et al. (2003a, 543.3 ± 1 Ma (Grotzinger et al. 1995).

Kundelungu and Tsumeb Subgroups 2005b) also record other peak-M1 gar- The direction of convergence The only date available for these sub- net ages of 579 ± 16, 574 ± 10 and in the Kaoko Belt gradually rotated groups is that of an ash in the glacio- 573 ± 8 Ma, and a U–Pb age of 573.8 from initially sinistral transpressive to genic Ghaub Formation just below the ± 4 Ma for zircon from a partial melt orthogonal during final continental col- tan cap carbonate (Keilberg Member) segregation in other Kaoko Belt zones. lision (Goscombe et al. 2003a). The in the central Damara Orogen; this ash In the same belt, zircons from the ear- same style of rotation applied in the yielded a zircon age of 635.5 ± 1.2 Ma liest Damaran granites give U–Pb ages Damara Belt (Miller 2008; Miller et al. (Hoffmann et al. 2004). Miller (2008) of 580 ± 3 Ma (Seth et al. 1998), 576 2009a). It was during the late stage of and Miller et al. (2009a, b) consider ± 5 Ma (Franz et al. 1999) and 576 ± orthogonal compression that deep this to be the approximate age of con- 11 (Goscombe et al. 2005b). A slightly stratigraphic levels along the northern tinental rupture in the Southern Zone younger granite in the Kaoko Belt has edge of the Northern Zone were 132 thrust approximately northwards along high-temperature, lower granulite facies Cooling the Khorixas – Gaseneirob Thrust metamorphism at Goanikontes in the Ar–Ar and Rb–Sr ages of muscovite onto the Mulden molasse of the western part of the central Damara and biotite from the Lufilian Arc and Northern Margin Zone (see Miller and Belt yielded a U–Pb age of 534 ± 7 the Zambezi Belt record cooling ages Schalk 1980; Fig. 2). A similar structur- Ma (Briqueu et al. 1980). This age is of 510 to 465 Ma (Cosi et al. 1992; al evolution appears to have taken identical to those of <2µ white micas Goscombe et al. 2000; Torrealday et al. place in the Lufilian Arc. The Mwem- (537 ± 7 and 538 ± 12 Ma) generated 2000; Rainaud et al. 2002; John et al. beshi Shear Zone is a transpressive fea- during very low grade metamorphism 2004). Cooling through 500°C is ture with a sinistral sense of shear of Mulden phyllites (Clauer and Krön- recorded in the Kaoko Belt by Ar–Ar (Hanson et al. 1993; Batumike et al. er 1979), and the mean of 531 Ma plateau ages of 533 ± 7 to 513 ± 8 Ma 2007; Kampunzu et al. 2009), but the throughout the foreland and molasse for hornblende (Goscombe et al. thrusts and arcuate zones in the Lufil- successions of the Nama Group, 2005b), and in the Damara Belt by ian Arc have late-stage(?) northwest to including the Fish River Subgroup Rb–Sr (whole rock-muscovite) ages of northeast transport directions (Coward (Ahrendt et al. 1977; Horstmann et al. 509 and 506 ± 7 Ma (Blaxland et al. and Daly 1984; Daly 1986), almost 1990; Grotzinger and Miller 2008). 1979; Kukla 1993) and Rb–Sr (mus- orthogonal to the Mwembeshi Shear This metamorphic age of the Fish covite) of 520 and 524 Ma Zone and the coeval Zambezi Belt. River Subgroup molasse supports the (Hawkesworth et al. 1983). In the observation that its trace fossils are of kyanite facies of the high-pressure Collision pre-trilobite Cambrian age (Geyer Southern Zone, Rb–Sr (muscovite) John et al. (2004) consider that the 530 2005). Falling within this group of ages recorded a younger age of 483 Ma for ± 1 Ma U–Pb age of monazite in talc is the Pb–Pb age of 530 ± 11 Ma for cooling through 500°C (Hawkesworth – kyanite schists dates final continental the largely post-tectonic mineralization et al. 1983). Damaran biotite cooling collision and the peak of final, low- of the Tsumeb polymetallic pipe ages fall between 503 and 442 Ma temperature – high-pressure regional (Kamona et al. 1999). Giving confi- (Clifford 1967; Haack and Hoffer metamorphism that accompanied D2 dence to the 535 Ma age of Damaran 1976; Clauer and Kröner 1979; thrusting in the Lufilian Arc (Kampun- M2 metamorphism is the Rb–Sr whole- Ahrendt et al. 1983; Hawkesworth et zu and Cailteux 1999; Key et al. 2001). rock age of 527 ±3 Ma for the al. 1983; Weber et al. 1983). Continental collision took place in the Donkerhuk Granite (Haack and Gohn

Damara Belt during D3 deformation 1988), which is post M2 (Sawyer 1981). Cretaceous – Tertiary Modification (Miller 1983a, 2008; Miller et al. 2009a, Peak M2 metamorphism in the Most of the carbonate-hosted base b). Zircon from a syn-D3 granite yield- Zambezi Belt is dated at between 543 metal deposits in the Otavi and Katan- ed a U–Pb age of 542 ± 6 Ma (Tack et and 532 Ma by U–Pb zircon and 530 gan successions were strongly oxidized al. 2002). to 525 Ma by U–Pb titanite and Ar–Ar during the Cretaceous African Erosion hornblende (Goscombe et al. 2000). Cycle and during the Tertiary, at which Post-Collision Events time they developed vanadium-bearing Younger Post-Collision Events supergene caps and supergene facies in Oldest Post-Collision Magmatism in Molybdenite from the auriferous veins deep-penetrating shear zones (Innes the Damara and Kaoko Belts in the Navachab gold skarn deposit and Chaplin 1986; Lombaard et al.

In the Nama Group, zircon from an near Karibib yielded a post-M2 Re–Os 1986; Kamona et al. 1999; Kamona ash bed at the base of the Nomtsas age of 525 ± 2.4 Ma (Wulff et al. and Friedrich 2007). The end-Creta- Formation (southern molasse) and just 2010). In the Kaoko Belt, U–Pb zircon ceous, African Erosion Cycle regolith above the Precambrian – Cambrian and monazite ages of post-collision is preserved beneath and protected by unconformity yielded a U–Pb age of granites or pegmatites range from 531 a continuous sheet of massive, uneven- 539.4 ± 1 Ma (Grotzinger et al. 1995). ± 6 to 507 ± 5 Ma (Goscombe et al. ly layered groundwater calcrete from This is a post-collision date and match- 2005b). In the southern Central Zone north of Kamanjab to the Opuwo area es that of the 539 ± 6 Ma (U–Pb zir- of the Damara Belt, similar late intru- (Fig. 4). This calcrete is distinct from con) age of the undeformed, post-tec- sions range from 509 ± 1 Ma (U–Pb the nodular textures of pedogenic cal- tonic Rotekuppe Granite in the central uraninite in alaskite; Briqueu et al. cretes. Within the regolith, pre-Dama- Damara Belt (Jacob et al. 2000). The 1980) to 496 ± 6 Ma (U–Pb titanite in ran rhyolites and Nosib arkoses are oldest post-tectonic granites in the lamprophyre; Jacob et al. 2000). white and totally sericitized (Fig. 4). Kaoko Belt have ages of 541 +19/-17 Whole-rock Rb–Sr and zircon U–Pb Average thickness of the regolith is Ma (U–Pb zircon – titanite; Retief both give an age of 495 Ma for the 30–50 m, but Jennings and Bell (2011) 1988; Miller 2008), 540 ± 3 Ma (U–Pb Sorris–Sorris Granite in the Northern record extensive oxidation of copper zircon; van de Flierdt et al. 2003), and Zone (Hawkesworth et al. 1983; P.F. occurrences in this area to depths of 530 ± 3 Ma (Pb–Pb zircon evapora- Hoffman, quoted in Miller 2008). In up to 200 m. It is conceivable that sul- tion; Seth et al. 1998). the Lufilian Arc, veins with associated phuric acid generated from oxidation albitization have ages of about 514 and of sulphides during the African Ero- Peak M2 Metamorphism 510 Ma (Richards et al. 1988; Torreal- sion Cycle facilitated far deeper pene-

Zircon and monazite from a post-D3, day et al. 2000). tration of late Cretaceous – early Terti- anatectic red granite generated during ary alteration. GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 133

Figure 4. Main photograph – the background shows the bevel of the African Erosion Surface south of Opuwo. Insets – A: The protective capping of end Cretaceous – early Tertiary, indistinctly layered but massive groundwater calcrete on the African Erosion Surface in the main photograph; B: white, completely kaolinized Nosib Group arkose in the African Erosion Surface regolith beneath the calcrete capping in ‘A’; C: the normal, pale pinkish brown colour of unaltered Nosib Group arkose from the Dordabis area southeast of Windhoek. COPPER MINERALIZATION IN THE Much of the mineralization also be brecciated, or in dolomite of EASTERN KAOKO ZONE exposed on surface is in quartz – cal- the upper Omao formation. In the The most comprehensive published cite ± chlorite ± mica veins. However, Horseshoe deposit, some of the veins descriptions of copper mineralization more typical Copperbelt-style dissemi- in the host schist parallel the foliation, are provided by Jennings and Bell nated mineralization occurs in siltstone suggesting a syn- to post-tectonic ori- (2011) and Maiden and Freyer (2012). and schist in the Omivera and immedi- gin. This, in turn, suggests a possible These authors record some 200 copper ately overlying lower Omao formations two-stage mineralization process, the occurrences in the Eastern Kaoko in several localities, the largest or more first forming the disseminated, Zone, far more than initially recorded typical of which are on the farms Tza- stratabound deposits and the second by Schneider and Seeger (1992). There min 228 and Vaalwater 283 on the the vein stockworks. Sulphides that are a few occurrences of disseminated edge of Kamanjab Inlier and near the core supergene minerals are chalcopy- mineralization or mineralization in village of Okohongo (Fig. 2). These rite, bornite and chalcocite; pyrite may quartz–calcite veins in arenites or con- deposits lie just above the contact of also be present. Supergene minerals are glomerates at the top or base of the the Beesvlakte Formation with the mainly malachite and chrysocolla, with Nosib or in shear zones in basement Nosib arkoses and conglomerates. or without chalcocite, dioptase and gneiss just below the Nosib; however, Some occurrences consist of some rarer minerals, and local small by far the majority of occurrences are stratabound stockworks of mineral- quantities of galena. stratabound and hosted by siltstones, ized, bedding-parallel and cross-cutting schists or dolomites near the base of quartz – calcite ± chlorite ± mica veins DISCUSSION the Beesvlakte Formation, i.e. the confined to the same Omivera and Although there are key similarities Omivera and lower Omao formations Omao horizons. Other stockworks between the almost coeval evolution of of Jennings and Bell (2011). occur in adjacent dolomites, which may the Damara Supergroup on the North- 134 ern Platform of the Damara Orogen gest that it is the locus of a significant ra branch and their implications for and the Katanga Supergroup in Central décollement (Hoffman and Halverson the structural and metamorphic evolu - Africa, there are significant differences 2008), which could have facilitated tion of the Damara Oro gen, South between the two successions. The fluid flow and ingress. Selley et al. West Africa/Namibia, in Miller, Roan Group contains far more evapor- (2005) demonstrate that many of the R.McG., ed., Evolution of the Damara itic minerals than the equivalent mineral deposits in the Central African Orogen of South West Africa/Namib- ia: Special Publication of the Geologi- Ombombo Subgroup (Table 2). Lufil- Copperbelt are closely related to faults cal Society of South Africa, v. 11, p. ian salt tectonics (Jackson et al. 2003) in the Mindola Subgroup and to base- 299–306. has no matching record in Namibia. ment beneath the Ore Shale Forma- Allsopp, H.L., Köstlin, E.O., Welke, H.J., Lufilian thrust tectonics contrasts tion, which strongly suggests that these Burger, A.J., Kröner, A., and Blignault, markedly with the folded margins of faults were fluid-flow loci. Identifying H.J., 1979, Rb–Sr and U–Pb the Damaran Northern Platform, similar faults in the Nosib Group in geochronology of Late Precambrian - although there is some thrusting in the outcrop and below the cover of the Early Palaeozoic igneous activity in the western part of the Eastern Kaoko Ombombo Subgroup may help to Richtersveld (South Africa) and south- Zone (Miller and Schalk 1980; Hoff- focus exploration activities and provide ern South West Africa: Transactions of man and Halverson 2008) along with a better understanding of known cop- the Geological Society of South some evidence of large-scale syn-sedi- per occurrences, particularly where the Africa, v. 82, p. 185–204. mentary slumping (Hoffman and Hartz Beesvlakte Formation is dark grey in Annels, A.E., 1974, Some aspects of the stratiform ore deposits of the Zam- 1999). Neither the Lufilian breccias, colour and therefore potentially reduc- bian Copperbelt, in Bartholomé, P., ed., whether olistostromes or of tectonic ing. Such faults may be associated with Grisementstratiformes et provinces origin, nor the intense (Ca, Mg, Na, K) conglomerate lenses in the Nosib cuprifères: Sociéteé Géologique de alteration have equivalents in the Otavi Group or be reflected in sudden Belgique, p. 235–254. Group. Mineralization in the Lufilian changes in facies or thickness of beds Annels, A.E., 1984, The geotectonic envi- Arc is far more extensive than in the in the Ombombo Subgroup. The ronment of Zambian copper-cobalt Otavi Group and most mineral ‘lagoonal’ nature of the Northern Plat- mineralization: Journal of the Geologi- deposits occur in or within 200 m of form and its separation from the main cal Society, v. 141, p. 279–289, the Ore Shale Formation (Selley et al. orogen to the south by an east – west http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.141.2. 2005). However, the mineral potential antiformal ridge in the region of the 0279. of the Beesvlakte Formation in Kamanjab Inlier (Hoffman and Halver- Armstrong, R.A., Robb, L.J., Master, S., Namibia, the equivalent of the Ore son 2008; Hoffman 2011), as well as Kruger, F.J. and Mumba, P.A.C.C., 1999, New U-Pb age constraints on Shale Formation, needs further consid- the many exposure surfaces identified the Katanga sequence, Central African eration, particularly in the light of the by Hoffman and Halverson (2008) as Copperbelt: Journal African Earth Sci- known, largely discordant mineraliza- terminating depositional cycles, suggest ences, v. 28 (4, Suppl. 1), p. 6–7. tion in it and of the supergene nature that evaporites in the Otavi Group may Armstrong, R.A., Master, S., and Robb, of much of the mineralization (Schnei- have been somewhat more common L.J., 2005, Geochronology of the der and Seeger 1992; Jennings and Bell than has hitherto been realized. Nchanga Granite, and constraints on 2011). Comparative consideration also the maximum age of the Katanga needs to be given to the syn-deforma- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Supergroup, Zambian Copperbelt: tional origin of the Lufilian mineraliza- Comments by Cameron Allen and an Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. tion and to the proposal that early anonymous referee leading to improve- 42, p. 32–40. extensional faults in the basal Roan ment of the manuscript are greatly Barnes, S.-J., 1982, Serpentinites in central arkoses were the primary conduits up appreciated. Eckhardt Freyer provided South West Africa/Namibia - a recon- naissance study: Memoir of the Geo- which basinal fluids were delivered to me with the published 2011 report of logical Survey of South West Africa, v. receptive host rocks (Selley et al. 2005). INV Metals Inc. and the excursion 8, 90 p. Significant thickness changes in the guide to the field excursion that fol- Barnes, S.-J., and Sawyer, E.W., 1980, An Nosib Group arkoses may suggest the lowed the Copper Conference held by alternative model for the Damara presence of such rift-phase faults (Jen- the Geological Society of Namibia in Mobile Belt: Ocean crust sub duction nings and Bell 2011). 2012. and continental convergence: Precam- In both regions, the ore shales brian Research, v. 13, p. 297–336, are underlain by red beds, a potential REFERENCES http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0301- source for the copper mineralization Ahrendt, H., Hunziker, J.C., and Weber, K., 9268(80)90048-0. (Hitzman et al. 2005). 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Received October 2012 Accepted as revised February 2013